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Publication of the Archaeological Society of British Columbia ISSN 0047-7222 Vol. 34, No. 1 - 2002
Culturally Modified Trees of the Nechako Valley Wapato (Part II) TRACES Field Report-Index Volume 33 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF a MIDDEN BRITISH COLUMBIA Published four times a year by the Declicated to the protection of archaeological resources Archaeological Society of British Columbia and the spread of archaeological knowledge.
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Volume 34 No. 1, 2002
In this issue
Culturally Modified Trees of the Nechako Plateau 2 Subscriptions to THE by Amanda L. Marshall MIDDEN are included with Debitage 11 ASBC memberships. For non-members in Canada A Critical Look at the History, Enthnography, and 12 Linguistics of Wapato subscriptions are available by Terry Spurgeon at $14.50 per year-$17.00 for addresses outside Field Notes 21 Canada. Debitage 21 Single copies of most previ Annual Index Volume 33 22 ous issues are available at Exhibits 24 $5.00 each. Subscription forms and Conferences 2002 inside back cover membership application Conferences 2003 outside back cover forms are available on our BC Archaeology Forum 2002 outside back cover Web site at asbc.bc.ca
Cover Page Drawing of Culturally Modified Trees (CMTs). See 'article by Amanda Marshall starting on the next page.
The Midden 34/1 1 CULTURALLY MODIF'I f:D TREES OF THE NECHAKO PLATEAU CAMBIUM UTILIZATION AMONGST TRADITIONAL CARRIER (DAKHEL) PEOPLES
By Amanda L. Marshall and Nak'azdli agreed to be interviewed mittee 1973: 11), was an almost universal Introduction for the oral history project. They are: an springtime food of the interior First Na This study investigates, using archaeo elder from Fort St. James who requested tions (Turner 1997:53). Cambium collec anonymity, Russell Alec, Sebastian logical and ethnographic data, the signifi tion involved removing the outer bark of Anatole, Francesca Antoine, Josephine cance of cambium within the seasonal the tree, and then scraping the cambium Austin, (the late) Camille Joseph, Walter round of Carrier First Nations of the layer from the trunk and collecting it. Joseph, (the late) Annie Mattas, Celestine Nechako Plateau, and how culturally According to ethnographic accounts, May modified trees (CMTs) fit into Carrier ar Thomas, Francis and Catherine Williams, and June were apparently the best months and James Williams. The elders ranged in chaeology. The article argues that for cambium collection, as the sap runs age from approximately 60 to 105 yeC!.fS, cambium was not used solely as an emer during this time (Albright 1984; Bond and gency food, but rather as one of a variety were of a traditional upbringing, and had Russell 1992; Central Carrier Linguistic all had first-hand experience collecting of foods that the Carrier consumed Committee 1973; Glynn-Ward 1932; Hall throughout the year, which contributed to 1992; The People of 'Ksan 1980). This cambium. Elders were interviewed on five general the seasonal round by providing a spring process of cambium stripping created a topics relating to CMTs: (1 ) cambium col time food full of carbohydrates, sugars, scar on the tree; the tree would continue lection and its use as an emergency food; and body cleansing attributes. The ar to grow and the scar would slowly heal. It (2) the correlation between the different chaeological data comes from two forestry is these scars that we find today as ar cutting permit (CP) areas in northern Brit chaeological features or CMTs (see scar types, scar shapes, and scar top ish Columbia: CP MK-15 (site FjSg 12) cover). shapes; (3) the relationship of girdled trees and choppings to streams and trails; (4) and CP 54l(site GgSp 55). Ethnographic The nutrient-rich cambium of the data obtained from interviews conducted the side of tree chosen for bark removal; lodgepole pine provided a variety of vita with 12 elders from various Carrier com mins and minerals, as well as dietary fi and finally (5) how CMT densities corre munities was also analyzed. late with the natural topography of the bre (Turner 1997). So far there has been land. The study area falls into the region of little documentation of the nutrient con the Nechako Plateau of interior BC, which tent of lodgepole pine cambium, but Archaeological Data is traditionally the territory of the Carrier Turner and Kuhnlein (1991: 13) expect Archaeological data was collected from Athapaskan First Nations (Figure I). The that it would be high in sap content. Us two CMT sites referred to as CP 541 or Nechako Plateau is bordered by Babine ing maple sugar as an example, they would GgSp 55, and MK-15 or FjSg 12 (see Fig and Stuart lakes to the, north, Prince expect high carbohydrate/sugar energy ure 1 for the site locations). These two George in the east, Smithers to the west, values for inner-bark foods. In fact, the sites were chosen because of their accu and the Blackwater River to the south. dietary supplement pycnogenol, a mixture racy in methodology and detail of data Culturally modified trees are one of the offlavonoids with antioxidant activity, is collection, which are described below: most common archaeological·subsistence derived from the bark of Pinus maritima features found in the province of British (R.J. Maries, personal communication CP541 Columbia today (Carlson 1998a). They 2000). CP 541, or GgSp 55, is a large site, with are also widespread along the northwest an estimated 8,000 CMTs located within coast and interior plateau regions of the Research Methodology and Design the block boundaries (Figures 2 and 3). United States (Bergland 1995), and have Two sources of data were analyzed to This site is of the Harvest Area typology been extensively documented in Sweden answer the above research questions: both and is located east of Babine Lake, adja (Niklasson et al. 1994; Zackrisson et al. ethnographic (oral histories) and archaeo cent to the Carrier village of Old Fort. 2000). logical data. Because fieldwork was concentrated The inner bark tissues of the lodgepole Ethnographic Data within the cutting permit boundaries, the pine (Pinus contorta), or chundoo dze in Several elders from the Carrier commu full distribution of the site remains un Carrier (Central Carrier Linguistic Com- known. Carlson (1998b:3) believed that nities of Tachie, Middle River, Portage,
2 The Midden 34/1 the site distribution probably continues to Figure 1. Map ofBritish the west toward the shore of Babine Lake, Columbia showing the and north and· south of the block. Due to approximate locations of CP 541 and MK-15, as the large number of CMTs located within well as the approximate the block, not every tree could be re extent of the Nechako corded, so an adequate sample of data was Plateau. obtained. Systematic transect strip sam pling.(transects spaced 100 metres apart), and plot sampling every 100m along the transect strips (20 m in diameter), were used to estimate the overall density and total number of CMTs present in the blocks (Carlson 1998b). A total of 237 dating samples were obtained, providing an approximate 3-to-4-percent sample of dates for all the CMTs present at the site. Using this transect/plot sampling method ology, an estimated total of 36,375 CMTs may be present at GgSp 55. Scar dates from the site range from AD 1785-1890. CMT descriptive data was collected in each plot and includes: Block; Plot; N CMT#; Dead/Alive; CMT Type; No. of Scars; Scar#; Scar Morphology; Side of + Tree; Slope Angle; Slope Direction; DBH 0 200km (diameter at breast height of CMT); Height Top of Scar; Height Bottom of Approxinact BO!Undary of t~• Nocbako Platoau Scar; Length; Width; Depth (lobe thick ness); Scar Shape; Top Shape; Cut Marks; Basal or Bark 'v'; Lateral Cut Edge; Cut Branches; Choppings; and Scar Date. See used in CP 541 (Figure 5). This sampling (Figure 6). Similarly, dates obtained from Figure 4 for the recording guidelines de methodology, successful in CP 541, did sites GgSp 55 and FjSg 12 were initially veloped by Traces Archaeological Re not work well in recording a large sample entered into frequency histograms, which search and Consulting Ltd. of CMT descriptive data (as a majority of showed there were several peaks in fre CP MK-15 the CMTs were not located within the quency dates during certain years (Figures The second site examined is cutting plots), and only worked well in recording 7 and 8). This, along with the idea that permit MK-15, orFjSg 12, located in the distributions along the trail. An estimated cambium was often eaten as a starvation Vanderhoof Forest District, just south of total of CMTs at the site was 648 to 839. food, created the hypothesis that peaks in the Cheslatta River. The site, first docu Scar dates from this site range from AD frequency dates may correlate with his mented by Father Morice in the early 1847 to 1931. toric documentation of hard times due to fluctuations in other food resources such 1900s, is much smaller than GgSp 55 and Analysis and Discussion is of the Trail typology: i.e:, small clus as salmon. Dates were then plotted on the ters and/or linear clusters of CMTs dis CMT Frequency Dates and the Use original block maps. Several different tributed along a known Carrier trail of Cambium subpopulations were apparent based on (Carlson et al 1999:1 ). Data was collected In 1998,Carlson (1998a) suggested that the age of scars in CP 541, somewhat de from this site using the same transect strip CMT frequency dates may correlate with fined by Blocks 114, 2, and 3. A box plot and plot sampling methodology as that fluctuations in the Carrier seasonal round (Figure 9 and Table 1) was created, to demonstrate the apparent differences in the distribution of dates across the blocks. 1sT QUART MAX MIN 3Ro QUART MEAN s From the box plot we can see that a ma jority of the scars located in Block 1/4 541-1/4 1828 1890 1785 1851 1847 20.67413 cluster around AD 1847. Differences be 541-2 1802 1835 1793 1809 1803 10.71288 tween the dates in Blocks 2 and 3 are not 541-3 1803 1846 1790 1814.75 1805.5 12.15149 as easily defined. Dates from Block 2 clus mk-15 1866.5 1917 1847 1886.5 1872 15.98945 ter around AD 1803, and Block 3 around Table 1. Summary of scar age range by subpopulation, Sites GgSp-55 and FjSg-12. AD 1805, yet both have dates consider ably older than the average scar date from
The Midden 34/1 3 TRACES Archaeological Research and Consulting Ltd. Ver. Fe1:7 26, 1998
CMT Scar Shapes
0 o,. .~...... 0 I
invert-ed Triangle ~ctan9ular Lenticular Triangu!Jir Columnar Girdled Oval (0) or Healed (IT) (R) (L) (T) (C) (G) Diamond (D) (H) (t.llazee only)
Any scar whic~ does not conform more-or-lese; to any of these shapes e;hould 1:7e called "irregular (I) and ehould be descril7ed in comments and/or sketched.
Shape descril:7ea overall shape of the scar window. The shape/form of scar top can vary highly. Descriue top separately (see illustrations below).
CMT Scar Top Shape/Form n n A D n D I1 I Dip Irregular Taper (T) Round (R) Square (5) Angled (A) L·Shaped (L) Healed (D) (I) (indicate down to (Indicate down (H) I~ or ri9ht) to lefe or right) Top Shape deecrit.le& either Top of Oriainal Scar or Top of Scar Window Mpendin9 on overall morphology of scar.
Only use Irregular description if no other ehape de&erit.lee &ear top.
