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NSF 03-021, Arctic Research in the United States

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NSF 03-021, Arctic Research in the United States This document has been archived. Home is Where the Habitat is An Ecosystem Foundation for Wildlife Distribution and Behavior This article was prepared The lands and near-shore waters of Alaska remaining from recent geomorphic activities such by Page Spencer, stretch from 48° to 68° north latitude and from 130° as glaciers, floods, and volcanic eruptions.* National Park Service, west to 175° east longitude. The immense size of Ecosystems in Alaska are spread out along Anchorage, Alaska; Alaska is frequently portrayed through its super- three major bioclimatic gradients, represented by Gregory Nowacki, USDA Forest Service; Michael imposition on the continental U.S., stretching from the factors of climate (temperature and precipita- Fleming, U.S. Geological Georgia to California and from Minnesota to tion), vegetation (forested to non-forested), and Survey; Terry Brock, Texas. Within Alaska’s broad geographic extent disturbance regime. When the 32 ecoregions are USDA Forest Service there are widely diverse ecosystems, including arrayed along these gradients, eight large group- (retired); and Torre Arctic deserts, rainforests, boreal forests, alpine ings, or ecological divisions, emerge. In this paper Jorgenson, ABR, Inc. tundra, and impenetrable shrub thickets. This land we describe the eight ecological divisions, with is shaped by storms and waves driven across 8000 details from their component ecoregions and rep- miles of the Pacific Ocean, by huge river systems, resentative photos. by wildfire and permafrost, by volcanoes in the Ecosystem structures and environmental Ring of Fire where the Pacific plate dives beneath processes largely dictate the distribution and the North American plate, by frequent earth- behavior of wildlife species. For example, the quakes lifting mountains and shifting faults, and numerous shallow ponds and wetlands of the by glaciers retreating up to a thousand feet per Arctic coastal plain and the Yukon–Kuskokwim year or surging hundreds of feet in a day. Delta provide nesting and rearing habitat for This incredibly beautiful, but constantly shift- millions of waterfowl that migrate north every ing, land is home for many species of plants and summer. However, cold, windy winters freeze the animals. Some animals come only for the summer ponds, and snow blankets the tundra, turning a months, to breed, raise young, and retreat to lush landscape into a frozen barren land. As ice warmer climes before freeze-up, when the cold, fingers reach across the water, the birds fatten up, dark winter sets in. Other species are year-round then swing into the sky and migrate back to their residents, hibernating through the hungry winter wintering grounds. or hunkering down with insulating fat, fur, or Farther south, coastal brown bears spend the feathers or with high metabolism to survive until summer and fall months gorging on nutrient-rich spring. sedges, salmon, and berries. As the early snowline During 1999–2001 a group of scientists used moves down the mountains, the bears scavenge old resource and environmental maps of Alaska the final carcasses and head into snug dens to and new digital datasets to derive a map illustrat- hibernate for the winter. Metabolism rates drop, ing the major ecosystems of Alaska. Extensive dis- allowing a bear to survive four to six months on cussions among 40–50 scientists from many disci- fat reserves. For pregnant sows, this survival plines, representing hundreds of years of field extends to nursing cubs that are born during the experience in the north, helped refine the final data winter. set. Thirty-two ecoregions were delineated and described, encompassing the landscapes and eco- * Full ecoregion descriptions with photos and compila- logical processes of Alaska and nearby Canada tion tables of environmental variables are available in the and Russia. These are large ecosystems primarily original publication [Nowacki, G., P. Spencer, M. Flem- defined by climate and topography, with refine- ing, T. Brock, and T. Jorgenson (2002) Unified Ecore- gions of Alaska: 2001. USGS Open File Report 02-297. 1 ments from vegetation patterns, disturbance map.] Digital files of the Unified Ecoregions of Alaska regimes, bedrock geology, and surficial deposits are available at http://agdc.usgs.gov/data/projects/fhm. 6 Several map versions were generated over a period of one year incorporating suggestions received The primary map contributors included Lee Anne Ayers, Chris Dau, Jonathon Hall, Janet Jorgenson, Forest Service; Mark Clark and Darrell Kautz of the U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service; from various ecologists, biologists, soil scientists, pilots, and geologists from across the state and Fran Mauer, Ken Rice, Susan Savage, Lisa Sapperstein, and Mike Vivion of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife David Brew, Alisa Gallant, and Mark Shasby of the U.S. Geological Survey; Keith Boggs and Carolyn adjacent Canadian lands. In areas where data were lacking or pattern changes on the land