Antonio Vivaldi, Che Hanno Successo in Tutta Europa

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Antonio Vivaldi, Che Hanno Successo in Tutta Europa Front_Storia_091 22-01-2007 14:37 Pagina 91 Storia della musica U1_Medioevo_092-106 22-01-2007 14:47 Pagina 92 La musica musicaè nata con l’uomo enell’antichità si è man mano trasformata dove musiche e danze hanno lo scopo di glorificare Dio. insieme ai cambiamenti che riguardano tutta la cultura Il re Davide stesso fu un grande musicista e poeta. umana. Per i popoli antichi la musica aveva un carattere Sempre la Bibbia ci documenta l’impiego di strumenti sacro, perché era considerata di origine magica o divina e quali flauti, trombe, cimbali (specie di piatti di metallo rappresentava la “voce” della natura (mare, alberi, vento). percossi l’uno contro l’altro). Tuttavia, della musica antica non abbiamo alcuna testi- monianza scritta, perché una scrittura musicale simile a I GRECI quella di oggi fu inventata solo nel Medioevo. Prima esi- Testimonianze maggiori sull’importanza della musica ci stevano forse sistemi di trascrizione andati perduti, op- sono giunte invece per quanto riguarda la civiltà greca: pure la musica veniva tramandata oralmente. Possiamo alla teoria musicale si interessarono, oltre ai musicisti, immaginare come potevano essere le musiche dei popoli anche poeti e matematici. La scrittura musicale dei antichi soltanto vedendo le raffigurazioni degli strumen- Greci, basata non sulle note ma sulle lettere dell’alfabe- ti musicali che venivano utilizzati. to, è la più antica di cui abbiamo traccia. Per i Greci la parola musiché (da cui deriva «musica») indicava un insieme di danza, poesia e musica. GLI EGIZI E I POPOLI DELLA MESOPOTAMIA La fusione di musica e poesia è testimoniata dai due fa- Molti dipinti, affreschi, graffiti e bassorilievi ci forniscono mosi poemi omerici Iliade e Odissea, in cui si descrive una testimonianza dell’attività musicale presso gli Egizi come i cantori si accompagnassero con uno strumento a (civiltà che fiorì tra il 3000 e il 1075 a.C.). La musica do- corde chiamato lira. veva avere un ruolo importante nella vita di questo popo- Oltre alla lira e alla cetra (altro strumento a corde, con cas- lo: era certamente presente nelle cerimonie civili e religio- sa armonica in legno), i Greci utilizzavano arpe e flauti. 92 se, nei cortei funebri, nei banchetti, nelle feste alla corte La musica era presente anche nelle rappresentazioni tea- del faraone. Anche in guerra la musica trovava un suo spa- trali: nelle tragedie un coro aveva la funzione di narratore. zio, utilizzata per incitare i soldati al combattimento. Uno strumento molto usato era l’arpa, che aveva diverse GLI ETRUSCHI E I ROMANI forme e un numero variabile di corde. Esistevano poi Anche gli Etruschi amavano molto la musica, com’è do- tamburi, liuti e flauti di varie dimensioni. In guerra era- cumentato dai numerosi affreschi che ritraggono suona- no utilizzati strumenti a percussione e a fiato. tori di lira e di flauti, e la utilizzavano in particolare per Anche presso i popoli della Mesopotamia (regione del allietare i banchetti e per accompagnare le danze. Medio Oriente abitata, tra il 4500 e il 1100 a.C., da Assiri, Presso i Romani invece, popolo di guerrieri e conquista- Babilonesi e Sumeri) la musica aveva certamente una tori, gli strumenti musicali più utilizzati erano quelli a grande importanza nelle cerimonie e in guerra, com’è te- fiato, come la buccina e la tuba, che servivano come se- stimoniato dalle raffigurazioni sui bassorilievi dell’epoca. gnali in battaglia e per accompagnare le celebrazioni del- le vittorie militari. GLI EBREI Nella vita quotidiana, non mancavano comunque mo- Non abbiamo invece nessuna immagine degli strumenti menti musicali per allietare i banchetti o per solennizza- musicali conosciuti dagli antichi Ebrei, che abitarono la re le cerimonie religiose. Palestina fra il 2000 a.C. e il 70 d.C. Tuttavia, la Bibbia, Molto diversa fu invece la musica delle prime comunità il loro libro sacro, descrive situazioni in cui la musica è cristiane: si rifaceva agli antichi salmi ebraici e alla sca- protagonista: si tratta soprattutto di cerimonie religiose, la della musica greca. U1_Medioevo_092-106 22-01-2007 14:47 Pagina 93 UNITÀ Il Medioevo obiettivi • Conoscere le principali caratteristiche della musica medievale • Analizzare le principali forme di 1musica sacra e profana del periodo (canto gregoriano, polifonia, danze) • Distinguere, in brani esemplari, i caratteri che ne consentono l’attribuzione storica al Medioevo • Individuare rapporti tra musica e altri linguaggi • Approfondire le funzioni sociali della musica nel Medioevo IL CONTESTO quella del cavaliere, che combatte al servizio del suo si- Il Medioevo è un lungo periodo storico che inizia nel 476 gnore. In una società così divisa e frammentata il senti- d.C. con la caduta dell’Impero romano d’Occidente e ter- mento religioso è l’unico valore condiviso. Nascono nu- mina con la scoperta dell’America nel 1492. Nei primi