Top of Ori9inal Scar Scar#! with original cut 17ari< edge Now completely ht~afed
Cut·mari ~ iii :"'~ Lateral ori9inal o cut t.lari< edge ~ ..c.... ($> '\i :I: Example c~oss-section of CMT stripped twice Figure 4. TRACES Recording Form Guidelines for CMTs. 4 The Midden 34/1 --- Block 1. Dates from MK-15, or FjSg 12, N represent an even later time period, with - """>• --BIDdt Bo.~ndtol')' tl+ CM'Te --- Ro.d:t an average date of AD 1872. A "one-way" l.>l4 Ct.H6 --(--- StrMtnl analysis of variance (ANOVA) was per + 11·12CMT• 9·10 CM1!!> formed, which confirms that the dates 7·6CY1o e c~n Moh4h GMT• from the different subpopulations vary sig erti CMl~ ...... ,., 3...f0.1T• __ nificantly. Block 1 NT'S Map: ~3 W2 TRIM/FC1 : P3M.018 Three possible scenarios are sug gested by the author, which could explain what these fluctuations in dates represent (Smashnuk 1999). Situation One is as fol lows: there were certain time periods when other food sources were short in supply or certain social or subsistence factors were facilitating the use of emergency foods. In Situation Two, there were cer tain time periods in which a particular area was chosen for cambium collection as opposed to other areas. And finally, in Situation Three, fluctuations of dates were caused by an alteration in diet, for only a short period of tiffie, and for no apparent Figure 2. Map ofCP 541, Block 1 (4) showing transect strips, CMT plots, and CMT densities reason. This final scenario makes little (Carlson 1998b). sense, because the Carrier traditional diet is thousands of years old; it is unreason iO able to assume that a group of people ill Ul "-.: would alter their diet for no apparent rea Ul I Block 2 " son. "' The author felt initially that Situation One was probably the most likely scenario for explaining fluctuation in scar dates. However, after reviewing the oral histo ries and the archaeological data through out the course of this research, it has be come more apparent that Situation Two is the most likely scenario for describing cambium use in the seasonal round. Prince (2001) studied increment core dates from several sites in the Nechako River drainage. He found that CMTs lo cated well above Cheslatta Falls, an area that historically lacked salmon spawning grounds, show a marked difference in the clustering of dates from other areas of the drainage. The increment core dates from r-::--=--=-c:----·------this area demonstrate tight, discrete clus CP 541 ters that seem to reflect short-term, inten Blocks 2 and 3 sive collection from discrete patches of forest. He believes that gaps in cluster Tr.11\MG ~ J __ """" • ...... , F.hCMT,-, - - -- Roada dates may mean other patches of forest G- 14 CM1~ were utilized, similar to what is described 11·12GMTto 9-\00,00) in Situation Two. 0Cio41 f'\Jt.wiU.. ~4 (;t.(T .~ 7-~Clvllu 56CMl() . CI.fl f 'I The Midden 34/1 S Scar Shapes and Top Shapes 28-' A comparison was performed between PIS 633.2-15 the two sites, GgSp 55 (Harvest Area Type site) and FjSg 12 (Trail Type site), to de termine the differences in frequencies of CMT scar shapes and scar top shapes. ··---·· This was done using a "two-s~ple" Chi Square test to compare the observed fre quencies at each site with expected fre ... quencies. Results of this analysis reveal that, with the two distributions of scars having been drawn from a common popu .... · lation, there are distinct similarities be tween the observed frequencies of scar N shapes and scar top shapes at both of the 442 A sites. Interestingly the "lenticular" scar 17·'16 CMT• --Blodt Bo...a.y shape appears to be the most common scar fS.WSQ.H~ --T11111 13-4-'0.AT• .... , shape at both sites, second would be the 11·12Ct.4T• : •• : CNT~n 9--.0CMI• "inverted triangular'' scar shape, the third OCMf~toMotn. CM J. 7-tJ CMT• most common scar shape is the "healed" 5..;o.n. e._CMTnrt.MthCMT•,_ . ~ ... CMt• scar, and fourth ranked is the "rectangu 440/V I-2CMT, NfS Map: f3 F/11 OCMle lar" scar. For scar top shapes, the "ta PIS TRIMIR: 1: 93F.Off pered" top is the most common, second is Figure 5. Block MK-15, showing transect strips, CMT plots and CMT densities (Carlson et al the "rounded" top, third is the "irreguiar" 1999). . top, and fourth is the "healed" top. For counts on "angled" scar tops, the major eas of the forest having scar dates that that a failure in the salmon run would not ity of them were "angled to the right." A cluster around the same time period. One be cause enough for starvation amongst possible explanation for a particular area the Carrier people. person using their right hand, which is often the dominant hand for an individual, chosen for cambium collection may be the In contrast to the "starvation food" con will make the cut angled down toward the age of the forest relative to fire history. It cept of cambium use (Situation One), the has been described in the literature that a elders describe the cambium's importance right hand side. An analysis of the different scar shapes certain age and size of tree was preferred in a variety of ways: from a nutritional and scar top shapes at a site may allow for cambium collection (Gottesfeld. perspective and as a traditional way of for identification of individuals, families, 1992:150; Zackrisson et al. 2000:107). refining one's blood; as a dessert (candy) and groups through "style" analyses (Muir Therefore, it could be that the relative age or a delicacy; as a source of energy used and Moon 2000). The scar shape produced of a forest and its growth and fire history while travelling; and a handy laxative. by a person stripping a tree represents in may have had a significant effect on which Girdling Trees and Using the Forest dividuality, in respect to different fami areas were considered "ripest" for lies or clans who may have been taught to cambium collection. in a Value-Added Way Although there may have been times Figure 10 is an example of where the strip trees in certain ways. The elders in terviewed suggest that people from dif when Native people had scarce supplies unrecorded trails were located in CP 541. ferent areas do things different ways, prob of salmon, there was little threat from star Girdled trees (bark strip scars that span vation despite what fur traders have writ the entire circumference of a tree) were ably following the teachings of their elders. ten. Morice (1895:73) notes that a short plotted onto these maps to determine their locations relative to the trails and streams fall in any major resource was made up CMTTypes in the blocks. A hypothesis was that with fish species that "seldom failed," such Already described are the girdled (G) girdled trees would be found near areas as minnows, sculpins, and suckers from CMTs, which fall into the CMT type strip where they could be easily relocated at a neighbouring lakes and streams. Rabbits ping (ST). Three other CMT types com later date. It turns out that the girdled trees and other fur-bearing animals could also monly found in the interior of BC are are found either next to the trails or very have been resorted to. Resources were blazes (BL), choppings (CP), or other (0). close to the streams. variable from area to area and from year It was hypothesized that blazes and A review of the oral histories tells us to year, but periods of extreme food scar choppings would occur more frequently that girdling to the Carrier was a common city for any specific village were rare at Trail Type sites than at Harvest Area practice during the historic period, as this (Bishop 1983:149). Alternate food re Type sites, and two pie charts were cre provided people with a source of firewood sources and inter-village trade provided ated to demonstrate the differences be later on once the girdled trees had expired. the means of preventing death by starva tween the two site types (Figures 11 and tion ..The elders interviewed all suggest 12). Included in this analysis were blazes 6 The Midden 34/1 and choppings, as well as strippings that amount of sun exposure as being the best seems that in sites GgSp 55 and FjSg 12 contained choppings on the scar face ( clas side for cambium collection. Only four out there was a preference for stripping sified as ST/CPs). These charts show a of twelve of the elders from this study said cambium from the shady side of the tree. clear difference between the two sites in that the sunny side ofthe tree was the bet Similar results have been found by this regard. At GgSp 55, 96 percent of the ter side to strip for cambium. The remain Zackrisson et al. (2000: 102) in that the CMTs were of the stripping typology, and ing eight elders said that it did not matter north, northwest, and northeast sides of only 4 percent were blazes. At FjSg 12 on which side of the tree was chosen. the tree were the most commonly chosen the other hand, 82 percent of the CMTs A hypothesis is that, if it matters which sides for bark removal among the native were of the stripping typology, 8 percent side a person collects cambium from, this Sami of northern Sweden. Of trees with were blazes, and 10 percent were will be represented in the archaeological multiple cambium strippings, the north strippings with choppings. data. To test this hypothesis, a "one-sam side appears to be chosen first and the The obvious explanation for FjSg 12 ple" Chi Square test was performed to south side was subsequently chosen. They having more blazes is that it is a Trail Type determine if the "side of tree" distribution mention that in Sami culture, north and site, as opposed to a Harvest Area Type was uniform, and there was no selection south directions have a strong influence site. Also, the large number of ST/CPs at for any particular side of the tree. As a on various cultural and religious phenom FjSg 12 indicates that people were col result of this test we can reject the null ena. Zackrisson et al. suggest a relation lecting kindling while travelling. Elders hypothesis that only chance has caused ship between the south side of the tree confirm this and suggest that this dry, any difference between expected frequen trunk, which was exposed to the sun, and pitchy wood obtained in this way would cies and observed frequencies. In all four the shaded north side may have theoreti allow the travellers to light a fire even if it blocks, there seems to be a slight favour cally influenced which side was peeled for was raining. ing of the northwest, north, and northeast bark removal. They also describe how liv sides of the tree compared to the more ing pine trees are treated with respect, and Side ofTree southerly sides. In all cases, the north side that before a tree was cut, "the spirit of The side of the tree refers to a compass of the tree appears to be the most com the tree had to be informed so that it could bearing in degrees, or azimuth, for the di monly selected side. In the spring the sun safely leave the tree" (2000: 106). rection the scar is facing. There are con is shining towards the south side of the Stryd (1997) explains that the shady side flicting opinions from elders that make tree at noon, and the north side of the tree of the tree usually has fewer branches, reference to a tree's side with the greatest is always slightly shaded. Therefore, it suggesting that this side of the tree would 18r------, Figure 6. Frequency of CMT scar 14 dates by year from the Nechako Plateau (from Carlson 1998a). 12 10 ...I . The Midden 34/1 7 24 ~ Figure 7. Frequency of CMT scar dates, site GgSp-55. :2'(1 18 ;~ 14 ! 0 rs. 12 d iii Ul e ~ 4 2 (I ~------ Figure 8. Frequency of CMT scar dates, site FjSg-12. 