average of the county population projections as financed by State Off-Highway Vehicle follows “Greensticker”funds Additional developments areplannedwth theimplementation ofthe 1989 Local Counties 50% Winter OHV Management Plan. SacramentoNuba City Area 30% Rest of California 20% Dispersed Recreation As population increases and emphasis on developed recreation facilities Table 3-15 shows estimated future recreation decreases, increased dispersed recreation is ex- use for each Recreation Opportunity Spectrum pected. It is difficult to predict the trends in (ROS) Class According to these projections, developed recreation demand will exceed supply specific dispersed reereation activities; however, by the middle of the third decade Total devel- maintaining a range of recreational opportuni- oped recreation (public and pnvate) capacity is ties through the Recreation Opportunity Spec- 1,055,000 RVD’s while projected fourth decade trum (ROW should help meet the varied recre- use is 1,155,900 RVD’s Until then, existing ation needs of the future developed recreation facilities are assumed to meet demand Recreation Residences Because of the antici- pated demand for water-onented recreation in On high use weekends, it will not be possible to the future, continued occupancy of waterfront meet peak demand at the more desirable devel- reereation residence lots will need to be moni- oped facilities Recreation users can be encour- tored. For this planning cycle, use of the major- aged to use facilities not traditionally full. Tem- ity of the 400 recreation residences is expected to porary overflow sites can also be provided, or continue additional capacity on high demand sites can be built 16. SENSITIVE “Pnvate developed recreation under Forest Ser- PLANTS nee permit is included wth “public developed” for total recreation projections However, it will a. Introduction probably not grow substantially in relation to total developed recreation One reason is the Sensitive plant species are those native plants lackofnew capacity for recreation residences (53 listed as Sensitive by the Regonal Forester percent of private recreation) on Forest land This listing is based on the special management Indicators are static growth in organized sites emphasis needed to insure their viability and to (27 percent of pnvate use) and declining use for preclude the need for Federal or State listing as resorts and lodges (three percent of private use) Threatened or Endangered If private recreation does increase, the Forest wll consider increasing capacity on a site by site Public interest in Sensitive plants is based both basis on aesthetic appreciation and on the ecological pnnciple of “savmg all the pieces” Since these g. Trends species exist in small discrete populations, ex- cessive disturbance to their specialized habitats DevelopedRecreation Past reductions in capi- could cause extinction tal financing for recreation have reduced the emphasis on construction of new facilities for Because the Forest typically has large tracts of developed recreation Reductions in operation uniform habitat types, most plant species are and maintenance funds have provlded the impe- tus to explore concession operation of public wdely distnbuted Only twelve species that campgrounds by the pnvate sector The opera- have been designated as Sensitive by the Re- tion of the Eagle Lake campgrounds by a conces- gonal Forester are known to occur on the Forest sion is the first attempt at this (Orcuttza tenuis and Gratiola heterosepala are listed as Endangered by the State ) Their habi- With the recent increase in snowmobiling, the tats tend to be small and isolated and the plants Forest has improved snowmobile opportunities are normally sparsely distnbuted Therefore, by building parlung areas and warming huts populations ofthese species are easily overlooked

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-53 b. Populations Quincy lupine (Lupinus daleszae) is a yellow flowered lupine found in open, rocky soil in the The twelve Sensitive plant species that areknown Feather River drainage It is found near Yellow to occur on the Forest are: Creek on the Almanor Ranger Distnct

Arabzs constancez (Constance’s Rock Cress) Egg Lake monkeyflower (Mzmuluspygmaeus) Asplenium sepentrionale (Northern is a miniscule annual apparently restncted to Spleenwort) moist soil areas in meadows, along streams, and Calochortus longebarbatus var in drymg muddy pools on flats longebarbatus (Long haired star tulip) Eryngzum mathazszae (Mathias’ Coyote Closed throated beard tongue (Penstemon Thistle) personatus) is a perennial herb gromng on dry Gratzola heterosepala (Boggs Lake hedge- hillsides in fir and mixed conifer forests Popu- hyssop) - State Endangered lations are known on the southern boundary of Lupznus dalesiae (Quincy Lupine) the Forest. Mzmulus pygmaeus (Egg Lake monkeyflower) Slender Orcutt grass (Orcuttau tenuzs) is a Penstemon personatus (Closed throated member of the grass fanuly that grows in the beard tongue) beds of vernal pools on the northern portion of Orcuttza tenuzs (Slender Orcutt grass) - the Forest State Endangered Scheuchzerza palustrzs uar amerzcana American scheuchzeria (Scheuchzerza (Amencan scheuchzena) palustris uar amerzcana)is a perennial bog plant Sedum albomargznatum (Feather River last seen in California in 1897 and presumed stonecrop) extinct It was recently re-discovered on the Senecio eurycephalus uar lewzsrosez (Cut- Forest at Willow Lake and Doming0 Lake leafed butterweed) Feather River stonecrop (Sedum These species occupy specific and localized habi- albomorgznatum) grows on serpentine rock cliffs tats mthin the Forest near Yellow Creek

Constance’s rock cress (Arabzs constancez) Cut-leafed butterweed (Senecioeurycephalus grows in rocky serpentine areas near Yellow uar lewzsrosez)is a small perennial herb found m Creek the Yellow Creek area of the Almanor Ranger Distnct It is associated mth serpentme soils Northern spleenwort (Asplenium septentrzonale) grows on volcanic rock outcrops In addition to the twelve species known to occur, in and near Lassen Volcanic National Park 10 other plant species wth low population num- bers have a high probability of occumng on the Long-haired star tulip (Calochortus longe- Forest They are: barbatus) growsusually at themargmsof grassy meadows that are wet in spring and early sum- Stoloniferous pussy-toes (Antennarza mer and dry out completely in middle to late flagellarzs)grows in gravelly soil with low sage- summer brush just north of the Forest

Mathias’ coyote thistle (Eryngzum mathza- Wilkin’s harebell (Campanula wzlkmszana)has slue) grows in vernal pools and seasonally wet been sighted on private land surrounded by Las- drainages in the northern part of the Forest sen National Forest.

Bogg‘s Lake hedge-hyssop (Gratzola hetero- Talus collomia (Collomza debzlzs spp larsenzi) sepala) grows in vernal pools and reservoirs on is an alpine species with very few locations in the Hat Creek Ranger District California State California, including Lassen Volcanic National Endangered Park

3-54 Chapter 3-Aflected Environment Butte County fritillary (Frrtallarra In plannmgand implementing resource projects, eastwoodrae) is found in foothills from Butte to known locations of Sensitive plants are avoided Shasta Counties or effects are fully mitigated If a new Sensitive plant is encountered, it receives similar protec- Cantelow’s lewisia (Lewrsaa cantelowu) grows tion, as outlined in the Forest Semce Manual on wet granite cliffs or outcrops both north and (2670) and the R-5 Threatened and Endangered south of the Forest Program Handbook Bellinger’s meadowfoam (Lrmnanthesfloccosa d. Opportunities spp bellrngenana) grows in vernal pools and drainages, it has been collected near Lake Bnt- The Forest will conserve Sensitive plant popula- ton Taxonomy of this subspecies is uncertain tions by identifying their specific habitats and preventing their dmturbance or destruction The Stebbins’ monardella (Monardella stebbansrr) first step is to complete a comprehensive survey grows on serpentine soils; known from Yellow of all suitable and potential habitats Once the Creek and Feather River drainages populations of a plant are located, care can be taken to protect its habitat, and thereby insure Modoc County knotweed (Polygonum that the species remains in a viable condition If polygalordes spp esoterxum)grows in seasonally viability of a species is threatened, steps can be dry flats and pond basins in sagebrush and taken to protect or restore habitat or to otherwise juniper woodlands increase populations

Short petalled campion (Silene muasa) is The Forest can maintain Sensitive plant popula- known from the Tahoe, Plumas, Eldorado, tions if all planned timber sales and other projects Shasta-Tnnity, Stamslaus, and Toiyabe National continue to be assessed for Sensitive plants It Forests, and in Lassen Volcanic National Park. may also become necessary to modify existing grazing uses, proposed road locations, timber Salmon Mountains wakerobin (Trillrum harvest units, relocate burning unit boundanes, ouatum spp oetangerr) grows near wet or moist or other habitat disturbances The need for such drainages in mured comfer forestsjust northwest action, however, is likely only in occasional iso- of the Forest. lated situations

These plants occur on lands surrounding the Indimdual Sensitive plant management guides Lassen National Forest in similar habitats, so it mll be developed to aid in species’ conservation. is highly probable that they occurin theForest as well The Forest can improve its Sensitive plant program bymventorylngspecific habitat forthese species and providing protection to any newly 17. SOILS located populations. a. Introduction c. Population Status Soil is the basic resource that directly or indi- The California Native Plant Society, California rectly supports all other resources Soil produc- Natural Diversity Data Base, and Forest person- tivity is necessary for wood, forage, vegetation, nel have provided the Forest with up-to-date habitat, and watershed protection The soil information on known locations and distribu- serves as a growth medium for plants, filters tions of Sensitive plant populations However, biologxal and chemical substances, and regu- knowledge oftheir total abundance and manage- lates water transmission Various soil charac- ment needs is incomplete, since literature and teristics determine whether the soil is suitable field surveys have been done only in response to for such things as timber harvest, road construc- specific project proposals, and no comprehensive tion, facility construction, or range and wildlife Sensitive plant surveys have been completed It improvement projects is important that all existingpopulations ofthese plants be surveyed to fully assess their popula- Soil productiwty is defined as the capacity of the tion status and hstnbution soil, in a specific environment, to produce bio-

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-55 mass The factors that influence the productiv- Forexample, aBMPmayreqmre installingcross ity of the soil are: soil depth, texture, amount of ditches on skid trails The ditches divert water rock fragments, available water-holding capac- off the trail, to undisturbed sites beside the trail ity, nutrient status, duff layer, mineral tomcity, where the water’s energy is dissipated, thus pH, and soil organisms. Soil productivity is one preventing soil erosion offive envlronmentalfactors in deternnningover- all site productivlty Other envlronmental fac- The other type of action in current management tors are precipitation, aspect, slope, and eleva- for soils is provlding input into envlronmental tion analyses for ground-disturbmg projects. Graa- mg systems and timber harvests are designed to b. Current Management avoid or minimize soil compaction, soil erosion, stream sedimentation, and other types of dam- The goal of current management is to maintain age to the soil resource Clearcut blocks, roads, soil productivlty This requires avoiding man- skid trails, and landings receive careful atten- agement actions that would irreversibly impair tion in timber sale design and administration soil productivlty. Soil productivity is also moni- tored to detect significant changes caused by Specific practices the Forest applies to protect management actions In addition, current man- soils dunng timber sales include agement requres restonng or rehabilitating ar- eas where soils are degraded There is a backlog Designing and constructing roads to re- of such areas on the Forest duce erosion Locating skid trail to ”me compac- Areas of sod degradation are located on all Dis- tion in other areas tricts Some Forest soils have been degraded by Prohibiting tractors and requinng log three main causes erosion, soil compaction, and end-lining (yarding) in wet areas and loss of soil nutnents. The first of these is most creek beds to reduce erosion, compac- common. Site-specific locations of soil degrada- tion, and puddling tion will be determined when the Watershed Restricting tractors from cinder cones Improvement Needs (WIN)inventory is updated and from slopes steeper than 35 percent to reduce surface disturbance III the first decade. Loggmg steep slopes by cable or hehcop- An estimated 1,500 acres are in need of restora- ter to reduce erosion tion In recent years, annual restoration work has varied from 10 to 40 acres, the base year c. Soil Inventories restoration target was 15 acres The 1980 RPA targets were a “first apprommation” estimate of The Forest is covered by two soil resource inven- restoration needs which now appear to be inac- tories. That portion of the Forest in Tehama curate Present funding and staff limitations do County is covered by the Tehama County Soil not allow completion of the RPA projected work Survey (1967),an Order 2 survey. The balance (for example, 170 acres per year in the first of the Forest is covered by the Lassen National decade) Forest Soil Survey (1984) This was a medium- intensity (Order 3) survey which is suitable for Water Quality Management for National displaymg the general kinds and locations of Forest System Lands in California soils for broad planning purposes It is not swtable for project level planmngor design whch Current management for soils involves two types m11 reqmre that more detailed Order 2 invento- of actions The first is to adhere to Best Manage- ries be conducted at the project level. ment Practices (BMP’s) for water quality protec- tion In the process of protecting water quality, d. Types of Soils they also help to protect the soil resource. BMP’s for the Pacific Southwest ReDon are described in Based on the Forest Soil Survey, several obser- the document entitled Water Qualaty Manage- vations can be made regarding soil resources and ment for h’ational Forest System Lands an Cah- development Most of the Forest soils have fornaa (See Appendlx Q for a listing of BMPs) formed in weathered volcanic rock matenal

3-56 Chapter 3-Affected Environment Minor portions of the Forest have soils denved Least Productive The least productive soils from granitics, nonmanne sediments, metavol- are those shallow soils that occur generally be- canics, and metasediments Most of the Forest’s low 5,000 feet and on those miscellaneous land soils have hgh percentages of rock fragments types that occur at all elevations on the Forest. Depth to bedrock vanes wdely from shallow These soils range from somewhat poorly drained (less than 20 inches) to very deep (more than 60 to excessively drained and occur on all slopes inches), but in most areas it is moderately deep They generally have loam or sandy loam tex- to deep (20 to 60 inches) Over the eastern tures throughout Depth to bedrock is less than portion of the Forest the volcanic bedrock is 20 inches; very often more than 35 percent of the highly fractured This has a marked influence on soil is rock fragments Regeneration is often runoffandotherhydrologw charactensticsofthe unsuccessful because of difficult planting condi- overlymg soils. Water normally sinks directly to tions and low available water holding capacities. groundwater wth little overland runoff Timber Regeneration Timber regeneration is The soils on the Forest can be grouped into 12 one ofthe main concerns of soil management In generalized map units, each of which is a broad each of the very general soil groups listed in areamtha distinctive patternof soils, relief, and Table 3-16, there are soils that are easily regen- drainage. Each map unit therefore a unique is erated and others that are very difficult or im- natural landscape. Table 3-16 lists soil groups possible to regenerate The ability of the soil to made according to the 12 generalized map units regenerate can be broken down into at least two mentioned above. Although there are other soils found on the Forest, these soils are representa- parts plantability andsumvability Plantability tive ofthe more dominant soil types. Also shown concerns whether it is physically possible to put is the extent and productivlty of each soil group. a seedling into the soil Plantability depends The soils of the Forest differ wdely in their mainly on the amount of rock fragments present, productive capacity. but also on soil depth and slope Sumvability concerns the chances of the seedling sumving Most Productive The most productive soils after it has been planted. Many factors affect usually have large available water holding ca- seedling survival, but the major one is probably panties and usually lie in hgher precipitation the amount of soil moisture available for the zones. They are normally deeper and more finely plant compared to the plant’s water require- textured with fewer rock fragments These soils ments As the “water balance” approaches zero are well drained and typically occur on ndge or becomes negative, the chance of seedling sur- surfaces and canyon walls on slopes gentler than vival decreases A more detailed soil survey 35 percent. Loam or sandy loam textures are (Order 2) will be conducted to determine the found in the surface, with finer-textured sub- location and extent of the Forest’s soils hamng soils. Depth to bedrock is greaterthan 40 inches potential regeneration problems Timber regeneration usually succeeds on these soils, as they are relatively easy to plant and e. Soil Productivity seedling sumval rate is high. Soil productivlty can be affected by almost all Moderately Productive The next most pro- management activities; from timber harvest, to ductive soils are the moderately deep and stony livestock grazing, to recreational use of the land soils. These are well drained soils that occur on In order to determine changes in soil productiv- all land surfaces and on slopes up to 70 percent ity, soil quality standards (SQS)have been es- They have loam or sandy loam textures in the tablished Soil quality standards provlde thresh- surface and may have subsoils wth finer tex- old values beyond which further changes in soil tures Depth to bedrock is between 20 and 40 properties or conditions would result in signifi- inches and very often rock fragments make up cant change or impairment in the productive more than 35 percent of the soil Regeneration capacity, hydroloac function or enmronmental usually is successful, but more expensive be- health of the soil cause of difficult planting caused by the rock fragments Seedling survival rates are alsolower Significant change in the productivity of the compared to the deep soils because of lower land is indicated by changes in soil properties available water holding capacities. that are expected to result in about a 15 percent

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-57 Table 3-16 Forest Soils Soil Group Representative Soil Acres Percent Cu. FtlAcNr Families of Forest Timber Fronbcountry soils occurring Pass Canyon 22,740 2.0 20-40 below 5,000 feet Los Gabs 17,055 15 NA Lithic Haploxerdfs 15,918 1.4 15-30 Toomes 22,740 2.0 NA Guenoc 11,370 1.0 NA Keatmg 14,781 1.3 NA Ahtan 9,096 8 NA High elevation summer Aquolls 23,877 2 1 NA rangeland, above 5,000 feet ~~~~~~ll~20,466 18 NA Litluc Haploxerolls 13,644 1.2 NA Rouen 10,233 9 NA Low elevation, generally highly Holland 59,124 5.2 120-160 productive timber soils, Bobbitt 45,480 4.0 30-70 occurring below 5,200 feet skian 44,343 3 9 80-119 Washougal 13,644 1.2 50-84 Neer 12,507 1.1 85-119 Brownlee 11,370 1.0 25-49 Sadie 10,233 .9 ,85-119 Alice1 7,959 .7 50-80 High elevation, moderate to Sheld 81,864 7 2 70-119 highly productive timber soils Yallanl 68,220 6 0 100-150 above 5,200 feet Innlle 54,576 4 8 65-84 Portola 28,425 2 5 85-119 Wintoner 20,466 18 85-119 De Masters 19,329 17 70-100 Eastside pine soils above 5,200 Trojan 76,179 6.7 50-70 feet and of moderate Indle 88,686 7 8 60-80 productivlcy Klicker 57,987 5.1 50-85 Patio 55,713 4 9 50-65 Boomtown 28,425 2.5 NA Generally lugh elevation soils Xenc Durandepts 17,055 15 20-49 occumng on glaciated areas Qplc Xerorothents 10,233 9 85-119 and cinder cones Zynbar 6,822 .6 65-84 Generally high elevation soils Gerle 9,096 .8 65-84 occurring on the Diamond Mtn. sehentary 9,096 .8 50-84 and High Lakes areas Lithtc Ultic Argixerolls 4,548 4 NA Miscellaneous land types Lava Flow 68,220 6 0 NA occumng at all locations Rock Outcrop 22,740 2 0 NA Rubble Land 11,370 10 NA Lithic Xerumbrepts 5,685 5 NA Lithic Xerochrepts 5,685 5 NA NA = Not applicable because timber does not grow on these soils

3-58 Chapter 3-Affected Environment or more reduction in productive capacity over with raised berms are common evidence of pud- the planning honzon dling Compaction generally occurs when a load is applied to moist or dry soils The visual Significant impairment of the productivlty of the evidence of compaction is less obvlous than with land includes changes in soil properties that puddling, except in extreme cases Evidence of result in significant changes in the inherent compaction includes hard dense layers, platy productive capacity of the soil that extend be- structure and equipment-caused depressions yond the planning honzon without berms

Management activities can alter a vanety of soil Organic matter is the reservoir for short- and properties in varylng degrees which may or may long-term nutrient supply. It serves as habitat not have measurable effects on soil productivity for soil organisms which convert nutnents into Therefore, it is desirable to identify a few soil usable forms for plants Organic matter can also properties or conditions that can serve as indica- lessen adverse physical effects such as compac- tors of change in the productive capacity of the tion. Litter, duffand small woody material is the so11 pnmary sourceofnutnentreplenishment Large woody material provides hot summer survival Changes in the quantity and quality of soil cover, habitat for microorganisms, small animals and soil porosity and organic matter have beenlinked insects that convert nutnents into usable forms mth changes in the long-term soil productivity or spread nitrifymg bactena potential. Practical means are available to mea- sure or observe these soil properties or condi- Soil organic matter is mixed in the upper layers tions in the field. The condition of other soil of the soil It is associated with short-term properties can be inferred by the status of soil nutrient supply, soil water availability, soil ag- porosity and organic matter because of the inter- gregate stability, infiltration and resilience from relationships between soil properties. compression Management activities that result in piling or displacing soil have the greatest Soil porosityis used to reflect changes caused by effect on soil organic matter. compaction or puddling Organic matter is evalu- ated in three ways. as a part of soil cover for Soil quality standards apply to areas where erosion prevention, as source matenal for soil management prescriptions are applied, such as organism habitat for nutnent cycling; and as soil forest and range production areas The stan- organic matter to reflect nutnent status, soil dards do not apply to lands dedicated to other moisture supply, and other physical and chemi- cal properties uses, such as administrative sites and roads The follolnng threshold values have been set to determine the degree of detnmental soil distur- Soil cover provldes surface soil protection to prevent accelerated sheet and rill erosion rates bance At least 85 percent of the area dedicated from exceeding the rate of soil formation Soil to growing vegetation shall meet or exceed these cover can include litter, duff, loggmg slash, rock values fragments, living vegetation, or applied mulches such as straw and wood chips Soil couer is sufficient to prevent the rate of accelerated soil erosion from exceeding the Soil porosity refers to the amount of air space rate of soil formation The kind, amount and in the soil Soil compaction and puddling occur distnbution of soil cover necessary to avoid when larger pore spaces are reduced in size and detrimental accelerated soil erosion is guided the soil becomes more dense. The availability of by the Regon 5 Erosion Hazard Rating (EHR) water, air and nutnents to plant roots decreases system and locally adapted standard erosion as soil density increases. This is due to reduced models and measurements area that roots are able to penetrate and reduced air movement in the soil. This is especially Soilporoszty is at least 90 percent ofthe total important in dry summer areas such as the east porosity found under undisturbed or natural side of the Lassen Forest, where plants rely on conditions. Porosity is evaluated between stored moisture for growth Generally, puddling four and eight inches below the surface for occurs when a load is applied to wet soils Ruts soils with tree and shrub potential natural

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-59 communities; and between zero and four productivity, soil hydrologm function, or inches for soil with herbaceous potential the health of humans and animals natural plant communities Erosion Natural erosion occurs on most areas of Organic matter is present in amounts sufti- the Forest This erosion would occur even d cient to prevent significant short- or long- man’s activlties were absent. Natural erosion is term nutrient cycle deficits, and to help avoid caused by water and mnd While some sedimen- adverse physical soil charactenstics tation occurs from this erosion, the streams are usually able to transmit the sedimentation mth The kinds and amounts oforganic matter are no detrimental effects. Human-caused erosion is guided by the following and by local analy- usually associated mth a management aetivlty, ses principally timber harvestingandlivestockgraz- ing Erosion can generally be classified either as Soil organic matter in the upper twelve inches of soil is at least 85 percent of the sheet and rill erosion or as gully erosion Both total soil organic matter found under un- types are commonly associated with water move- disturbed or natural conditions ment and loss of the protective canopy cover and soil litter Excessive erosion can reduce the site Surface organic matter is present in the productivlty because the surface soil that con- following forms and amounts tains most of the necessary plant nutrients is eroded away first Excessive erosion can affect Litter and duff occurs over at least 50 off-site areas by increasing sediment in streams, percent of the area The minimum organic which harms fish life and water-dependent ac- layerthickness is determinedlocally andit tivities downstream Preventing soil erosion is is based on an amount sufficient to persist especially important because soil losses are irre- through mnter season storms and sum- versible on the scale of the human lifetime mer season oxidation. Human-caused erosion on the Forest can be prevented or controlled by the use of Best Man- Large woody matenal, when occurring in agement Practices The Forest has about 252,000 the forested area, is at least five logs per acres of soils mth a high erosion hazard rating acre in contact with the soil surface De- (EHR) The majonty of this area is highly erod- sired logs are about 20 inches (or larger) in ible due to steep slopes (over 35 percent), but diameter, abouttenfeet (ormore)inlength, some of it has erosive rhyolite soils or Eocene and represent the total range of decompo- non-manne sehments Metasedments, metavol- sition Logs in the latter stages of decom- camcs, granitics, and cinder cones can be erosive position must be protected from mechani- if water is concentrated. cal disturbance Large woody matenal requirements may be waived in strategc Compaction It is commonly accepted that soil fuel break areas compaction is occurnng on the Forest and that it affects plant growth In order to harvest timber, Soil moisture regime is unchanged where a certam amount of compaction is inevltable productivlty or potentialnatural plant com- munities are dependent upon specific soil Research is needed to further define the scope drainage classes and degree ofthe existingproblem. New sources of compaction also need to be analyzed, such as Soil hydrologic function Infiltration and biomass removal and loggmg on wet soils Based permeability are not reduced to ratings of on the research results, the Forest then needs to SIX or eight as defined in Regon 5 Erosion determine standards that define how much com- Hazard Rating system paction is acceptable

Soil environmental health Soil reaction The effects of soil erosion and compaction can be class, buffering or exchange capacities, or reduced by maintaining adequate vegetative biologcal populations are not altered to cover and by limiting loggmg on moist soils This the degree that significantly effects soil helps maintain soil productivlty not only directly

3-60 Chapter 3-Affected Envuonment by softenmg the impacts of precipitation, runoff, ia SPECIALAREAS temperature, and mnd, but also indirectly by returning organic matenal to the soil The Forest has four types of exlsting or potential special areas a) Expenmental Forests, b) Re- f: Trends and Opportunities search Natural Areas, c) National Natural Land- marks, and d) Special Interest Areas Demands are growing for forest products and amenities such as wood, water, forage, fish, wild- The “Special Area” category is a general and life, and recreation To meet these demands, informal one for some areas that the Forest continued production of goods and semces from Service has Dven special attention and manage- the limited land base is necessary This requires ment direction. maintaining the existing soil productivity and also improving the soil in degraded areas. It not a. Experimental Forests only increases the capability of the land to pro- duce, but also makes the Forest more aestheti- Introduction cally pleasing An expenmental forest is an outdoor laboratory set aside for purposes of research and develop- A complete survey is needed to identify and ment of forest management techniques The pnontize all areas on the Forest requinng resto- Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment ration A Watershed Improvement Needs (WIN) Station is responsible for the management of inventory is scheduled for completion during the experimental forests in the Reson. The Na- Plan decade Several areas have already been tional Forest in which the experimental forest identified, and there is an opportunity to con- lies is responsible forimplementingthe Station’s tinue to add new projects to the inventory as they management direction for the expenmental for- are located est Because the Chief of the Forest Semce establishes experimental forests, decisions to In addtion to restonng detenorated soils, there establish or abolish them do not lie with the are opportunities to improve soils that are not Forest Supervisor or Regional Forester There- damaged They include both artificial fertiliza- fore, this Forest planning process does not con- tion, and natural fertilization (e.g., leavlng bio- sider any change in the status of expenmental mass matenal on the ground to decay and return forests nutnents to the soil) Currently, artificial fertili- zation is not widely done on the Forest White fir stands usually respond to artificial fertilization Blacks Mountain and Swain Mountain Of the As opportunities anse, these stands should be nine expenmental forests in the ReDon, two are sampled to determine if there is a nutnent defi- located on the Forest The Blacks Mountain ciency. At this time, the full extent of the possi- Expenmental Forest covers 10,252 acres of the bilities to increase production through fertihza- eastside pine type on the Eagle Lake Ranger tion are not known. District. The timber gromng site is relatively good for the type The Swain Mountain Experi- g. Data Reliability mental Forest covers about 6,000 acres of the true fir type on the Almanor Ranger Distnct The soils data were obtained pnmanly from the The timber growing site is above average for the Forest Soil Resource Inventory. Its reliability is type. limited for project planning because it had 40- 100 acre mapping units, low sampling rate, and Within the Blacks Mountain Experimental For- areas where ground-chechng was not feasible. est are 521 acres in five small parcels which Reliability of the Tehama County survey within constitute a Research Natural Area (RNA) The the Forest is limited for project planningby a low RNA is to remain in a natural condition for sampling rate and large areas not ground- baseline and research purposes. Outside the checked The Tehama County portion of the RNA, much ofthe Experimental Forest is under- Forest is being rechecked for accuracy and reli- going timber harvesting under vanous silvlcul- ability as projects occur in that area tural systems.