were indis- Service; Blain Anderson, Mary Beth Cook, Bill Eichenlaub, Rich Harris, Penny Knuckles, Lois Dalle- Parker of the University of Alaska; David Banks of The Nature Conservancy; Bob Ritchie of Alaska tinct, the advice of local experts was used extensively for line placement. The final data set represents Molle, Bud Rice, Danny Rosenkrans, Patty Rost, Shelli Swanson, and Sara Wesser of the U.S. Na- Biological Resources, Inc.; Tony Button and Dennis Demarchi of the British Columbia Ministry of the the combined wisdom of 40–50 scientists from many disciplines with hundreds of years of experience tional Park Service; Dean Davidson, Rob DeVelice, Gary Fisher (GIS work), Rex Friend, Connie Environment, Land and Parks; John Meikle and Jack Schick of the Government of the Yukon; Charles in Alaska and nearby country. Hubbard, Beth Schulz, Michael Shephard, Ken Winterberger, and Kari Youkey (GIS work) of the U.S. Roots of the Geological Survey of Canada; and Scott Smith of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Moose spend their summers feeding on lush or by frost pushing larger rocks to the soil wetland vegetation and new shrub growth, espe- surface). cially in early successional vegetation communi- The Brooks Range represents the northern ties. During winter, however, snow severely limits extension of the Rocky Mountains and is built up food availability, forcing moose to wade through by accreted terranes (fault-bounded rock units deep snow to browse on shrubs. If the energy with a unique geologic history) originating from gained from browsing willow twigs is greater than the Arctic Ocean. The high central portion of the the energy expended reaching them, the moose range possesses steep angular summits of sedi- have a good chance of surviving until spring. mentary and metamorphic rock draped with rubble The animal species discussed in this issue and scree. Mountain glaciers covered the higher have each developed adaptations that have peaks during the Pleistocene, leaving remnant enabled them to survive and persist in the various glaciers in the high cirques (steep-walled semicir- ecosystems in Alaska. cular hollows created by glacial scouring). These The Arctic Tundra Division stretches along glaciers flowed out of the Brooks Range, carving the Arctic Ocean and sweeps inland to include wide valleys, which serve as corridors for human the Beaufort Coastal Plain, the Brooks Foothills, and wildlife migrations, and leaving terminal and the Brooks Range ecoregions. These open, moraines looped across the Brooks Foothills. wind-swept lands are gripped by polar conditions The Brooks Foothills are gently rolling hills and throughout the year. Cold air off the permanent broad exposed ridges flowing out from the north- ice pack of the Beaufort Sea has low moisture- ern flank of the Brooks Range. Narrow valleys, holding capacity, and precipitation in this region glacial moraines, and outwash are interspersed is less than 20 inches per year. Summer tempera- among long linear ridges, buttes, and mesas com- tures average less than 50°F within this division, posed of tightly folded sedimentary rocks. The Migrating caribou swarm effectively limiting tree growth to the southern foothills flatten out into the Beaufort Coastal across a braided flood- fringe of the Brooks Range. Permafrost is nearly Plain, a vast undulating surface underlain by plain in the Brooks Foot- hills, with the peaks of the continuous throughout the region, contributing unconsolidated deposits of marine, fluvial (carried Brooks Range in the to saturated organic soils in the summer and a by streams), glaciofluvial (carried by glacial ice background. Late snow- variety of freeze–thaw ground features. Repeated and meltwater), and eolian (carried by wind) origin banks and aufeis deposits freezing and thawing of soils create unique and covered with a mosaic of lakes, braided rivers, provide a refuge from features such as pingos (ice-cored peat mounds), and wetlands. biting insects. On either ice-wedge polygons (a repeating pattern of River systems arising in the Brooks Range flow side of the river, tussock hexagons in the tundra vegetation), oriented south into the boreal zone or north to the Arctic tundra and willows stretch for hundreds of thaw lakes (linear lakes shaped by prevailing Ocean. High-energy stream systems cut narrow miles across the winds), and solifluction lobes and stone stripes ravines in the mountainous Brooks Range, etching foothills and into the (ground loops and vertical stripes on gentle hills a deeply incised dendritic pattern. Streams coa- lower Brooks Range. caused by slumping of the thawed active layer lesce into large braided rivers in the foothills. Some of these streams freeze solid to their bot- toms, causing large deposits of frozen overflow, or aufeis, that last well into summer and provide ref- uge for caribou from voracious flies. Break-up and snowmelt in the southern Brooks Range often cause spring flood waters to flow out over still- frozen river channels on the Coastal Plain and flood onto the near-shore ice of the Arctic Ocean. Tundra and low shrub communities predomi- nate throughout the Arctic Tundra zone.
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