1.:a .a.. 0 0 12: ~ ~ 11) 8 The Midden 34/1 be more easily stripped of its bark. Also, more heavily in certain areas of the block up the moss after it was dried, and put it in when a tree is located on a significant are not obviously apparent. However in sacks and store it. ... [they] would go out to a big swamp there. I think that maybe be slope, Stryd suggests that the most likely Blocks 2 and 3, densities of CMTs closely cause there was more water there, too .... selected side of tree is going to be on the follow Stream D (running northwest), when there's a bunch of water the jack pine cambium had a lot ofjuice that came with upslope. In Block 1 of CP 541, there is a Stream C (also running northwest) and it (Marshall 2002:201 ). deep gully located at the southwest por Stream B (running west). These areas were tion of the block, which is easily recog probably natural travel routes to and from It is speculated here that other plant re nizable by the stream flowing through the the lake, since it would have been easy to sources may have simultaneously been bottom. Plots located along this gully with follow a stream to and from a village with collected near areas where cambium was a steep slope were used in this analysis. out getting lost. The deep gullies ·and harvested, such as fiddlehead ferns, dev Out of 61 scars, only 33 (54 percent) were streams in Block 114 do not seem to have il's club, or other traditional plants used found facing upslope. On the other hand, had much of an effect on where CMT dis in the springtime. if one is comparing just the CMTs in these tributions are located. This portion of the Summary and Conclusion plots that have only one scar feature, then block is also much closer to the lake, and Various aspects of the Carrier seasonal 8 times out of 11 (73 percent), the scars people may not have been as concerned round can be defined and understood by were found to be on the upslope. about getting lost there. combining the information presented in On the topic of resource acquisition Locations of CMTs the elders' oral accounts and the archaeo sites, areas frequented for moss collection The next topic of discussion is whether logical data. It seems that cambium was were mentioned by both Josephine Aus certain natural features on the landscape not used solely as an emergency food, and tin and Rusty Alec, as also having been will affect where CMT densities are con that frequencies of scar dates are ex chosen for cambium collection. Russell centrated; for example, near streams, plained by how the dates are distributed Alec states that his mother and aunties trails, or other resource acquisition sites. across the landscape rather than fluctua used to do two things at once close to the To determine this, recorded numbers of tions in animal and/or plant resources es swampy ground: CMTs in each transect were plotted onto sential to the Carrier seasonal round. ....They used to do it there, they used to Girdled trees are often found near streams the block maps to visually represent ar get the moss, and hang it up on a tree to eas with greater densities. In Block 1/4 dry and then they would be scraping the or trail routes and are used for firewood cambium from the Jack pine. Then at the when they dry. Scar shape and top shape the reasons for CMT densities clustering end of the day they d go around and pick Figure 9. Subpopulations based on CMT dates, GgSp-55 and FjSg-12. 1850+--- ~... i ,~+-----~------~~~------ ~~t------~ 1~+------~r------~------+------~ 541-2 The Midden 34/1 9 Figure 10. Blazes and choppings indicating approximate trail routes through GgSp-55, Block *· References Cited Albright, S. 1984 Tahltan Ethnoarchaeology. 4---- -direction of blaze Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser G -girdled CM T University, Publication No. 15, Burnaby. cp -chopping ·.Aflprox. 1ra~ roule Bergland, E.C 1995 Historic period plateau 0 ·plot culture tree peeling in western Cascades Block I of Oregon. Northwest Anthr9pological 0 lOOm Research Notes 25: 31-53. Bishop, C. 1983 Limited Access to Limited 0 0 0 0 N Goods: The Origins of Stratification in Interior British Columbia. In, Native 0 0 0 0 0 0 A North America: I979, Proceedings of the 0 0 0 0 American Ethnological Society, edited by E. Tooker, pp 148-161. 0 0 0 0 0 Bond, L., and S. Russell 1992 The Carrier of Long Ago. Canadian Cataloguing Publication Data, Prince George. \ Carlson, A.K. 1998a Nechako Plateau 0 Culturally Modified Trees. Paper 0 0 Presented at the Canadian Archaeological 0 0 0 Association' s Annual Conference, Victoria. --1998b Interim Report: Systematic Data Collection, CMT Site GgSp-55, .In Houston Forest Products CP 54 I, Babine frequencies appear to be very similar be Lake, BC. Permit 1998-144. Traces tween the two sites, the lenticular shape Archaeological Research and Consulting being the most common; the Harvest Area Ltd. Type site has a smaller proportion of Carlson, A.K. , L. Rankin, and P. Prince blazes and strippings with choppings than 1999 An Archaeological Inventory and the Trail Type site. The side of tree se Impact Assessment of Block MK-I5 and lected by a person collecting cambium Mitigation/Management Study ofCMTs at may depend on the person's preference, Site FjSg-12. Unpublished Report on File, and in these two sites appear to be mostly Archaeology Branch, Government of British Columbia, Victoria. from the shady or north side of the tree. Slope does not seem to have a significant Central Carrier Linguistic Committee 1973 effect on the side of tree selected for strip Hanuyeh Ghun 'Utni-i: Plants of Carrier Country. Central Carrier Linguistic ping. And finally; CMT locations tend to Committee, Fort St. James. be related to other resource acquisition Figure 11. Percentages of CMT types, Site Glynn-Ward, H. 1932 The Glamour of sites, and along trails and streams. GgSp-55, CP 54I. British Columbia. Doubleday, Doran and The archaeological data presented in Gundy, Toronto. this article combined with the oral histo Gottesfeld, L.M.J. 1992 The Importance of ries told by the elders have helped reveal Bark Products in the Aboriginal Blazes s% many aspects of the Carrier practice of Economies of Northwestern British cambium collection and the resulting Columbia, Canada. Economic Botany 46 CMTs. Most importantly, it is now clear (2): 148-157. that cambium collection was only one of Hall, L. 1992 The Carrier My People. many resources collected over the course Friesen Printers, Cloverdale. of the year. Cambium was not solely used Marshall, A.M. 2002 Culturally Modified as an emergency food; rather it supple Trees of the Nechako Plateau: Cambium mented the Carrier diet by providing car Utilization Amongst Traditional Carrier bohydrates, vitamins, and other nutrients (Dakhel) Peoples. Unpublished Master's necessary for survival. thesis, Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby. Morice, A.G. 1895 Notes Archaeological, Industrial, and Sociological on the Western Denes. Transactions of the Canadian Institute, 1892-1893, Vol. IV, Figure I2. Percentages of CMT types, Site pp. 1-222. FjSg-12, MK-I5. 10 The Midden 34/1 Muir, R.J., and H. Moon 2000 Sampling Culturally Modified Tree Sites. Final Report, Prepared for the Ministry of DEBITAGE Forests, Aboriginal Affairs Branch, in Consultation with the Ministry of Small Earlier this year, the Canada Foundation To celebrate Washington State's Archae Business, Tourism, and Culture, Victoria. for Innovation (CFI) announced an ology Month, the Burke Museum of Niklasson, M., 0 . Zackrisson, and L. award of $17.2 million to the Museum of Natural History and Culture hosts its an Ostlund 1994 A Dendroecological Anthropology. The funds will be directed nual Archaeology Day on 19 October 2002. Reconstruction of Use By Saami of Scots toward a re-designed research wing and Visitors to the Museum will have opportu Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) Inner Bark Over the creation of a new Reciprocal Research nities to handle field equipment and record the Last 350 Years at Sadvajaure, N. Network. Entitled "A Partnership of Peo and interpret artifacts. Staff and students Sweden. Vegetation History and ples: A New Infrastructure for Collabora from the Burke's Archaeology Division Archaeobotany 3: 183-190. tive Research," the Museum's project is will display their collections, answer ques The People of 'Ksan 1980 Gathering What being developed in partnership with the tions, and talk about the projects they're the Great Nature Provided: Food UBC Laboratory of Archaeology and three working on. Archaeology Day visitors can Traditions of the Gitksan. Douglas & First Nations: Musqueam, St6:lo, and the also participate in guided field trips to the Mcintyre, Vancouver. U'mista Cultural Centre. It will provide 4,200-year-old West Point Archaeological Prince, P. 2001 Dating and Interpreting Pine UBC with the most advanced and com Site in Seattle's Discovery Park. For fur Cambium Collection Scars from Two prehensive ethnological and archaeologi ther information on the Burke Museum's Parts of the Nechako River Drainage, British Columbia. Journal of cal facility in Canada. Archaeology Day contact the Museum at Archaeological Science, Vol. 28 (3): 253- The infrastructure will forge links be 206.543.5590 or check out their Web site: 263. tween academic scholars, originating com The Midden 34/1 11 A CRITICAL LOOK AT THE HISTORY, ETHNOGRAPHY, AND LINGUISTICS OF WAPATO By Terry Spurgeon We hear that a mass of Indians are now collected there, and that their women are busied in gathering Wappatoes [wapatos] a root of which they are particularly fond, and which is found under the water in Pools and Marshes. The Indians here call it Skous, tho' I have given it the name by which it is known on the Columbia. George Barnston, The Fort Langley Journals 1827-30, (Maclachlan 1998:40) Introduction from which some things become salient guage understanding; (2) recorder and in In the previous issue of The Midden and others merge into the background"; formant comprehension-what is really basic information on the ecology of secondly in reference to systematic error, meant? (3) informant knowledge and bi wapato and the context of my research was or "deviation from a true score as a valid ases-gender, width of view (family, com presented. Here a critical review is con measurement of some phenomenon or to munity), and validity; (4) informant dis ducted of the ethnographic and historic accurate estimation of some population tance in time from the activity being data pertaining to wapato in order to pro parameter"; and lastly in a more specific recorded; (5) distance in time from when vide a more understandable framework in form denoting a particular form of sys the recording takes place from the activ which to study traditional Katzie use of tematic error: "that deriving from an un ity being recorded; (6) translation prob wapato, and ultimately to set the stage for conscious or conscious tendency on the lems-is a potato a potato? (7) do inform dealing with wapato in possible archaeo part of the researcher to produce data, and/ ants intentionally mislead or are they logical contexts. The need for this type of or to interpret them, in a way that inclines misinformed? (8) do recorders inject their analysis should be self-evident, given the towards erroneous conclusions which are biases and is the research itself biased? modem emergence of critical archaeology in line with his 9r her commitments." Glavin (2000:7) puts the need to con whose main tenets were derived from eth Communication in the form of verbal sider these numerous ramifications quite nography and history by archaeologists. accounts, written records, and observed succinctly when he states "Sorting out the Additionally, the frequent and uncritical behaviour provide the basis upon which history of the North Pacific involves the use of ethnographic analysis and the di the historic and ethnographic information business of considering questions not only rect historical approach to augment or ini researchers use was recorded. Communi about the observed but