Chapter 3 -Aflected Environment 3-61 Essentially, expenmental forests are established Forest Management Act (NFMA) regulations and managed entirely for research purposes, whch direct that the Forest planningprocess recom- means they are withdrawn from sustained timber mend new RNA’s for establishment to meet production Each expenmental forest is managed the needs of research, ecologxal study, and under a long range plan for operation (approved in education Forest personnel mll identify ex- 1980 for Blacks Mountain and 1979 for Swain amples of important forest, shrubland, grass- Mountain) land, alpine, aquatic, and geologic types that have special or unique characteristics of scien- tific interest and importance, and that are b. Research Natural Areas (RNA’s) needed to complete the national network of RNA’s (36 CFR 219 25) Through the plan- Introduction ning process each Forest mll recommend es- ResearchNatural Areas (RNA’s) are areas set aside tablishment of new RNA’s to the Chief of the in perpetuity as baselines of natural ecologxal Forest Semcefor the physiographc provmce(s) conditions. They are established by the Chiefofthe in which it lies Most of the Lassen National Forest Semce for several reasons: (1)to contnbute Forest lies mthin the Cascade Range prov- to the preservation of examples of all significant ince The ReDonal and Forest planningissues natural ecosystems for purposes of research and also reflect pubhc interest in recommending ecoloBcal study; (2) to provlde gene pools; and (3) estabhshment ofadditionalRNA’sbythe Chef. where appropriate, to protect habitats of rare and endangered species of plants and animals (FSM Existing RNA’s Table 3-17 shows the re- 4063 R-5 Supplement 3) Nationally, the Forest search natural areas on the Forest that have Semce has a partial network of research natural been established by the Chief, in addition to areas with typical and/or unique charactenstics of those areas that are being recommended by scientific interest and importance The National the Forest Plan

Existing and Candidate Research Natural Areas Area Biotic Type/ Unique Size Ranger Distnet Features (acres) Existing RNAs Blacks Mountain Intenor Ponderosa Pine 471 Eagle Lake (4 areas) Open Sagebrush 50 EagleLake (1 area) Cub Creek Mlxed Conifer Almanor

Total 4,443 Candidate RNA’s Graham Pmery Pacfic Pondersa Pine 660 Almanor

Green Island Lake Bog 1,210 Almanor Indian Creek Blue OaW Digger Pine 3,890 Almanor Mayfield Knobeone PineJGeology 980 HatCreek Soda Ridge White Rr 1,295 Almanor Timbered Crater Modoc Cypress HatCreek Total 9,812

3-62 Chapter 3-Affected Environment Candidate RNA's The Forest has six candidate Soda Ridge The north-facing slope offers an RNA's, see Table 3-17. excellent example of mature white fir forest Its mosaic of stands represents different succes- Evaluation studies have not been completed for sional stages and fire histories, and provides all candidate RNA's Candidates are still eli@ble excellent study opportunities into the relation- for RNA status and, therefore, are also constant ships between fire history and stand develop- in all alternatives except CUR One area, Devil's ment It lies between 4,500 and 6,000 feet eleva- Parade Ground, was analyzed hy the Reaon and tion in the Southern Cascades province It is subsequently dropped from consideration be- relatively remote, natural, and free of resource cause it inadequately represented the target conflicts element Appendix F summanzes the RNA evaluation. The areas are Timbered Crater The rugged lava flow terrain is vegetated mth a ponderosa pine forest that in- Graham Pinery This terrace drops off into Deer cludes Modoc cypress and knobcone pine North- Creek and nearby canyons The pinery is an ern basalt flow vernal pools with unusual plant isolated park-like stand of ponderosa pines and species are also present Timbered Crater is oaks surrounded by a dense fnnge of small black accessible byroad and lies at 3,600 feet elevation oaks It lies at 2,320 to 2,810 feet in the Southern on the Modoc Plateau Applications have been Cascade province, is remote and difficult to ac- filed in the area for geothermal exploration cess. Graham Pinery was burned by the Finley Fire in 1990, and a replacement RNA for this Deuil's Parade Ground This area has been ana- target element will be sought lyzed by the Reaon and recommended as unsuit- able for further RNA consideration because it Green Island Lake This basin includes three poorly represents the black oak type This rug- small lakes in different stages of lakehogl ged canyon-cut area consists ofnorth-facingblack meadow succession, and a seasonal meadowl oak stands along lower Deer Creek The black pond The slopes surrounding the meadows are oak type is not continuous, but is intermixed red fir forest blending into montane chaparral with blue oak, digger pine, and fnnged by mixed and nparian deciduous vegetation Opportuni- conifer Anglers use a trail in the area to reach ties are abundant for research into lake-meadow Deer Creek, but off-trail use is very minor It lies succession, lodgepole-red fir succession, aquatic at about 2,400 feet elevation in the Southern insects, etc The area lies at about 6,000 feet Cascade provlnce elevation of the Southern Cascades provmce, and has poor access, and therefore remains in Until final selection and approval of RNA's by natural condition the Reaonal Forester and Chief, the Forest will manage all candidate areas to maintain their Indran Creek This drainage in the foothills has inherent qualities An aquatic communities RNA diverse vegetation communities including good target system is being developed by the ReDon blue oakldigger pine stands and annual grass- The ReDon has deferred development of a geo- lands It is remote and easily protected from loac RNA target system. Further inventory and outside influences. It lies between 2,000 and investigation is needed into the significance of 3,000 feet elevation in the Southern Cascades paleontolog.lcal and geologx sites on the Forest province e. National Natural Landmarks Mayfield Located in rough, flat lava flows at the remote northern border ofthe Forest, the area is Introduction The National Natural Landmarks forested wth knobcone pine and ponderosa pine (NNL)program was established to (1)encourage The lava flows offer distinctive geologx features, the preservation of sites illustrating the geoloa- including a mde spectrum ofvolcanic structures cal and ecologxal character ofthe United States, The area lies at 3,800 feet elevation on the Modoc (2) enhance the educational and scientific value Plateau A low-standard road allows access and of the site thus preserved, and (3)foster a greater occasional hunter use, but there are no resource concern in the conservation of the Nation's heri- conflicts. tage

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-63 "T. Process The National Park Service con- Landmarks. The seven that appear eligible for ducts theme studies to identify potential sites NNL recommendation are listed in Table 3-18. A that appear to meet the cnteria for natural summary of each follows landmarks Four general natural history themes are used to select areas: (1) Landforms of the Bogard Buttes The area is an unusual, distinc- Present, (2) Geologxal History of the Earth, (3) tive alignment of at least 18 cinder cones It Land Ecosystems, and (4) Aquatic Ecosystems covers 5,120 acres northeast of Lassen Volcanic Forest planning direction is to recommend to the National Park Few other places in North National Park Servlce areas to be nominated to America have so many cones aligned over such a the National RegistryofNatural Landmarks In long distance Some road building, cinder min- the Forest Plan or outside it, the Forest Supervi- ing, and loggmg has altered the natural ground sor can recommend sites to the USDI National surface Park Service that represent a diversity of the nation's environment according to the four Deep Hole The area is a symmetrical pit crater formed by the collapse of andesite lava It covers themes. After evaluation by the National Park about 100 acres just west of Lassen Volcanic Semce, the Secretary of the Intenor can then National Park It represents one of the few good approve the Forest Semce recommendations pit craters outside Hawaii, with the possible exception of Lava Beds National Monument Once an area is designated as a National Natural Landmark, the Reponal Forester and Forest Deud's Parade Ground The black oakvegetation Supervisor take the appropnate steps to protect type is intermixed with stands ofblue oak, digger the important features Provlded the integrity of pine, and fringe medconifer The area covers the landmark is protected, no restrictions are 710 acresjust east ofthe Ishi Wilderness Natu- placed on managmg the site under the multiple ral integrity is high as there is little visitation of use concept the rugged area

Potential "L's Appendix G summarizes the Eagle Lake Area The second-largest natural evaluation of the potential National Natural lake entirely mthin California, Eagle Lake is a

Table 3-18

Potential National Natural Landmarks Area Feature Size Ranger (acres) District

Bogard Buttes Aligned cinder cones 5,120 Eagle Lake

Deep Hole Pit crater 100 Hat Creek

Devll's Parade Ground Black oak vegetation 710 Almanor type

Eagle Lake Multiple features 40,280 Eagle Lake

Hat Creek Valley Volcanism and 7,700 Hat Creek faulting

Murken Bench Volcanism and 43,737 Hat Creek faulting

Red Lake Mountain Rare quartz-basalt 4,942 Hat Creek

Total 102,589

3-64 Chapter 3-Affected Environment unique and envlronmentally sensitive place. The will be managed as such until action by the area offers numerous and varied physical and Secretary of Intenor biologwal features: the junction of four physi- ographic provmces, the junction of several eco- d. Special Interest Areas logxal types, key habitat for bald eagles and ospreys, key waterfowl habitat, and the Eagle Introduction Special interest areas (SIA's)are Lake trout The area lies on the northeastern broadly defined to include areas of unusual or edge of the Forest and covers 40,280 acres of outstanding botanical, aquatic, scenic, geologx, National Forest land within the Eagle Lake zoologwal, paleontoloacal, cultural, or other Planning Area, which also includes pnvate land unique charactenstics that may ment special and Bureau of Land Management land Roads, attention and management campgrounds, mannas, buildings, and other de- velopments are located on Forest lands, and SIA Process Forest planning direction is to timber harvesting has occurred. The lake and identify potential SIA's and establish qualified tnbutary streams are hghly important and sen- ones in the Forest Plan for approval by the sitive resources ReBonal Forester There are many areas on the Forest that may be appropriate for SIA status. Hat Creek Valley The southern part of the valley Many potential areas have been initially identi- offers an abundance and vanety of structural fied Screeningto the final candidate list is based and volcanic features that illustrate the interre- on (1)uniqueness and relative significance, and lationships between the two The 7,700 acre umt (2) special management need. Potential SIA's lies just north of Lassen Volcanic National Park can be considered for RNA designation, requir- and includes fault scarps, lava flows, lava tubes, iug nomination by the Reaonal Forester and ice caves, cinder cones, etc Two State highways approval by the Chief of the Forest Semce. cross the area, and severalNationa1 Forest camp- grounds lie along Hat Creek Once they are classified (established) by the Reaonal Forester, SIA's are managed to protect Murken Bench Porbons of the Hat Creek valley their unique resources and, where appropnate, provide excellent examples of faulting, volcan- to foster their public use and enjoyment The ism, and their interrelationships in uneroded Forest manages each formally designated area volcanic terrain Features include lava flows, through a specific special interest area plan. cinder cones, lava tubes, and tectonic features These plans will be developed to protect the such as faults, fault blocks, and fault scarps. The special features for which the area has been area covers 43,737 acres in Hat Creek Valley, designated They will not lnclude development north of Lassen Volcanic National Park. Some and use of other resources such as timber har- developments such as dirt roads, powerlines, vesting, livestock grazing, or mining The SIA and recreation facilities have been built within plan would be prepared after Forest Plan ap- the area. proval

Red Lake Mountain The unusual features oftwo Potential SIA's The supply of potential SIA's is relatively incompatible minerals (quartz and oli- gradually decreasing as man's activities alter vme) occurnng in the same basaltic rock make scenic and undisturbed scientific qualities of the area highly unusual The area covers 4,942 many areas Of the many potential sites sug acresjust west of LassenVolcanic National Park gested by Forest personnel and the public, and The forested portions are commercial timber subsequently analyzed, approximately 60 areas land that has been logged, but the geologwal were identified as havingsignificant values They aspects are unaffectedbycontinuingtimberman- fall into five categories zooloacal, botanical/ agement aquatic, geologq cultural, and scenic Appendix H summarizes the evaluation of the potential Any area recommended to the National Park SIA's on the Forest The great majority were Semce in the Forest Plan for NNL designation found to not meet the minimum criteria for SWs

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-65 (FSM 2360) The 14 that appear eliGble for SIA High Lakes This mountainous region offers classification are in Table 3-19. scenic mews ofhigh Sierrameadows Old growth forests cover the bottom of a deep canyon and A summary of each area follows blend into rocky granitic slopes. It marks the intersection of the basaltic southern Cascades Black Rock Black Rock is an intrusive basaltic and the granitic Northern Sierra Glacial lakes, plug exposed by erosion It serves as a distinctive stnations, cirques and other features are com- symmetrical landmark several hundred feet tall mon. A total of 17,054 acres are included near Its location at the bottom ofthe deep Mill Creek the southern boundary of the Forest Some dirt Canyon is unusual, forcing the creek to flow roads, jeep roads, mines, and campsites mark around it in a picturesque waterfall Black Rock the area The area is used for OHV recreation occupies about 15 acres Roads and a camp- ground are nearby HomerlDeerheart Lakes The area is a row of three scenic glacial cirque lakes, each of a differ- Crater Lake A small 40-acre lake located inside ent color and each in its own separate basin the caldera near the top of a shield volcano, They are perched on a steep escarpment mark- Crater Lake is an uncommon geologc feature. ingthenorthernedge ofthe SierraNevada which The basin covers 200 acres in the east-central is vlsiblefor long distances to thenorth Cultural part of the Forest. A dirt road leads to the lake, values include Homer Lake and Keddie Ridge in with a small campground at the end of the road which is moderately popular to Table 3-19 campers and anglers Potential Special Interest Areas Deep Hole Crater See National Natural Feature Size Raneer Landmarks, above. jacres) Diatnct

Deer Creek Surrounding the proposed Black Rock Geolopc 15 Almanor Wild and ScenicRivercorndor, theDeer Creek area has attractive canyon scen- Crater Lake Geologlc 200 Eagle Lake ery and interesting eroded mudflow ge- Deep Hole Ge o 1 o c 100 HatCreek ology The cliffs, bluffs, spires, and caves a in the Tuscan formation are of scenic Deer Creek Geologw 14,108 Almanor and geologx interest The area covers 14,108 acres of land in the southwest- Diamond Scenic 5,399 Eagle Lake central part of the Forest Mountain Eagle Lake ScenidGeologx 40,280 Eagle Lake Diamond Mountarn This distinctive fault-scarp mountain range marks the Hat Creek Valley ZoologdBotanic 7,700 Hat Creek GeologdScenic northeastern most extent of the Sierra Nevada range It forms a scenic back- High Lakes ScenidGeolopc 17,054 Almanor drop for the city of Susanville, a popula- tion center of about 10,000 The 5,399 Homermeerheart ScenidCultural 1,480 Eagle Lake acre mountainside lies on the eastern Lake Britton Cultural 600 HatCreek edge of the Forest, and has been only hghtly marked by timber harvesting and Montgomely Creek Botanic 20 HatCreek road building Murken Botanic 380 HatCreek Eagle Lake Area See National Natural Landmarks, above Rock Creek Falls Scenic 10 HatCreek Willow Lake Bog AquaticlBotanic 110 Almanor Hat Creek Valley See National Natural __ Landmarks. above Total 87,456

3-66 Chapter 3-Affected Environment local Native Amencan legend The 1,480 acre stock grazing on the shoreline and angler tram- unit is unroaded and has one scenic hiking trail phngon the bog itself It covers 110 acres oflake linking the lakes and nearby land just south of Lassen Volcanic National Park Lake Brztton Lymgwithin a National Regxter of Histonc Places Distnct, the 600 acre unit con- tains important information on Native Ameri- 19. TIMBER can cultures not available elsewhere Lake ero- sion and vandalism are damagmg some cultural a. Introduction properties Damage from diatomite mining can be mitigated in the plan of operations process The Lassen is known as a timbered Forest About Lake Britton is one of the most important cnl- 73 percent of it is forested mth commercial tural resource areas on the Forest. conifers, while 770,110 acres(68 percent)isavail- able and tentatively suitable for timber produc- Montgomery Creek Grove A small, high-site tion "Available" denotes land that is not set stand of nnxed-conifer old growth that includes aside as wilderness, expenmental forests, or very large Douglas-fir trees, this area is a rem- research natural areas "Tentatively smtable" nant of a forest type that is becoming increas- indicates that regeneration of the timber is pos- ingly rare as loggmg continues to liquidate old sible on the land stands Pnstme conditions prevail in this 20- acre natural area lymg along the western bound- Forest Land Description The forested land is ary of the Forest dinded into four major timber types mured conifer, eastside pine, red fir, and lodgepole pine. Murken Area An isolated area of westside foot- hill vegetation combines with Great Basin veg- The mured conifer type occupies 57 percent ofthe etation to create a 380 acre site ofgreat botanical productive land It consists of a murture of white diversity. It encompasses part of Murken Bench, fir, ponderodJeffrey pine, Douglas-fir, sugar the Hat Creek Rim, part of the flat above the pine, incense cedar, hardwoods, and other spe- Rim, and a small vernal pool sagebrush flat cies. This type is found on the west slope of the Westside Digger pine, Oregon oak, buckbrush, Cascade and SierraNevadaranges between 3,000 and redbud grow intermingled with eastside mountain mahogany, sagebrush, bitterbrush, and and 5,500 feet elevation, and also on the Forest's Idaho fescue. Western juniper and ponderosa/ east side on north-facing slopes Jeffrey pine are the main conifers The eastside pine type occupies 29 percent of the Rock Creek Falls This two-tiered waterfall in a forested land and is located in the northeastern portion of the Forest Ponderosa and Jeffrey pine deep, rocky canyon is small, but scenic Lyng along the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail in are the predominant species mth some white fir, the dry northwest corner of the Forest, it covers incense cedar, and lodgepole pine Two other 10acres and has a cool swimming hole atits base timber types are limited m acreage, but are It is popular with campers, but its rocky sur- important components of the timber resource. roundings presenre its natural condition and One, the red fir type, occupies 10 percent of the scenic appearance. productive land and is found at the higher eleva- tions, usually above 6,500 feet. The other type, Willow Lake Bog The scenic lake contains an lodgepole pine, occupies four percent of the pro- unusual floatingbogthat serves as aplatformfor ductive land and is found on wetter sites at at least two rare plant species, English sundew middle and higher elevations (Drosera anglzca) and Amencan scheuchzeria (Scheuchzeria palustris americana) The Size Class Distribution The size distribution Scheuchzeria is a plant last seen in 1897, and of suitable Forest timber is not in an even, or was believed to be extinct in California until its regulated, condition The current distnbution rediscovery in the bog in August 1988 This shows a preponderance in the pole and small perennial plant has been added to the Reeon's sawtimber size classes, and relatively less in the Sensitive Plant List Such lakes as Willow Lake smallest and the larger size classes, as shown in are relatively rare, and this one receives hve- Table 3-20

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-67 Table 3-20 small openmgs created by tree mortality or har- vest Planned harvests consist mostly of salvage Timber Size Class Distribution ofmortality and removaloftrees thathave avery high nsk of dymg mthin a few years

Size Approx Approx Percent Timber stands on poorly-stocked land, about five Category Diameter Age of Comfer Range Range Land percent of the forested land, have low density (years) and slow growth These stands are on the east side of the Forest Artificial regeneration on Seedlings, these sites can be expected to be successful in Sapling 0-5 0-30 4 aclnevmg the Regon's minimum stocking stan- dards, but may requre one or more replantmgs Poles 5-11" 30-60 19 Planned harvests consist mainly of salvage and sanitation intermediate cuts Small Sawtimber 11-24 60-120 55 Past Management Timber harvesting on the Medium- Forest began in the eastside pine type m the Large early 1900's Radroad access was relatively Sawtimber >24 120+ 19 easy, and pine was preferred by the loggmg companies The early sales were large The first Two-Stoned significant one was a multi-year sale sold in 1917 Stands Mured Mlxed 3 that contained a volume of about 220 million board feet-greater than the Forest's entire an- nual harvest today Harvesting on the west side Suitability Classes Under the current timber of the Forest in the mixed conlfer type did not plan, forested land is divlded into three intensi- begm until the early 1940's The Lake Almanor ties of management full, modified, and limited area had its first commercial timber sale in 1957 The lands suitable for full or modified timber management (about 80 percent of the sultablc Various methods of partial cutting were used on land) can be regenerated artificially or naturally early timber sales to remove mature and over- to achieve or exceed minimum stocking stan- mature high-nsk trees that othermse would dards Because of this ability to regenerate and have died The conversion to even-aged manage- the desirability of reproducing shade-intolerant ment began with approval of the Forest's first species such as ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir, Timber Management Plan by the Chief of the even-aged regeneration cutting methods have Forest Semce in 1960 Harvest methods in this been found appropnate They include clearcut- plan included small clearcuts, overstory removal, ting, seed tree, and shelterwood cutting Further intermediate harvest to improve stand condi- discussion on silvlcultural systems may be found tion, and modified harvesting where full timber in Appendix 0 Intermediate cutting methods production would conflict with other resource are also used, such as commercial thinning in objectives The allowable annual cut was 166 6 immature stands, and sanitation harvests in million board feet (MMBF) matue stands The ongmal average annual sell volume under The land available for hmited timber manage- the current Timber Management Plan (1976- ment (about 20 percent of the tentatively suit- 1985)is 179 MMBF This figure was amended to able forested land) is (1)too rocky to be regener- 175 5 MMBF in 1978, and was based on expecta- ated artificially following an even-aged regen- tions of high yleld regeneration cutting. Poten- eration cut, (2) poorly-stocked eastside pine, or tial yleld in the standard component was the (3) areas devoted primarily to other resources fifth highest in the Regon Sale size has ranged These lands are sometimes referred to as mar- from under 100,000 board feet to over 35 million gmal lands On rocky land, sites generally re- board feet. Both the prevlous and the current generate naturally over a long period of time (30 Rmber Management Plans recognized that ex- years or more) as plant succession proceeds in tensive regeneration in the future was necessary

~ ~ 3-68 Chapter 3-Affected Environment tosustainahighlevelofharvest. Smce 1985, the and reduced susceptibility to insects and dis- Forest has moved toward regenerating acres ease Presently most TSI on the Forest is thin- called for in the second decade of the 1975 Tim- ning by mechanical sheanng Release treat- ber Management Plan. ments to suppress competingvegetation in young plantations is expected to increase in the near Logging Systems Tractor loggmg is by far the future most common technique because most of the Forest is relatively flat Tractor loggmg is suit- Even-Aged Management Long range harvest able for slopes up to about 35 percent, or 20 schedules of the 1960 and 1975Timber Manage- percent on cinder cones. Cable loggmg is being ment Plans were based on even-aged manage- used more often as harvests extend into the ment Regenerationtechmquesuhlizingclearcut, steeper, more remote parts of the Forest Heh- shelterwood, and overstory removal are even- copterloggmgis usedin therelativelyinfrequent aged management Until recently, most of the cases where both tractor and cable loggmg would regeneration on the Forest consisted of overstory be prohibited by physical or environmental ob- removal Many stands which have had repeated stacles, or by economic considerations intermediate sanitation harvests in the past are now in need of regeneration Regeneration Regeneration of trees is achieved by both natural and artificial methods Artificial Commercial Thinning In recent years, com- regeneration is used mainly on lands that are mercial thinxnngs of overstocked stands has be- sultable for full and modified timber manage- come more commonplace Commercial thinnings ment and where the pnmary objective is timber have been conducted to promote the growth and production. The planting stock conforms, as a vigor of the wild stands minimum, to theBaseLevelProgramofthe 1976 Tree Improvement Master Plan for the Califor- Sustained Yield; Non-Declining Flow Long- ma Region. This is a program to maintain the term sustained yleld capacity is defined as the genetic base and quality of all forest land whle highest wood yleldfromlands beingmanagedfor strivlng for gains in volume growth of up to 10 timber production that may be sustained under percent. a specifiedmanagement intensity consistent wth multiple use objectives The pnnciple of non- Harvesting prior to this Forest Plan has caused declimng flow is that the harvest level planned stands in some areas to be understocked, but it for a future decade is equal to or greater than the has not damaged the productive potential of the harvest level planned for a preceding decade and land itself. The 1975 Timber Management Plan thatthe harvestlevelofany decadeisnotgreater made these stands high prionties for regenera- than the long-term sustained yleld capacity tion. Other stands which are poorly stocked due to fires or pests are also high pnonty for regen- Harvest levels are calculated based on a Forest- eration nnde sustained yeld unit rather than on smaller sustained yleld sub-units of the Forest This is Site Preparation After a regeneration harvest because the Forest, as a whole, has a wider or in brush conversion projects, the land must be variation in age classes and stocking levels than cleared and prepared for seedling planting or any subunit. This allows faster conversion of natural seeding. Site preparation is done by existing timber stands to a regulated forest con- prescnbed burning, mechanical means, chemi- dition. cal means, or a combination of those techniques Mechanical site preparation, the most common, Herbicides Aerial application of herbicides on usually consists of tractor piling or windrowing the Forest for plantation site preparation or Brush crushing is sometimes done as a prehmi- release began in 1965 Spraylng was done each nary to broadcast bunnng. year from 1965 through 1971, with a total of 10,000 acres sprayed. No spraylng has been Timber Stand Improvement Timber stand done since 1978 In March 1989, the Pacific improvement (TSI)consists ofboth the suppress- Southwest Reson of the USDA Forest Service ing of competing vegetation and the thinning of issued a Final EIS for Vegetatzon Management young stands. The benefits are increased vlgor for Reforestatzon The EIS assumes a full range

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-69 of vegetation management methods for refores- timber inventory Table 3-22 shows the inven- tation and hmber stand improvement. On the tory volumes as well as area and growth for each Forest, as throughout Califorma and the west- timber strata ern states, appeals and court cases have delayed proposed herbicide projects If this continues, The Forest supplies timber to about 15 local timber ylelds ofregenerated stands will decrease mlls, helping satisfy reBonal and national de- and costs of vegetative management (site prepa- mand for lumber and associated wood products ration and release) mll increase On the Forest, Each year nearly all of the Forest's timber is mechanical and hand cutting ofbrush and scalp- processed in the impact counties. From 1961 to ing started in 1980 and has continued smce 1970,1477 million board feet of tmber (MMBF) were harvested from Forest land, for an average Christmas Trees Chnstmas trees are a usable of 148 MMBF per year Volumes harvested product that comes from surplus trees These generally increased each year, ranging from a surplus trees are foundin saplmgand polestands low of 66 MMBF in 1961to a high of 240 MMBF that need thinning or in the form of unsaveable in 1969 In 1970, the harvested volume dropped small trees under a sawtimber overstory The to 164 MMBF number of trees sold by commercial Chnstmas tree sales has been relatively steady over the last From 1970 through 1990, an average of 174 several years Personal use penmts have been MMBF per year has been harvested from the sold for 13 years on the Hat Creek Distnct and Forest Harvested volumes have fluctuated con- SLX years on the Almanor and Eagle Lake Dis- siderably, reflecting demand Volumes range tricts Demand is unpredictable, but has risen from a low of 88 MMBF for 1982 to a lngh of 244 sharply in recent years and seems to be mflu- MMBF for 1986 As a result of the depressed enced mostly by accessibility due to weather timber market dunng the early 1980%harvest conditions Christmas tree sales in recent years volumes declined In 1982 harvested volume are shown in Table 3-21 dropped to 88 MMBF, representmg 9 4 percent of the harvest in the state There has been a ~ generaldeclinein harvestedvolumes since 1986 Table 3-21 In 1990, the harvest volume was 147 MMBF Christmas Tree Sales Harvested and sold volumes from 1961 to 1989 are &splayed in Figure 3-14

As shown, each year's sale volume does not equal Year No of Sold No of Sold the cut volume This happens mainly because Permits Vdue 11 Permits Value 21 National Forest timber does not have to be har- 1987 15,185 75,925 2,451 6,582 vested in the same year it is sold Consequently, 1988 20,649 103,245 4,647 18,910 when demand for lumber and wood products is down, purchasers refrain from harvesting the 1989 21,123 105,615 3,837 17,546 timber until demand increases or a sale nears its 1990 21,209 106,045 4,400 33,826 termination date 1991 13,180 105,442 2,047 10,551 The supply of timber from National Forests is not considered responsive to price since the amount oftimber offered is set by agency policies that generally do not consider current or ex- pected future pnce The amount of timber of- fered for sale by a National Forest, however, mll have an impact on the local and regional price b. Supply (Haynes 1981) This relationship cannot be &- rectly observed because National Forests con- According to the latest timber inventory (1980), tribute only a portion of the total quantity sup- the Forest has approximately 11 4 billion board plied in each reBon, and it is total quantity that feet of standing timber on tentatively suitable establishes reBonal pnces How much of an acres This is roughly unchanged from the 1970 impact any particular Forest's offerings have on

3-70 Chapter 3-Affected Environment Table 3-22 II Timber Area and Volume -Area Total Volume (Estimated) Major nmber Acres Suitable Acres Suitable Total MMBF MMCF nmber Stratum Full mmber Limited Acres Toe a/ Management nmber b/ Management b/ M M3G 162,610 30,034 212,644 3,277 500 Mwed Coder M3P 73,367 40,944 114,311 775 121 M4G 45,786 9,598 55,384 2,037 317 M4P 16,645 6,753 23,398 464 73 M6 14,095 3,429 17,524 387 58 MlX 12.343 961 J&j@ Unestimated Unestimated Total 344,846 91,719 436,565 6,940 1,069

P P2G 103,966 10,158 114,144 872 135 Eastside fine P4G 22,897 4,737 27,634 336 51 P4P 18,196 4,163 22,359 185 28 P6 4,851 756 5,607 48 7 PIX 13,538 1,651 15,189 Unestimated Unestimated P2P 22,931 8,015 30,946 184 28 P4S 2 8.187 -41 -6 Total 186,3 9 9 37,667 224,066 1,666 256

R R3G 33,554 4,521 38,075 1,319 206 Red Fir R3P 14,059 14,479 28,538 360 56 R4G 8,301 720 9,021 470 74 R4P 1.864 -400 2.264 3 -13 57,778 20,120 77,898 2,234 349

L LPX 29,461 2,120 31,581 514 84 Lodgepole Plne Total 618,484 151,626 770,110 11,354 1,758

a/ A nmber Stratum is a two or three-character code representing Timber Type, Size Class, and Density Class Characters are defined as follows nmber Tvoe Size Classes (Crown Diameter] Densitv Classes (Crown Cover) M-Mued Conifer 1-Seedlings and saplmgs (0-5 feet) G-Good Stocking (40%-100%) P-Eastside Plne %Pole timber (6-12 feet) P-Poor Stochng (20%-40%) RRed Rr 3-Small sawtimber (13-24 feet) S-Sparse Stocking (0%-20%) LP-Lodgepole Plne 4-Large sawtimber (over 25 feet) X-All Density Classes 6-Two-stoned stand (sawtimber over poles) b/ Acres listed are potential values Altemative constraints cause full timber management and limited timber management acres to fluctuate

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-71 regonal pnce depends on its relative contnbu- demand, high-value tree species, and low logging tion to the total supply in the reDon costs Demand is high because nnll capacity in the local area is about three times the Forest’s e. Demand annual sell volume, leading to highly competi- tive bidding on most sales. Private timber lands As discussed, most of the timber harvested from cannot significantly meet demand because most the Forest is processed in mills withm Lassen, have young growth stands that are not ready for Plumas, Shasta, and Tehama counties. The harvest The high value tree species are pon- resulting finished products are used to satisfy derosdJeffrey pine and sugar pine, which make regional and, to a lesser extent, national de- up about 25 percent of the Forest inventory and mands. command higher pnces than the firs This is especially true of old growth pine. Pine lumber The demand for timber is denved from the de- goes to many uses other than new home con- mand for wood products. The major wood prod- struction and thus is less affected by the current uct markets include housing, nonresidential con- slump in that industry Loggng costs are low struction, manufactunng, and shipping (pallets, because most of the Forest has easy to moderate containers, etc 1 Over the next 50 years these terrain, few stream crossings, and extensive road markets are expected to place greater demands networks. on timber markets (USDA Forest Semce 1981) The combination of hgh value timber, high de- In 1982, there were 15 mills in the impact area, mand, and low loggmg costs all contnbute to with a combined eight-hour milling capacity of very high bids for Forest timber sales Sales 2.94 million board feet of finished lumber The typically sell for several times more than the annual milling capacity vanes by the number of advertised rates Annual timber sale receipts eight hour shifts per week that each mill runs have typically totaled two to three hundred per- In 1976, the 15 mills produced a total of about cent of the entire Forest budget. 905 2 million board feet (Hiserote and Howard 1976) There are currently 18 mills in the Even in this healthy timber market, the possi- impact area with an annual production of 871 bility exlsts for inclmidual timber sales to be MMBF sold below cost Such sales would be very infrequent and would be sold only if it was The bid value of timber on the Forest has been determined that the multiple use benefits ex- among the highest in the ReGon for several ceeded the potential dollar losses. years. The main reasons are high industry

Figure 3-14 Timber Volume Sold and Harvested, 1961-1990 (Millions of Board Feet) 250

200

150

100

50

1111111111111111 1961 1965 1969 1973 1977 1981 1985 1989 ISource Forest Annual Haruest and Sold Reports

3-72 Chapter 3-Affected Environment How much each mill operates in the future unll termingled among these vegetation types are depend on the health of the economy in general, 12,000 acres of npanan habitat Figure 3-15 the strength ofthe major timber product markets shows the proportion of each formation. They are in particular, and the availability of timber sup- based on, although not identical to, CAIVEG plies. Formation Classes (USDAForest Semce 1981b).