merosi monasteri che, grazie alle loro attività agricole e secoli dell’Alto Medioevo (che va dal 476 al 1000 d.C.) artigianali, sono comunità autosufficienti. I monasteri ri- l’Europa è sconvolta dalle invasioni barbariche e le con- mangono le uniche sedi della cultura medievale. La dizioni di vita sono molto difficili: epidemie e carestie Chiesa acquista una grande autorità anche nei confronti decimano le popolazioni e le città cadono in rovina. Il ve- dei sovrani. nir meno del sistema di comunicazioni romano causa una Nel Basso Medioevo, dopo l’anno Mille, la situazione diminuzione dei commerci e limita gli scambi culturali. migliora. Grazie all’invenzione di nuovi attrezzi, la pro- Soltanto alla fine del IX secolo, gran parte dell’Europa duzione agricola aumenta. I commerci riprendono e fa- 93 ritrova un governo unitario sotto la guida di Carlo voriscono la rinascita delle città, abitate soprattutto da Magno. Alla sua morte, il Sacro Romano Impero da lui artigiani e commercianti. Con la ripresa economica, ri- fondato si disgrega e si forma la società feudale: i sovra- nasce anche l’interesse per la cultura. Presso le nuove ni concedono ai loro sudditi più potenti un territorio (il scuole cittadine e le corti rifiorisce la produzione lettera- feudo) su cui possono imporre tasse e amministrare la ria. L’arte, che è soprattutto religiosa, subisce un grande giustizia. Questi vivono in castelli fortificati e hanno mi- impulso: vengono costruite importanti cattedrali negli lizie organizzate. Una figura importante del Medioevo è stili romanico (XI-XII sec.) e gotico (XII-XV sec.). U1_Medioevo_092-106 22-01-2007 14:47 Pagina 94 I luoghi e gli strumenti Musica nelle chiese e nei castelli Nel Medioevo la vita quotidiana è immersa nel silenzio: poco intensa che fa appena intravedere i rari ornamenti le voci delle persone, i versi degli animali, i rumori degli presenti. attrezzi degli artigiani e dei contadini sono probabilmen- Dal secolo XII si costruiscono imponenti cattedrali, in te gli unici suoni che rompono il silenzio. La musica si stile gotico, che si sviluppano in altezza, a sottolineare lo sente solamente in chiesa e nei monasteri, nei castelli e slancio del fedele verso Dio. In questi grandiosi edifici nelle piazze durante le feste. anche i canti hanno un aspetto più ricco e sono caratteriz- Poche testimonianze di musica medievale sono giunte fi- zati da più melodie, che vengono eseguite contemporanea- no a noi perché la scrittura musicale, che ha permesso mente secondo il nascente stile polifonico (vedi p. 102). di conservare e tramandare i brani, nasce soltanto intor- Nei castelli, invece, la musica serve a intrattenere i nobi- no all’anno Mille: prima le melodie venivano tramandate li nei loro momenti di riposo (dalle guerre o dalla caccia) oralmente. e di svago. Menestrelli (musicisti al servizio di un signo- Nei monasteri, i monaci intonano canti che scandiscono re) e giullari (musicisti girovaghi) cantano e suonano i momenti della giornata riservati alla preghiera e alla li- brani di raffinati compositori (trovatori). turgia. Anche in chiesa, durante le cerimonie religiose, Tra i contadini nei villaggi, tra gli artigiani e i commer- vengono eseguiti canti in lingua latina e privi di accom- cianti nelle piazze delle città, le occasioni per fare musica pagnamento strumentale. sono i matrimoni, i battesimi, la fine di una guerra, la fe- Le chiese sono edifici semplici e austeri, con muri spes- sta del raccolto, della vendemmia, ecc. In queste occasioni si di pietra o mattoni. Le scarse finestre danno una luce la musica preferita è quella che accompagna le danze. 94 A sinistra: danze al castello in una miniatura inglese del XV secolo. In basso: canto sacro eseguito da monaci e fanciulli in una miniatura del Basso Medioevo. U1_Medioevo_092-106 22-01-2007 14:47 Pagina 95 Il Medioevo Strumenti per accompagnare la voce La musica medievale è molto legata al canto e gli strumenti vengono utilizzati principalmen- te per accompagnare la voce. Gli strumenti musicali non sono molto raffinati e spesso presentano notevoli limiti tecnici e d’intona- zione. Perfezionati nei secoli successivi fino a dare luogo a nuovi strumenti, quelli medievali sono poco conosciuti perché caduti in disuso da secoli. Tra gli strumenti a corda maggiormente im- piegati nel Medioevo troviamo la viella, la ghironda e la ribeca, utilizzati in particolare per accompagnare la voce o la danza. La viella (detta anche fidula), di origine bi- zantina, è uno strumento a corde con cassa ar- monica a fondo piatto di forma ovale. Le cin- que corde vengono strofinate da un arco tenendo lo strumento appoggiato sul petto. Può essere considerato l’antenato del violino. La ghironda è uno strumento molto parti- colare dotato di una ruota che, azionata da una manovella, sfrega le corde. Molto utiliz- 95 zata nei secoli XI e XII nella musica popola- Suonatori di viella (in alto), arpa triangolare, liuto, salterio (in basso re, in seguito cade in disuso.
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