also about the ob tiate archaeological interpretations de cation implies something in the way of server and the observer's own culture and mands that greater attention be paid to information being transmitted from the ideology." Analysis of the quotation at the critical review and the context of original source, and the reception of this informa start of this article serves to illustrate the sources to avoid perpetuating misleading tion by the recorder. For the former the potential problems attendant upon interpretations. expectations of the enquirer may not al uncritically accepting information at face ways be fully understood, and for the lat value from quotations taken from a vari Searching for Bias ter understanding the information being ety of historic and ethnographic sources. Recognition of bias is an important con transmitted may not always be clear. Sub Taken as a whole such sources offer some sideration in the process of critically re sequently, users of the recorded informa thing of value when studying wapato, but viewing the information available. tion also bring their biases and potential nearly all can be misleading. There are Hammersley and Gomm (1997: 1.1) con for misunderstanding into the process, potential problems with subject, intent, clude that accusations of bias are a recur often at great distances in time and space. context, recorder and informant bias, and rent event in the social sciences. They Obviously the process is fraught with po many other issues. An excellent example l make the point that in response to such tential problems that must be addressed is how the Barnston quote appears in dif accusations of bias there is often a coun to ensure the veracity of the final record ferent sources. The transcription by tercharge that it is not the original research and subsequent interpretations. Assuming Macintosh (1963:26) of the original ar that is at fault, but it is the evaluation of the process includes an informant and a chival copy reads: the research that is biased. Bias exists in recorder, for now leaving out the ultimate three main forms in their view: the first is We hear that a mass of Indians are now user, some of the problems are: (1) re collected there, but that most of them in "the adoption of a particular perspective tend soon to clear out entirely for their corder qualifications-writing ability, Ian- lands, not to return again until next sum- 12 The Midden 34/1 mer. It appears that they procure, where they are at present, a great number of Wappatoes a root found under water in pools and marshes, and held by them in great estimation as an article of food. The name they give it here is Scous or rather Skous. On the Columbia it is known by the one first mentioned. The Macintosh (1963) version does not attribute the entry to Barnston, implying that it is a journal entry by James t MacMillan. Duff (1952:73) has essentially the same information, although he names r the location as the "Forks" (of Pitt and Fraser rivers), whereas the Macintosh transcription of Barnston refers to the lo cation as "the forks below." It is the re cent work of MacLachlan (1998:40) that attributes the entry to George Barnston and introduces the notion that women did the digging, although there is no mention of women doing the digging in the other versions. Several references to this pas (1991:143) overarching view of context. twentieth century, as many of them .did, their informants remembered and descnbed sage refer to 5,000 Indians assembled at On the Northwest Coast bias at a high early- to mid-nineteenth-century societies. the confluence to dig skous on return from level is quite evident in several forms. This was the slice of time that ethnogra phy transformed into timeless traditional salmon fishing upriver (Suttles 1987:142 There is a bias in archaeological artifact culture (Harris 1997:28). footnote 12; McKelvie 1947:33, 1991 :39) preservation, where lithics dominate and although no such figure exists in the origi faunal and floral remains are less success ffistoric and Ethnographic nal journal. It appears this number origi ful in surviving the vagaries of taphonomic Impacts Affecting the Study of nates from an 1829 estimate in a separate processes. The bias in artifact recovery Wapato report by a Hudson's Bay Chief Factor results in the dominance of lithics analy The potential entry of myriad biases into (Duff 1952:26; Murphy 1929:19). Over sis in reports, while faunal and especially the historic and ethnographic record re all, there is evidence here of bias, error, floral analyses are less evident. Faunal garding wapato must be accounted for. All and interpretation, all added at later dates analysis is more prevalent than botanical of the possible entry points for mislead well removed from the original to enhance analysis, whith has only been emerging ing information or bias as noted are po the quotation, notwithstanding that events in the last decade as a major focus in re tentially at play when studying wapato in may well have transpired each year as in search design, recovery, and interpretation Katzie territory. dicated. There is a hint here that one (Lepofsky 2002). The traditional catego To properly conduct archaeological in should take care in regard to the absolute rizing of hunter-gatherer bands and sed terpretations of wapato it is appropriate veracity of such sources. entary agricultural societies into separate to use accepted archaeological methods An important role of archaeology in entities is somewhat problematic on the to arrive at interpretations. Also, it is nec addition to understanding the past is in Northwest Coast as sedentary collectors essary to more fully pursue our under providing historical perspective for under have more in common demographically, standing of the roots of our modem knowl standing ethnographic data (Trigger socially, and politically with agricultural edge of wapato. The archaeological 1989:336). Trigger indicates that anthro ists than they do with most hunter-gather methods of paleoethnobotany should be pologists are coming to believe that "eth ers (Trigger 1989:399). Archaeology can directed at the matter. In conjunction, it is nologists and social anthropologists, lead to re-interpretation of misleading or useful to address the numerous historic whether studying social structure or erroneous information in historic and eth changes since contact that have influenced change, are investigating the results of nological information, this being evident our present knowledge of wapato use and acculturation because their data are de in the emergence of paleoethnobotany as affect the potential to confidently use the rived from small-scale societies that are a major force on the Northwest Coast direct historical approach or ethnographic either being destroyed or integrated ever I (Lepofsky 2002; Lepofsky et al. nd.; analogy as methods to infer prehistoric more completely into the modem world Loewen 1998; Lyons 2000). The follow practices. Table 1 presents post-contact system." H~ further notes that it is clear ing quote best sums up the present situa influences that have regionally affected that no society can be properly understood tion regarding typical Northwest Coast our modem understanding of this plant or classified structurally unless its rela ethnography: resource. The table presents the major in tionships with other societies is taken into When field notes were worked up into fluences in more or less chronological account (Trigger 1989:336). This is an books, an academic datum plane was cre order from the present to early contact idea in consonance with Hodder' s ated: traditional Northwest Coast culture. If ethnographers asked their questions at times and includes brief comments on the end of the nineteenth or early in the The Midden 34/1 13 each of the impacts listed. Accompany Table 1: Factors Affecting Wapato Use in Katzie Traditional Territory. ing these influences, especially since MAJoR iNFLUENCE: Associated Impact(s) diking commenced, is a continuous dis URBANIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT: Since 1860--ever increasing access restrictions to turbance to or loss of archaeological sites. traditional use areas. Represented in the table is an almost con HYDROELECfRIC DEVELOPMENT: Since dam construction in 1925-reduced water flow in tinuous series of impacts with both one Alouette River, changes to Alouette Lake(s). time and cumulative effects such that any FoRESTRY: Since late nineteenth century, ending by 1930. Mainly second growth left, large speculation about wapato must be tem forest fires burned remainder ending logging. Access roads and hydrology pered with at least one or more of these disruptions. factors. For many traditional uses the lo AGRICULTURE: Mainly since diking-reduced access, increased biotic disruptions, crops and cal Native population was precluded from pastures replace native plants. accessing significant portions of the land DIKING: Started in 1892--diversions, ditches, dredging, continuing maintenance, major scape by land alienation, which, while dis biotic disruptions. tributing land first to speculators (Collins BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE: Old World/New World plant naming conventions. 1975) and later to settlers, excluded Na tive land ownership. LAND ALIENATIONIINDIAN REsERvES: Since 1860--reduced or prohibited access to traditional use areas, ghetto-like treatment of Native population; land surveying started. The continuous depredations of disease, estimated to have reduced pre-contact COLONY STATUS GRANTED: 1858-new government, spurs settlement, irrevocably sustains new economy. Native population levels by up to ninety percent, would have limited traditional LANGUAGE CHANGE: Constant erosion of /change to Native languages. uses. This factor, coupled with the rela FuR TRADE/FORT LANGLEY: 1827-a new economy introduced-furs, money, jobs, trade tively late or, depending on viewpoint, goods, demand for consumer items such as food productS. re~ent gathering of ethnographic data (cf. SIMoN FRAsER: Spring 1808-Fraser River in freshet, notes expanses of water in Fraser Jenness 1955; Suttles 1955) raises ques Valley area, Natives with firearms at mouth. tions about the accuracy of male-domi POTATO (SOLANUM TUBEROSUM) INTRODUCED: May signal end of large-scale wapato harvest. nated information about female activities FIRST CONTACTS/DISEASE: Pre-AD 1800--Native population reduction begins, trade goods and the nature of what was being reported introduced. and its closeness to pre-contact practices. Suttles (1987:16 footnote 2) notes that likely refer to wapato as Sagittaria personal recollections of the oldest in also grew potatoes because they had cash sagittifolia, for the species nomenclature formants did not date back earlier than the value at nearby trading posts. In contrast, with which they were familiar in the Old 1870s and 1880s, a situation that raises The Fort Langley Journals (Maclachlan World. Later recorders eventually adopted questions then about the potential archaeo 1998: 112) note potatoes (S. tuberosum) the plant classification Sagittaria latifolia logical significance of some ethnographic from the Fort being used as payment to to conform to the more modem conven reconstructions. It has been pointed out Native labourers in May 1829. Brown tion for the New World species of the to me by Katzie band members that the (1868:380) notes that Native-grown po plant. Coupled with the variable Native knowledge of one family group about tatoes (Solanum tuberosum) commanded language words and meanings when re wapato as reported in Suttles (1955) might higher prices, even from white men, than ferring to wapato and potatoes, the issue not necessarily reflect that of another fam any other potatoes. is further complicated. A