Based on past experience and future projections, The following sections descnbe the vegetation it is reasonable to assume that all timber offered formations and their constituent habitat types for sale by the Forest wll be bought and pro- It also descnbes resource uses and values, and cessed As discussed, however, mcreasmg the available improvement opportunities and tech- Forest's timber offenngs would have only a slight niques downward effect on timber prices, and decreas- ing the offenngs would have only a slight upward Conifer Forest Most of the Lassen consists of effect Thm relationshp can be appromated by conifer forest, which includes four major habitat a timber price that stays constant for each quan- types: red fir, mlxed conifer, eastside pine, and tity offered, and is expressed by a honzontal lodgepole pine. Specific information on these

I demandcurve. types is found in the Timber section of this chap- ter The red fir type is dominated by red fir, but also includes minor amounts of western white 20. VEGETATION pine and mountain hemlock Relatively little AND logging or other disturbance has occurred in this DIVERSITY type The main species in the mixed conifer type are white fir; ponderosa, Jeffrey, and sugar pines, a. Vegetation Douglas-fir; and incense cedar. Vegetation in the mxed conifer type has been altered by logging In addition to the commercial conifer forest chs- and by fire suppression, which have increased cussed under the nmber section, the Forest con- the proportion of white fir Eastside pine, con- tains substantial amounts of other vegetation sisting mainly of ponderosa and Jeffrey pine, at types These types may be classified into broad one time had open park-like stands but today is classes on the Forest, including western juniper much more dense. Fire suppression and loggmg and noncommercial conifers, hardwoods, chapar- have resulted in growth of pine and white fir ral, sagebrush, and herbaceous vegetation. In- thickets and a decrease in bitterbrush and Idaho

~ Figure 3-15

Vegetation Types: CALVEG Formation Classes

Water &Barren 2.5%

Herbaceous 2.8%

Sagebrush 4.2% Percent of Forest Hardwoods

JuniperNon-Comm'l Conifers

Chaparral 7.6% 73.1% Conifer Forest I I I I""I""I~"'I'''~I 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% Source: Forest Data Base

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-73 fescue understories The lodgepole pme type aspen, also lack adequate regeneration. Exist- behaves as a seral (successional) type when es- ing stands are being eliminated by old age, and tablished by fire, but as a climax type when to a lesser extent by beavers, woodcutters, and adjacent to meadows and other wetter sites. livestock grazing These types can be perpetu- ated by applymg silvicultural treatments, pre- Western Juniper and Non-Commercial Co- scribed burnmg, and fencing where needed. nifers The westemjuniperhabitat typeusually occurs between the eastside pine and sagebrush Demand for hardwood and woodland types is types in the northern half of the Forest It often based on their values as hvestockforage, wildlife forms a sparse overstory above sagebrush. The habitat, watershed protection, fuelwood, and VI- non-commercial digger pine occupies dry, rocky sual quality. The State Board of Forestry recog- areas on the west side of the Forest, usually nized the potential effects of statewide demand below the elevation of commercial comfers A for hardwoods and appointed a Task Force in few scattered stands grow in the Fall River Mills- 1983 specifically to assess this problem. Many Hat Creek area. Knobcone pine is found on demands are not intensive on the Forest at thls similar sites, but only on the northernmost edge time, although the demand for hardwoods as . of the Forest. Juniper is cut for firewood, but firewood is very high in certain localized areas, neither digger nor knobcone pme has any com- particularly around Fall River Mills. Presently, mercial value at this time. the Forest does not allow cuttmg of hing oaks for firewood, except in a few instances to improve Hardwoods The Forest contains 13,000 acres mldlife habitat. For further information on ofblackoakhabitat type,36,000 acres ofblueoak hardwoods refer to the Wildlife section of this savannah, and 4,000 acres of Oregon white oak chapter Small acreages of maple-dogwood, cottonwood- alder, qualung aspen, and cottonwood communi- Chaparral Of the 86,000 total acres of chapar- ties also occur. ral, 33,000 are montane chaparral. This habitat type consists of med shrubs dominated by Black oak is found interspersed with the greenleaf manzanita Stands average appro=- wedgeleafceanothus, blue oak, and annual grass mately 70 acres, and range from small isolated types in the front country foothills (Deer, Mill, openings to units of over 1,000 acres. They are and Antelope Creek areas) and in the Pit River generally found above 3,000 feet scattered drainage. It also intermixes with the mixed throughout the conifer zone comfer type at lower elevations, and occasionally reaches elevations over 5,000 feet. Blue oak Montane chaparral stands do not have potential savannahmixesmththefoothlllchaparral,black to produce commercial timber Stands with oak, and annual grassland habitat types on the chaparral species that have such potential are western slope of the Forest between 500 and classified as either non-stocked or plantations, 3,000 feet Oregon white oak grows on low and are included within the timber type that is elevation slopes of the front country and along most common to the same kind of site. Montane the Pit fiver It is commonly associated mth chaparral often grows in small isolated patches hgger pine and annual grasslands, and occurs in and on very rocky and poor sites. both tree and shrub forms. The remaining hard- wood types are associated with riparian systems. Montane chaparral stands are important mainly in provlding erosion control, cover for wildlife, Hardwood types have been changed by a number and limited forage for wildlife and livestock of influences. fiesuppression has caused inva- Opportunities exist to bumor mechamcally treat sion of some black oak stands by conifers, espe- these areas to provide additional forage for live- cially w2te fir. This invasion increases the stock and unldlife, break up fuel continuity, and stands’ susceptibility to mldfire, and over time it enhance habitat diversity may lead to loss of oaks due to shading by coni- fers As in many areas in California, neither blue The foot211 chaparral habitat type consists pri- oaks nor whte oaks are reproducing success- marily ofwedgeleafceanothus, and covers 53,000 fully, some white oak stands are also stunted, acres of Forest land. It grows most commonly old, and dense Ripanan hardwoods, especially below 3,OOOfeet in the front country foothdls and

3-74 Chapter 3-AJfected Environment in the Pit River drainage. Wedgeleaf ceanothus sage, and 20,000 acres of bitterbrush. Basin stands are interspersed with blue oak savannah sagebrush is also the dominant understory plant and black oak types in western juniper stands Most of this vegeta- tion occurs on relatively flat topography in the Wedgeleaf ceanothus is adapted to fires every 15 northern and northeastern portions of the For- to 20 years Effective fire suppression has left est many of the stands of foothill chaparral older than 40 years and decadent This conhtion Much of the sagebrush type is less productive reduces the value of the stands for wldlife and than it was histoncally. As a result of heavy livestock, and greatly mcreases the potential for livestock grazing in the late 1800's -early 19OO's, an unnaturally intense wldfire and its undesir- the extent and density of sagebrush and the able impacts on soil and other resources introduced cheatgrass has increased, while den- sity of perennial grasses and forbs has declined The Foresthas recentlybegun burning wedgeleaf sharply Although sagebrush range manage- ceanothus wth prescnhed fire Burns have been ment is much improved, forage production still multi-agency efforts covering several hundred to remains below potential several thousand acres, including pnvate land and lands administered by other agencies Pre- Sagebrush is used mostly for livestock grazing scnbed burning of foothll chaparral offers op- and wildlife habitat. Herbage production on portunities to increase livestock forage, reduce certain sagebrush and juniper sites can be in- fire hazard, increase stream flow, and improve creased by prescribed burning, spraymg with wnter range for deer herds Burning improves herbicides, chaimng and plowng. Normally, these the quality and avsllability of new browse and techniques do not detnmentally affect water- develops better stands of grasses Prescnbed shed, fish, and wldlife values if treatments are burning restores a more natural vegetation mo- confined to flatter ground and small areas. Seed- saic that provides a better arrangement of both ing, planting, and deferment of grazmgfor one or forage and cover for wldhfe, and improves habi- two years after treatment is usually necessary to tat diversity. attain best results

Demand for chaparral management comes from Demand for such treatment is high because it both the pnvate and public sectors Ranchers increases livestock forage and habitat diversity want foothill chaparral burned to increase the Currently, the Forest seeds about 200 acres per amount and quality of livestock forage. They year. This rate could be increased substantially benefit from coordmating burning programs on Major drawbacks to such vegetative improve- public lands with burnmg on their ranches The ments are project costs, fencing costs, and the California Department of Fish and Game also need to eliminate grazing for one or two grazing cooperates on burns on their Tehama Wildlife seasons. Area and adjacent Forest lands They support a burning program to help meet long-term wnter Herbaceous Vegetation The annual grass- range objectives for the East Tehama and land, perennial grassland, and sedge-rush habi- McCloud Flats deer herds. Benefits currently tat types cover 6,000,10,000, and 16,000 Forest being denved from coordination are from site acres, respectively. Annual grasslands occur in specificprojects, however, thls coordinabon could the front country foothills and near the Pit River be formalized in coordinated resource manage- Perennial grasslands are interspersed through- ment plans. These plans would mcrease the out the forested portions of the Forest, and the benefits to a larger area, integrate all resources, sedge rush types grow in seasonal wetlands on be implemented in systematic manner, establish the northern and eastern portions of the Forest goals and commitments, and could include pri- vate, State and Federal lands. Presently, no Most of these areas are producing at full poten- such coordinated resource management plans tial and there is little opportunity to increase exlst on the Forest herbage production Resource coordination is needed, however, to insure that the vegetation Sagebrush The sagebrush type consists of condition improves or does not decline Addi- 26,000 acres of basin sage, 1,500 acres of low tional acres of herbaceous vegetation could be

Chapter 3 -Affected Envuonment 3-75 temporanly created by type conversion using 1. Rzchness The number of different kinds of prescribed burning, herbicide spraying, and species, communities, or special habitat elements mechanical treatment found in the planmng area.

Local demand is high for these areas because 2 Euenness The relative abundance of animals, they are some of the highest producers of Iive- habitat types, successional stages, and cover stock forage as well as one ofthe most productive classes within the planning area Evenness unldlife habitats For more information refer to descnbes the relative extent to which the propor- the Range section of this chapter. tional abundance of these elements is umform. b. Diversity of Plants and Animals 3. Pattern The sizes and structural complexity of stands of vegetation and the spatial distribu- tion of plants and animals withm the planning Diversity of plants and diversity of animals are area. closely related Species composition, age, size, and density of vegetation form major compo- Rzchness Plant community nchness can be rep- nents of animal habitat. Generally, a greater resented by the number of different Wildlife diversity of vegetation results m a greater diver- Habitat Relationshp (WHR) habitat types on sity of animals Thsrelationship betweenplants the Forest (Figure 3-16). This maybe referred to and ammals is the basis for the California Wild- as habitat type diversity The presence of 17 life Habitat Relationships Program maor habitat types on the Forest indicates that (Laudenslayer 1982). the Lassen is a diverse Forest which spans a large range of environmental conditions. This Diversity may be evaluated according to three diversity is also reflected in the richness of ani- components richness, evenness, and pattern, as mal species The Forest regularly supports 361 defined below. vertebrate species (listed in Appendix R). These include 24 species of amphibians and reptiles,

Figure 3-16 Vegetation Types: Wildlife Habitat Relationships WEIR)

Riparian Deciduous

Barren & Water Lodgepole Pine Montane Shrub

Wedgeleaf Ceanothus

Eastside Pine MIxed Conifer 0% 10% 20% 30% 40%

Source. Forest Data Base

3-76 Chapter 3-ABected Environment Figure 3-17

Conifer Forest Successional Stages and Canow Closure

Seral Stages

Grass Forbs Seedlings Hardwoods

I

Saplings ( < 11" DBH)

Poles and Small Trees Lodgepole Pine (11" to 24" DBH) I I I Medium-Large Trees ( > 24'' DBH) I I I I I Canopy Closure I Two-storied } 1j 10%-40% Stands (e.g. large st I trees above i seedlings or 40o/c-100% saplings) i ! I I I 1- i I l""""I""i"~'i"''l~~~~~ 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% Percent of Forest Area

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-77 224 species ofbirds, 84 species ofmammals, and past loggmg and fire management, younger 29 species offish. Species nchness has remained stands are more common m the pine type and in fslrly stable over the last 100 years, as only a few areas of slight to moderate relief; older aged spenes have become locally extirpated (1 e., ex- stands are mainly on steep terrain wihthe tinct in a local area) and several others have been rmxed conifer and red fir types. Sizes of stands successfully introduced created by fire vary widely; stands regenerated by logging are small, usually 5-30 acres. Evenness Evenness of both plant and animal communities can be approximated by the propor- In general, the plant and anlmal diversity on the tions of the Forest mthin each habitat type Forest is high. If present trends continue, habi- Figure 3-16 shows the proportions of the Forest tat for species that favor younger vegetation m m each vegetation type and provides a good both forest and shrub types will increase while estimate of evenness from a broad perspective. habitat for species most common in intermedi- This graph shows that a large majonty of the ate-aged and older vegetation unll decline The Forest (about 70 percent) is in the mixed conifer, Forest will continue to momtor all Threatened, eastside pine, and red fir vegetation types Endangered and Sensitive spenes to insure VI- Smaller, but mportant amounts of non-timber able populations contmue and Forest actions do vegetation occur. not exhrpate any species.

The indimdual vegetation types may be further categonzed based on plant size, density, and age 21. VISUAL RESOURCES to evaluate the evenness component of plant &versity at a finer scale. !%s is referred to as a. Introduction habitat stage diversity. In the comfer forest, there is a disproportionately greater share ofthe The vlsual resource is the physical appearance of Forest in very small trees (seral stage 2) and the Forest. A number of natural factors affect medmm sized trees (seral stage 3), and relatively the appearance of a particular area including few acres in stands with old large diameter trees slope, elevation, geology, soils, vegetation and (seral stage 4). See Figure 3-17 Animal species the abundance of water. The interrelationships that favor young timber stands, therefore, are of these factors IS the basis for dividing land into more abundant overall than species that are landscape provmces. The Lassen Forest is &- most abundant m old stands. As the relative vided into three dishnct landscape promces - abundance of old growth forest contmues to de- The Sierra Nevada landscape province, the Si- cline, animal species that favor old growth com- erra Foothill landscape provmce, and the North- munities will also decline. figure shows 3-17 east Volcanic landscape province. The southem- that the proportions of each canopy closure class (a measurement of density) are similar mthin most ten percent of the Forest is in the Sierra vanous tree size classes. The relative amounts of Nevada landscape province with its rugged gra- non-timber vegetation in various age classes are nitic mountains. This is typified by the High also an important aspect of habitat type diver- Lakes area. The westernmost ten percent of the sity. Considenng the major shrub types (sage- Forest lies in the SierraFoothill and Low Coastal brush and chaparral) as a group, the majority is Mountain landscape provmce, characterized by in older decadent age classes (83 percent) while low-elevation, steep-walled canyons, and chap- little is in young (8 percent) and intermediate (9 arral andgrassland vegetation. The Ishi Wilder- percent) ages. ness preserves a pnme example of this front country landscape. In sharp contrast, the re- Pattern The pattern aspect of diversity is diffi- mainder of the Forest is mthin the Northeast cult to quantify at the Forest level. Grasslands, Volcanic landscape province, a forested upland chaparral, and oakwoodlandsdommate the lower plateau. Dotted with shield and cone volcanoes, elevations. Eastside pine and sagebrush domi- faulted ndges, and lava flows, it supports east- nate the northeastern portion of the Forest, and side pine and mured conifer forests interspersed mixed comfer and true fir forests domnate at the with extensive rangelands. This landscape prov- mddle to high elevations. However, the distn- ince mcludes portions of the Modoc Plateau and bution of size and age classes mtlun these types the Southern Cascade Mountslns geomorphic is not easily described. In general, as a result of provlnces

3-78 Chapter 3-Affected Environment These general landscape types pronde the set- The development of concerns and social values tings for a variety of recreational actinties en- regarding the nsual resources, as endenced by joyed by Forest vlsitors and permanent resi- the number and scope of laws enacted, coupled dents. For example, the oak-dotted foothills and with the participation rate in associated recre- grasslands along Mill Creek are the setting for ational activities indicates a high demand for spnng hkmg and camping The shady canyon visual resources in the future dnve up Highway 32 along Deer Creek, a Wild and Scenic River candidate, draws travelers to c. Visual Resource Management its changmg natural vanety The Hat Creek Valley, conhed on one side by the stnking es- Because of public concern about the quality of carpment of the Hat Creek Rim and on the other the mual resource, a visual management sys- by volcamc peaks, frames a stnkmg new of tem has been established to help manage it The snow-clad Lassen Peak Hat Creek flows through nsual resources management program is based black lava beds, green meadows, and clear fish- on pnnciples descnbed in the Forest Sernce ing holes to empty mto the Pit River and Lake Visual Management Handbook This system Bntton. Along Highway 44, broad forested up- lands dotted wth volcanoes and flat rangelands prondes for the identification and classification reveal sweeping vlstas and a sense of openness of scenic quahty, as well as aesthetic concern for not common to forest lands in Callfornia Eagle that quahty. The system assists in determining quality objectives for the alteration of the vlsual Lake and Lake Almanor pronde cool relief from summer heat for recreatiomsts from all over the resource. Visual quahty objectives (VQO’s) are State The snow-capped faces ofDiamond Moun- established for every acre of National Forest land They are based on a combination of three tain and Keddie Ridge are bold backdrops for inventones inherent vlsual diversity of the Susannlle and Westwood The natural appear- ance of these landscapes contnbutes greatly to landscape (vanety class), the level of public con- cern for visual quality (sensitivlty level), and the their populanty and appeal area and distance at which the landscape is mewed (distance zone) The following descnbes b. Demand these basic components of the system

Demand for vlsual quality is difficult to measure Variety Class A major pnnciple of vlsual re- objectively, but it can be inferred from vanous source management is that the greater the natu- sources The number of laws and policies that ral vanety in landforms, water forms, and veg- consider aesthetics of the vlsual resource has etation, the greater the landscape’s appeal will increased significantly in the past decade and be The three vanety classes-distinctive, com- reflects public concern The California State mon, and nunimal-are evaluated according to Scenic Highways Master Plan recognizes High- &fferent cnteria for each landscape pronnce ways 89 and 299 as potential State Scenic High- The Forest‘s landscape is predominantly com- ways The Tehama County General Plan recog- mon and minimal with only 10 percent distinc- nizes that Highway 32 along Deer Creek has tive (See Figure 3-18) The large amount of county-level scenic significance Highway 44 minimal variety landscape IS foundin the north- wth its old growth pines has been identified as eastern portion ofthe Forest wth its flat terrain a potential Scenic Byway and few water bodies The distinctive land- scapes are found mostly in the southwestern Another indicator of concern for scenic quality is portion and surrounding Lassen Volcanic Na- the number of people whose recreation activities tional Park. it enhances In 1990,there were about 1,242,600 RVD’s (Recreation Visitor Days) of recreation Distance Zones For Seen Areas Distance use on the Forest Actinties that are enhanced zones, the distance from newer to the landscape, by scenic quality, such as sightseeing, drivingfor are foreground (up to 112 mile), middleground pleasure, and hiking, represent over 70 percent (1/2to 4 miles), and background (over 4 miles) of that total recreation, Recreation use in the The area potentially seen from each road and use Pacific Southwest Reaon exceeds that of other area has been mapped by distance zone and Reaons, and the recreationists’ concern for scen- sensitivity levels ery is known to be high

Chapter 3 - Affected Environment 3-79 Figure 3-18 Visual Variety Class (Percent of Forest) - 1980

115,700 acres

B[CommonI 684.700 acres

[7 C [Minimall 329,200 acres

Source. Forest Data Base on Inuentoned -146 VEdgualtty Obectwes

Sensitivity Level Sensitivity levels provlde a e. Existing Visual Condition way to measure scenic quality in relation to its importance to the public Inventoned sensitiv- Histoncally the Forest has presented a largely ity levels range from 1 (highest) to 3 (lowest) undisturbed, natural landscape to public mew They are determined for landscapes vlewed by The vlsual resource trend, however, has been those who travel through the area and those declining somewhat for the last 40 years This is who use recreation facilities or Forest water bodies. An inventory of current use patterns on a direct result of the natural landscape being the Forest indicates that 56 percent of the For- altered by road construction, timber harvestmg, est has high, 17percent average, and 27 percent structures, brush field clearing, and utility corn- low sensitivity levels dors d. Visual Quality Objectives The Existing Visual Condition (EVC) inventory maps of the vlsible degrees of disturbance to the Information from these three inventories were natural landscape Unlike the VQO's, EVC de- combined to produce Visual Quality Objectives fines how the Forest looked in 1980 rather than for the Forest These describe acceptable levels how it wll look in the future, and serves as a of change and how the Forest wll look in the benchmark Figure 3-20 illustrates this range of future Thefivevlsualqualityobjectives OTQO's), vlsual conditions on the Forest Note that the 83 only, to rangmginorderfromecologcalchanges percent of the Forest's landscape had not yet greatest acceptable change in the natural land- been noticeably altered. The EVC conditions 1 scape character, are Preservation, Retention, Partial Retention, Modification, and Maximum through 5 (Untouched, Unnoticed, Minor Distur- Modification Figure 3-19 shows the area ofthe bance, Disturbance, Major Disturbance) corre- Forest assigned to each VQO, Appendix Q gwes spond directly with the five VQO's (Preserva- definitions of the VQO's. These acres of inven- tion, Retention, Partial Retention, Modification, toned objectives were adopted in 1979 as in- and Maximum Modification, respectively) See tenm direction until the Forest Plan is ap- Figure 3-21 to compare EVC conditions mth proved, at which time they mll be modified VQO's and how they look on a forest landscape according to the Plan and established as the Adopted Visual Quality Objectives (AVQO's)

3-80 Chapter 3-Affected Environment Pig- 3-19

hventoried Visual Quality Objectives (VQO) - 1979

Maximum Modification

Modification

Partial Retention

Retention

Preservation

0% 10% 30°h 40% Source Forest Data Base

Figure 3-20

Existing Visual Condition (EVC)- 1980

:Drastic Disturbances )VI] 0.01%

(Major Disturbances) V Percent of Forest

(Disturbances) lV

(Minor Disturbances) III I I ~68.009c (Untouched) Il I

obib 2096 40% 60% Source. Forest Data Base fi Visual Management Concerns Tcmber Management In the past, the Forest has and Trends produced timber using mostly partial cut har- vest. Future timber management- will reqmre more evenaged management, including clearcut- Future managing the vlsual re- ting. If silvicultural options produce more source will most likely Involve conflicts between commodity production and vlsual quahty The evenaged timber stands, conflicts with vlsual quality in sensitive areas wll Increase. In addi- demand for summer and wmter recreation is expected to increase, and with it, a demand for tion, much of the Forest's timber harvests have scenic natural environments. been on the flatter terrain. As the steeper slopes

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-8 1 Figure 3-21 Visual Quality Objective (VQO) and Visual Condition (VC)

VQO Preservation VQO Modification VC I Untouched VC IV Disturbance Predominately ecological changes Changes are easily noticed and attract attention I

VQO Retention VQO Maximum Modification VC II Unnoticed VC V Major Disturbance Changes are not evident Changes are very strong and attract attention

VQO Partial Retention VQO Unacceptable Modification VC Ill Minor Disturbance VC VI Drastic Disturbance Changes are noticed. but do not Changes are in glaring contrast attract attention and disharmony with natural Datterns

~ 0.TURAL CHARACTER DOMINATE! LLTEREO CHARACTER DOMINATES

3-82 Chapter 3-Affected Environment are harvested, mantarung vlsual quality wdl g. Management Opportunities become a more d&dt task Opportumties for improvlng the vlsual qualities Energy and Mhrals Proposed small hydroelec- of the Forest include. tric projects, geothermal, oil and gas wells and facilities, mmng, and accelerated biomass utih- 1. Create special scenic areas with specific ob- zation wll also impose new impacts on vlsual jectives and operating requrements to pro- quality. mote high scenic quality

OZd Growth Conflicts wth commodity produc- 2. Maintain a high level of employee training in tion may result from increasing demand to main- vlsual resource management. Maintam a tain old growth stands. Some of the late succes- workforce wth an appropnatelevel ofknowl- sional-stage timber remaining on the Forest is edge to apply visual resource management. found along highway corndors. Much of it hes within spotted owl territones. Old growth yel- 3. Rehabilitate lands and facilities that meet a low pines (ponderosa and Jeffrey) represent cen- visual quality objective lower than the turies of growth. Their great size and yellow adopted VQO’s. plated bark distmgwsh them from the rest ofthe Forest. They create a lasting public image along 4. Use prescnbed fire to restore the natural roads such as Hlghways 44 and 36 Viewshed appearance to landscapes where fires have comdor plans need to be prepared to guide veg- long been suppressed. etationmanagement along the mostheavilyused roads, trals, and at the Forest’s key recreation 5. Acquire pnvate lands in key public new use areas areas.