factor compli ily group. Recently, landscape studies in archae cating our knowledge of wapato is the An exception to closeness in time would ology have become popular in addressing rapid influx of the common potato (Sola be The Fort Langley Journals: 1827-30 people's interaction with their environ num tuberosum) following first contact (Maclachlan 1998), which record activi ment; indeed such studies are a fundamen with Europeans as documented by Suttles ties during the AD 1827-1830 period, but tal part of studying prehistoric cultures. (1987). The rapid influx may in part have have their own problems relating to the Contextualizing the landscape of the time contributed to the decline in wapato con recorder's Old World colonial and cultural and documenting the changes that have sumption (Brown 1868:379; Rivera biases and their difficulties in understand occurred, e.g. diking and land alienation, 1949:21). A comparison of the nutrient ing and writing Native languages (Suttles are important in the understanding of composition of S. tuberosum and S. 1998). The accompanying new economic wapato. Wapato is initially difficult to find latifolia as reported by Norton et al. climate, where paid jobs, trade goods, and in the absence of context and detailed (1984) and Horton (1987:94) shows them changed marke~s dominated, would have study of relevant modem botanical infor to be quite similar. The major difference affected wapato use through the introduc mation. between the two species is in their grow tion of potato (S. tuberosum) growing by Botanists, ethnographers, and historians ing and harvesting conditions. Wapato is Natives for their own consumption and to variously refer to wapato as Sagittaria grown and harvested in water whereas S. serve local white markets. Suttles sagittifolia or Sagittaria latifolia depend tuberosum is grown and harvested on dry (1987:145) suggests that in addition to ing on the date of the record. Early records land. meeting their own food needs the Natives compiled by European researchers will 14 The Midden 34/1 Figure 1: Temperature sites. and is thus subject to longer term water fluctuations. There is no wapato at this site today. The Grant Narrows site, com pletely outside the dike system and sub ject to daily tidal influences, is located at the boat wharf on the Pitt River where the river flows out of Pitt L~e opposite IR4. There is wapato growing at this site. r, The sites were selected judgementally after a lengthy period of familiarization and observation based upon access, maximizing coverage of the Polder area, and providing a mix of sites inside/out side the dike system. The distance from the more southerly-Blaney Creek-to the northernmost-Grant Narrows-is 8.9 km. The other sites are more or less evenly spaced between the two. Despite the relative proximity of the recording sites there were noticeable minor climate variations amongst them as can be seen in Tables 2 arid 3. The further north the site, the cooler the air temperatures. The Grant N~ows air temperatures are frequently cooler. The Grant Narrows water temperatures do not follow the general pattern, a situ ation I attribute to Pitt Lake acting as a huge heat-sink, which reduces the mag 0 2 nitude of water temperature fluctuations. Of major relevance are the water and scale- km air temperatures, especially for the cooler winter months from October to FH- Higher Ground 0 - Temperature site March. There were a total of 42 cooler period observations taken, the resulting water and air temperature ranges being Pitt Polder Climate temperature, general sky condition, pre shown in Table 2. Moderate to strong cipitation, wind, water level fluctuations Wapato was generally harvested be winds were experienced just over a third tween October and March. Periods of (to record seasonal, tidal, or dyking/pump of the time, with strong outflow winds colder temperatures may have had energy ing influences), and the current direction present on several occasions. The net re of flowing water locations (i.e., Blaney gain and loss implications related to har sult was water and air temperatures that I vesting activity and success. This is par Creek). Due to water level fluctuations the felt did not encourage wading in the wa ticularly so where tuber recovery required thermometer was allowed to lie on the bot ter. Several instances of ice-covered wa harvesters to enter the water as noted in tom during all readings. Recording site lo ter were also noted. ethnographic accounts. In order to better cations are shown in Figure 1. Table 3 and Figure 2 present averaged The recording sites are all located in the understand the present-day climate of the monthly water and air temperature values Pitt Polder area I recorded a weekly set Pitt Polder, north of the North Alouette over one contiguous year (52 weekly ob River. Tables 2 and 3 include climatic data of qualitative and quantitative measure servations from 1 April1998 to 31 March ments at six locations for the 69-week for the sites at Blaney Creek (TMP 1), 1999). The general pattern of warm sum period between 11 December 1997 and 4 Stwgeon, the Dike site (TMP 4), Gate, and mers and cooler winters is evident. Pre April 1999. Climate records for the Pol Grant Narrows. Figure 2 includes climatic cipitation in the form of rain or snow for der have not been kept in the past, mak data for the Blaney Creek and the Dike the winter period (October to March) was ing comparisons difficult, but the weather site. Blaney Creek, located outside the pol approximately six times more frequent der diking system, is a flowing water site during the monitoring period did not ap than for the summer (April to September) pear to be appreciably different from that subject to daily tidal influences. There is period. This is consistent with the ex of the last decade. wapato present at the Blaney site. The pected wetter winter period. The cooler Dike site is a stillwater site located wholly The information recorded includes: temperatures of the wapato harvest period date, time (local), water temperature, air within the Polder dike/pumping system The Midden 34/1 15 Table 2: Selected Water/Air Temperature Ranges (Celsius); October through March I Blaney Creek Sturgeon Dike Gate Grant Narrows Month Water Air Water Air Water Air Water Air Water Air October - Low 10.0 9.5 11.0 9.0 10.5 9.0 10.0 9.0 12.0 9.5 High 12.0 13.0 15.0 13.0 12.0 13.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 13.0 November - Low 7.0 6.0 7.5 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 7.5 6.0 High 10.0 11.5 10.5 11.0 10.0 11.0 9.5 10.5 11.0 10.5 December - Low -0.5 -5.5 0.5 -6.5 -0.5 -8.0 -1.0 -7.0 2.5 -7.0 High 6.0 5.5 7.0 5.5 5.5 5.0 5.5 5.5 7.0 5.5 January - Low 0.0 -1.0 1.0 -1.0 0.0 -2.0 1.0 -1.0 4.0 0.0 High 5.0 7.0 6.0 7.0 5.5 6.0 5.0 6.5 5.5 5.0 February - Low 4.0 3.5 4.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 4.5 3.0 High 6.5 9.0 6.0 10.0 7.0 9.5 5.5 9.0 5.0 6.0 March- Low 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.5 4.5 45 6.0 High 9.0 12.0 10.5 12.0 10.0 12.0 9.5 11.0 6.0 7.5 Table 3: Monthly Average Water/Air Temperatures (Celsius); Observation period from 1 April1998 to 31 March 1999-52 weeks Blaney Creek Dike Site Grant Narrows Month n= Water temp. Air temp. Water temp. Air temp. Water temp. Air temp. January 5 3.3 3.2 3.5 2.9 4.8 3.1 February 4 5.1 5.8 4.6 3.9 4.8 4.4 March 4 6.3 8 6.8 8.9 5.4 7.1 April 4 10.3 9.6 11.5 8.3 - - May 5 14.7 15.2 15.2 14.5 - - June 4 · 19.8 21.1 20.9 20.3 - - July 4 20.6 19.1 21.6 19.4 - - August 4 22 22.4 21.6 22.1 - - September 5 20 24.3 20.8 24.4 17.5 22 October 4 10.6 11.6 11.4 ll.5 12.9 11.6 November 5 8.4 8.2 8.2 8 9.3 8 December 4 3.1 1.1 2.4 0 4.8 0.75 16 The Midden 34/1 Figure 2: Average Monthly Water/Air Temperatures (Celsius). Observation period from from October to March lend credence to 1 April1998 to 31 March 1999- 52 weeks I the use of digging sticks for wapato re covery in place of wading, which is widely reported as the tuber recovery method. It may be a modem bias but on those occa sions when I harvested tubers using a shovel or trowel during the .cold period hands rapidly stiffened and tolerable ex posure times were very short. Study Area Wapato Distribution During 1998, I recorded wapato patches Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. on the banks of the Fraser and Pitt rivers, Blaneywater Blaneyair the lower reaches of Blaney Creek, the Dlkewater Dike air North and South Alouette, and the Alouette River main channel below the Figure 3: Wapato Locations forks. Wapato is also present on the Pitt River fronting IR4, in Widgeon Creek and ::::::f···:::::: ...... slough, and on Siwash Island. Field re ...... connaissance was split approximately ...... evenly between inside and outside dike lo ...... ~~ Nottrf cales. The search involved walking along dikes observing water on both sides and included canoeing in the Pitt River, ·Pitt ...... Lake, Widgeon Creek and Slough, and the Pitt Marsh where foot access is impossi .....····· ·...····...... ····· ble. An estimated total in excess of 50 kms was surveyed by foot and canoe. Ongo ing reconnaissance continues to reveal new wapato patches. In all instances to date the patches have been located in water bodies where there is daily flow, albeit subject to short-term water fluctuations (i.e., tides, flood stages), and with bottom sediments com prised of silty/clayey muds. As yet, no wapato has been observed growing in non flowing waters or those subject to long term fluctuations in water level or where the bottom sediments are largely peat with mixed silt/clay, conditions that are typi cal behind dikes. Marburger (1993:250) indicates wapato grows in coastal and in land freshwater marshes, around the mar gins of lakes and ponds, and along rivers and streams. Turner (1995:36) notes the habitat for wapato as wholly or partly sub merged in the water at the edges of lakes, ponds, and streams, or in wet mud. 0 2 Brayshaw (1985:45) describes wapato growing in marshes and sheltered shallow Scale- km water. Marburger (1993:250-52) discusses a variety of conditions affecting the sexual Wapato sites - etlmographic report ¢- - all inside dike system and asexual reproduction and growth of wapato, among them achene production obseiVed 1998 • - all outside dike system being higher in water bodies with stable both ~ - outside dike system levels versus fluctuating levels; low wa LH -Higher ground ter and dry conditions resulting in reduced The Midden 34/1 17 flower and achene production; and plants level making it important to have knowl tober to March) generally fall between growing in soft organic silts producing 14 edge of the patch locations to effect the -8° C to+13° C, and water temperatures to 15 times as many achenes as those fall/winter tuber harvest, a season when fall between -1.0° C to+ 15.0° C (see Fig growing in hard-packed clays. foliage is no longer visible. Daily tidal ure 2), a rather cool mix for wading. I have The initial association of wapato with fluctuations may also obscure the emer harvested wapato into the month of April. flowing, muddy-bottomed waters subject gent foliage early in the growing season While diking appears to have had a nega to short-term level fluctuations, in contrast making searching during low tides a good tive impact on wapato growing iJ;tside dike to its apparent absence in non-flowing practice. High tides seem to protect young enclosed areas, wapato remains in abun waters with peaty clay/silt bottoms and plants from predation but during a pr!J dance outside the dike system. One could longer-term water level fluctuations, leads tracted period of low tides--common in speculate perhaps that the many conditions to the conclusion that modem diking, the summer-plants are exposed to pre and impacts attendant upon successful which