Ski Area A future issue that would affect the 6. Prepare and implement corridor plans for visual quahty of a large part of the Forest is the high sensitivlty travel routes or use areas. potential Carter Bowl Sh Area development on Butt Mountain The north side of Butt Mountam 7. Use visual enhancement measures to im- has good physical potential for an alpine ski prove scenic quality in areas of Partial Re- area Butt Mountain lies wthh an unroaded tention and Retention where consistent wth area and appears to be pristine. Evaluation of other resource objectives. the visual impact of a ski development depends largely on the spenfic design of the sh runs, towers, llft line clearings, and structures. 22. WATERANDRIF’ARIANAREAS Eagle Lake The Eagle Lake Basin is an area of hgh environmental sensitivity and great public a. Introduction interest. For private land there, Lassen County has adopted restrictive measures to protect the Water and riparian areas are closely related, visual and other resources wthin the Eagle Lake although they are discussed separately in this Planning Area (shown on the map of Manage- section. The water resource includes both water ment Area 14 in the Forest Plan). These mea- quality and water quantity. The riparian re- sures include restnctions on subdivlsions, con- source includes the thin strips of land bordering struction design, signs and timber harvesting. springs, streams and lakes. Actions affecting The Planning Area contains the western Eagle riparian areas can affect water quality; con- Lake backdrop on National Forest land. A level versely, actions affecting water flows, lake lev- of vlsual quality commensurate to the above els, or water quality can affect the npanan re- county restrictions would be the VQO’s of Par- source. tial RetentionwithRetention along County Road A-1, as defined in the 1979 Inventoned Visual For discussion of the Forest’s groundwater situ- Quality Objectives. ation, see the Geology section of this chapter.

-~ Chapter 3 -ABected Environment 3-83 b. Water few streams. Precipitation disappears quickly into the thin volcanic soils and feeds the regonal (1) Introduction aqlufer that supphes the Pit River, Hat Creek, the Susan aver, and other perennial streams. Although often overlooked, water is one of the Water quality in Forest streams and lakes is more mtal resources produced on the Forest In good, it now meets State standards in all major fact, "securingfavorable condition ofwater flows" streams was one of two reasons for estabhshing National Forests in the Organic Adrmnistration Act of (2) Supply 1897 (the other was to "furnish a continuous supply of timber"). (a) Quantity The Forest has a total of 1,650 mles of streams. These can be sorted into stream orders, as illustrated in Figure 3-22 Forest Forest lands mclude hundreds of streams, in- lands produce a total average stream flow of cluding several major rivers and creeks. Forest 1,308,000acre feet per year, not mcludmg flows lands are also watersheds for many lakes, in- from adjoining or intermingled pnvate lands. cludmg natural lakes such as Eagle Lake and Annual runoff for each of the Forest's water- reservoirs such as Lake Almanor, Mountain sheds is summanzed m AppendxV. Runofffrom Meadows Reservoir, ButtValleyReservoir, North a watershed depends mmly on the amount of Battle Creek Reservoir, McCoy Flat Reservoir, precipitation it receives, and slightly on the and Hog Flat Reservoir. In the Forest's highest amount of vegetation on the ground. On the elevations, glaciers scoured out many basins Forest, stream flow can be deliberatelymcreased now occupied by small lakes. Many of these are in only two ways (1) by clearcut harvesting of pothole lakes lying in the Canbou and Thousand timber, and (2) by prescribed burning of Lakes Wildernesses, but others are scattered chapparal. Such activities can mcrease water elsewhere on the Forest. Pothole lakes are un- yleld, but only by a marginal two percent Forest- usual because they are usually shallow and sup- wide above current levels. It is possible, how- plied only by snowmelt from their immediate ever, that even that increase would be masked by surroundings Except in wet years, they have no variableramfallfromyeartoyearandbyground- surface outflow. water flows reflecting the previous year's rain- fall. While increased timber harvesting can Water flowing from the Forest in creeks and increase total annual runoff, any such increase streams is vltal for its fishenes and downstream would occur in spring. uses. The Forest includes significant reaches of the last unobstructed anadromous fishenes in The Forest can, however, develop water sources the Sacramento River system-Deer Creek, Mill to: (1)better utihze the water that does run off; Creek, and Antelope Creek (see Fishenes sec- or (2) tap groundwater sources. The Forest tion). mamtains hvestock and wildlife water holes on the dry east side, as well as stock ponds and wells The source of all the Forest's water is precipita- inother dry, upland areas. Water supply isshort tion which falls mainly during the winter; sum- for road-dust abatement and fire protection uses mers are very dry. Some Precipitation occurs as on the dner eastern and northern parts of the summer thunderstorms on the northern and Forest. To meet these needs, the Forest is devel- northeastern portions of the Forest, but such oping proven well sources such as the old rail- storms contribute little to long-term water sup- road well at Hall's Flat For further &scussion ply. Precipitation is generally greater at the see the Geology and Groundwater section above. higher elevations (above 4,000 feet), where it falls mainly as snow Below that, it is mostly (%) Quabty At present, water quality is accept- ram. Annual precipitationranges from 90inches able in all Forest streams and lakes. There are, near Lassen Park and on Snow Mountain, to 16 however, a number of exlsting and potential inches in the northeast corner of the Forest. water quality problems Road construction and Although streams abound on the southern and clearcutting tend to cause sedimentation in western sectors of the Forest, the northern and streams, whch lowers their waterquality. Other eastern portions have scant surface runoff and potential problems are

3-84 Chapter 3-Affected Environment aonalWater Quality Control Boards (for surface (1) microorganism (Gzardza)contamination water and in some cases groundwater) Stan- of surface waters, dards are set by the Reaonal Boards, approved by the State Water Resources Control Board, (2) nutnentloading,bankerosion, and shade and certified by the Envlronmental Protection reduction from livestock grazing, Agency

(3) hazardous spills from highways into Water quality is currently maintained and im- streams and septic tank drainage from provedthroughthe application ofstate-approved recreation residences, and EPA-certified Best Management Practices (BMP’s) for controlling non-point sources of pol- (4) waste water and vault leakage from lution to surface water Methods and techniques campgrounds, and for applymg the appropnate BMP’s are identi- fied dunngon-site investigation ofForest projects (5) temperature or sedimentation effects that have the potential to degrade surface water from geothermal and small hydroelectnc quality More detailed discussions of BMP’s and development the implementation process are presented in Appendur Q of the Forest Plan Forest personnel inspect most ofthe known prob- lem sites regularly and correct deficiencies when In the case of an individual resource project such detected as a timber sale, the Forest applies Best Manage- ment Practices (BMP’s)to mininnze that project’s The Lassen National Forest is required to meet adverse effects on water quality. Forest person- State water quality standards by the Clean Wa- nel also analyze cumulative watershed impacts ter Act (PL 92-500, Section 313) In some cases, to consider the additive effect of many land e g public smmming beaches, the Forest must dsturbances over time and space Such analysis meet standards set by the Envlronmental Pro- enables decision makers to keep the overall dis- tection Agency (EPA) or the Forest Service turbance in any watershed below a prohlem- Manual State standards are issued from two triggering “threshold” level so the activlties do sources The State Department of Health Ser- not degrade water quality or impair water uses vices (for dnnlung water systems) and the Re- or conditions, either locally or downstream Fac-

Figure 3-22 P Miles of Streams by Stream

Stream order Miles

5 (Fifth order) Source: Forest Data Base

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-85 tors that can temporarily cause cumulative ef- watershed is National Forest When more than fects above the threshold include accelerated 50 percent of a watershed is pnvate land, the erosion, channel scounng, bank cave-ins, debris beneficial effects of reducing cumulative effects flows, landshdes, andheightened flood flow peaks on National Forest land could be totally masked by pnvate land users Watersheds supporting Presently all but two of the Forest’s fourth order important fishenes that contain large areas of (see Glossary, “stream order”) watersheds are pnvate ownershp include Burney Creek, Warner well below the 15 percent equivalent roaded Creek, Lake Almanor, Antelope Creek, and Up- acres (ERA) threshold for accelerating damage per and Middle Deer Creek. Consultation with The exceptions are two small, heady-impacted private landowners is important to avoid ad- watersheds tnbutary to Lake Bntton on the Pit verse, cumulative effects. River. A land disturbance index (LDI) was used to The Forest’s watersheds contain a number of compare hfferent alternatives’ long term effects Class I streams (see Glossary, “stream classes”) on the land. The index adds the eqmvalent Some of these are important fishenes for native roaded acres created by new roadbmlding, brush game species, and a few are spawning streams burning for mldlife habitat improvement and for anadromous fish After some past timber timber harvesting onto the disturbance base harvests, some of the sub-watersheds for Deer already created by the emsting Forest road sys- Creek, the Susan River, Mill Creek, Antelope tem The LDI also considers whether actinties Creek, and other streams have exceeded the 15 ongmate in sensitive or non-sensitive watershed percent ERA This situation has been mostly areas (see Glossary, “sensitive watershedlands”) corrected However, some of these prevlously disturbed sub-watersheds still flush sediment (c) Quantity and Quality As arule, whenvegeta- into their receiving streams during spring tion is removed from part of a watershed, both snowmelt, althoughtheir equivalent roaded acre stream flow and sedimentation increase imme- values are now below 15 percent diately and then qmckly decline while the area revegetates. As stated above, both timber har- Proposed increases in regeneration harvest area vesting and chaparral burmng increase water would increase dmturbance in most watersheds. flow However, they differ in their effects on Because planningresources are limited, cumula- water quality because of timing mmber har- tive impact analysis mll focus on protecting vesting, occurring mostly above the snow line, Class I fishenes (see Glossary, “stream class”) causes earlier snowmelt and therefore higher By emphasizing protection of fishenes, other spring runoff. This can reduce water quality. downstream uses m11 also benefit. Chaparral burning, on the other hand, occurs mostly below the snow line and primanly in- Cumulative unpact analysis can be used in sev- creases spnng and summer flows; therefore, it eral ways has little effect on water quality, except that slightly more sediment may wash from burned (1) To adjust project scheduling, so that im- watersheds into streams. pacts are spread out through time, (3) Demand (2) To determne the most effective places and objectives for project mitigation; and (a) Quantity Demand for water m California is heavy In normal precipitation years, water (3) To locate and pnoritize watershed im- users are insistent about exercising their water provement projects so that impacts are nghts, in drought years the competition becomes qmckly reduced intense The two main Forest streams that flow east are the Susan River and Pine Creek (see Private lands comprise up to 66 percent of some Appendix V) Pine Creek flows unencumbered major watersheds The cumulative effects BMP into Eagle Lake The Susan River is nearly 100 is most effective when more than two thirds of a percent utilized by the Lassen Irngation Distnet

3-86 Chapter 3-Affected Environment and other agncultural users in dry years. Ap- eral and the nearby administrative site for Las- proximately 60 percent of the Forest’s stream- sen Volcanic National Park The water comes flow that goes west flows into the Feather River from Martin Creek and nearby spnngs. or the Rt River, each of which has a senes of PG&E hydroelectncfacilities Some ofthe water (b)Qualzty Demand for water quality is not from the northwestern part of the Forest also quantified m this planning process. Thls type of reaches hydroelectnc stahons at Shasta and demand denves from the value ofclean water for Kesunck dams. Overall, summer flows are par- Forest recreationists, Forest fishenes, and down- ticularly valuable for both agneultural and hy- stream users. Water quality standards are set droelednc purposes in addition to their value for by the Reponal Water Quality Control Boards. sustaining fishenes and ripanan vegetation They are then approved by the State Board and Certified by EPA The Forest adheres to these The Forest’s water values are assumed to be standards by implementmg the Best Manage- constant for any extra amounts it can produce. ment Practices (BMPs). Inthelastdecadeon the RPA water values for 1982 are used for Forest Forest, timber harvesting and road bmldmg have water These are based on average demand generally been moved further away from npar- downstream from the Forest Water flowmg ian areas to reduce the potential for damage to west into the Central Valley had a basic value of streams and npanan zones. The Forest has also per acre foot, reflecting the Valley’s inten- worked in several watersheds to rehabilitate $59 damagedchannels and npananvegetation. Typi- sive agncultural use for orchards, rice, and other cal work has been stabilizing stream banks, crops. Waterflowngeasthadavalueofonly$12 riprapping channels, and installing gully plugs per acre foot, reflectmg less-intensive agricul- and check dams. In some nparian areas, Forest tural uses downstream such as growing hay and crews have also reseeded bare areas mth grass irrigating pasture. The reservoirs and hydro- and planted unllow seedlings. electric facilities located on many west-side streams add different values to water in those Watershed improvements are needed on an esti- streams The most valuable water on the Forest mated 1,500 acres (This area mll be better is that which flows mto Mountam Meadows assessed by an updated Watershed Improve- Reservoir. Because it passes through a sequence ment Needs inventory, to be completed unthin of SIX hydroelectnc plants before reaching the the Plan decade.) After ths initial backlog of Central Valley imgation channels, it had a total restoration work on known problem areas is value of $131 per acre foot completed, there wlll remain a long-term need to do some work indefinitely, both to maintain The Forest Semce holds about 350 water rights exlsting improvements and to solve minor new for uses varying from stock ponds and wetlands naturally-occurnng problems This long-term to hlghway rest stops and campgrounds. The work is estimated at five acres per year Forest has adequate water to meet most ofits on- Forest needs. As discussed, demand exceeds the c. Riparian supply for convement water sources for road- dust abatement and fire protection. Although (1) Introduction the Forest has several high-quality fisheries, no water nghts have been adjudicated or otherwise Riparian areas occur in stream corridors, along established to protect mstream resources lakeshores, and around springs, wetlands, and wet meadows. Table 3-23 shows the acres of The Lassen National Forest contains no munici- these types of ripanan areas on the Forest. pal watersheds that are managed under any type Vegetation in riparian areas can include char- of agreement Some streams have diversions acteristic hardwood types such as aspen, alder, that supply individual, domestic uses. The most or willow, or it can include larger and more nearly “municipal” of these diversions is to the vlgorous trees of the same species as found on water system shared by the community of Min- adjacent uplands.

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-87 Table 3-23 such measures as seeding with grass, planting ripanan hardwoods (wllows, aspen, alders, andl Riparian and Related Areas or cottonwoods); budding streambank protective measures; and management of livestock Under ~ ~ the Forest Plan, no timber harvesting will occur Type of Area Acres

~ within streamside management zones except when ripananvalues can bemamtained orwhen Ripanan Areas human safety is a concern. (Refer to the &par- idshPrescription in Chapter 4 of the Forest Along Internuttent' Plan.) Ephemeral Streams 4,367

Along Perennial Streams 2,641 Currently, some watershed and fisheries 1111- provement projects aim at curing persistent ri- Spnngs & Wet Meadows 1,496 panan problems. Recent expenences mdicate that 20 acres is a realistic annual goal for restor- Lakeshores & Wetlands 3.U.a ing riparian habitat. (not included m above) Ripanan vegetation is cntical for maintaining Total 1'2,217 water quality and fisheries. It is also important Related Stream Comdor and formany wldlife populations because it provides Small Lake Areas food, nesting sites, shade, overhead cover, and hiding cover. In addition, it prondes nutnents Intermittent / Ephemeral necessary for stream life. Human actinties in Streambeds (Aquatic) 1,931 ripanan areas include camping, fishing, hiking, mining, timber harvesting, road budding, boat- Intermittent I Ephemeral ing, and aesthetic enjoyments. Terrestrial Zones 9,636 Perenmal Streambeds (2) Streamside Riparian (Aquatic) 1,121 Currently, livestock grazing is damaging some Perennial Terrestnal riparian areas. Cool, lush streamside areas are Zones 9,030 as attractive to livestock as they are to wddlife and recreationists, especially in md-summer Lake Areas (inside National The effects of grazing vary by area, from almost Forest) 5,485 none along many creeks outside grazing allot- ments (such as some tributaries to Mountain Floodplaln Areas w Meadows Reservoir), to notable damage from (not included in above) trampling of streambanks and foraging on hard- Total Related Areas 32,684 wood regenerahonwithm some allotments (such as along Colby Creek, Benner Creek, and Pine Total of Ripanan and Creek). Related Areas 44,901 (3) Lakeshore Riparian

Riparian areas are protected by establishing The Forest's lakeshore nparian areas are gener- streamside management zones in timber sale ally in good condition Recreation is the major areas and by regulating livestock grazing. Ri- cause of disturbance around larger lakes, espe- parian areas have been locally damaged by live- cially where the lakeshores are near roads. All stock grazing, road building, sludding logs, tim- small lakes with sport fisheries are circled by ber harvest, fire, or temporary crossings. Some angler trails. Trails, campsites, trampling, and problems can be corrected by range and timber littering are the mam types of damage, notably sale areaimprovement activities, but othei-prob- at Silver Lake and Lake Almanor. Around many lems persist. The actual acreage of damaged smaller, more remote lakes, such as Echo Lake riparian areas is unknown. Restoration includes and Homer Lake, undeveloped campsites are

3-88 Chapter 3-Affected Environment common in the npanan and other lakeshore some areas have been restored by timber sale areas The npanan areas around pothole lakes area improvement activities, others wdl remain and other small lakes are important buffers disturbed until corrected by management activi- against pollution Because they have httle or no ties or natural processes The goals set for flushing action by surface outflow, the water in improvement of ripanan habitat are to encour- these lakes is particularly sensitive to degrada- age the solution of such past problems, using tion appropnated funds such as fisheries mprove- ment, range betterment, KV, or watershed im- (4) Trends provement projects

TheForest cannotmcrease thequantityofstream or lakeshore npanan areas except by building 23. WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS new wetlands Vegetative condition and dwer- sity can be improved in exlsting npanan areas, however, thus maintaining or enhancing ripar- a. Background ian-dependent resources. Vegetation can be managed to improve bank stability, shade pat- A Wild and Scenic River is one designated by terns, canopy heights, crown density, and cover Congress to preserve certain natural and recre- Beneficianes include fish, wildlife, and recre- ational nver values The 1968 Wild and Scenic ationists Opportunities exlst to better coorm- Rivers Act established the means by which nv- nate fire, grazmg, and loggmg practices to avoid ers mth “outstandingly remarkable” values could reducing the extent and quality of available be protected and preserved in their natural or nparian area Water nghts applications for existing condition for use and enjoyment by the small hydroelectric projects threatened mstream public A free-flowing condition and “outstand- water supplies in many cases during the 1980s, ingly remarkable values” are requred for a nver but only a few projects were completed A num- segment to be eliDble for wild and scenic consid- ber of other proposals are presently inactive. eration The Act allows for three different levels of classification mld, scenic, and recreational. Mitigationmeasures are needed to prevent small The degree ofnaturalness determines the appro- hydroelectnc projects from reducing the amount pnate designation for each nver or river seg- of water in stream reaches Such flow reductions ment can diminish fishenes and dry up nparian areas There have been about 30 pending small hydro- In establishing the Act, Congress encouraged electric applications on Forest streams; for fur- State and local governments to participate in the ther discussion of small hydroelectnc projects, program. The State of California established a see the Energy section of this chapter (see page State Systemin 1972. Four years later, the State 3-15) Department of Fish and Game and the Forest Semce entered into a Memorandum of Under- Streams, spnngs, and lakes define the natural standing establishmg a cooperative relationship limits of the Forest’s available npanan areas, for handling mld and scenic nver matters in which m11 become increasingly valuable for many both the National and State Systems resources As mature timber is harvested from upland areas, dogged timber in ripanan areas In response to Presidential direction in 1979, the mll become more important to a mde vanety of f0rmerU.S. Department ofIntenor (USD1)Hen- mldlife species. Riparian areas mll also take on tage Conservation and Recreation Semce con- added populanty for hunting, fishing, hiking, ducted a Nationmde inventory to identify by and camping Forest management must also physiographic reDon those rivers (or segments intensify in order to resolve resource conflicts of rivers) that were in a relatively natural and and better protect these sensitive areas undeveloped condition. Not all ofthe streams on the list are totally natural and free flowing, but Localized npanan areas have been damaged by they represent the best remaining stream seg- livestock, road building, skid trails, landings, ments in each physiographic reDon. In March and felling ofharvested trees across creeks The 1980, USDI published the Nationmde Rivers actual extent of such damage is unknown. While Inventory (NRI) Phase I In 1981 the USDI,

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-89 National Park Service, published a further re- parallelingMil1 Creek into the Sacramento River, fined list of streams believed to be the best cutting a narrow canyon through mixed conifer qualified candidates forest, oak woodlands, chaparral, and grassland, supporting a narrow belt of npanan vegetation. b. Direction The area has cultural resource significance be- cause of past use and occupancy by the Yahi The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act directs Federal Yana people Antelope Creek offers outstanding, agencies to consider potential wild and sce& challengmg trout fishing, and important habitat nvers In accordance mth tbs, the Forest plan- for the remnant runs of spring-run salmon and ning process requres an assessment of the ella- steelhead The segments studied include seven bility and suitability of nvers listed on the Na- mles of the north fork and seven of the south tionmde Rivers Inventory or identified in the fork, both upstream from the Forest boundary at land management planning process Eliability Paynes Place. Approxlmately two of the 14 miles is detemned by applymg the Wild and Scemc flow through pnvate land, and all of the seg- Rivers Act cntena and supplemental cntena ments are mthin the Antelope Creek unit of the provlded in USDI guidelmes Suitability is ana- Ishi B further plamng area. lyzed using Forest planning alternatives that contain a range of mld and scenic river recom- Big Chico Creek Big Chico Creek begns at mendations The analysis includes such factors about 5,200 feet elevation in sloping conifer for- as resources protected and foregone, public and est terram and flows through a deep, scemc, agency interest, pnvate lands and their acquisi- volcanic canyon The lower section has oak- tion costs, etc. woodland vegetation with patches of shrub and grasslands Its cliff-lined canyon is particularly Any recommendation in the Forest Plan for a narrow and rugged mth a boulder-stream bed wild and scemc nver designation is a prelimi- and nparian vegetation. A total of only one mile nary ahmstrativerecommendation only, whch of the stream crosses a small portion of the mll receive further renew and possible modifi- Lassen National Forest, compnsed of three scat- cation by the Chief of the Forest Semce, the tered parcels of land along Highway 32 Since Secretary of Agriculture, and the President of less than one mile of the creek crosses National the United States. The Congress has reserved Forest land, formal assessment was not consid- any final decisions to designate rivers to the ered appropnate and ths creek is no longer a National Wild and Scemc Rivers System candidate for Wild and Scenic River status c. Candidate Rivers Deer Creek Deer Creek has its headwaters on the north slopes of Butt Mountan and flows in a The three rivers that appear in the NRI and cross generally southwest direction through the For- Forest land are Deer Creek, Mill Creek, and Big est into the Sacramento Valley and the Sacra- Chico Creek Additionally, other rivers were mento River It cuts through rugged, forested suggested by the public for consideration as po- mountains and deep canyons mth spectacular tential Wild and Scenic Rivers, mcluding Ante- geologx formations. The canyon has nationmde lope Creek, Cub Creek, Butte Creek, Hat Creek, cultural significance as part of the area inhab- Feather River, and Pit River After consider- ited by Isln, the last sumvor of the Yahi Yana ation of the values of the nvers and associated Indian tnbe In adhtion to trout fishing, Deer land areas, three nvers were determined to be Creek offers valuable spawning grounds for candidate Wild and Scenic Rivers Antelope, spnng-run chinook salmon and steelhead The Deer, and Mill Creeks Portions of the latter two total length of the inventoned nver mthm the nvers cross the Ishi Wilderness and lands being Forestboundaryis38mles,3lmdesflowthrough considered for mlderness Refer to Append= E National Forest lands Almost 10 mles pass for a summary of the ehability and suitability through the Ish Wilderness renew process and its rationale Mill Creek Mill Creek origmates in Lassen Antelope Creek The headwaters of Antelope Volcanic National Park and flows in a southwest Creek form several tributaries on the slopes of direction through meadows and dense forests It Turner Mountain The creek flows southwest then descends rapidly through a spectacular

3-90 Chapter 3-Affected Environment canyon lined with steep lava and basalt cliffs, to Forest, the Wilderness Act designated the Can- the Sacramento Valley and into the Sacramento bou and the Thousand Lakes Wildernesses River In addition to its rainbow trout fishery, Mill Creek has an anadromous fishery with the Twenty-one roadless areas on the Forest have highest elevation spawning habitat and longest since been identified as potential new wilder- tributaries ascended by spring-run chinook nesses They have been studied since 1977 in the salmon in California As part ofthe former home RARE I1 process and since 1980 in the Forest ofIshi, it also has high cultural significance. The Planning process The California Wilderness total length of the inventoried nver is 32 miles, Act of 1984 added 1,800 acres to the Caribou 26 5 miles are on Forest administered lands Wilderness and designated the Ishi Wilderness, Almost 10 miles flow through the Ishi Wilder- bnngmg the Forest wilderness total to 78,060 ness, and about 12 miles through the Mill Creek acres Of the remaining 18 roadless areas, the Further Planning Area Act made 12 available for non-wilderness man- agement. The Forest Plan recommends either The creek ends at about 300 feet elevation, it wilderness or non-mlderness for the six remain- enters the Forest at 5,200 feet elevation and ing further planning areas Wilderness recom- leaves at about 2,800 Recreation activities here mendations are preliminary administrative rec- are limited, although trout fishing is rated as ommendations only, which will receive further good along most of the creek The lower reaches revlew and possible modification by the Chief of contamsmall populations ofsteelhead trout, and the Forest Sernce, the Secretary of Agriculture, spnng and fall run chinook salmon Other ani- and the President Congress has reserved the mal life is typical of the southern Cascades and authority to make final decisions on wilderness northern Sierra Nevada Stream flow is very low designation. in the summer but increases 15 fold in the win- ter; water quality is good. b. Existing Wilderness

Dual Designation Mill Creek flows through Caribou Wilderness The 20,625 acre Caribou the Ishi Wilderness as well as through the Mill Wilderness is located on the Almanor Ranger Creek further planning area. Deer Creek also Distnct It lies along the eastern boundary of flows through theIshi Wilderness, near the south- Lassen Volcanic National Park and shares many ern mlderness boundary If designated, where of the same features The Caribou is character- these nvers cross a wilderness, the Wild and ized by a gentle, rolling, forested upland with Scenic River Act directs that the area in common many forest-fringed lakes, and eighteen miles of be subject to the provlsions of both that Act and trail access for fishing and camping In 1991, the Wilderness Act, and that in cases of conflict this wilderness received 14,600 recreation nsi- the more restrictive pronsions apply tor days (RVD’s) It is used both as a destination wilderness and as cross-country access into the The assessment of these candidate Wild and wilderness backcountry of Lassen Volcanic Na- Scenic Rivers is described in Appendix E, Wild tional Park The 1984 California Wilderness Act and Scenic Rivers Evaluation added 1,800 acres (the Black Cinder and Trail Lake A roadless areas) to the Caribou Wilder- ness, extending the ongmal boundary to conform 24. WILDERNESS AND FURTHER with more recognizable features on the ground PLANNING AREAS Ishi Wilderness The 41,100 acre Ishi Wilder- ness lies on the Almanor District in the south- a. Introduction west portion of the Forest Located in the tran- sitional zone between the warm Sacramento As provided by the Wilderness Act of 1964, a Valley and the Sierra Nevada, it is the only Wilderness is a unit ofundeveloped Federal land wilderness that preserves a major area of the designated by Congress It retains its primeval SierrafCascade foothill ecosystem Elevation of character without permanent improvements or the landscape ranges from 1,400 feet along Deer human habitation, and is protected and man- Creek to 4,000 feet near Barkley Mountain, in a aged to preserve its natural condition On this network of flat ridges, sheer canyon walls, and

Chapter 3 - Affected Environment 3-91 deep ravines Lava formations throughout the percent), and fishing (23.5 percent) See Figure area create cliffs, caves, pillars, and rushing 3-23. Future recreation in the Canbou and rapids in the creek bottoms. Mill and Deer Thousand Lakes Wildernesses is expected to Creeks flow through rugged canyons, both are follow the same activlty pattern, while that in listed in the Nationmde Rivers Inventory for the Ishi Wilderness will most likely vary due to addition to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers the terrain. The rugged Ishi country and low- System. These creeks support resident trout and land attractions ofDeer and Mi11 Creeks contrast an important anadromous fishery of spnng run sharplymth lake, forest, and alpine terrain The chinook salmon and steelhead trout The area Ishi Wilderness is also snow-free and available has been used for a vanety of activities including for use year-round Use data, recorded for Ishi hiking, camping, hunting, fishing, grazing, and Wilderness since 1985, shows tlllrty percent as off-highway use. Motonzed use is now prohib- Wildlife or Fish User Days (WFUDs) For mod- ited In 1991, the Ishi Wilderness received 7,800 eling and reporting purposes, these WFUD's are RVD's of use subtracted from the total wilderness RVD's and accounted for separately. Thousand Lakes Wilderness The Thousand Lakes Wilderness is located northwest of Lassen Although recreation is the most common use of VolcanicNational Parkon theHat CreekRanger mlderness, other types of uses are part of the total wilderness demand. Many people enjoy District In addition to many clear lakes, it has wilderness vicanously (Fisher et a1 19721, they 16,335 acres of contrasting topography and veg- may never set foot in it, but still value its emst- etation types Twenty-two miles of trail reveal ence Other types of wilderness uses include volcanic and glacial formations, rocky ravlnes scientific, educational, therapeutic, and cultural and mountain slopes, open meadows, and stands actinties of lodgepole pine and red fir The wilderness is dominated by Crater Peak(e1evation 8,677 feet), d. Wilderness Demand the highest point on the Forest Thousand Lakes Valley, in the heart of the wilderness, is a re- Wilderness demand, or use, is affected by a minder of the glacial action that eroded an old vanety of economic and cultural factors In the volcano and created the many small lakes and mid-l970's, the increased populanty of back- ponds scattered throughout. Dunng 1991, the packing caused wilderness use to intensify, in wilderness received 5,500 RVD's of use the early 1980's, the economicrecessioncausedit to drop Despite these short-term fluctuations, The follomng discussions on wilderness activi- there has been an overall stable and growing ties do not include statistics on the 1984 wilder- demand for wilderness in the long run ness additions because reliable use data are not yet available for these areas Population, income, education, and demograph- ics all affect mlderness use. Ofthese, population c. Wilderness Activities is by far the best predictor over the long-term