has interrupted the water flow in dation. While in the field I observed nu cultivation and harvest of wapato rendered the extensively channeled pre-diked low merous instances of Canada geese feed the popularity of the introduced common land, has resulted in conditions where ing on the foliage whereby a large patch potato (Solanum tuberosum) inevitable. wapato no longer thrives. Also contribut visible one day would be undetectable the Some final words on harvesting meth ing to the negative impact of diking on next. Anderson (1925: 134) mentions see ods are in order. In the compacted silt/clay wapato and archaeological site preserva ing flocks of swans "heads under the wa substrates in which the modem tubers tion is the regular maintenance of the dike ter, and tails in the air" feeding on wapato grow it is almost impossible to dislodge system and the frequent dredging of chan in the Columbia River. On the Columbia tubers with toes pushed into the mud This nels, ditches, and slough systems in the River predation by introduced European difficulty is further complicated by the dike-enclosed areas. Figure 3 shows carp is blamed on the near extermination natural detritus contained in the substrate. ethnographically reported wapato sites of this once abundant plant (Piper It simply may be that the substrates in pre from Suttles (1955: Table 1 and Map II) 1906: 101 ). I observed that patches in the diking times were less compacted and and those wapato patches observed by me vicinity of frequent human activity, i.e. were not so fouled with modem detritus, during summer 1998. In all instances the boat launching ramps and hiking paths, easing the effort required to dig with toes. observed modem wapato was located out were less impacted by animal predation Furthermore, several attempts have been side the dike system, whereas many of the and seemingly ignored by people. made to pull tubers from the substrate us named ethnographic sites were at loca While these are only preliminary con ing the above-ground foliage for gripping. tions now inside the dike system where clusions based on several seasons of field In all instances the foliage has been tom there is no longer any wapato. Notwith work it is not unreasonable to speculate a away with no movement of the buried tu standing the frequent mentions of wapato bit on the Katzie traditional use of this bers evident. Again the nature of the mod in Suttles (1955), it should be noted that once important plant. The notion of the em substrate may preclude success with in his later compilation of plants for Chap seasonal round that included some sum this method. It is possible that some form ter 3 in Woodcock (1996) Suttles notes mer intervention to tend patches, ulti of digging stick suitably shaped at the end that during his peregrination with Simon mately leading to a tuber harvest, over for dislodging tubers and breaking up the Pierre in August 1955 Sagittaria latifolia simplifies the realities of the activities substrate and root mat was used for har was not gathered for subsequent identifi associated with wapato. Considerable ef vest. Darby (1996:68-9) notes several ac cation at UBC (Suttles 1996; also see foot fort would have been required to initially counts of digging for wapato tubers but note p. 27 in Suttles 1955). This is an in locate patches, eradicate competing digging sticks are not mentioned. Unfor dication that wapato is not always easy to plants, ensure a continuous supply of fresh tunately, while such root-digging tools are find, having been impacted by a variety water, and to protect immature foliage widely reported ethnographically associ of disruptive forces. from predation. Once found the patches ated with other root species (Brown Based on my observations, the notion would likely be used repeatedly. Famili 1868:379; Duff 1952:73; Haeberlin and subscribed to by some that wapato remains arity with the location of patches was nec Gunther 1930:20; Suttles 1987:137 in ref hidden below ground if not extensively essary to facilitate fall/winter tuber har erence to S. tuberosum; Turner 1979:33), cultivated is not correct. The false view is vesting, a time when the distinctive foliage there is little likelihood of such tools sur likely the result of several factors that, would no longer have been in evidence. viving in archaeological contexts unless once understood, render wapato easy to Planning around high and low tides was waterlogged conditions exist. find. These include the aforementioned another complication that required atten There are many cross-cultural examples diking impacts, water-level fluctuations, tion, as the lowest tides would not always for the use of digging sticks. One exam wildlife predation, and a narrow growing have been conveniently present in daylight ple is associated with the cultivation of season. The distinctive arrowhead-shaped hours or during the season of interest. To taro (Colocasia esculenta) in Oceania foliage is best sought in the months of July not properly plan these activities would (Sillitoe 1983; Oliver 1989). Taro, which and August. It is also seen in June and potentially have led to a poor energy re grows up to a metre high, produces a large September depending upon annual grow turn for the time invested, a particularly starchy corm (up to 30 em long and 15 ing conditions. At other times of the year serious matter given that air temperatures em in diameter), propagates vegetatively, the roots and tubers remain below ground in the area during the harvest period (Oc- comes in many varieties, and grows in 18 The Midden 34/1 Table 4: Native Language Names for Selected Species of Foodplants-sometimes referred to as "potato"- · Common Name Botanical Name Native Language Word Source Spring Beauty Claytonia lanceolata SkweQkwinem Turner et al. 1980:113 Nlaka'pamux (Okanagan-Colville) Mariposa Lily Caloclwrtus macrocarpus /m5q?=u[·?]pe? Turner et al. 1990: 119 Nlak:a'pamux (Thompson) Broad-Leaved Trientalis latifolia /ciqw·=o[·qw]pe? Turner et al. 1990:245 Starflower Nlak:a'pamux (Thompson) Yellow Avalanche Lily Erythronium s!k:'em'ec Turner et al. 1990:121 grandijlorum Nlaka'pamux (Thompson) Camas Camassia quamash nftxwe? Turner et al. 1990:120 Nlaka'pamux (Thompson) kwa.dis Turneret al. 1983:83 Ditidaht k'a'm5s Duff 1952:73 St6:lo dryland and wetland/aquatic conditions using wapato and potatoes. these species with the Native language (Sillitoe 1983:37-42; Oliver 1989:190). Complicating the language picture, and word for each. Fortunately, the Native lan Oliver (1989:194) indicates that digging not strictly a linguistics problem, is the fact guage words for these species are distinct stick cultivation techniques associated that in addition to the potential for confu from those related to wapato. Hopefully, with taro include the loosening and turn sion between Sagittaria latifolia and Sola ethnographers and others accurately docu ing of soil, digging of planting holes, and num tuberosum, there are several other mented Native language words preclud uprooting of tubers, some users employ edible "root" species in the Pacific North ing such confusion. ing different size sticks for different jobs. west that are often referred to as Indian A comparison of the Columbia and The commonest type of digging stick was and swamp potato. Ethnographies and Fraser rivers is illuminating as pertains to pointed with the working end fire-hard botanical guides frequently contain refer wapato distribution, language, and the po ened, although some types from the New ences to Spring Beauty (Claytonia tential wapato provides as an item for Guinea Highlands and New Caledonia had lanceolata) as "Indian potato" (Turner et trade. The comparison is also relevant spatulate or shovel-like ends (Oliver al. 1980: 113), Mariposa Lily (Calochortus given the linguistic origins for the Chinook 1989: 194). Golson and Steens berg macrocarpus) as "Wild potato" (Turner Trade Jargon term wapato, and the word's (1985:347-384) discuss fl. wide variety of 1997:64), the Yellow Avalanche Lily subsequent spread throughout the North such digging stick implements used in all (Erythronium grandiflorum) as "Indian west Coast area. The major river drainages phases of taro cultivation in the New potato" (Turner et al. 1990: 121), all three of the Northwest Coast have long been re Guinea Highlands for several millennia. being Interior species, and Broad-Leaved garded as significant corridors for prehis Starflower (Trientalis Latifolia) as "Indian toric human interaction between Interior Language, Trade, and Taxonomy potato" (Pojar and MacKinnon and Coastal peoples. They support signifi The look at the linguistic evidence for 1994:322). Camas (Camassia quamash), cant migrations of anadromous salmon wapato words in Northwest Coast Native while not present in Katzie territory, could (Schalk 1981) and serve as major trans languages in the previous Midden article arrive there via trade and could easily be portation corridors. The Wappatoo Val provides an informative perspective, confused with wapato. The potential for ley (Portland Basin) of the Columbia which suggests a need to carefully evalu confusion amongst edible "root" foods is River and the Fraser Valley section of the ate ethnographic information before ac obvious where proper botanical nomen Fraser River systems both supported ex cepting it at face value. The linguistic in clature is not used in conjunction with tensive areas of wapato. In the case of the formation reinforces the argument common names. Linguists and ethnogra Columbia River there appears to have presented here that care must be taken to phers could have frequently confused been trade involving wapato both up and avoid confusion when using ethnographic these species with wapato. Table 4 lists downriver (Boyd 1996:149; Ray and historic accounts of Native people The Midden 34/1 19 1938:120; Ruby and Brown 1976:99). use of wapato and possible trade implica Hodder, Ian 1991 Reading The Past: Current Darby's (1996) wapato research is cen tions. Native wapato trade was eventually Approaches to Interpretation in Archaeology. tred on this ·region. A similar upriver/ ended through the introduction of the po Second edition, Cambridge University Press, downriver movement of wapato is re tato (Solanum tuberosum), a factor that Cambridge. ported for the Fraser River, especially fo has many implications involving wapato Horton, Douglas 1987 Potatoes: Production, Marketing and Programs for Developing cused on the wapato patches in Katzie ter use. The introduced potato had economic, Countries. Westview Press, Boulder. ritory. trade, and horticultural implications. Jenness, Diamond 1955 The Faith·of A Coast Taxonomic nomenclature can at the same Summary Salish Indian. Anthropology in British Co time confuse and clarify the wapato pic The need to critically review historic lumbia Memoirs Nos. 1 & 2. British Colum ture. Ultimately, the widespread use of the bia Provincial Museum, Victoria. and ethnological data is evident. For terms "wapato" and "potato" to refer to a wapato the modem records provide much Lepofsky, Dana 2002 Paleoethnobotany in variety of edible root species requires re the Northwest. People and Plants in Ancient of value but the inherent biases must be searchers to be alert to potential confu North America, edited by P. Minnis, identified and accounted for. The histori sion in historic and ethnographic data Smithsonian Institution Press, in press. cal context of the times, when changes sources. Loewen, Dawn Christy 1998 Ecological, were occurring in the use of wapato dur Ethnobotanical, and Nutritional Aspects of ing the nineteenth century, is vital to its Selected References Yellow Glacier Lily, Erythronium understanding. Critical review and con grandiflorum Pursh (Liliaceae), in Western For a complete list of references refer to: textual analysis reveal much about wapato Canada Master of Science thesis, Department Spurgeon, T. 2001 Wapato (Sagittaria latifolia) of Biology, University of Victoria, Victoria. and alert the modem researcher to the in Katzie Traditional Territory, Pitt Meadows, many sources of bias present in past British Columbia. Unpublished MA thesis, De Lyons, Natasha 2000 Investigating Ancient records and to the potential for bias to partment ofArchaeology , Simon Fraser Univer Socioeconomy. in St6:lo Territory: a enter into the research undertaken here. sity, Burnaby, BC; for additional references see Palaeoethnobotanical Analysis of the Scowlitz Site, Southwestern BC. MA thesis, A look at the modem Pitt Polder cli also The Midden 33/4. Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser Anderson, James R. 1925 Trees and Shrubs: mate in conjunction with contextual analy University, Burnaby. sis of the historic changes that have af Food, Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Macintosh, Winnifreda (transcriber) 1963 Fort fected the Polder since European contact British Columbia. Department of Education, Victoria. Langley Journal June 27, 1827- July 30, provides an illuminating view of wapato 1830. Transcription attributed to James Boyd, Robert, 1996 People ofThe Dalles: The and the impacts affecting its continuing MacMillan and Archibald McDonald. Pro Indians ofWascopam Mission. University of exploitation by Native people. The climate vincial Archives of British Columbia, Victo Nebraska Press, Lincoln. conditions during the wapato harvest pe ria. Brayshaw, ChristopherT. 1985 Pondweeds and Maclachlan, Morag, ed. 1998 The Fort riod in conjunction with indirect ethno Bur-reeds, and Their Relatives, of British Co Langley Journals 1817-30. UBC Press, graphic evidence and cross-cultural data lumbia British Columbia Provincial Museum Vancouver. support the argument that digging sticks No. 26 Occasional Papers, Victoria. McKelvie, B.A. 1947 Fort Langley, Outpost of were likely used to dig the tubers. A ma Collins, J.E. 1975 The Reclamation of Pitt Empire. Vancouver Daily Province, Vancou jor influence has been diking, which ap Meadows. MA Thesis, Department of His ver. pears to have affected wapato distribution tory, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby. ---1991 Fort Langley, Birthplace of Brit such that it is no longer present in many Duff, Wilson 1952 The Upper Stalo Indians. ish Columbia. Porcepic Books, Victoria. ethnographically reported locations. Anthropology In British Columbia Memoir No. I, British Columbia Museum, Victoria. Murphy, Paul1929 The History of Fort Langley. Wapato is present today only in waters Unpublished thesis, University of British Co Glavin, Terry 2000 The lAst Great Sea: A Voy outside the dike system. lumbia pp.18-20. Manuscript held by the Ar age through the Human and Natural History Wapato is not the only species to have chives of British Columbia, Victoria. ofthe North Pacific Ocean. Greystone Books, been impacted by modem iilfluences. Lo a division of Douglas & Mcintyre, Vancou Norton, H.H., E.S. Hunn, C.S. Martinsen, and cally, the Katzie were placed onto reserves ver, BC. P.B. Keely 1984 Vegetable Food Products of and this act in conjunction with land al the Foraging Economies of the Pacific Golson, J., and A. Steensberg 1985 The Tools Northwest.Ecology of Food and Nutrition, ienation effectively removed them from of Agricultural Intensification in the New 14:219-228. the Pitt Polder lowland area. Traditional Guinea Highlands. Prehistoric Intensive Ag uses of the landscape were truncated or riculture in the Tropics, Part 1, edited by I.S. Oliver, Douglas L. 1989 Oceanic: The Native ended altogether. The depredations of dis Farrington, pp.347-382. BAR International Cultures ofAustralia and the Pacific Islands. Volume 1, University of Hawaii Press, Hono ease further reduced the number of Na Series 232, Oxford. lulu. tive people able to eke out traditional sub Hammersley, M., and R. Gomm 1997 Bias Piper, Charles 1906 Flora of the State of Wash sistence. The introduction of new In Social Research. Sociological Re search Online, 2(1). At 20 The Midden 34/1 Forests and Lonepine Publishing, Vancouver. Ray, Verne F. 1938 Lower Chinook Ethno graphic Notes. University of Washington FIELD NOTES Press, Seattle. Rivera, Trinita 1949 Diet of A Food-Gathering were post-1846 CMT sites, as well as People, With Chemical Analysis of Salmon TRACES ARCHAEOLOGICAL and Saskatoons. Indians ofthe Urban North RESEARCH & CONSULTING trails, a trap house, a historic cabin, and west, edited by Marian W. Smith, pp 19-36. LTD. two above-ground caches. . 1969 reprint, AMS Press, New York. The archaeological sites identified and Ruby, Robert H. and John A. Brown 1976 The recorded by TRACES in 2001 ranged in TRACES Archaeological Research & Chinook Indians: Traders of the Lower Co size from isolated lithic scatters and lumbia River. University of Oklahoma Press, Consulting Ltd. had a busy year in 2001 CMTs, to small village sites with up to 56 Norman. investigating and recording 170 cultural cultural depressions, large-scale cambium Schalk, Randall F. 1981 ''The Structure of an heritage sites in the Vanderhoof Forest harvest CMT sites, and large expanses of District (VFD) under permit 2001-171. A Anadromous Fish Resource," in Advances In heritage trails. Many of the survey areas total of 46 development areas were sur Archaeological Method and Theory, edited investigated by TRACES in 2001 were by Michael Schiffer, 4:207-249. veyed, and cultural heritage resources situated along major trail corridors within Sillitoe, Paull983 Roots ofthe Earth, Crops in were identified in all but three of these the VFD including the Messue, Mill's Highland Papua New Guinea. Manchester developments. Creek, and Cutoff Creek trail routes. The University Press, Manchester. Developments investigated include trails proved to be rich in cultural herit Suttles, Wayne 1996 "Katzie Ethnobotanical large areas along trail routes, lakeshores, age sites from the pre-contact period into Notes." Chapter 3 in Katzie Natural Re and drainage systems surveyed for Moun the historic pefiod, confirming that Abo sources Past and Present: A Report on the tain Pine Beetle (MPB) salvage opera History ofthe Natural Resources Within the riginal trails should be heavily considered tions, as well as small MPB broods, log Traditional Te"itories ofthe Katzie People, when predicting areas of high and mod ging blocks, and a forestry recreation site. edited by Waneta Woodcock, pp 44-57. erate archaeological site potential Katzie Band Office, Pitt Meadows. TRACES conducted 39 AlAs (archaeo (Carlson 1996). logical impact assessment), seven PFRs ---1998 Names in the Fort Langley Jour -NICOLE JACKMAN-CRAIG nals. In The Fort Langley Journals 1827-30, (preliminary field reconnaissance), as well edited by Morag Maclachlan, Appendix E, as an AlA, test excavations, and subse pp 233-238. UBC Press, Vancouver. quent monitoring at site GaSe 10. The lat Trigger, Bruce G. 1989 A History ofArchaeo ter project was in response to a proposal logical Thought. Cambridge University Press, to relocate four outhouses within a forestry Cambridge. recreation site. A large portion of the ar DEBITAGE Turner, Nancy J. 1979 Plants in British Co chaeological site GaSe 10 is located within lumbia Indian Technology. Handbook No. 3.8. the recreation site area. Coming this autumn to the Society for British Columbia Provincial Museum, Vic TRACES employed representatives American Archaeology's Web site toria. from the Cheslatta Carrier Nation, The Midden 34/1 21 ANNUAL INDEX TO THE MIDDEN VOL. 33, 2001 Compiled by Heather Myles, editor TITLE *indicates illustrated article 2002 Archaeological Field Schools. 33/4:12-13 Annual Index to The Midden Vol. 32, 2000. 33/1:19-20 AUTHOR Antiquus Archaeological Consultants Ltd. 33/4:13-14 Areas Consulting Archeologists Ltd. 33/1:13 ARNow, ToM: Book Review: Sampling in Archaeology, by Clive *Archaeological Investigations at the Yellow Rock (Chrome Is Orton. 33/1:14 land) Petroglyph Site. 33/1:2-8 CARLSON, RoY L.: *Philip Hohler and SFU. 33/3:2-5 Archaeology Branch Changes, from the Ministry of Sustainable CARLSON, RoY L.: *A Selection of Phil Hohler's Publications Resource Management. 33/2:21 1967-2000. 33/3:6-7 Arrowstone Archaeological Research and Consulting. 33/4: 14 CHATAN, RoBBIN: Book Review: Historical Archaeologies of *A Selection of Phil Hohler's Publications 1967-2000.33/3:6-7 Capitalism, edited by Mark P. Leone and Parker B. Potter Jr. Book Review: Cultural Evolution: Contemporary Viewpoints, 33/3:15-16 edited by Gary M. Feinman and Linda Manzanilla. 33/2:9 . Book Review: Exploring Coast Salish Prehistory: The Archae DAHLSTROM, BRUCE, AND REMl FARVACQUE: *Orthophotos and the ology of San Juan Island, by Julie K. Stein. 33/2:9-11 AOA Process. 33/2:7-8 Book Review: Historical Archaeologies of Capitalism, edited GoUI.D, BRENDA, CHARLENE ALLISON, AND DANETIE WI:ITI'NEY: *The by Mark P. Leone and Parker B. Potter Jr. 33/3:15-16 Pinto Flats Site. 33/4:10-12 Book Review: Nuu-chah-nulth Voices, Histories, Objects and HAGEN, JunY: *Katherine Capes: Remembering A Women of Journeys, edited by Alan L. Hoover. 33/4:17 Distinction. 33/3:14 Book Review: Sampling in Archaeology, by Clive Orton. 33/ HAGGARTY, JAMEs C., and LAURIE WILLIAMSON: *Archaeological 1:14 Investigations at the Yellow Rock (Chrome Island) Petroglyph Conferences 2001. 33/1 :22; Conferences 2002. 33/1:21; Con Site. 33/1:2-8 ferences 2002. 33/4:21-22; Conferences. 33/2:22; Conferences. 33/3:21-22 HoWE, GEORDIE: A Tale of Two Sites: Book Review: Exploring Debitage. 33/1:11 ; Debitage. 33/1:14; Debitage. 33/2:11; Coast Salish Prehistory: The Archaeology of SanJuan Island, Debitage. 33/2:20; Debitage. 33/3:16; Debitage. 33/4:9 by Julie K. Stein. 33/2:9-11 Douglas College and Coast Heritage Consulting. 3314: 15 KARPIAK, MoNicA: *The Tsleil-Waututh First Nation Commu Exhibits. 33/1:21; Exhibits. 33/4:21 nity Archaeology Project. 33/1:10-11 Golder Associates Ltd. 33/1:12 KARPIAK, MoNICA: Book Review: Nuu-chah-nulth Voices, His *Hoko River: A Review of Lithic, Linguistic, Ethnographic, and tories, Objects and Journeys, edited by Alan L. Hoover. 33/ Basketry Evidence for Ethnicity. 33/3:8-13 4:17 I.R. Wilson Consultants Ltd. 33/1:12-13 MucKLE, Boa: *The Seymour Valley Archaeology Project. 33/ *Katherine Capes: Remembering A Women of Distinction. 33/ 2:2-6 3:14 Langara College. 33/1:9 MYLES, HEATHER: Annual Index to The Midden Vol. 32, 2000. Langara College. 33/4:16 33/1:19-20 Lectures. 33/3:21 PoULSEN, MICHELLE: *Hoko River: A Review of Lithic, Linguis Nanaimo Lectures. 33/2:19 tic, Ethnographic, and Basketry Evidence for Ethnicity. 33/ Okanagan University College. 33/4:16 3:8-13 *Orthophotos and the AOA Process. 3312:7-8 SHARP, KARYN: Book Review: Cultural Evolution: Contempo Permits Issued by the Archaeology Branch January to May 2001. rary Viewpoints, edited by Gary M. Feinman and Linda 33/1:15-18; May to August 2001. 33/2:12-18; August to Oc Manzanilla. 33/2:9 tober 2001. 33/3:17-20; August to December 2001. 33/4:18- SPURGEON, T.: *Wapato in Katzie Traditional Territory. 33/4:2-9 20 *Philip Hohler and SFU. 33/3:2-5 Recent Publications. 33/2:18 Secwepemc Education Institute-Simon Fraser University. 33/1:9 SFU 2001 Field Season at the Salloomt Site. 33/4:16 22 The Midden 34/1 - - - --~~~ ------Simon Fraser University. 3311 :9 Exploring Coast Salish Prehistory: The Archaeology of San Simon Fraser University, Douglas College, and Coast Heritage Juan Island, by Julie K. Stein. 33/2:9-11 Consultants. 33/1:8 Historical Archaeologies of Capitalism, edited by Mark P. Simon Fraser University- Secwepemc Education Institute. 33/ Leone and Parker B. Potter Jr. 33/3:15-16 4:14-15 Nuu-chah-nulth Voices, Histories, Objects and Journeys, ed *The Pinto Flats Site. 33/4:10-12 ited by Alan L. Hoover. 