Recreation use in the Canbou, Thousand Lakes About 90 percent of wilderness users on the and Ishi Wildernesses represented 185 percent Forest are California residents and are distnb- (27,900 RVD's) of the total recreation use on the uted fairly evenly throughout the State There- Forest in 1991 The use data are based on a fore, the projected rate of increase in wilderness combination of self regstration at trailheads, use on the Forest is expected to closely approxi- vehicle counts and one-on-one contacts with us- mate the rate of increase in the population of California ers A permit system was used at one time and may he reinstated in this planning period Per- When the Ishi Wilderness was designated in mits provide specific information on numbers of 1984, it more thandoubled thearea ofwilderness users, group size, purpose of visit and mode of on the Forest Ishi represents a unique mlder- transportation (foot or horse) ness expenence which is accessible year-round, and is located near the population centers ofthe Over three-quarters of the wilderness recreation Sacramento Valley, these factors augment its activlty is camping (35 8 percent), hiking (26 5 potential popularity Although some use of the

3-92 Chapter 3-Affected Environment Ishi area is expected to displace use of the Cari- horse groups] and rrsnurce impacts (cE. dam- bou and Thousand Lakes Wildernesses, 50me age to fragile meadows, contmninntion (11 wt1c.r will be newly-generated sources by Giardha) The Fore5t will need tii assess thcextent ofsuoh impa&, as the hdsis for e. Existing Management amending existing managemcnt plans to main- tain wilderness values The Caribou Wilderness Management Plan and the Thousand Lakes Wilderness Management The Forest, in conjunction with Lassen Volcanic Plan (USDA 1976, 1977) are being rewritten to National Park, had an approved fire plan foi guide the administration of the two pre-1984 both Caribou Wilderness and the Park This wildernesses Both plans contain specific direc- plan wasorigmallyapproved in October 1982 It tion, in 32 categones, to implement three man- called for natural fires in these areas to be moni- agement objectives common to both areas tored as they burned, and to allow fire to rebume its ecolog~calrole in Lassen Volcanic National 1 Perpetuate natural conditions Park and Caribou Wilderness ecosystems

2 Provide for recreation consistent with In 1988, all prescnbed natural fire plans were natural processes, primitive conditions, put on hold until a committee reviewed policy, and solitude opportunities direction, and processes used in managmg pre- scribed fire This was a result of the problems 3 Provide freedom from rules and restric- experienced during the 1988 fire season and the tions while preserving the wilderness fires around Yellowstone National Park In resource 1989, final direction on a fire management policy was released. In both areas, wilderness visitors tend to use the areas adjacent to lakes and meadows most The Forest and Lassen National Park met to heavily As use increases, the potential exists for revme the 1982 plan with the new direction The conflicts between users (e g , backpackers vs revised plan should be approved and in place by

Figure 3-23 Wfidemess Use by Activity, 1982

Nature Study

Sightseeing !I I Hunting Thousand Recreation Visitor Days (MRVD's) Horseback Riding

Swimming & Waterplay Fishing I Hiking

Camping .3

0 2 4 6 Source Forest Recreation Management [RlM) system

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-93 siiinmer 1992. The Forest will prepare similar National Forest System. The purpose of this Fire ManagementAction Plans fortheThousand roadless area review and evaluation (RARE 11) Lakes and Ishi Wildernesses was to determine which roadless areas were suitable for wilderness and which should be used The Forest planning process reassesses the ex- for other purposes isting management direction, and current wil- derness plans will be made compatible with the In the Pacific Southwest Regon, RARE I1 ana- approved Forest Plan A wilderness implemen- lyzed over six million acres located in California tation plan was completed for the Ishi Wilder- About 983,000 acres were recommended for wil- ness in 1989 A supplement will be prepared to derness, 2,643,000 acres were recommended for further address the issues ofgrazing andinholder further planning, and 2,395,000 acres were rec- access The Caribou Wilderness Plan will be ommended for non-wilderness amended to include the new additions On the Lassen National Forest, 21 roadless ar- f. Roadless and Further Planning eas were identified by RARE 11, totaling appro=- Areas mately208,600acres or20percentoftheForest For the Forest, RARE I1 recommended three A roadless area is defined as an area of 5,000 areas for non-w~lderness(about 31,300 acres), acres or larger that is substantially undeveloped nine areas for further planning (about 101,700 and natural acres), and nine areas for wilderness (about 75,600 acres) The Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, issued a national environmental impact state- In late 1984, the California Wilderness Act was ment in January 1979, documenting the results passed by Congress and signed by the President of a review of 62 million acres of roadless and On this Forest, the Act designated three areas as undeveloped areas within the 190 million acre mlderness, established six further planning ar-

Table 3-24 Further Planning Areas

-Acres Area Name RARE II# RARE 11 1984 CA Gross -Ne1 Allocation Wild Bill

Butt Mountain 5100 FP FP 8,300 8,30C

Heart Lake 5096 FP FP 9,289 9,28E

Ishi (B) (split unit) B5098 FP FP 25,312 20,02i

Antelope Unbt 28,855 27,624

Brushy Mtn Unit 6,457 2,405

Mill Creek 5284 FP FP 9,815 7,99c

Trail Lake (B) B5095 FP FP 1,115 1,llE Wild Cattle Mountain 5093 FP FP 5.265 4.966

Total 59,096 51,686

3-94 Chapter 3-A ffected Environment eas, and released 12 areas from wilderness con- g. Available Wilderness sideration in this planning period. Table 3-24 summarizes the result of the legslation Several other wilderness areas lie adjacent to or within a relatively short distance of the Forest's The non-wilderness areas are not being man- three wildernesses. Most of Lassen Volcanic aged for other multiple use purposes due to National Park is designated wilderness (78,982 public concerns Public interest in maintaining acres) The Bucks Lake Wilderness is on Plumas non-roaded areas has made it difficult to resume National Forest to the south, and the South multiple use management, but such manage- Warner Wilderness is on Modoc National Forest ment is tentatively planned for the future The to the north The latter two are about a two-hour decision to enter roadless areas for timber man- dnve and a three-hour drive, respectively, from agement or other resource actinties will be made when projects are proposed and after site specific the Forest environmental analysis The 1984 California Wilderness Act added an Appendix C discusses the six further planning additional 1,792,830 acres of National Forest areas and their future management by alterna- wilderness in the State Nearby Forests sur- tive, Appendlx M displays the 12 other roadless rounding the north end ofthe Sacramento Valley areas and their future management by alterna- all now have wildernesses from which users can tive. Table 3-25 summarizes the Forest's SIX choose further planning areas

Table 3-25 Effect of California Wilderness Act on Roadless Areas

Area Area Wilderness Further Released Area Area Wilderness Further Released Number Planning Number Planning

Black Cinder 5091 X

Butt Mtn. 5100 X Mill Creek 5284 Chips Creek 5099 I %rkness 5092 X Cinder Butte 5090 Polk Springs 5097 X Cub Creek 5094 Prospect 5086 X

Cypress 5088 X Timbered Crater 5083 X Devil's Garden 5067 X Trail Lake (A) A5095 X Heart Lake 5096 X Trail Lake (B) B5095 X Ishi (A) A5096 X Wild Ishi (B) B5098 X Cattle Mtn. 5093 X

Lava 5084 X

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-95 25. WILDLIFE (Shimamoto and An-ola 1981) is available in the Planning Records and at the Ranger Districts a. Introduction Eighteen mldlife and fish species were selected The Forest provldes habitat for over 361 species as MIS on the Forest Species and a summary of of animals -amphibians, reptiles, fish, birds, their habitat and habitat elements are listed in and mammals The bald eagle, peregnne falcon, Table 3-26 Appendix S descnbes their distnbu- and Shasta crayfish are Federally classified as tion, habitat, and population sizes No Sensitive Endangered, and the northern spotted owl has plants were selected for Management Indicator been listed as Threatened by the U. S Fish and Species because most of their habitats are too Wildlife Service. Seven of the species are consid- specialized to make the species useful indicators ered Sensitive in the Pacific Southwest Regmn of conhtions in other than a very small area Forty-five species provlde hunting and trapping Designating Sensitive plants as MIS would also opportunities Appenhx R lists the species that not provlde them any more protection from spe- occur on Forest and their classified status cial management than they already receive

Many wildlife species can be assigned into two Management of fish and wildlife on National categones of habitat preference 1) early succes- Forest lands is a multi-agency effort The Cali- sional species-those most dependent on young fornia Department of Fish and Game is respon- vegetation, and 2) late successional species- sible for managmg wildlife populations, pnma- those most dependent on mature or over-mature rily through the regulation of harvest The For- vegetation Other species depend on special est Semce is responsible for managmg wildlife habitats (e g riparian areas, wetlands, or boul- habitat on National Forest lands Because of the der fields), special habitat elements (e g snags, interdependence of populations and habitat, the dead and down wood, and cliffs), or combinatmns State and Forest Service work closely together to of several habitat types, successional stages, and attain common goals. The U S Fish and Wildlife special habitat elements Semce enters this multi-agency effort where Threatened and Endangered species, mgratory b. Management Zndicator Species waterfowl, or animal damage control are in- volved Other agencies such as the Bureau of The objective of the mldlife and fish manage- Land Management and National Park Servlce ment program is to manage habitats in order to are involved where lands that they administer maintain or enhance vlable populations of exist- share common boundaries with the Forest. ing mldhfe and fish species To insure that viable populations of all species occurnng on the Management of habitat to insure the recovery of Forest are maintained, certain species-called the Endangered bald eagle, peregrine falcon, Management Indicator Species (MIS)--were se- andShasta crayfish, andoftheThreatenednorth- lected to act as barometers for mldlife communi- ern spotted owl, is required under the Endan- ties These species were selected because oftheir gered Species Act Certain other species have status as a listed species or because they repre- been designated by the Regmnal Forester of the sent the vegetation types, successional stages, Pacific Southwest ReDon as “Sensitive ” These and special habitat elements necessary to pro- species must be gwen management attention to vide for viable populations of all species on the insure that their populations do not decline to Forest In addition, their population changes are the point where vlability of the species is jeopar- believed to indicate the effects of management dized Thus, management must assure that an activities on other wildlife and fish populations adequate number of breeding individuals re- If a selected species and its habitat are mflu- main distributed throughout the current or po- enced significantly by management activities, tential range of the species California spotted similar effects can be expected on other fish and owl, marten, fisher, northern goshawk, Sierra wildlife species with like habitat requirements Nevada red fox, great gray owl, and willow fly- The process used in selecting Management Indi- catcher are all Reson 5 Sensitive species that cator Species and Habitat Capability Models occur on the Forest

3-96 Chapter 3-Affected Environment Table 3-26 Wildlife Management Indicator Species and Their Successional Stage and Special Habitat Preferences

Reason for Successional Stage SDecial Habitat Indicated Selection

Bald Eagle Recovery species Late Large bodies of water, some (Endangered) isolation from human disturbance, mature conifers with canopy closure less than 40% in a multilayered stand, snags

Black Bear Special interest Early and Late Mature conifer forest and harvest interspersed with brush species patches and meadows, abundant dead and down logs

Bufflehead Special interest NIA Wetland, large and small and harvest ponds and lakes; large snags species, cavity with suitable cavities, nester abundant macroinvertebrates

Fisher Sensitive species Late Dense f60-100% canopy closure), multi-stoned, multi-species climax coniferous forests, large snags and down logs

Goshawk Sensitive species Late Late successional stage (mature) conifers with canopy closure of at least 40% meadows, openings, or npanan areas, snags, dead and down logs

Hairy Woodpecker Special interest Late Late successional stage species (mature) conifers with canopy closure of at least 4096, large snags with suitable cavities

Mallard Harvest species NIA Wetlands, large and small ponds and lakes, emergent vegetation, open water, invertebrates, submerged aquatics, and grasses

Marten Sensitive species Late Dense mature and over mature conifers with canopy closure greater than 5070, large snags and down logs

~ Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-97 Table 3-26 (continued) Wildlife Management Indicator Species and Their Successional Stage and Special Habitat F'references Soecles Reason for Successional Stage Suecial Habitat Indicated Selection Mule Deer Harvest species Early Interspersion of many seral stages (edges), npanan vegetation; meadows, early to midsuccessional stage of most vegetation types Osprey Special interest Late Large ponds, lakes, large snags, species well stocked populations of cold and warm water fish Peregrine Falcon Recovery Species NIA Diverse range of vegetation (Endangered) types and seral stages, npanan areas, cliffs. Pileated Special interest Late Large (>24')snags, mature Woodpecker species conifers with at least 40% canopy closure Pronghorn Special interest Early Meadows, npanan vegetation, Antelope and harvest sagebrush, bitterbrush species Rainbow Trout Special interest NIA Stable stream channels, pools; and harvest 70-95% water surface shade, species 25% or greater gravel in nffles, abundant orgamsms Spotted Owl Calzfornra Sensitive species Late Late successional stage (mature) conifers mth at least Northern Recovery species Late 40% layered stand; snags, dead (Threatened) and down logs. Steelhead Trout Special interest NIA Moderately deep streams with and Chinook and harvest &le velocity between 5 and Salmon species 3 5 feet'second, 40% or greater of the stream composed of coarse gravel and rubble, greater than 60% stream cover, abundant macroinvertebrates Western Gray Special interest Late Well-distnbuted age classes in Squirrel species oak woodland, digger-pine mth oak, mature mured conifer, greater than 40% closure in the canopy, den trees greater than 15 inches, fun@ and acorns

3-98 Chapter 3-Affected Environment The relative abundance and distribution of wild- Peregrine Falcon The peregrine falcon is an- life are affected by most land management ac- other Federally listed Endangered species on the tions Wildlife is of high interest to the public, Forest Although only one occupied terntory IS and wildlife habitat is of particular interest to known, potentially suitable habitat IS abundant. the hunting and wildlife viewing public, Forest At least five areas are judged suitable as nesting managers, and other government agencies. For- temtones. Declines in peregnne falcon popula- est managers need to decide how much of what tions have resulted mainly from excessive accu- types of wildlife habitat should be provided mulation of organochlonne pesticides within the through time birds. Nesting success requlres suitable nesting ledges near suitable hunting areas and freedom c. Supply from disturbance dunng the nesting season The Forest monitors nesting success annually and (1) Threatened and Endangered conducts surveys to locate possible new nest Species sites

Bald Eagles The National Forest currently sup- The Forest can meet species recovery goals by recruiting wild hatched birds, but can accelerate ports 14 breeding pairs of bald eagles Five suitable unoccupied territones also exist Lands this process by supplementing natural popula- tions with birds from captive breedingprograms. immediately adjacent to the Forest support at Because of the remote locations of active and least three other pairs This density ranks the potential sites, human disturbance is not a major Forest as one of the most productive areas for problem breeding bald eagles in California Approxi- mately 6,900 acres on the Forest are included Shasta Crayfish The Shasta crayfish is the only mthm bald eagle nest territones, and approxi- invertebrate species found on or near the Forest mately 7-15 young eagles are fledged on the that is Federally listed as Endangered. It was Forest annually As many as 80 bald eagles placed on the Endangered list in September unnter on the Forest Potential habitat exists for 1988 an estimated maxlmum of 19 nesting pairs on the Forest itself, adjacent lands have additional Habitat for the Shasta crayfish is found in the habitat The Forest has been assigned a goal of Hat Creek and Pit River drainages The species 16 breeding pairs in order to meet its contribu- requires a clear, temperature-constant aquatic tion to population recovery envlronmenf provided by spring-fed streams and lakes Current population levels are re- Current management includes monitoring nest- duced due to competition from introduced exotic ing success and coordinating bald eagle needs species ofcrayfish that compete with the Shasta mth other resource activlties, and with the Cali- crayfish An inventory of potential Shasta cray- fornia Department of Fish and Game and the fish habitat was conducted in 1990 on the Forest, US. Fish and Wildlife Semce Needs for exist- but no populations were found In all manage- ing and future eagle nesting habitat are coordi- ment actions the Forest will protect and/or en- nated with the Forest’s timber sale program hance all known and potential habitat for the Shasta crayfish Nesting success depends on the presence of suit- able nest trees, an adequate forage base, and (2) Sensitive Species freedom from disturbance during the nesting season. Species recovery depends on eliminating Fisher The fisher classified as Sensitive by the the problem of pesticide contamination, elimi- ReQonal Forester, requires dense Douglas-fir nating the killing of individual birds, and mam- and mixed conifer forest types where pines com- taming adequate undisturbed habitat to permit prise 20 to 80 percent of the timber cover Hard- normal annual population recruitment Although woods may be an important component of fisher the Forest has control over some of the factors habitat in some areas that affect eagles, anumber offactors are outside Forest Service management responsibilities or In the northern Sierra Nevada of California, the occur away from National Forest Lands mean elevation of the majority of fisher sightings

Chapter 3 -AffectedEnvironment 3-99 is 5,500 feet (1,676 meters) Preferred habitat is Great Gray Owls Great gray owls are designated charactenzed by dense (60 to 100 percent canopy), as Sensitive by the Forest Service in California. multi-storied, multi-species, mature coniferous They are probably the rarest owls in the Sierra forestslvlth ahighnumber oflarge snags (greater Nevadas. They require stands of overmature than 30 inches DBH), and down logs which pro- timber contaming large snags adjacent to large vide adequate cover and an abundance ofpoten- meadows There has been only one great gray tial den sites. These areas must be in close owl located on the Forest in recent years proximity to dense riparian corndors and saddles between major drainages, for use as travelways The forest can provlde for great gray owls by An interspersion of small openings (less than 2 managmg meadow ecotones to preserve large, acres) with good ground cover is also required for overmature trees and high snag densities foragmg use Habitat in unroaded areas is pre- ferred Marten The marten is classified as Sensitive in the Pacific Southwest Region Marten are op- The Forest does not have current information on portunistic feeders, with much seasonal vana- population numbers or trends for fisher Be- tion in their diet, and meadows adjacent to tim- cause fisher habitat requirements are greater ber are important foragng habitat Large blocks than the Forest can provlde, the Lassen National of mature and overmature forest for denning and Forest, alone, cannot support a viable fisher foragmg are needed Optimal habitat is conifer population The Forest will, however, contribute and mixed conifer-hardwood forests with multi- to maintaining population vlability for the fisher stoned stand structure, large hameter trees, by establishing management direction that pro- dense canopy and stand decadence vides for a series of suitable habitat areas, all connected by travel corndors to other areas of The Forest does not have information on popula- suitable habitat on adjacent lands within the tion numbers or trend Although there are his- Klamath and Sierra Nevada provinces toncal sightings of marten, their elusive nature makes them difficult to locate and study The In March 1990, five habitat management areas major issue IS a reduction of old growth stands (HMA's),with dispersalhave1corridors connect- through timber harvesting and the resulting ing them, were tentatively identified for the decline of suitable marten habitat LassenNationalForest These 9,800 acreHMA's were delineated in areas of known fisher obser- In March 1990,19 marten habitat management vations and suitable habitat Each habitat area areas were modeled on the west side of the is connected by a 600 foot wide travel corridor Forest, linked mth 600 foot wide travel corndors which generally follows riparian areas and has to provide dispersion routes for young Habitat 50 to 60 percent canopy closure. areas and corndors were also located to provlde linkages to other areas of suitable habitat on Adequate acreage of suitable habitat is fnnda- adjacent lands and through Lassen Volcanic mental to maintaining viable fisher populations, National Park The locations of the HMA's meet however, a key issue in management of the the habitat requirements for marten as summa- species involves habbt reduction through tim- rized in a comprehensive literature remew for ber harvest Fisher dependence upon old and the Pacific Southwest Regon The network was mature successional stages of forest makes man- designated based on (1)historical information agement of their large terntories difficult The for marten or suitable habitat, (2) proper distri- Forest's goal, as described above, is to provlde bution of habitat as defined by the re@onal fisher habitat by maintaining areas suitable for literature renew, (3)presence of areas of marten denning, resting, and foragmg Scheduled tim- habitat that most closely meet the 2,100 acre ber harvesting is deferred in fisher HMAs until guideline, and (4)minimizing impacts on other additional information is gathered on their popu- Forest goals Scheduled timber harvesting is lation trends and habitat requirements See deferred in marten HMA's until additional infor- Appendix T in the Plan for an analysis of the mation is available on their population trends current situation and management constraints and habitat requirements See Appendix T in

3-100 Chapter 3-Affected Environment the Plan for additional information on manage- ests that possess the appropnate structural and ment constraints vegetational attnbutes mth abundant prey spe- cies. Optimal habitat is true fir and mixed Northern Goshawks Goshawks are designated conifer forests wth multi-stoned stand struc- as Sensitive by the Forest Semce in California ture, large diameter trees, dense canopy closure They appear to be limited by the amount and and stand decadence quality of nesting habitat, which generally con- sists of closed-canopy conifer stands of large Inventories have located at least 87 pairs of diameter trees Twenty active goshawk nesting California spotted owls on the Forest There are terntones have been identified on the Forest, no known pairs of northern spotted owls on the but frequent sightings of adult birds in other Forest The total known spotted owl population areas strongly indicate the presence of many on the Lassen as of 1991 is 191 indivlduals, one additional breeding pairs of which is in the range of the northern spotted owl In order to insure that a vlable population of goshawks occurs over time on the Forest, a net- In January 1987, the U S fish and Wildlife work of terntones was identified throughout Semce (USFWS) received a petition to list the potential goshawk habitat on the Forest The northern spotted owl as an endangered species network met the ReDonal Planning Direction of under the Endangered Species Act In June at least one territory per 18 square miles, and 50 1989, the USFWS proposed to list the northern acres of mature habitat per pair These critena spotted owl as Threatened Follomng this pro- resulted in a habitat network for 113 pairs of posal, an interagency commttee of scientists goshawks for the Forest and researchers (ISC) was formed to develop a conservation strategy for this subspecies. Their The Forest can provlde for goshawks by protect- report, issued in Apnl 1990, recommended the ing mature forest habitat for nesting Future creation ofHahitat Conservation Areas (HCA) to nesting habitat may also be provlded by silvlcul- replace theSOHAmanagementconceptin Wash- tural treatments Foragmg habitat can be im- ington, Oregon, and the Klamath Province of proved by increasing habitat age diversity Northern California One HCA is located on through timber harvest Shasta National Forest lands administered by the Lassen In June 1990, the USFWS listed the Szerra Nevada Red Fox The Sierra Nevada red northern spotted owl as Threatened throughout fox is classified as Sensitive in California. Little its range is known about the life cycle of this fox, but it seems to be rather general in its habitat require- Pending enactment of new legdation, any appli- ments and not particularly abundant in any cable action by the Endangered Species Commit- habitat type There have been mdely scattered tee, adoption of a recovery plan by the Fish and sightings over many years on the Forest Wildlife Semce, or the results of further bioloa- cal consultation between the Forest Service and Forest management will probably not affect the the Fish and Wildlife Semce, the Forest Semce range or distnbution of the Sierra Nevada red mll conduct timber management activlties in a fox, and no special management practices mll be manner not inconsistent with the Interagency required Scientific Committee recommendations.

Spotted Owls Two subspecies of the spotted owl The California spotted owl is considered Sensi- are found on lands managed by the Lassen Na- tive by the Pacific Southwest Regon of the For- tional Forest The northern spotted owl (Strm est Service Without active efforts to protect occzdentalzs caurina) is found north of Highway sufficient habitat, the California subspecies could 299 TheCaliforniaspottedowl(Strzxocczdentalzs also reach Threatened or Endangered status. occzdentalzs) is found south of Highway 299 Both subspecies tend to occupy similar habitat The Pacific Southwest ReDonal Gmde dfrects large blocks of mature and over-mature forest for that a network of California spotted owl territo- foragmg, roosting, and nesting, or younger for- nes be established to insure species vlability

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-101 The number of SOHA's necessary to provlde a mined This 125 acre size delineation was devel- vlable population on the Lassen National Forest oped from the standards and guides in the ISC 1s 39 report. The report recommended that a 1/4 mle radius or 125 acres of habitat be protected for In December 1982, the Forest identified the nesting pairs ofowls outside ofHCAs No sched- locations of the 39 Spotted Owl Habitat Areas uled timber harvesting mll occur mthm the (SOHA'S) that best met the Reglonal require- SOHA network or HCA ments for an owl network to maintain species vlabihty while minimzing the impact on other Willow Flycatcher Willow flycatchers have been Forest goals The SOHA network was based on designated as Sensitive by the Regonal For- several factors (1)the presence of owls or suit- ester. This flycatcher is dependent upon ripar- able habitat; (2)proper hstnbution as defined in ian deciduous habitat or wet meadows mth wil- Reaonal direction, (3) the presence of amounts low thickets. Willow flycatchers were confirmed of owl habitat that most closely met the 1,000 to inhabit the Forest in 1990 acre gudeline for suitable base habitat and 650 acres of replacement habitat; and (4) the lack of All npanan habitat and meadows mll be pro- conflict mth active timber sales tected using Best Management Practices (Forest Plan, Appendlx &I. These measures should as- In addition to the 39 SOHA's that met require- sure continuing populations of the dlow fly- ments, four new SOHA's were established to catcher. further enhance spotted owl viability on the Forest Three of these were located in the Pit (3) Other Species River "corridor" to enhance hspersal and inter- change opportunities between the northern and Mule Deer andBlack -Tailed Deer The California California owl subspecies in the Klamath and Department of Fish and Game has completed Sierra Nevada provmces. The fourth was added management plans for the SIX deer herds on the because it contained a successfully reproducing Forest The follomng information is drawn from pair of California spotted owls in habitat not these plans previously considered mthin its range In 1990, the three SOHA's north of Highway 299 were Although deer populations increased follomng replaced by a Habitat Conservation Area, as the early days of loggmg and grazing, they have discussed in Appendur S of the Plan This area declined sigmficantly in the recent past De- constitutes the southeastern limt of the north- clines have been due to a vanety of factors in- ern spotted owl's range The HCA established by cluding maturation of brush vegetation, conver- the ISC report is located on Shasta National sion ofbrush habitat to timber, and housing and Forest lands which are admnistered by the Las- recreational development It is estimated that sen. The three SOHA'S mthin the focus of the 49,000 deer used the Forest for summer range in study by the ISC report are no longer being 1982. The target for the population on Forest managed as SOHA's Instead, they mll be man- land is 54,760, based on values listed III the aged in a manner not inconsistent mth the indivldual Califorma Department of fish and recommendations found in the ISC report Game Deer Herd Plans (Appendur T) Coordi- nating resource management actinties (espe- Within the SOHA's and HCA, only 27,000 acres cially timber management) and other habitat of suitable habitat remain, creating a shortfall of improvement m11 help achieve this goal 48,000 acres Shortfalls in acreages of suitable habitat are expected to be eliminated mthin 30- About 200,000 acres ofthe Forest lie mthin deer 50 years as younger stands mature and become mnter range, but only about 53,000 are suitable suitable Dunng the interim, non-network owls for treatment to increase carrymgcapacity. Most m11 be protected until there are 39 nesting pairs of this is in the wedgeleafceanothus type around mthin the SOHA'S Forest direction calls for the Day Bench, Murken Bench, Lake Britton, and protection of 125 acres for each non-network pair the front country foothills found If a single owl is found, 125 acres mll be protected from timber harvesting for two field For the past several years the Forest has camed seasons until the status of the bird can be deter- out presenbed burning of several thousand acres

~ ~

3- 102 Chapter 3-Affected Environment of winter range per year, in a program coopera- use, some competition between cattle and prong- tively financed mth the Califorma Department horn probably occurs. of Fish and Game. Such work should be coupled wlth improvement of fawning habitat and sum- According to Pyshora (1981), water availability mer range to be most effective Ideally, timber or predation of antelope kids by coyotes could be harvests should be coordinated so that location, limiting this subpopulation Although these size, and timmg of treatments provide desirable pronghorn show the lowest sumval of young for forage-to-cover ratios and fawning habitat any subherd in the State, they mcreased from approxlmately 432 animals in 1958 to 1,428 in Osprey The osprey population on Forest lands is 1981 about 32 pairs. It is currently stable and produc- tion has increased markedly since the late 1960’s Pronghorn numbers can probably be increased if and early 1970’s. Nesting habitat is adequately the Forest Semce continues to develop water protected. The Forest mohfies timber manage- sources, allocates additional forage to antelope, ment activities mthm active and potential nest- and modifiesfences to pernut free antelopemove- ing areas to prevent disturbance, and to provlde ment Some reduction in forage use by domestic current and future nest trees. livestock may also be necessary. Conflicts be- tween antelope, hvestock, and wild horses on Populations on National Forest lands could po- WmterrangesofftheForestwouldalsoneedtobe tentially be increased by 20 percent at Eagle resolved. Lake and by a small amount at McCoy Flat Reservoir, the remainder of the Forest is prob- Western Gray Squirrel Graysquimels are present ably approaching capacity. Opportunities to en- throughout the Forest wherever oaks, pines, and hance habitat include provlding surtable snags, snags are present Abundant populations ofgray constructing artificial nesting platforms, and squirrels currently emst on the Forest Opportu- mamtaining a permanent pool at McCoy Flat nities exist to improve habitat for this species by and other reservoirs. mampulating young stands of hardwoods to pro- duce older age classes, by protecting oak stands Pdeated Woodpecker Pileated woodpeckers are during timber harvesting activities, and by re- found throughout the Forest within comfer and generating older oak stands through timber conlfer-hardwood stands, where large diameter management and burning. softwood snags are present. Conflicts m manag- ing ths species occur pnmarily from timber and Snags, and Dead and Down Wood Snags and fuels management actinties which reduce the dead and down wood are important to many older age class oftimber, remove standing snags wildlife species Snags provlde needed habitat and down logs, and salvage recent timber mor- for at least 47 bird species, 26 mammals, and tality. Fuelwood gathering also limits the num- many reptiles and amphibians on the Forest ber of standing snags on the Forest where vehicle Dead and down wood has similar value as habi- access is easy. tat for wildlife Management Indicator Species dependent on snags and/or dead and down wood Opportunities exist to create and/or recruitlarge- are the bufflehead, hairy woodpecker, pileated diameter softwood snags into areas now defi- woodpecker, marten, black bear, bald eagle, cient, and to provide an adequate distribution of osprey, and spotted owl. older mature mixed conifer stands throughout the Forest. The Pacfic Southwest Regional Gude specifies that, to the extent possible, 1 5 snags per acre be Pronghorn The Forest provides approxlmately maintained with each timber compartment seven percent of the total habitat used by the Surveys conducted in 1980 showed that mured- Lassen subherd of pronghorn antelope This is conifer and red fir habitat types had adequate primarily summer range mthin Grays, Harvey, snag densities. Much of the eastside pine type Pine Creek, and Antelope valleys has snag densities too low to insure long-term vlability of cavlty dependent species; additional Cattle and pronghorn graze together on summer snags mll be mamtamed by limtmg firewood ranges and, in areas of concentrated livestock cutting and salvage harvestmg. Live culls may

~~ ~ Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3- 103 also be substituted for dead snags, provlded at Hydroelectric development may damage npar- least one dead snag remains per acre. ian systems dunng construction and through reduction of flows. Proposals for small power- Dead and down wood on the Forest is abundant generating facilities on Rock Creek, Grizzly as a result of accumulations of natural fuels, and Creek, Hat Creek, and Lost Creek appear the loggmg and thinmng slash. However, adequate most feasible. Analysis of their potential effects dataonthe amounts, sizes, andconditionarenot on the npanan habitat wll be necessary before always available It is assumed that vlable popu- construction is approved lations of species dependent on such material can be maintained if effective coordmation con- Lakes mth tunbered borders are important to tinues between fuels and wldlife management cavlty nesting waterfowl such as the bufflehead Loss of nesting sites has occurred at older im- Waterfowl and Riparian Dependent Species- Ri- poundments due to rotting of flooded snags, and panan vegetation on the Forest vanes widely wood cutters have removed snags from some Sedges and rushes dominate ephemeral wet- lakeshores. Improvement opportunities include lands. Willows, cottonwoods, alders, and aspen protection and recruitment of snags and erection grow along intermittent and perennial streams; of nest boxes. and oaks, maples, and dogwoods line the banks of larger streams in the western part of the The supply of npanan habitat cannot be in- Forest creased over present levels except where new impoundments are constructed The quality of Management Indicator Species that depend on nparian habitat, however, can be improved npanan habitat are the bufflehead, mallard, through better coordination wth other resource goshawk, spotted owl, deer, marten, fisher, black activlties. bear, chinook salmon, steelhead trout and rain- bow trout. There are currently about 60,000 acres of peren- nial and ephemeral wetland habitat on or adja- Grazing by domestic livestock has reduced the cent to the Forest Lake Almanor and Eagle productinty of some nparian areas, particularly Lake account for about 51,000 of these acres along the streams in the more and portions ofthe These wetland areas provlde sigmficant habitat Forest. Although the extent and degree of dam- for breeding and wintenng waterfowl age has not been surveyed, vlsual inspection mdxates thempacts are primarily physical dam- Excellent opportunities exlst to increase wet- age to the plants, structural damage to streams land habitat quality and waterfowl production and streambanks, and in some cases, lowenng of on at least 5,000 wetland acres. The pnmary the water table The Forest has recently begun hmting factors for waterfowl on these areas are a program of npanan enhancement. Sigmficant inadequate amounts of water and nesting habi- opportunities emst to improve ripanan areas by tat If water nghts could be obtained, a number fencing selected reaches of streams and by using of impoundments could be constructed Con- improved grazing systems (Ruyle et. al. 1980). structionofwells to usegroundwater may also he feasible Nesting habitat can be improved mth Timber harvesting, skidding of logs, and leavlng construction of nesting islands or other struc- thinning slash in and around streams have his- tures, and by better coordination wth livestock toncally been common practices that resulted in grazing riparian degradation mmber operations no longer cause significant damage to ripanan Oaks and Aspen Oaks are an important habltat habitat, as a result of coordination with other type for wiIdlife because they contribute food, resource needs Use of Best Management Prac- cover and structural diversity to an ecosystem tices (BMP’s) for streamside management zones Management indicator species that depend on has helped dramatically. Restonng past damage oaks include gray squirrel, deer, and black bear however, is an important prionty for npanan Retaining oaks 111 mixed conifer/oak stands and habitat wthin forested areas allowng their replacement over time is neces-

3-104 Chapter 3-Affected Environment sary to maintain habitat for these and other d. Demand species A number of different oak species grow on the Forest, each producing somewhat differ- The Forest generates an estimated 62,400 Wild- ent habitat values For a more detailed discus- life and Fish User Days (WFUD’s) annually from sion of these habitats refer to the Vegetation and wildlife-associated recreation (a WFUD is a 12- Diversity section hour actimty day) Approximately 43 percent of this recreation is spent hunting while the re- Many stands of Oregon oak are dense and have mainder consists ofwldlifeoriented nature study, grown too tall to be available as deer forage. viewing, hiking, and camping Deer and water- Although habitat conditions in the blue oak sa- fowl hunting are the major hunting activlties vannah and black oak woodland are generally Bird watching and associated activities are the high at present, lack of establishment of young major non-consumptive demand for wildlife trees is a problem in the blue oak type, and decline in vlgor of old stands is a problem in the Public interest in bald eagles and peregrine fal- black oak type cons is extremely high Bald eagles and osprey generate much interest from bird watchers at Invasion of oak stands by conifers may provlde Eagle Lake, Lake Almanor, and Lake Britton higher quality habitat for some non-game spe- The Forest’s share ofbald eagles needed to reach cies However, continued growth of conifers may recovery from Endangered status is 16 breedlng reduce habitat quality as oaks become shaded pairs, two more than presently exist Likewise, out High conifer density in the understory may two additional breeding pairs of peregrine fal- limit accessibility of stands to deer Relatively cons are needed to meet species recovery goals on little conversion of mixed conifer-oak stands to the Forest Public concern for spotted owl and pure conifers has occurred on the Forest goshawks centers around perpetuating species viability, associated suitable habitat, and the Several management actinties have the poten- viability of other old growth dependent species tial to improve oak habitats Shrub oak types Because of the implications on timber productlon could benefit from burning Dense Oregon oak of providing habitat for these species, the de- shrub stands can be thinned to increase tree size mand is of local, reaonal, and national signifi- Successful regeneration ofblue oaks is an impor- cance tant need on the Forest, as well as statewide The black oak type may benefit from burning to Hunter demand for pronghorn antelope far ex- regenerate shrub stands and remove encroach- ceeds supply In 1982, over 14,000 permit appli- ing conifers, and from thinning to enhance mast cations were received but only 600 hunting per- production and longevity Some older stands mits were issued for all of northeastern Califor- may eventually require regeneration to improve nia Of these, only about 85 were issued for the productivity The mixed-conifer/oak type could subpopulation that uses the Forest The Cahfor- benefit from removal of competing conifers by nia Department of Fish and Game’s long-term timber harvest or prescribed burning goal is to increase this subherd from 1,400 to 2,500 animals Aspen is another important hardwood commu- nity Although it grows in limited amounts, Demand for deer hunting also far exceeds sup- either in very small stands or intermixed with ply In order to meet demand, the California conifers, it improves the nchness of assomated Department of Fish and Game deer herd plans habitats Currently, most aspen stands are old request higher deer populations in deer herds and decadent with little sign of natural repro- Although State-wide demand for deer is stable or duction Disturbance such as fire or cutting IS slightly declining, demand for deer will continue necessary to perpetuate them Pilot projects to increase on the Forest due to the larger size of using cutting and fencing to exclude livestock deer and higher bunting success rates Water- have been implemented and may be expanded fowl hunting will continue to be in high demand

Chapter 3 -Affected Environment 3-105 as private landowners continue to limit hunting on their lands. The California Department of Fish and Game recognizes this demand and has recently financed many waterfowl habitat im- provement projects on National Forest lands The wetlands program on the Forest is of high regional and national significance because rela- tively few other National Forests have potential for significant waterfowl production

Satisfymg the demand for nparian habitat, oak habitats, wetlands, snags, dead and down wood, and plant and animal diversity are major goals for the Forest Maintainingvlable populations of all animals directly depends on providing these highly specific habitats and habitat elements Perpetuating productive and healthy ecosystems may also depend on achieving goals for habitat elements and special habitats

3- 106 Chapter 3-Affected Environment Environmental uences

California spotted owl CHAPTER4 - ENVIRONlMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

A. INTRODUCTION term productivity are also discussed at the end of Chapter 4 The purpose of this chapter is to disclose the environmental consequences of implementing Irreversible and irretrievable resource commit- the alternatives descnbed in Chapter 2 Relative ments are not normally made at the program- to the existing conditions and affected envlron- matic level of a Forest Plan Irreversible com- ment described in Chapter 3, each alternative mitments are decisions affecting non-renewable potentially impacts various resource elements resources such as soils, minerals, cultural re- within the envlronment Those effects are pre- sources, and plant and animal species Such sented in this chapter, and form the scientific commitments of resources are considered irre- and analytic basis for the environmental com- versible when the resource has detenorated to parison of alternatives summanzed in Chapter the point that renewal can occur only over a long 2 penod of time or at a great expense, or the resource has been destroyed or removed For The descnption of environmental consequences instance, the gradual decline in old-growth habi- is groupedbythe same resource elementsusedin tat would be considered an irreversible commit- the previous two chapters Impacts on each of ment While the application of management the 26 socio-economic and resource elements are prescnptions allowing land altenng activities discussed in terms of their significant direct, can indicate the potential for such commitments, indirect, and cumulative effectk) Direct envl- the actual commitment to develop, use or affect ronmental effects are defined as those occurring non-renewable resources is made at the project at the same time and place as the initial cause or level action. Indirect effects are those that occur later in time or are spatially removed from the activ- Irretrievable commitments represent opportu- ity, but would be significant in the foreseeable nities foregone for the period during which re- future Cumulative effects result from the incre- sources use or production cannot be realized mental effects of actions when added to other These decisions are reversible, hut the produc- past, present, or reasonably foreseeable future tion opportunities foregone are irretrievable An action, regardless of what agency (Federal or example ofsuch commitments is the allocation of non-Federal) or person undertakes such other management prescriptions that do not allow tim- actions Cumulative effects can result from indi- ber harvest in areas containing suitable timber vidually minor, but collectively significant ac- lands For the time over which such allocations tions taking place over a period of time are made, the opportunity to produce timber from those areas is foregone, thus irretrievable Potential adverse environmental effects which Irreversible and irretrievable commitments are cannot be avoided are discussed at the end ofthis discussed in more detail at the end of Chapter 4 chapter Unavoidable adverse effects result from managmg the land for one resource at the ex- All effects disclosed in this chapter assume com- pense of the use or condition of other resources plete compliance with the Standards and Guide- Many adverse effects can be reduced or miti- lines summarized in Chapter 2 Environmental gated by limiting the extent or duration of ef- consequences would be far more severe, or unac- fects ceptable in the absence of Standards and Guide- lines, and accompanying Best Management Prac- Short-term uses (effects) are those that occur tices (BMPs) These Standards and Guidelines annually or within the first ten years of project contain many of the mitigation measures that implementation Long-term productivity refers avoid, minimize, reduce, or eliminate probable to the capability of the land and resources to or potential environmental impacts Standards continue producing goods and services for 50 and Guidelines, in coordination with Monitoring years and beyond Short-term uses and long- and Evaluation requirements, serve as the

Chapter 4-Envzronmental Consequences 4- 1 mechanism for reaching desired future condi- B. DIRECT, INDIRECT, tions The Monitoring and Evaluation Plan com- prises Chapter 5 ofthe Forest Plan and applies to AND CUMULATIVE all alternatives ENVIR0"TAL CONSEQUENCES For estimating the effects of alternatives at the programmatic Forest Plan level, the assumption has been made that the kinds of resource man- ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES agement activities allowed under the manage- ment prescriptions will in fact occur to the extent Zntroduction necessary to achieve the goals and objectives of each alternative However, the actual location, The major effects of the alternatives on the hu- design and extent of such actinties is not known man ennronment would be changes in economic at this time That is a project level decision opportunities associated with Forest resources, Thus, in many cases the discussions refer to the and changes in the quality of resources such as potential for effects to occur, realizing that these scenery, wildlife, and recreation use Economic are only estimates. The effects analysis is useful Opportunities are examined by considering the in comparing and evaluating alternatives, but amount of money which would be paid from should not be applied per se to any specific Forest receipts to counties, and shifts in employ- location within the Forest ment and income levels resulting from changes in Forest outputs, receipts, and expenditures Maps for each of the alternatives, including the These factors, along with less quantifiable proposed action, are included in the Map Packet changes in amenity values, are considered in These maps show the geographic distnbution, by examining the effect of the alternatives on alternative, of management prescnptions and lifestyles and community structure show the differences in emphases between alter- natives Changes in management on the Lassen National Forest could have profound effects on the people The issue of herbicide use was addressed in a who live, work, and recreate on or near the final environmental impact statement for veg- Forest However, these social and economc im- etative management and reforestation issued by pacts are often the most difficult impacts to the Pacific Southwest ReDon in March 1989 (see predict with certainty because of the many other Chapter 2, section E 2 d), which is hereby incor- vanables which must be considered These vari- porated by reference Therefore, no additional ables include economicindicators such as growth discussion of the consequences of herbicide use is or slowdown both in the reBonal and national presented in this chapter economies, and factors related to personal pref- erences for types of recreation actinties The following abbreviations for the alternatives are used throughout this chapter In general, the effects of the alternatives are determinedby comparing projected conditionsin PRF Preferred Alternative the next decade to average conditions from the past 10 years The baseline from which social and economic changes are measured is an esti- CUR Current Alternative mate of the present contribution of Forest activities and outputs to local communities This baseline is intended to represent the average EGP Environmental Group level of activities and outputs from the Forest. Alternative The social analysis largely focuses on the effects TGP Timber Industry Group ofeconomic changes dunng the first decade within Alternative communities in the counties surrounding the

4-2 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Forest These changes would result mostly from Table 4-1 decreases in the amount of timber harvested, and increases in recreational use of the Forest Comoarison of Alternatives' Economic Effects Alternative Chapter 3, under "Economic and Social Environ- Indicator PRF CUR EGP TGP ments", discusses the existing conditions on and around the Forest For a more detailed discus- PNV(MM$) al 946 1,315 874 1,060 sion ofassumptions and analysis procedures and reBonal timber supplies, refer to Appendices D Benefit-Cost and W Ratio 300 358 276 292 a. Direct and Indirect Effects Employment (Decade 1) 1,624 2,296 1,618 1,860

Each alternative would create drrect, rndarect Annual Income and cumulatrue effects Direct effects are the (MM$ Decade 1) 487 688 485 558 estimated government expenditures for each al- ternative As a result ofthese expenditures, the Estimated public consumes forest products (both goods and FRF Payments sernces) This in turn produces indirect effects (Decade 1) 55 I8 59 68 including benefits, revenue, jobs, and incomes MM$ Cumulative effects on the social and economic environment reflect the net effect of Forest ser- Forest Budget (MM$ Decade 1) 163 151 170 185 vice programs on the entire array of Forest users Examples of these effects include the economic Net Cash Flow viability of Forest programs, the total predicted (MM$ Decade 1) 50 157 58 77 changes in jobs and income, opportunity costs, and resulting impacts on lifestyles, attitudes, and community cohesion a/ The Minimum Level Benchmark (MLV) described in Chapter 2 reveals the background costs of simply maintaining the National Forest in Federal owner- The economic consequences of implementing the ship In order to compare the effect of the manage- alternatives can be measured in various ways ment alternatives, these background costs have been Some of the more important direct effects in- subtracted from the PNV in each alternative clude

Present Net Value (PNV), PNV Discounting values to a common period makes possible a comparison of benefits and Benefit-Cost Ratio, costs that occur at different times

Area Employment and Income, Due to the unique age structure of the forest, PNV was never maximized The age structure of Forest Reserve Fund Payments, the Lassen Forest has a high proportion of age class 2 stands, poles and young sawtimber The Forest Budget, and, maximum PNV would result from deferring tim- ber harvest in those stands for several decades, Net Cash Flow to allow the trees to mature into higher values However, the principle of sustained yield was These direct effects are summarized in Table 4- allowed to override the best economic solution, in 1, and are described below in more detail order to provide stable employment and eco- nomic returns to the local community Present Net Value (PNV) Present Net Value is a measure of relative economic scale and After constraining the model for sustained yield efficiency All future costs and benefits of each and applying each alternative's unique set of alternative were discounted to the 1982 base additional constraints, the Forest Planningmodel year The difference, benefits less costs, is the (FORPLAN) allocated land uses and scheduled

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-3 activities to maximize the PNV of each The overall effect on the employment difference alternative between any alternative is determined by the amount oftimber that is actually harvested, and Benefit-Cost Ratio Benefits include revenues not by the amount offered for sale by the Forest received by the Forest for timber, grazing, camp- Service Employment is dependent on the mar- ingfees, and other special use fees Benefits also ket conditions that the timber industry faces, on include the value of recreation and other ameni- its supply of needed timber, and on the degree of ties on the Forest Alternatives with higher plant modernization that is occurring It is esti- allowable sale quantities would produce higher mated that each additional million board feet of levels of cash benefits Alternatives with lower timber harvested from the Forest results in ap- harvest levels would produce more non-cash ben- proximately nine jobs in the local economy Ad- efits ditional employment opportunities beyond the local economy are also affected by local timber Federal costs are tied to units ofoutput produced harvest No attempt has been made to account under the various alternatives An alternative for these added jobs lvlth a high level of timber harvest has higher total sale preparation and administration costs, The average industry harvest from the Forest for example Costs are based on projections of from 1970 to 1990 was 178 MMBF from an proposed budgets and may not reflect funding average allowable sell of 178 MMBF dunng the that would be received in future years same period of time In the last SIX years (1986 - 1991), the sell has ranged from a high of 169 If the value of the ratio of the total discounted MMBF to a low of 82 MMBF for an average of 145 future benefits to costs is greater than one, then MMBF This gwes a histoncal perspective with the Forest's expenditures would be more effi- which to compare the estimated effects of em- cient than an investment of funds ylelding a ployment changes Technologxal changes as reasonable rate of return (assumed to be mvest- well as expected reductions in the available tim- ment in long-term corporate bonds at four per- ber supply from all ownerships in the impact cent interest) Table 4-1 shows that this effi- area may require fewer workers in the wood ciency would easily be exceeded in all alterna- products industry tives Recreation and tourism presently account for Area Employment and Income Forest out- about 20 percent of the job opportunities stimu- puts support local industries and provide rev- lated by Forest use Recreation and tourism enue to county school and road programs from employment opportumties are essentially the the sale of commodities Costs to operate the same for all alternatives, since recreation usage Forest include expenditures for salaries, ser- is primarily a function of population Forest vices and supplies Forest outputs and costs can management is assumed to affect the quality of create changes in employment and income within the recreation expenence much more than the local communities These changes are projected quantity ofrecreation utilization Livestockgraz- for the first decade and are based on the expected mg only accounts for about one percent of the level of timber harvest, recreational use, wildlife employment Opportunities, but the ranches that and fish habitat, payments to counties, and For- depend on Forest grazing are an important part est Service expenditures The projections in- of the local social fabne The remaining job clude both the direct effects that changes in opportunities are accounted for by direct Forest Forest outputs would have onjobs and income in employment and employment related to provld- the lumber and wood products, tounst, and fish- ing goods and services needed either directly for ing industnes, and the indirect effects in all the management ofthe Forest or by employees of sectors ofthe local economy The projections are the Forest and their families based on the Lassen National Forest IMPLAN model The estimates have not been adjusted to Forest Reserve Fund Payments Twenty-five account for recent advances in sawmill technol- percent of the gross receipts collected on the ogy which have eliminated many millworkers' Forest are distributed to counties for school and jobs in the past decade Details of the IMPJAN road programs These payments are projected model are provlded in Appendix B under"Imp1an" for each alternative based on the receipts from

4-4 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences future timber sales and fees from mineral leases, Total cost represents the cost of managmg the livestock grazing permits, campground users and National Forest under each alternative The special use permits Effects of changes in pay- total cost includes the cost ofrecreation, wildlife, ments would be felt most in Lassen, Plumas, and fisheries, transportation, and timber programs Tehama Counties The remaining effects would as well as the stewardship and protection costs be in Butte and Shasta Counties Changes in the for the Lassen National Forest receipts would affect the amount ofmoney avail- able for county road and school programs, and Net cash flow is an important indicator for two could also affect the taxes paid by local residents reasons First, net cash flow measures the abil- The differences in payments to counties among ity of the Forest to "make money" for the Ameri- alternatives would be due mostly to differences can people After Forest Reserve Fund payments in the level of timber harvested 1/ (computed as 25 percent of gross revenue) are The annual payments to counties in the first deducted from net cash flow, the remainder, if decade are shown in Table 4-1 They are pro- any, can be applied against the Federal debt jected to range from 5 5 million (adjusted for inflation to 1982 dollars) with the PRF Alterna- A second application of net cash flow is as an tive to 7 8 million for the CUR Alternative Pay- indicator ofthe economic viability of the Forest's ments can vary considerably from year to year timber sale program Timber related expendi- These values are based on the assumption that tures currently account for an average of 70 stumpage prices will be at the levels shown in percent of the Forest budget In every alterna- Appendix B, Table B-7 tive, significant net cash flow is generated, indi- cating that the timber program produces rev- Forest Budget Total annual projected costs of enuefarin excess ofexpenses Below-cost timber managmg the Forest vary by alternative, and sales, if they occur at all, would be infrequent are displayed for decade 1 in Table 4-1 A (While the timber sale program as a whole gen- substantial portion of the Forest's budget enters erates significant net revenue, it is conceivable the local economy The timber program associ- that an occasional below-cost timber sale could ated pnth each alternative may not be fully be part of the program This would occur only if funded Ifthis should occur, PNV, employment, the resource benefits exceeded the financial losses income, and Forest Reserve Fund payments of the sale would all be reduced Partial funding could also result in lower levels of commodity outputs and All Alternatives lower levels of maintenance and resource protec- tion These effects could range from insignifi- As the data show, annual income, employment, cant to very serious depending on the magnitude Forest Reserve Fund (FRFJ payments, and the of the funding shortfall Forest budget generally correlate with PNV Net Cash Flow Net cash flow is total revenue throughout the alternatives PNV is largely minus total Federal cost Total revenue includes dependent upon the level of timber production revenues from timber sales, user fees, special use The EGP Alternative is an exception to this permits, land uses, power permits, and mineral Although PNV is lowest under EGP, the FRF leasing The largest contributor to the total payments and net cash flow are higher under amount is timber sale revenues Timber sales EGP than in the PRF Alternative The reason for account for 98 percent of the total revenue on the this effect is that EGP harvests all of the older, Forest The amount of variation among alterna- highest value trees in the first decades, increas- tives in the total revenue is almost directly re- ing its receipts initially Receipts from later lated to the amount of timber harvest Alterna- decades, when the other alternatives maintain tives with the highest allowable sale quantity their value and increase their harvest levels, are also have the highest potential revenues not reflected in these figures

I/ Under certain circumstances, payments in lieu of taxes (PILT) by the federal government may offset a portion of the change in FRF payments for county school and road payments PILT payments are not re- stricted to just county school and road programs

Chapter 4-Env~ronmental Consequences 4-5 Although developed recreation contributes sig- TGP Alternative nificantly to PNV, it does not vary substantially between the alternatives PNV would be the second highest in this alterna- tive Efficiency in terms of the benefit-cost ratio The following is a discussion of the economic would be the third highest, resulting pnmanly consequences of each alternative from the increased use of clearcutting and even- aged timber management This alternative has PRF Alternative the second highest commodity outputs and em- ployment opportunities Net cash flow would be lowest under this alter- native while PNV would be the third highest SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES Economic efficiency, as indicated by the benefit- cost ratio, would be second highest, but lower a. Direct and Zndirect Effects than the Current Management (CUR) Alterna- tive This is caused by a 44 percent reduction in Ranchers, urban emigrants, government work- the timber sale program Increased recreation ers, timber industry workers, and Native Ameri- opportunities would only be partially offsetting cans are the social groups most likely to be The emphasis on amenities, such as visual qual- affected by Forest outputs, land allocations, and ity and semi-primitive recreation opportunities, management practices Social groups are cat- is not reflected in PNV, except to the extent that egories of people who share the same interests it affects the timber program Employment and concerns They are not mutually exclusive, opportunities would be nearly 29 percent lower and individuals may be included in more than than CUR, primarily because ofthe lower timber one group Other groups-women, handicapped, harvest elderly, minorities-are distributed within the five identified groups, and none of the alterna- CUR Alternative tives discriminate among them There are no disproportionate effects on Native Americans, The CURAlternative would have the highest net women, minorities or other groups cash flow, the highest benefit-cost ratio, and the highest PNV The benefit-cost ratio is the high- Social consequences resulting from economic ef- est due to the amount of high value intermediate fects ofthevanous alternatives will be measured harvestingproposed, which compensates formore by three criteria costly even-aged management, particularly clearcutting Efficiency, especially PNV, would be limited by the budget Economic efficiency 1) Lifestyle effects, would be gamed at the expense of amenities Visual quality constraints on timber production 2) Population effects, would be relatively low, only a few unroaded areas would be retained, and no new wilderness 3) Community cohesion effects would he recommended This alternative would provide the highest commodity outputs and em- Lifestyles Lifestyles are the characteristic way ployment opportunities different groups of people live, including both workandleisuretime Some people havelifestyles EGP Alternative that are financially dependent on a particular Forest resource (e g people working in tourism, This alternative emphasizes amenities over com- or the lumber and wood products industries) modities The PNV and benefit cost ratio are the Others are less financially dependent on forest lowest among the four alternatives due to exten- resource management sive use of group selection timber harvesting which is more expensive than other methods As discussed in Chapter 3 of the FEIS, people in This, in turn, would require in a higher Forest communities around the Forest or those who budget EGP produces the lowest commodity may be further away, but still consider the Las- outputs and employment opportunities sen National Forest to be important to them,