33/4:17 *The Seymour Valley Archaeology Project. 33/2:2-6 Sampling in Archaeology, by Clive Orton. 33/1:-14 *The Tsleil-Waututh First Nation Community Archaeology BRITISH COLUMBIA HERITAGE TRUST Project. 33/1 :10-11 Debitage. 33/3:16 University of British Columbia. 33/1:9 CANADIAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION University of Victoria and Parks Canada. 33/4:15 Debitage. 33/3:16; 33/4:9 *Wapato in Katzie Traditional Territory. 33/4:2-9 Capilano College *The Seymour Valley Archaeology Project. 33/2:2-6 SUBJECT CULTURAL REsoURcE MANAGEMENT AcADEMIC FIELD NoTEs Archaeology Branch Changes, from the Ministry of Sustain Douglas College and Coast Heritage Consulting. 33/4: 15 able Resource Management. 33/2:21 Langara College. 3311 :9 Book Review: Sampling in Archaeology, by Clive Orton. 33/ Langara College. 33/4:16 1:14 Okanagan University College. 33/4:16 Debitage. 33/2:20; 33/4:9 Secwepemc Education Institute-Simon Fraser University. 33/ *Orthophotos and the AOA Process. 33/2:7-8 1:9 ETHNOBOTANY SFU 2001 Field Season at the Salloomt Site. 33/4:16 *Wapato in Katzie Traditional Territory. 33/4:2-9 Simon Fraser University. 33/1:9 Simon Fraser University, Douglas College, and Coast Heritage FIELD NOTES Consultants. 33/1:8 Antiquus Archaeological Consultants Ltd. 33/4:13-14 Simon Fraser University-Secwepemc Education Institute. 33/ Areas Consulting Archeologists Ltd. 33/1:13 4:14-15 Arrowstone Archaeological Research and Consulting. 33/4: 14 University of British Columbia. 33/1:9 Golder Associates Ltd. 33/1:12 University of Victoria and Parks Canada. 33/4:15 I.R. Wilson Consultants Ltd. 33/1:12-13 ARCHAEOLOGISTS, LOCAL FIELD SCHOOLS *Katherine Capes: Remembering A Women of Distinction. 33/ 2002 Archaeological Field Schools. 33/4:12-13 3:14 Langara College. 33/1:9 *Philp Hohler and SFU. 33/3:2-5 Langara College. 33/4:16 SFU 2001 Field Season at the Salloomt Site. 33/4: 16 ARCHAEOLOGY BRANCH Simon Fraser University-Secwepemc Education Institute. 33/ Archaeology Branch Changes, from the Ministry of Sustain 4:14-15 able Resource Management. 33/2:21 *The Seymour Valley Archaeology Project. 33/2:2-6 Debitage. 33/2:20 *The Tsleil-Waututh First Nation Community Archaeology ARCHAEOLOGY PERMITS Project. 33/1 :10-11 Permits Issued by the Archaeology Branch, January to May FIRST NATIONS 2001. 3311: 15-18; May to August 2001. 33/2:12-18; August *The Pinto Flats Site. 33/4:10-12 to October 2001. 33/3; 17-20; August to December 2001. 33/ *The Tsleil-Waututh First Nation Community Archaeology 4:18-20 Project. 33/1:10-11 ART HISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY *Archaeological Investigations at the Yellow Rock (Chrome *The Seymour Valley Archaeology Project. 33/2:2-6 Island) Petroglyph Site. 33/1:2-8 Book Review: Nuu-chah-nulth Voices, Histories, Objects and LINGU1STICS Journeys, edited by Alan L. Hoover. 33/4:17 *Hoko River: A Review of Lithic, Linguistic, Ethnographic, Debitage. 3311:11 and Basketry Evidence for Ethnicity. 33/3:8-13 Exhibits. 33/4:21 *Wapato in Katzie Traditional Territory. 33/4:2-9 BASKETRY MusEUMS Exhibits. 33/1:21 Debitage. 3311:11; 33/1:14; 33/2:20; 33/3:16 *Hoko River: A Review of Lithic, Linguistic, Ethnographic, Exhibits. 33/1:21; 33/4:21 and Basketry Evidence for Ethnicity. 33/3:8-13 NOTICES BooK REVIEws Conferences 2001. 33/1:22; Conferences 2002. 33/1:21 ; 33/ Cultural Evolution: Contemporary Viewpoints, edited by Gary 4:21-22; Conferences. 33/2:22; 33/3:21-22 M. Feinman and Linda Manzanilla. 33/2:9 Nanaimo Lectures. 33/2:19 The Midden 34/1 23 0BITIJARIES *Katherine Capes: Remembering A Women of Distinction. 33/ 3:14 eMIDDEN PETROGLYPHS *Archaeological Investigations at the Yellow Rock (Chrome Island) Petroglyph Site. 33/1:2-8 PuBUCATIONS We need a news editor to compile *A Selection of Phil Hohler's Publications 1967-2000. 33/3:6-7 information on archaeological Recent Publications. 33/2:18 conferences, lectures, exhibits, courses, SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY 2002 Archaeological Field Schools. 33/4:12-13 and related archaeological news items. Debitage. 33/2:11; 33/3:16; 33/4:9 *Philp Hohler and SFU. 33/3:2-5 If you are interested in assisting with Secwepemc Education Institute-Simon Fraser University. 33/1:9 the production of the ASBC's quarterly SFU 2001 Field Season at the Salloomt Site. 33/4:16 Simon Fraser University. 33/1:9 publication please contact Heather Simon Fraser University, Douglas College, and Coast Herit Myles, Midden Editor, for more age Consultants. 33/1:8 Simon Fraser University-Secwepemc Education Institute. 33/ information. 4:14-15 *The Tsleil-Waututh First Nation Community Archaeology Phone 604-274-4294 or e-mail Project. 33/1 :10-11 heathermyles@ shaw. ca. SITES Antiquus Archaeological Consultants Ltd. 33/4:13-14 Areas Consulting Archeologists Ltd. 33/1:13 *Archaeological Investigations at the Yellow Rock (Chrome Island) Petroglyph Site. 33/1:2-8 A Tale of Two Sites: Book Review: Exploring Coast Salish Prehistory: The Archaeology of SanJuan Island, by Julie K. Stein. 33/2:9-11 Douglas College and Coast Heritage Consulting. 33/4:15 Golder Associates Ltd. 33/1:12 *Hoko River: A Review of Lithic, Linguistic, Ethnographic, and Basketry Evidence for Ethnicity. 33/3:8-13 SFU 2001 Field Season at the Salloomt Site. 33/4:16 Simon Fraser University, Douglas College, and Coast Herit- age Consultants. 33/1:8 *The Pinto Flats Site. 33/4:10-12 *The Seymour Valley Archaeology Project. 33/2:2-6 *The Tsleil-Waututh First Nation Community Archaeology EXIllBITS Project. 33/1: 10-11 THE MIDDEN Annual Index to The Midden Vol. 32, 2000. 33/1:19-20 VANCOUVER MUSEUM Debitage. 33/1: 14 "Yuquot: The Centre of Our World" UNDERWATER ARcHAEOLOGICAL SociETY OF BC Lectures. 33/3:21 Through 29 October 2002 UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Yuquot, on the west coast of Vancouver Island, is the 2002 Archaeological Field Schools. 33/4:12-13 home of the Mowachaht-Muchalaht First Nations peo Debitage. 33/2: 11 ple. "The Centre of Our World" exhibits the rich his University o:( British Columbia. 33/1 :9 tory of the Mowachaht-Muchalaht First Nations peo UNIVERSITY OF VICTORIA ple through their own eyes. Historic artifacts including 2002 Archaeological Field Schools. 33/4:12-13 Debitage. 33/2:20; 33/4:9 masks, ceremonial rattles, and clothing are only a few University of Victoria and Parks Canada. 33/4:15 items featured in this exhibition. For more informa tion contact the Vancouver Museum at 604.736.4431 or check out their Web site: 24 The Midden 34/1 CONFERENCES 2002 October 23-26 BC Museum Association's (BCMA)Conference 2002, "Negotiating the Changing Landscape" Vancouver, BC The BCMA's 46'" Annual Conference will explore the current economic, political, and social changes that are sweeping the provincial landscape and re-shaping how communities, cultural institutions, and workplaces must adapt to continue to preserve and promote heritage values. Proposed sessions include: Sustainability: Landmarks for Success; The Pillar of Your Community: Your Community Profile; Tourism-Our Way; Youth and Volunteerism: Experience that Counts; Core Competencies: Next Steps; and Heritage as Core Curriculum: Steering Towards the Future. Contact: Lesley Moore, Conference 2002 Coordinator, British Columbia Museums Association, Suite 204, 26 Bastion Square, Victoria, BC, V8W 1H9; voice mail: 250.356.5856; e-mail: November 13-17 35'" Annual Chacmool Conference, "Apocalypse Then & Now" Calgary, Alberta The 35~' Annual Chacmool Conference is a conference about archaeology and wor~d ' s ends. The focus is on how our discipline deals with disasters (both natural and human-caused), and other world-ending crises. Potential topics include: Megafauna Extinctions; Disasters of Biblical Proportions; Interpersonal Violence in the Past; Archaeology & the Art of War; Emerging & Re-emerging Infectious Diseases: Implications for Human Variation; Broken Vessels: The Archaeology of Shipwrecks; Apocalyptic Themes in the Classical World: The Archaeology of Invasion; Natural Calamities; Challenging Thirst: Drought as a Factor in Human and Landscape History; Archaeology of Pompeii; Exploring Death and Disease through GIS; Physiology of Starvation & Famine; Eruptions and Interruptions: Human Impacts of Volcanoes; The Maya Collapse; Post Apocalyptic Archaeology: Recovering from Collapse; Indigenous Perspectives on the End of the World; Physical Anthropology & Archaeology: Responses to Modern Disasters; and Open Sessions for Individually Submitted Papers. In keeping with the conference theme, the plenary speakers will speak on topics inspired by the Four Horseman of the Apocalypse. Confirmed speakers include Fekri Hassan, Ann Herring, Phillip Walker, and Joseph Tainter. The.after-dinner speaker at the Saturday banquet is renowned author and broadcaster Ronald Wright. Undergraduate and Master's students are invited to submit their papers for consideration for the Bea Loveseth Award. This is a $200 prize made in memory of Bea Loveseth, a former President of Chacmool. Papers must be submitted to the Selection Committee no later than November I". Contact: Session topics and abstracts, Larry Steinbrenner, Program Chait; e-mail: November 20-24 101'1 Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association (AAA) New Orleans, Louisiana, USA The theme for the 2002 Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, entitled "(Un)lmaginable Futures: Anthropology Faces the Next I 00 Years," looks ahead to anthropology's engagement within the next 100 years. The meeting's organizers anticipate sessions on a broad array of topics. Information about key note speakers and presentation highlights will be posted on the Society's Web site this autumn. Contact: AAA Meetings office, 4350 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 640, Arlington, VA, USA., 22203-1620; tel. 703.528.1902 ext. 3025; fax 703. 528.3596; e-mail: Conferences 2003 on outside cover >> CONFERENCES 2003 Aprill-5 Wet Site Connections- Linking Indigenous Histories, Archaeology, and the Public Olympia, Washington, USA The Wetland Archaeology Research Project (WARP) is an intern~tional conference about waterlogged archaeological sites. The conference will emphasize how wet sites bring the interests of indigenous peoples, scientists (including conservators, archaeologists, flo ral /fauna analysts, etc.,), and the general public together with mutual objectives-to preserve, study, and present the waterlogged perishable artifacts not normally found in less preserved archaeological contexts. Conference acti vi ties will include workshops, presentations of the latest and ongoing wet sites research around the world, field trips to the Squaxin Island Tribe/SPSCC wet site at Qwu?gwes, visits to the new Squaxin Island Tribe Museum Library and Research Center, optional field trips to the Makah Cultural and Research Center museums featuring the Ozette Village wet site materials, and visits to other regional wet sites. Contact: Dr. Dale R. Croes, WARP Conference Coordinat01; Anthropology, South Puget Sound Community College, 2011 Mottoman Road SW, Olympia, Washington, 98512-3872, USA .; tel. 360.754.77JJ extension 5336; fax 360.664.0780; e-mail: BC ARCHAEOLOGY FORUM 2002 OCTOBER 25-27, NANAIMO, BC The ll •h Annual BC Archaeology fo rum will be hosted by Snuneymuxw First Nation and the Department of Anthropology, Malaspina Uni versity-College in Nanaimo. Registration takes place on Friday evening, October 11 25' • The meetings will be held on Saturday with the morning devoted to "show and tell" projects, and three panel discussions in the afternoon. There is a salmon dinner on Saturday evening, and a guided tour of the Gabriola Island petroglyphs is planned for Sunday morning. Contact: Gay Frederick ------·