4-6 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences tend to fall into five social or minonty groups None of the alternatives would change the eco- ranchers, timber industry workers, government nomic and social conditions of the impact area workers, urban emigrants and Native Amen- populations in a predictable way No direct cans The lifestyles these people currently have potential net population effect can be discerned, may be very affected, or not at all affected, by particularly in the light of current in-migration. changes in Forest management The decrease in Forest commodity outputs would have minimal Community Cohesion The activities, resources effect on government workers and urban em- outputs, and envwonmentalcondltions that would grants. Some jobs could be lost, but the overall differ among the alternatives could affect the decllne would be small Any loss would tend to be cohesion and infrastructure of local communi- offset by the expected in-migration and popula- ties. Community infrastructures are public and tion growth, and an expandng service industry commercial facilities and serylces It is assumed The loss of jobs would be significant for timber that polanzation within a community is harm- industry workers The availability of traditional ful, and that this polanzation could be caused by resources and lands for Native Amencans would the adoption of an alternative which is perceived not change significantly in any alternative as favoring one point of mew over others In A reduction in Forest commodlty outputs and contrast, selectmg an alternative that somewhat increased management reqmrements would be meets the desires of diverse participants would felt most by ranchers and timber industry work- improve cohesion ers General economic activity would decline in those rural communities dependent upon the Most communities are not static, hut are con- timber industry In those areas, timber employ- stantly expcnencing change Effects on lifestyles ment levels would drop, and lifestyles, popula- are subject to many influences other than the tion levels, and community cohesion would management of the Lassen National Forest change Population and employment growth wthin the impact area in the last decade (and expected Population Net population change in the im- growth through theyear2000) has often strained pact area is most directly influenced by economic the level of services provided to county resi- opportunities and quality of the environment dents For instance, law enforcement programs Vanables such as jobs, recreation, tourism, and in some local communities are not adequate to other amenity values affect the level of in-migra- meet current needs Many schools have not been tion and economic growth Employment associ- able to keep pace mth the influx ofnew students. ated mth the goods and semces provlded by the State mandated programs have also strained Lassen National Forest has a minor influence in county budgets At least two counties within the the local economy, compared to other employ- impact area (Butte and Lassen) have recently ment sectors faced the possibility of declanng bankruptcy All of these factors affect community stability and Many communities have a history of moderate community cohesion Community stability is boom-and-bust population cycles due to the con- judged by two factors traction and expansion of the local economy Some of these cycles have been associated with Continuity of the financial base -the ex- the extraction of natural resources such as min- ing and timber harvesting Within the impact tent to which tax supported community area, employment related to agnculture, for- semces will be supported in the future. estry, and fishing has declined since 1982 In As discussed previously, the impact of the 1989, agnculture, forestry, and fishing accounted alternatives will be generated by changes for 2 5 percent ofthe total employment in the five in the county revenues which are tied to impact counties Employment related to manu- the timber program facturing wood products has remained steady at approximately ten percent of the total employ- Diverszfication of the communzty economy ment within the impact area A loss of employ- - the extent to which diversificationmakes ment in these sectors would not affect the overall it possible for the community to weather a population level downturn in one economic sector

~ Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-7 Because continuity of the financial base is inter- predict and define There are many vanables preted from Forest Reserve Fund payments and which shape the economc and social envlron- the total employment level, the CURAlternative ment Most of these are beyond the control ofthe meets this goal best The reduction in the Allow- Lassen National Forest The timber manage- able Sale Quantity with the EGP Alternative ment policies of other National Forests, other could result in an estimated loss of up to three government land management agencies, and pn- million dollars to county road and school pro- vate landowners can combine to have dramatic grams In Lassen County, which receives the effects on regonal timber supplies and rural majority ofthese receipts based on the amount of employment (See Appendix W National Forest land within the county, this could result in a two percent decline in their The Forest Semce has histoncally attempted to current (1990) funding level for schools and a 20 supply a relatively steady or increasing flow of percent decline in funding of the county road timber over time All alternatives would have program Both programs provide essential com- lower allowable sale quantities than histoncal munity services, and any loss of funds would levels Three alternatives would call for harvest reduce community cohesion levels significantly lower than those in the past two decades If all National Forest timber sup- Payments to counties are based on gross receipts plies were reduced, both the pnce and the har- and are mathematically denved The result is vest rate of local non-National Forest tmber based on the assumption that the amount of could increase proportionally, depending on na- timber offered and its selling price, and the tional and international market conditions and amount sold and its selling price mll be the competition The reduction of supply, along with same Both of these factors are highly unpre- the increased cost to mlls and technologwal dictable, and they depend more upon market advances, could also cause mill closures, includ- conditions within the national economy than ing some with regonal economc significance upon local Forest Service policies and practices Existing mills may need to re-tool and shift their A declining timber supply could lead to nsing operations to manufacture other, value-added prices wlnch would counter potential funding timber products such as doors, wmdows, or pel- decreases for county school and road programs lets for wood burmng stoves Mills geared to Loss ofemployment opportunities associatedmth handle large-diameter logs may have to re-tool to a lower Allowable Sale Quantity (ASQ) would process smaller diameter second growth. decrease community cohesion in towns de- pendent upon National Forest outputs Mills In summary, the impact area for the Lassen could close, and the sense of community identity National Forest can expect to have lower forest as a "timber town" could be lost Other commu- products employment levels (and related social nities mth more diversified economies have, effects) due to significant changes in timber histoncally, been able to ride out fluctuations in harvest volumes over the long term the timber market. Larger, more urbanized communities can better absorb the adverse ef- e. Mitigation Measures fects of a lower AS& without long-term impacts on program funding and unemployment levels A number of mitigation measures are available to communities facmg a decline in the supply of Commumty cohesion could also be affected by National Forest timber Some of them are be- the amount of land dedicated to other resource yond the control of the Forest One vanable uses besides timber harvest Old growth habi- within the Forest Semce's control is to phase in tat, ullderness, and roadless area management a gradual reduction of the Allowable Sale Quan- are specific resource uses that can cause commu- tity over a three to five year penod This would nity polanzation or cohesion depending upon lessen the shock to the economic structure of local preferences those communities that rely on National Forest timber It would gwe people time to plan for the b. Cumulative Effects expected employment and income changes The major drawback to this type of mitigation is that Cumulative economic and social effects related a gradual reduction in harvest levels over the to Forest Semce management are difficult to first five years of the Plan (which requires ini-

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4-8 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences tially maintaining it above the programmed ASQ) plant closing, or tailored for specific industries would necessitate an AS& below the programmed statewide, or targeted to high unemployment level in the latter half of the decade to compen- communities Called thcDislocated Worker Pro- sate gram, it provides Federal funding (with somc matching of state funds) for state-administcred Unemployment compensation,dislocated worker employment and training services aimed at re- programs, and retraining programs may some- employing the victims of displacement Discre- what mitigate the problems faced by people out tionary grants are also available to states (with of work due to lower harvest levels Some com- no requirement for matching state funds) to aid munities may pursue other employment oppor- indinduals who are affected by mass layoffs, tunities related to tounsm and recreation, and natural disasters, Federal government actions, the services sector Maintaining an attractive or who reside in areas of high unemployment or Forest environment has the benefit ofenhancing designated enterpnse zones recreational use Recreation and tourism are seasonal, however, and generally do not offer Tctle III authonzed a broad range of services year round employment Also, salaries in the Specifically,funds may be used to help re-employ services sector are often considerably less than dislocated workers through training and related in the manufacturing sector Mill workers and employment services which may include, but are loggers who transfer to other employment sec- not limited to tors may receive fewer benefits than they earned in the timber industry One goal of economic job assistance, development is to raise personal income which services sector jobs do not generally provide job development, Other communities may experience a gradual shiftinemploymentfromatimberbasedeconomy training in job skills for which employer to a more diversified one by continued in-migra- demand exceeds the supply of eligible tion of people from urban centers workers,

Depending upon Forest budgets, contract work programs conducted in cooperation with to implement the Plan could also be accom- employers or labor organizations to pro- plished early in the first decade This scheduling vide early intervention in the event of could increase the opportunity for local contrac- facility closures tors to compete for such work on the Forest Budgets permitting, this would reduce some of In addition, financial relocation assistance may the adverse employment impact from lower tim- be pronded ifthe State of California determines ber harvests that 1) the individual cannot obtain employ- ment within his or her commuting area, and 2) Several programs provide aid to rural communi- the individual has obtained ajoh or has a bona ties Among them are two Federal programs fide job offer in another area of the State which offer assistance to dislocated workers and to forest-dependent communities that are sig- Eliable individuals must fall into one of the nificantly affected by lower harvest levels They following general categories outlined in the Act are the 1982 Job Training Partnership Act and the 1990 Farm Bill Some of the assistance they Have been terminated or received notice offer is summarized below oftermination from employment, are eli- able for or have exhausted their entitle- Title I11 ofthe 1982 Job TruiningPurtnership ment to unemployment compensation, Act (JTPA)authorized a program to assist expe- and are unlikely to return to their previ- rienced workers who have permanently lost their ous industry or occupation, or jobs due to technoloacal displacement, foreign competition or other structural changes in the Have been or will be terminated as a economy Programs can also be organized in result of any permanent closure of a response to crisis situations such as a major plant or facility, or

Chapter 4-Enutronmental Consequences 4-9 Are long-term unemployed with little grams can be established to assist businesses, likelihood of employment in a similar industries, and policymakers to create jobs, raise occupation near where they live, or incomes, and increase public revenues in a man- ner consistent with environmental concerns Are unemployed older individuals who These programs ~1111)identify opportunities for may have substantial barriers to em- resource-based industnes to become more effi- ployment by reason of age cient, productive, and competitive; 2)assist busi- nesses with marketing, 3) provide training and The California Timber Industry Revitalization education services focusing on community eco- Committee in Qumcy, CA is an example of a nomic analysis and diversification, and 4)train program funded through JTPA and the Depart- local leaders in strategx community economic ment of Commerce Under this program, the development Committee has focused on the potential market for a hardwood industry in California. Its goal is Upon request and selection, ehBble communi- to look at other resource products, in this par- ties will work with the Forest Service, and other ticular case tan oak and black oak paneling, that agencies and the private sector, to prepare an would provlde a vlable substitute for soft wood economic diversification action plan This action manufacturing and help stabilize the State's plan m11 identify opportunities to expand the timber industry Because a skilled labor force economic base ofthe community, and alleviate or related to softwood manufacturing already ex- reduce their dependence on national forest re- ists in rural areas such as the northern coastal sources To implement action plans, grants, counties, natural resource opportunities for eco- cooperative agreements, and contracts from the nomic diversification are emphasized Pellet Department of Agnculture may be obtained to milling is another product being studied The provide the necessary technical and related as- Committee is also explonng economic diversifi- sistance. In addition, the Department ofAgricul- cation through other areas of potential growth ture may make loans to economically disadvan- that are not natural resource based and possibly taged rural communities for the purpose of se- subject to the same fluctuating supplies as the curing technical assistance and services to fur- softwood industry ther implement action plans

Subtitle G of the 1990 Farm Bill provides The primary objective of the 1990 Farm Bill is to assistance to rural communities located in or generate employment and revenue, expand ex- near National Forests The purpose of this sub- isting infrastructure, facilities, and services that sectionis to help diversifythe economies offorest capitalize on opportunities to diversify econo- dependent communities and improve the social, mies now dependent on National Forest re- envlronmental, and economic well-being of rural sources The Forest Semce will work with af- America Congress recognized that the lack of fected communities in the implementation of economic diversity would be particularly senous this Act and the Agency's Rural Development in communities whose economies are predomi- Strateac Plan Both the Act and Agency policy nantly dependent on timber and recreation re- ~111help mitigate the social and economic effects sources They were aware that land manage- of a lower ASQ ment decisions made on the national forests by Federal organizations may disrupt the supply of PRF Alternative those resources In order to deal with changmg land management decisions, the 1990 Farm Bill This alternative supports the lifestyles of those provides technical assistance, training, educa- who value recreation opportunities, protection of tion and other assistance to ehg.lble communities the natural environment, and a balance of re- in greatest need source uses Recreation opportunities would be provided and facilities (campground, picnic ar- Economically disadvantaged rural communities eas, interpretive sites and trails) would be devel- may request assistance from the Department of oped and maintamed to meet demand The Agnculture in identifyingopportunitiesthat will natural character of much of the Forest would be promote economic improvement and diversifica- maintained in wilderness, Wild and Scenic Riv- tion, and revitalization Through the Act, pro- ers, wildlife habitat, and semi-pnmitive recre-

4-10 Chapter 4-Envuonmental Consequences ation areas The lifestyles of those dependent on of natural resources would continue to be sup- commodity production from the Forest would be ported Those who value recreation opportuni- adversely affected because of reduced commod- ties and protection of the natural environment ity outputs and employment However, commod- would be adversely affected Limited recreation ity production would increase after the first de- development, along with reDonal population cade, nearly reaching the level of the TGP Alter- growth, would result in increasingly crowded native in decade 5 facilities The lack of new wilderness, Wild and Scenic Rivers, and semi-pnmitive areas would Despite increasing services sector jobs due to allow the natural appearance of the Forest to increased recreation opportunities, population gradually decline as a result of management growth trends would initially decline In the first actinties Commodity production would remain decade, unemployment would increase in timber stable Other values, such as diversified wildlife dependent communities, slowing population populations, could also decline, and the Forest growth The ensuing steady nse in economc would look intensively managed opportunities after the first decade would cause population growth to accelerate Employment opportunities would diminish some- what as the timber industry continues to become Forest receipts returned to the counties and automated Population trends would remain yield tax revenues to the state would be reduced stable, as other opportunities replace timber- initially, then mesteadily inlater decades These related jobs Forest receipts returned to the funds support state and losal services (especially counties and state tax revenues would probably roads and schools), and contribute to community increase as commodity values increase, support- cohesion and stability The anticipated increase ing local roads and schools, and contributing to in the value of forest products would help to community cohesion and stability Communi- offset the shortfall in receipts, but communities ties dependent on the timber program maygradu- dependent on the timber program would be ad- ally become more diversified in employment op- versely affected at first These communities portunities, but would continue to ride the cycle would eventually acquire more diversified em- of boom and bust related to loggmg trends ployment opportunities and regain some of the lost timber jobs and revenues, Contributing to EGP Alternative community cohesion and stability Until that time, however, local political and economic enti- This alternative supports the lifestyles of those ties would strongly oppose any reduction in com- who value recreation opportunities and protec- modity outputs because of significant adverse tion of the natural environment Recreation effects on local programs, funding levels, and opportunities would be provided and facilities people's lives (campgrounds, picnic areas, interpretive sites and trails) would be developed and maintained CUR Alternative to partially meet demand Preservation and interpretation of our cultural heritage would be Although called the "Current Alternative", CUR supported This alternative provides for the represents current management only in achiev- most wilderness and semi-pnmitive recreation ing a similar ASQ, employment level, and Forest areas Harvesting timber through the group Reserve Fund payments Other management selection method would avoid unsightly clearcuts activities, such as proposed silvicultural treat- The lifestyles of those dependent on commodity ments, are substantially different from what is production from the Forest would be adversely practiced on the Forest today The increase in affected because ofreduced outputs Commodity clearcut acres would have a significant effect on production would remain at the same level the other resource values far exceeding present throughout the planning horizon, causing a per- management These include effects on visual manent reduction m timber related economic quality, recreational use, wildlife habitat, and opportunities water quality Despite increasing services sector employment The lifestyles oftimber industry workers, ranch- from increased recreation Opportunities, popula- ers, and others relying on commodity production tion trends would initially follow the decline of

Chapter 4-Env~ronmental Consequences 4-11 timber outputs and employment opportunities increasing harvest levels would cause popula- In the first decade, unemployment would in- tion growth to accelerate crease in timber dependent communities, slow- ing population growth This slowdown would Forest receipts returned to the counties and probably continue, unless new economc oppor- yeld tax revenues to the state would be reduced tunities are developed initially, nsing steadily in later decades These funds support local roads and schools, and con- Forest receipts returned to the counties and tribute to community cohesion and stability yleld tax revenues to the state would be reduced, The anticipated increase in the value of forest with negative short term effects on community products would help to offset the shortfall in cohesion and stability The anticipated increase receipts, but communities dependent on the tim- in the value of forest products would help to ber program would be adversely affected at first offset the shortfall in receipts, but communities These communities would eventually gain more diversified employment opportunities and re- dependent on the timber program would be ad- cover some of the lost timber jobs and revenues versely affected Harvest levels over time are not expected to increase, primanly as a result ofnot allomngherbicide use to regenerate stands RESOURCE CONSEQUENCES These communities might eventually gam more diversified employment opportunities, especially increased recreation and semces sector jobs, to 1. AIRQUALITY provide greater long-term community cohesion and stability The planning issue for air quality focuses on how to protect the air resource from various on-For- TGP Alternative est activities Two by-products of management activities prescribed in the alternatives have the This alternative generally supports the lifestyles potential of significantly affecting air quality of those who depend on commodity production They are smoke and dust The quantities of from the Forest, especiallytimberindustrywork- these pollutants have direct effects on vlsibility ers and ranchers Groups which value pnmitive and in limited circumstances on human health recreation opportunities and protection of the natural envlronment would be adversely affected Another primary cause of air pollution on the Developed recreation opportunities would be pro- Forest is the dnft of polluted air from the Sacra- vided and facilities (campgrounds, picnic areas, mento Valley Smoke from woodburning stoves interpretive sites and trails) would be built and and vehicle/equipment emissions from commu- nities within and adjacent to the Forest are also maintained to meet demand No additional primary sources of air pollution. The Forest has wilderness would be proposed, no semi-primitive no direct control over these sources areas would be designated, and the least amount ofWildandScenicRivers would be recommended The charactenstics by which air quality is evalu- Natural undisturbed conditions on the Forest ated are visibility and the levels ofpollutants, for would occur only in existing wilderness, wildlife which State and national ambient air quality habitat, and special areas Although commodity standards are established Wildfire can cause production would initially be reduced below cur- temporary, but substantial, air quality degrada- rent levels, it would increase after the first de- tion To some degree, the incidence and magni- cade tude of wildfire can be affected by Forest activl- ties such as thinning and loggmg slash treat- This alternative would not support current em- ments Prescribed fire and dust can also cause ployment levels in loggmg and milling In the temporary degradation The consequences to air first decade, unemployment would increase in quality of the alternatives can be compared by timber dependent communities, slowing popula- considenng probable effects ofwldfire, prescnbed tion growth The ensuing steady rise in economic fire, timber management, road construction and opportunities from in-migration and gradually engme-use emissions

4-12 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences All Alternatives Table 4-2

Direct Effects Prescribed Fire For All Uses a. (AcresA’ear-Decadel) Dust A potential for short-term air quality Type of Alternative impairment from dust is created by a variety of Prescribed Fire PRF CUR EGP TGP management practices Machinery operations related to timber management often raise clouds Fire-Related 1,150 2,000 1,150 1,150 ofdust Traffic on roads is another source of dust (Hazard Reduction) Prescribed burn areas can also he a source of dust Timber-Related 3,600 5,900 3,600 5,000 on on mndy days, depending time of burn, sub- (Slash Disposal) sequent rainfall and revegetation Road con- struction and maintenance machinery op- WildhfeBange 1,300 1,760 1,300 1,300 erations are also dust contributors both in actual road work and in rock crushing Total 6,050 9,660 6,050 7,450 operations These impacts are usually ofa local nature and short duration Smoke The principal smoke emissions affecting Anticipated levels of fugtive dust from these msibility are the fine particulates added to an management actimties are considered too low for airshed Particulates contributed to the air by detailed projections They will also tend not to activities are measured by tons of total sus- vary greatly among alternatives They will be pended particulates discussed further in the mitigation section Smoke contnbutes most of the particulate mate- Engine Emissions Smoke, dust, and engme rial that originates from the Forest The two emissions generated by vehicles and other mo- major sources of smoke for the area are from torized uses cause some local air quality degra- wildfires and prescribed burning dation However, under all alternatives this would be minor In general, air quality decreases as more acres are burned The Forest burning program is Prescribed Fire The Total Suspended Particu- designed to meet State and national ambient air lates (TSP) production from prescribed burning quality standards through prescriptions based will vary among the alternatives, depending on on suitable atmospheric conditions (according to the mix of management activities such as range Forest Standards and Guidelines) However, improvement, timber management practices, variable weather will sometimes cause smoke to mldlife habitat improvement, road construction, accumulate in local smoke-sensitive areas (can- and natural residue hazard reduction yons andvalleys with communitiesl, flow toward “Class I” areas (Thousand Lakes and Caribou Currently, prescribed fire is used on this Forest Wildernesses or Lassen Volcanic National Park), for three major purposes 1) disposal of slash or flow to the heavily-populated Sacramento from timber harvest, 2) reduction of fire hazard, Valley (National Parks and wilderness areas primarily by underburning in eastside pine greater than 5000 acres which were designated stands, and 3) improvement of wildlife/range wilderness before the 1973 Clean Aw Act are habitat Acres of prescribed burns for each alter- Class I areas for Prevention of Significant [air native are displayed in Table 4-2 Wildhfe/range quality] Deterioration as governed by the Clean habitat improvement prescribed burns tend to Ax Act All other areas are Class I1 ) While be of a higher fire intensity than other types of significant health hazards are not anticipated, burns These higher intensity burns result in the smoke levels may be annoying more complete combustion and therefore tend to produce less particulate matter than the lower Smoke generated by wildfire will have short- intensity burns The slash fuels tend to smolder term impacts on visibility no matter which alter- longer and produce more particulate matter native is selected The amount and duration of

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-13 visibility impairment will be dependent on the ing to such health effects as emphysema or lung amount of wildfires burning, fire size, fire inten- cancer Long-term effects from even lower levels sity, and meteorological conditions of smoke experienced by the public-at-large are less well known. Individuals with chronic lung Wildfire The TSP production from wildfires is disease or other respiratory ailments may expe- highly variable and range from low in years of rience additional irritation from the infrequent infrequent wildfires tohigh in years ofnumerous episodes of stagnated smoky airmasses wildfires Itis assumed that theestimatedTSPs contributed by smoke from wildfires will not There are a number of potentially toxic compo- vary significantly among alternatives nents known to exist in wildland smoke How- ever, the levels experienced under normal condi- Fire is also an important natural component of tions and exposures are well below any levels the Forest's ecosystems, especially on the east known to cause harmful effectson humans Some side Excludingfire from these ecosystems in the of the more common are carbon monoxide, car- past has resulted in fuel loading increases Wild- bon particles, and trace amounts of a number of fires in these areas burn more acres at a higher chemicals that may enter the lungs on the sur- intensity wth resultant increases in damage face ofparticulate matter Close to 90 percent of than would have occurred had nature been left to the particulate matter is small enough (less than run its normal course 2 5 microns diameter) to penetrate deeply into the lungs Timber Management Fire is an important tool for vegetative management and site preparation Some of the components (polycyclic aromatic on the Forest Restrictions on the use of fire to hydrocarbons) are known carcinogens under ex- minimize the impairment of vlsibility would af- posures much higher than that documented from fect the Forest's ability to accomplish site prepa- wldland smoke Other components, such as the ration and reforest the land The effects would be aldehydes, are acute irritants These are most themost significant with the CURAlternative as likely to affect forest workers who receive high it proposes the most regeneration exposures at burn sites

Firewood There is also an indirect effect on By incorporating mitigation measures, reduc- winter air quality in local urban communities tions in emissions are projected for all alterna- through the use of fuelwood provided by the tives, which should continue to widen the gap Forest This utilization of cull matenal from between probable exposures and any possible prevlous timber sales, and standing dead or health effects, chronic or acute down wood, helps reduce smoke emissions from the Forest, but tends to concentrate those emis- Recreation Some short-term temporary reduc- sions in the towns A discussion of this indirect tions in the quality of visitors' recreational expe- effect is included in the Firewood section of this riences could occur during times of prescribed Chapter burning and episodes of wildfire

The relationship between the amount of fire- Visibility Smoke and dust reduce vlsibility wood sold on the Forest and air quality is not a There is a direct relationship between TSP direct qualifiable relationship amounts and visibility impairment For ex- ample, the amount ofwsihihty impairment (mea- b. Zndirect Effects sured in days of smoky conditions) will be twce as much if TSP production doubles Reductions The minor temporary decrease in air quality that in TSP levels represent a similar reduction in would occur under all alternatives would have visibility impairment Percent change from few effects on other resources present TSP levels can be interpreted as result- ing in a similar percent change in visibility Human Health Documentation of adverse ef- fects from long-term exposure to wildland fire The effect of dust on visibility is generally local- smoke is virtually nonexistent Forest workers ized and short-term, and will not vary signifi- are at some risk of low-level exposure contribut- cantly among alternatives Smoke can have a

4-14 Chapter 4-Enuironmental Consequences greater and more widespread (although still usu- substandard matenal would reduce the pres- ally localized) effect on visibility, but is also ence of smoldering fuels and the need to burn relatively short-term Alternatives which use anything at all Alternatives to burning, like more prescnbed fires (such as CUR) would pro- chipping and crushing, will be used wherever duce more smoke from those fires, but may have practicable slightly fewer wildfires The net effect is little variation between alternatives in visibility due Volumes of suspended particulates would be to smoke reduced by restrictions on prescribed burning, particularly broadcast burning The main sub- c. Cumulative Effects stitute forbroadcast burning would be yarding of unmerchantable matenal (WM) Under this The existence ofsmoke from off-Forest prescnbed technique, logs ofa certain size would be dragged burning, reaonal haze from populated areas and to alandmgfor disposal Assumingthat disposal smoke from agricultural burning in the Sacra- would be at least partly by non-burning means, mento Valley can combine wlth on-Forest pre- this method would substantially cut production scribed burning to amplify air quality degrada- of suspended particulates Timber yarding tech- tion This most often occurs dunng spnng and niques have the concurrent effect of encouragmg fall penods when burning takes place under utilization ofmaterial previously considered cull more stable atmosphenc conditions or when the Once hauled to a landing, much more of this wlnd has a strong easterly direction The cumu- material would be utilized than if left in the lative effect of multiple contnbutors of smoke harvest unit Demand for this type of material is and haze in the air is not expected to change increasing and should contribute to future re- significantly between alternatives. Any smoke ductions in suspended particulate production produced by forest activities would comply wlth State and national ambient air quality stan- Predicted reductions in particulates are based dards on emission factors, acres treated, and treat- ment type Reductions from current levels are a d. Mitigation Measures direct result ofthe mitigation measures descnbed above Timing ofburning operations has already New technology and techniques have greatly proven very effective in mitigating air quality improved the efficiency of prescribed burning impacts Burning under favorable ventilation operations At the same time, research contin- conditions has significantly reduced impacts, as ues to confirm the ntal role fire plays in forest has spring burning ecosystems To continue using fire in managmg the Forest, it will be necessary to mitigate unde- Utilization standards have steadily increased sirable impacts as much as possible over the past decade, with corresponding reduc- tions in tonnage burned, and consequently, re- Perhaps the most effective form of mitigation is ductions in air quality impacts the timing of burning operations Correct tim- ing, such as burning in the spnng, can reduce the Ax quality will be monitored to assure compli- amount of fuel consumed due to higher fuel ance with State and national air quality stan- moisture Burning when smoke will ventilate dards into the upper atmosphere or away from popula- tion centers and Class I areas would also reduce Dust abatement will be aided through impacts Burning in periods of low visitor use would reduce impacts on Forest visitors, espe- Road watering, oiling or paving as war- cially in Class I areas The method of ignition ranted by conditions itself can mitigate impacts Mass ignition would minimize the transfer of beat downward and Controls on machinery operations and reduce the longevity of the smoldering phase of timing in relation to other use activi- combustion ties

In timber sale operations, directional felling will Dust abatement controls on stationary reduce breakage with corresponding reductions sources such as rock crushing opera- in fuel loading Increased utilization of currently tions

~ Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-15 PRF, EGP, and TGP Alternatives Table 4-3

Prescribed burning for wildhfe/range improve- Potential Logging Residue Available for Biomass Annually Decade ment and hazard reduction would be the same - 1 under all three alternatives Due to the higher Alternative number of acres in timber-related slash burning, PRF CUR EGP TGP expected air quality impacts would be greater mth the TGP Alternative than PRF and EGP Estimated Accessible 165 148 165 187 Loggmg Residue CUR Alternative (Thousand Oven-Dry TonsNear) Prescnbed fire for all uses is highest under the CUR Alternative The prescnbed burning pro- and thus only a portion is included here as gramcouldresultinsmokemovementinto smoke- available tree residue The smallest size mate- sensitive areas nal is designated to be left on site for nutrient recycling and erosion prevention Thus the pn- mary source of residue is the 4-9 inch class 2. BIOMASS The increased pnce of energy could increase the The planning issue for biomass involves the use amount of residue that would be utilized and of wood material for energy production while could induce use of low-value commercial timber still meeting ecoloscal needs, as well as its species Improved biomass collection technology prionty for consumption Biomass was defined could also enable use of matenal that is now in Chapter 3 as the above-ground portion of unavailable or unusable These factors could trees The main source of biomass on the Forest collectively or indindually increase the amount is commercial thinning yields of biomass available

All Alternatives This analysis of consequences is based on the assumption that within the life of the Plan, Forest Service policy is to insure that firewood is sawlogs and “clean” chips will continue to be a available to meet the demand for personal use more valuable commodity than energy fiber, and Therefore, material suitable for firewood is not on continuation of the policy that firewood users considered available for biomass utilization will have first priority of available fiber Enough biomass material must also be left in the Forest to meet ecolog.lca1 needs for soils, plants, Sawmill residue, which is currently a major and animals Therefore, in all alternatives the source of energy fuel, is not considered in this only material considered available for biomass analysis, since the Forest has no control over the utilization is logging residue and thinning slash use of such matenal (see Chapter 3) surplus to firewood and ecoloBcal site needs The supply of biomass is affected pnmarily by The estimated net amount of biomass that could the level of timber harvest and by the amount of be obtained annually from loggmg residue and land from which it may he obtained Under all stand thinning in decade 1is shown in Table 4- alternatives, loggmg residue is available to meet 3 for each alternative These levels were ob- about 12 percent of the total needs of existing tained by FORPLAN modeling of projected tim- power plants The total need, as shown in Table ber harvests adjusted for accessibility of the 3-2, is 1,240,000 oven dry tons per year At the material Adjustments were also made for bio- present time, most of this need is being supplied mass yields associated with tree thinning opera- by manufactunng residue or from private lands tions Gross biomass tonnages were developed from tree weight tables, which gwe tonnages in The available loggmg residue from all alterna- three size classes 0-3 inches, 4-9 inches, and 10 tives would be sufficient to supply about 25 inches+ The 10 inch+ size of matenal is pre- megawatts (MW) of power New roads would sumed to be used for firewood and wildlife needs, provide improved access to biomass cutting ar-

4-16 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences eas Based on its harvest level, the TGPAlterna- mally, harvest operations associated mth thin- tive would provlde the most residue for biomass ning pose little threat to the nutnent balance cutting Care must be taken when stands are regener- ated to leave sufficient nutnents on the site. a. Direct, Indirect and Cumulative Effects Biomass harvestingis a highly mechanized two- stage operation which may result in serious soil Under all alternatives, biomass production will compaction First, a feller-buncher sheers and have similar effects on other resources Biomass "bunches" the trees. This usually does not cause thinning operations m11 have a beneficial effect significant compaction since it normally travels on long-term timber growth Thinning results in overeachparcelofgroundonce Next, thebundles less competition between indivldual trees for are sludded to the landings This may cause water andnutrients, whichallows the remaining excessive compaction if the feller-buncher runs trees to attain larger sizes and more economc over shd trails several times. Soil productivlty value before harvesting. The trees inless crowded has decreased due to soil compaction resulting timber stands also tend to be healthier, better from five or more passes Frequently, biomass able to mthstand stress from climatic conditions harvesting occurs on prevlously harvested sites and attacks from forest pathogens. and may augment compaction caused by prior harvesting Biomass operations could have adverse effects on mldhfe species that prefer dense timber stands b. Mitigation Measures for thermal or hiding cover Deer tend to utilize stand edges near openings for cover, and other To mitigate the effects ofbiomass thinning, pock- species such as marten may require dense stands ets of unthinned stands would be left for screen- for travel corndors. Biomass thinning could ing Streamside management zones would help expose many acres to mew from roads, and could provlde travel corndors for species such as bear, increase hsturbance to mldlife species The marten, and fisher Areas reserved for wilder- effects would spread to many acres over time, ness, semi-pnmitive recreation, vegetative di- leaving few areas m a natural condition, except versity and Sensitive species habitat would pro- those lands allocated to other management ob- vide adhtional cover and a variety of natural jectives Over time, dense hiding and thermal stands cover would be much reduced The most effective method of preventing soil Biomass removal has the potential to affect soil compaction through biomass operations is to productivlty in two major ways first is by the avoid harvesting when soil moisture content is removalofnutnents andsecondis throughphysi- high The Forest intends to establish cnteria to cal compaction of the soil control biomass harvesting operations dunng periods of hgh soil moisture Another option to Nutnents that are stored in the biomass are lower soil compaction is the use of designated removed mth harvesting The majonty of these slud trails The skid trail mll be compacted, but nutnents are stored in the needles and tmgs the rest of the area will be protected Ifthe trails mth minor amounts in the bole of the trees and landings are located correctly, then they can Under natural conditions, the needles and twigs be used again in the future. In that sense, they fall to the forest floor and become part of the become part of the transportation system The litter layer. As they come in contact mth the soil resonal standard at ths time is for no more than surface, they start to decay and the nutnents 15 percent of an area to become disturbed in this stored in them are released to the soil to be used manner If more than 15 percent is disturbed, again by the vegetation gromng on the site If then the compaction must be mitigated The > the site is a productive one (deep soils and enough usual form of mitigation is ripping the com- rainfall each year to recharge the soils), then an pacted areas mth a forest cultivator or subsoiler occasional removal of biomass mll not affect soil productivity adversely However, if the site is of All sales should be properly designed to prevent lower productivity to start mth, then it is more soil compaction Under the best of con&tions, critical to keep all the nutrients on site Nor- nppmg the soil after compaction has occurred

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-17 does not return the soil to its pre-compaction Cultural resource management may increase state However, npping will allow water and the cost of implementing other resource projects roots to penetrate the soil and lead to quicker Some areas may need to be avoided entirely in recovery of the site order to protect the cultural sites This may result in greater expense in accessing areas and a loss of commercial products such as timber or 3. CULTURAL RESOURCES minerals Protection of important cultural re- sources often precludes timber harvesting or The preservation and protection of the Forest's mining activities. cultural resources are closely associated mth their location, resource management activlties, In all alternatives, the preferred management of and public use. Impacts to cultural resources cultural resources on, or eligble for, inclusion on may occur from natural forces, from Forest vlsi- the National Register of Historic Places shall be tors or the management of other resources to maintam those values that result in their ehability Potential effects from envlronmental modification will require consultation with the Erosion and other envlronmental effects may State HistoncPreservation Officer andthe Advl- detenorate cultural resource sites through de- sory Council on Histonc Preservation to deter- composition. stabilization, regular maintenance, mine means to avoid or mitigate the effects. rehabilitation or data recovery are means to These potential effects are dimmished when the prevent the loss of the sites and the information physical settings in and around cultural resources they contain are maintained in a natural state.

Public use may destroy cultural resource sites Land allocations having a high potential for through inadvertent damage caused by compac- major envlronmental modifications include the tion, or other ground disturbing activities. Loot- Timber (TI Prescription and Range (R) Prescnp- mg and vandalism result m the loss of informa- tion. These allocations are most likely to affect tion and destruction of the resource. Protection important cultural resources through damage to of important cultural resource sites from public them or alteration of their natural settings In use includes maintaining confidentiality about many instances, retention of a natural envlron- specific site locations, monitonng, and directing ment is crucial to maintammg the values that public use away from the most vulnerable sites result in a cultural resource's ellability for mclu- sion on the National Reaster Areas managed for recreation provlde opportu- nities for protection and interpretation for the Land allocations havlng a moderate potential for public education and enjoyment Active educa- environmental modifications include the View/ tional and interpretive programs may create a Rmber (V) Prescnption, and the Rocky/Sparse greater awareness of the importance of cultural (K) Prescription These allocations are most resources to our hentage and foster a sense of likely to have a moderate impact on important stewardship while adding to the recreational cultural resources through alteration of their expenence However, protective measures to natural setting. control or eliminate intentional destruction of these areas by looters and vandals must be Land allocations having a low potential for envi- implemented ronmental modifications include the Wilderness (W) Prescription, both Sem-Pnmitive (M, N) Multiple-use activlties have benefited cultural Prescnptions, the Special Areas (SI Prescrip- resources by provlding opportunities for their tion, the Late Successional (L) Prescnption and mventory and evaluation Ground disturbing others where land disturbing activities are not activlties have the most potential to adversely emphasized These allocations are most likely to affect cultural resources and their envlronmen- have a low effect on important sites through tal settings The degree of effect is determined alteration of the envlronmental settmg The largely by the location and nature of the activity inventory, evaluation and protection of cultural and the characteristics of the cultural resource resources in these areas are subject to the same

4-18 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences cultural resource management requirements a5 American groups, increaws thc pos~itiilityth'it other areas of the Forest significant sites may be adversely affected by such development activities All Alternatives Nonstructural range impn)vrment\ include tt,,. All alternatives provide for the identification, use of prescribed firc, broddcdst seeding, and evaluation, protection, and interpretation of cul- chemical applications to reduce competition from tural resources non-palatable species These practices arc not necessarily threats to cultural resource sites Each alternative will have varying levels of tim- Prescribed burning can increase the effective- ber harvest and recreation use Other activities ness of cultural resource surveys by enhancing also impact cultural resources, hut these two and ground visibility in heavily vegetated areas grazing have the greatest effect and are a good measure of the potential to alter sites on the Excavations or impoundments to create stock Forest Therefore, for the purpose of estimating watering reservoirs can have obvious effects on effects on cultural resources, the alternatives cultural resource sites, either through the exca- have been grouped according to their Land Dis- vation activity itself or inundation of sites Me- turbance Index (LDI), recreational use, grazing chanical treatment to enhance forage produc- levels and other activities See Table 4-4 tion, achieved through the use of heavy equip- ment, can generate substantial ground distur- Cultural resources will he protected in all alter- bance which threatens archaeologcal sites Plow- ing, disking, dnlling, pushing, piling, and chain- natives through the application of Forest Stan- ing represent potential mechanical treatment dards and Guidelines that apply to all manage- practices ment activities with the potential to disturb sites The Standards and Guidelines implement Recreation Construction and management of the National Historic Preservation Act and Ex- developed recreation sites do not vary signifi- ecutive Order 11593 and insure that all ground- cantly by alternative However, increased recre- disturbing activities wdl he preceded by an in- ational use, especially dispersed recreation, can ventory for cultural resources, evaluationofsites affect cultural resources The PRF and EGP located, and avoidance or mitigation of effects of Alternatives increase opportunities for dispersed management activities on any important cul- use, and may result in an increase in cultural tural resource resource impacts from dispersed site and access improvements, relic collecting, and repeated use a. Direct and Indirect Effects of popular areas

Alternatives calling for greater timber harvest Direct effects to cultural resources may he real- and road construction levels, and more recre- ized as recreational facilities are developed or ation and grazing use will increase the potential expanded The construction of campground fa- for inadvertently disturbing sites cilities, reservoirs, boat ramps, or trails can dis- turb significant cultural resources, as these fa- Range Significant interactions between cul- cilities are often associated with site locations tural resources and range-related activities are Associated increases in recreational use of the most directly associated with livestock levels, Forest would result in additional visitors, in- water developments, and range improvement creasing the potential for unauthorized collec- programs For example, breakage or displace- tion of artifacts and excavation (looting)of sites ment of artifacts through trampling can he se- Incidents ofvandalism, intentional or otherwise, vere, depending on the number of livestock and would likely increase density of artifactslsites The development of springs and reservoirs for livestock use can im- Positive effects associated with the expansion or pact cultural resources occurring in and around development of recreational facilities would in- the developed areas The relative stability of clude a concomitant increase in opportunities to many seeps and springs, reflected in their recur- enhance and interpret important cultural re- ring use by Native Americans as well as Euro- source sites for public education and enjoyment

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4- 19 Table 4-4 Cultural Resource Risk Analysis

Base Risk Factors Year Decade Alternatives 1982 PRF CUR EGP Land Disturbance Index 44 3 1 36 5 44 3 36 6 40 2 (effects of timber harvesting, road building and fires) 5 34 1 42.1 32 2 37 1

17 1 19 19 19 19 Dams and Reservoirs (numbers) 5 25 20 19 25

58 1 54 60 44 63 Minerals (plans and permits) 5 70 76 58 79

49 7 1 48 5 49.7 48 5 48.5 Grazing (M AUM'sl 5 48 5 49 7 48 5 48.5

Recreation (M RVD) of 903 1 1,031 1,031 1,031 1,031 developed and dispersed public use) 5 1,586 1,454 1,586 1,586

Semi-Pnmitive Non-Motonzed 221 1 147.6 78.1 176.1 78.1 and Wilderness Area Acres (M acres) 5 147.6 78.1 176.1 78.1

1 0 48 5 16 0 Wild and Scenic Rivers (miles 0 48 5 under wild status only) 5 48 5 0 48 5 16 0

Cultural Resource Program Low 1 Mod Low Mod Low Level (reference Chapter 2, E-4) 5 Mod Low Mod Low

Risk High Mod High Mod- Mod- 1 Low High

Mod High Low Mod- 5 High

Roads The effects of road construction on cul- areas are entered, cultural resources wll become tural resource sites are obvious Because the more vulnerable to looters major components of the Forest's transportation system are sometimes superimposed on histonc Again, the relative risk among the alternatives and, to a lesser degree, prehistonc routes of to the disturbance and destruction of cultural travel, the likelihood of direct impacts to cultural resources is shown in Table 4-4 (based on activl- resources sites is high As previously unroaded ties planned in decade 1 and anticipated in de-

4-20 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences cades 2-5) Risk is decreased by efforts to man- est land These effects are subsequently avoided age cultural resources (cultural resource pro- or mitigated through a vanety of measures. gram level), restrictions on access and use of However, there is no adequate compensation for vanous lands (e.g wilderness and semi-pnmi- the loss of some sites, each of which forms a piece tive management) and reduced land disturbance in the "puzzle of the human past" Some sites (e g. timber harvest, roads, grazing, etc ). are, in part, aesthetically or even emotionally significant, and they convey (by their preserva- Under each alternative, the management of CUI- tion in-place) a special link with the past Even tural resources m11 generally have little effect on with the most careful and complete of mitigation other resources Requirements for the mainte- efforts, the loss (or substantial alteration) of nance or recovery of cultural resource values are such resources would result in a cumulative loss the same under each alternative. Modification of of cultural values Because the CUR and TGP resource projects and additional implementa- Alternatives have the greatest number of acres tion costs will occasionally be required to protect assigned to management prescnptions that may or recover cultural resource values substantially alter the enwronment, they present the highest nsk for cumulative loss of cultural Timber Harvest fimber sale activities involve resource values The nsk is less under the PRF cultural resources more than any other Forest and EGP Alternatives activity Haul road and landing construction, tree felling, skidding, slash disposal, and tractor e. Mitigation Measures yarding are among those actinties which have the potential to alter or destroy surface or shal- All alternatives include requirements for inven- low buried sites Silvicultural treatment of tim- tory, protection, preservation, interpretation, and ber sale areas may result in direct effects caused consultation with the State Histonc Preserva- by increased ground nsibility, presence of tree tion Ofice as descnbed in the Forest Standards planting crews and ground disturbing equip- and Guidelines This compliance review process ment considers cumulative effects to cultural resources ofany proposed action on National Forest Lands Slash and brush disposal through prescrihed Effects are avoided or mitigated through a vari- burning can result in direct impacts to the sur- ety of measures face components of archaeologxal sites ifthe fire intensity is high Mitigation of potential effects to cultural re- sources other than avoidance may include pro- tective enclosures, systematic monitoring of Based on the estimated harvest volumes in the project activities, or mandatory restrictions on first three decades, the CUR and TGP Alterna- project design When effects cannot be avoided, tives have the greatest potential to affect cul- systematic recovery of the information through tural resources. Harvest actinties and road excavation, collection of materials, and detailed development increase the potential for distur- documentation may be required as determined bing cultural resources. Increased access through consultation wth the State Histonc resulting from road construction can result in Preservation Officer and Advisory Council of damage to histonc and archeologxal sites by Historic Preservation Mitigation of adverse looters or curious visitors. effects will result in the collection ofinformation The cumulative effect of data collection will re- The PRF and EGP Alternatives display the low- sult in an increase in knowledge of previous est volumes Lower harvest levels would result human settlement patterns and cultural devel- infewerroads into sensitive areas and less chance opment for disturbance or destruction of important sites There are no absolute standards that establish b. Cumulative Effects what level and kind of project mitigation would be necessary Each cultural resource is unique, Forest Service histonc preservation compliance and therefore appropriate mitigation measures procedures incorporate the consideration of cu- will usually be developed on a case-by-case basis mulative effects to important cultural resources as part of specific cultural resource compliance caused by any proposed action on National For- procedures that apply to the project

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-2 1 d. Mitigation Measures for In the consequences of each alternative discussed, Illegal Activities changes refer to changes from conditions present in 1982 Destruction of valuable cultural resource sites and theft of artifacts result from ignorance of the PRF Alternative laws and actual criminal intent &creationists, unfamiliar mth the laws, may casually collect Less land mll be disturbed largely as a result of artifacts from the surface, unaware of the infor- lower hmber harvest levels Therefore, potential mation they are destroying. Commercial or hobby disturbance of cultural resources would be re- collectors are very familiar with the laws, yet duced. However, looting and vandalism of cul- engage in illegal excavation and collection as a tural properties would be expected to increase as lucrative commercial or personal endeavor. Just recreational use increases Effects to cultural as the reasons for the threat to cultural resources resources would be mitigated as a result of a range from ignorance to cnmmal intent, so must greater effort to identify, evaluate, interpret and the nntigationmeasures range from education to protect sites. Although effects to cultural re- law enforcement sources will probably increase over time, effects will continue to be less than under current con- To inform the general public and those who may htions. not be aware of the sensitivity of the resource or laws protecting it, the Forest is increasing the CUR Alternative number of interpretive opportunities. These opportunities include signed archeolog.lca1 sites Land allocations involve little change in current and educational programs to vanous groups. timber harvest levels, road construction actin- Hopefully, education and increased awareness ties or other commo&ty onented projects. How- will result in a decrease in the casual collection ever, there is a significant change m proposed of artifacts. It may also indirectly affect the silvicultural treatments with the emphasis on activities of the commercial collector if more clearcutting. All of these land disturbing Forest vlsitors are encouraged to report suspi- actinties have a moderate to high potential to cious actinties impact cultural resources Conflicts between cultural resources and other resource manage- When education fails, law enforcement becomes ment actinties are likely, wth a corresponding necessary The Archaeological Resources Pro- need to mitigate adverse effects. tection Act (ARPA) and the Code of Federal Regulations (35 CFR296), prohbit excavation or Only minimum requirements for the manage- collection of artifacts from federal lands Illegal ment ofcultural resources would be met Efforts excavation resulting in damage to the archeo- to identify cultural resources would be restncted log~calvalue of a site in excess of $500 IS a felony. to areas where Forest actions may affect them Criminal penalties under ARPA are $20,000and The continumg absence of information on the two years m pnson for the first offense, and location, distribution and nature of cultural re- $100,000 and five years in prison for a repeat sources would substantially curtail efforts to offense Several collectors have been success- manage them. Little would be contributed to the fully prosecuted for illegal excavation and de- public's understanding of their cultural hen- struction ofcultural resource sites on the Forest tage.

None of the alternatives would deny Native EGP Alternative Amencans access to areas of traditional signifi- cance. However, vanous alternatives wouldmake Substantiallylesslandwould be hsturbedlargely access to specific resource areas either more as result of the decline in tlmber production difficult or easier The amount of land allocated Therefore, potential dlsturbance of cultural re- to vanous management prescriptions would in- sources would be reduced. Looting and vandal- fluence the potential availability and supply of ism of cultural properties would be expected to tradihonal resources. increase as recreahonal use increases However,

~ 4-22 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences the addition of Ishi B to the wilderness should Hydroelectric significantly reduce access to a heavily looted area Effects to cultural resources would be a. Direct and Indirect Effects mitigated as a result of a greater effort to iden- Existing hydroelectric power facilities will be tify, evaluate, interpret and protect them This allowed to continue under all alternatives New alternative would best protect cultural resources, hydroelectric facilities are directly affected by while providing for their interpretation to the the land allocations of each alternative and public whether access or development is restricted Where allowed, new hydroelectric projects would TGP Alternative be permitted, subject to environmental analysis and mitigation requirements on an individual Land allocations and lower timber harvest levels project basis involve less alteration of the landscape and ground disturbance Corresponding impact to Possible direct and indirect effects include cultural resources is expected to be less than under the CUR Alternative Wildlife migration, watering, or forage patterns may be interrupted by impound- Only minimum requirements for the manage- ments that flood old streambank and ment of cultural resources would be met, as in npanan areas, along with game trails the CUR Alternative Little would be contrib- uted to the public’s understanding of their cul- Riparian and nearby upland vegetation tural heritage can be inundated or dried up

The Wilderness Act prohibits development of 4. ENERGY hydroelectnc facilities in existing wilderness (ex- cept in rare cases), and the Forest will ordinarily There are two parts to the planning issue associ- oppose such development in proposed wilder- ated with energy how much energy can be pro- ness Of the six further planning areas on the duced from Forest products to support local and Forest, only the Mill Creek and Ishi B areas have reaonal needs, and how much energy is con- significant potential for hydroelectnc projects sumed managmg the Forest Environmental Hydroelectric applications have been filed on consequences on the energy resource are dis- Mlll Creek and Antelope Creek in the past In cussed below for each type of energy addition, the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act pre- cludes hydroelectnc development in designated Wind and Solar or proposed Wild and Scenic Rivers, with the rare exception of projects in a “recreational” In all alternatives, wind or solar projects are classified segment that do not affect the nver subject to indimdual project envlronmental analy- values Table 4-5 summarizes the wilderness, ses and resulting requirements to mitigate envi- and Wild and Scenic River withdrawals by alter- ronmental impacts native It shows their relative effects on preclud- ing hydroelectric development Consumption and Conservation b. Cumulative Effects Energy consumption by Forest management will be the same under all alternatives except that Hydroelectric dam developments, on both Na- consumption would vary with the extent of ac- tional Forest lands and on other public and tivities and numbers of employees Existing private lands, can create cumulative effects on buildings have been retrofitted with energy con- streamflow, channels, animals, plants, and ri- servation matenals and devices to minimize heat parian land conditions Possible cumulative and air conditioning losses For further discus- effects include sion of energy balances by resource, see Section G, Energy Requirements and Conservation Po- Changes in local streamflows and water tential, of this Chapter depths Some reaches may carry greatly

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-23 Table 4-5 Effects of Wilderness and Wild and Scenic River Recommendations on Hydroelectric Development Alternative -PRF TGP Proposed Wilderness Mill None Mill None mth Hydroelectnc Ck Ck , Potential Ishi B Proposed Wild and Scenic Rivers with Hydroelectnc Potential (miles) Recreation 95 0 95 0 Mdl Creek Scenifldd 22.5 0 225 8 Recreation 8 0 8 0 Deer Creek Scemc/Wild 22 0 22 8 Recreation 0 0 0 0 Antelope Creek Scenifldd 14 0 14 0

Total Recreation 17 5 0 175 0 Total ScenidWild -58 5 -om -16 Total AU Segments All Segments 76 0 0 760 16

Nates In the PRF and EGP Alternatives, mlderness recommendations overlap mth Wild and Scenic Rmer recommendahom mthin the Ishi Wilderness and the proposed Mi11 Creek Wilderness, m the TGP Alternative, overlap 1s mthm the Ishi Wilderness 'Seeme' classification and "Wdd classification bath prohibit hydraeleetm development Recreational' classification prohibits hydraelectnc development where outstandingly remarkable values would be affected

diminished flows, while others may shift poundments become an increasingly from flowing waters to pooled water dominant landscape feature. Some areas may dry up while others become flooded As more stream seg- Recreation uses, user numbers, and ac- ments are affected, adverse effects on the tivities can change For example, a ongmal stream conditions become more lightly-fished stream maybe flooded and pronounced turned into a lake that is accessed by roads and heady-used for water-sluing, Fish species and population characteris- boating, and shoreline camping tics can change with altered stream con- ditions, and animals and birds that prey e. Mitigation Measures on fish can also be affected Mitigation measures are developed by interdis- Visual condition can be adversely af- ciplinary teams during project planning and en- fected, mth increasing disturbance along vironmental analyses They are incorporated as a stream Not all vlsual changes are bad, 4(e) recommendations to FERC and into project but the native, visual character of the special use permit clauses and easement condi- stream and the landscape it traverses tions or reservations Mitigation measures for would be altered, as hydroelectric im- hydroelectric projects may include.

4-24 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Limiting times and/or amounts of flow Scenic Rivers, will have the most impact on diversions from streams, based on in- hydroelectric potential of all alternatives Road stream or ripanan zone needs building and access to potential new projects would be restncted in the proposed wilderness Restricting the total length of stream and along most of the proposed Wild and Scenic segments that could be impacted with- Rivers Like the PRF Alternative, some seg- out adverse effects on water quality, fish- ments would be classified “recreational” and open eries, or nparian areas to possible development

Installingcompensatingstreamimprove- ments in other reaches, either upstream 5. FACILITIES or downstream from stream reaches af- fected by the project For example, Introduction streambed gravels could be improved or imported at some critical downstream The planning issue for facilities focuses on what location roads, trails, utility corridors, buildings, water and sewer systems, dams and stream crossings Implementing off-site nutigation mea- would be needed for the management of other sures at other locations or in other Forest resources Environmental consequences streams, to offset loss or damage to stream on the facilities resource are listed below for each resources in the project area or impacted type of facility stream system PRF Alternative a. Roads Most of the Forest development road system is a Recommending the 7,580 acres in the Mill Creek result of local road construction for timber har- further planning area for wilderness, and 76 vest activities New road construction and re- miles of Mill, Deer, and Antelope Creeks for Wild construction was modeled by FORPLAN on a per and Scenic Rivers, would preclude hydroelectric acre basis The model produces a reasonably projects on much of the remaining lengths of accurate estimate of the total miles of local road these streams currently outside wilderness construction needed over the next 50 years Ap- These are some of the most promising reaches of proximately 66 percent of the new roads associ- streams for hydroelectric potential on the For- ated with each alternative will be constructed in est Development would be remotely possible m the first two decades the 17.5 miles proposed for “recreational” river, and theoretically possible on the private lands Construction of local roads associated with rec- along these creeks reation improvements was not included in the model However, some development will occur CUR and TGP Alternatives Additional road surfacing improvements to ex- isting campgrounds can be expected for all alter- These alternatives recommend no new wilder- natives Reconstruction of local roads associated ness, and no Wild and Scenic Rivers (except TGP, with administratwe developments would also which recommends eight miles each on Deer and occur in all alternatives Reconstruction for Mill Creeks for wild status within the existing administrative purposes consists of road reloca- Ishi Wilderness) There would be no negative tion to serve additional facilities, provide public effect on hydroelectric potential Future road parking, and improve drainage and road sur- building into creek-side areas for loggmg may faces facilitate hydroelectric studies and development Currently, about 172 miles of the existing road EGP Alternative system is not managed for continuous car and truck use, but may allow non-motorized and foot Recommending Ishi B and Mill Creek for wJder- traffic Culverts may be removed from these ness, and recommending 76 miles for Wild and roads, and the roads themselves may revegetate

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-25 naturally or he seeded with native seed sources mineral resources are proportional to the amount Another 2,767 miles are currently open to high of roads that are constructed, reconstructed and clearance vehicles, hut are isolated from large maintained road systems or communities and are infrequently used The remainder of the existing roads (533 Table 4-6 miles) are open to motorized vehicles and are maintained for continued multiple-use activi- New Construction and Reconstruction of ties As projects are proposed, cumulative effects Roads (Average Milesmear) of the current road system and proposed new roads will he considered in a site-specific manner Alternative for the resources present These project level 1982 PRF CUR EGP TGP decisions may change the mix of open road den- Base sity for any gwen watershed or transportation Year network depending on the specific resources that may need consideration Decade I

Each alternative will require reconstruction of a New 15 16 * 16 21 portion of the existing road system in each de- Construction cade Reconstruction of a road protects the original investment, protects resources, and Reconstruc- 80 50 * 50 67 makes the road suitable and safe for its intended tion use Reconstruction involves the rehabilitation Total 95 66 77 66 88 of the ongmal roadbed Common reconstruction activities include cleaning ditches and culverts, Decade 5 (potential) replacing damaged drainage structures, and g~adingand shaping of the road surface New 4 * 34 Construetion All Alternatives Reconstruction 55 * 36 45

(1) Direct and Indirect Effects Total 59 111 39 49

A multitude of direct, indirect, and cumulative * Updated mileage figures separating new construc- environmental effects on various resources are tion from reconstruction are not available associated with roads, and these are discussed at length under the respective resource section in this Chapter Activities that directly affect the Arterial and Collector Roads An adequate transportation system are road construction and arterial and collector road system for the Forest road closure Estimated miles of road construc- is in place The present Forest development road tion and reconstruction associated with each system is 3,472miles long alternative ai’e displayed in Table 4-6 Needed improvements to artenal roads have Road closures to meet resource management been identified (see Table 3-5) and are included objectives on the Forest are either yearlong or in the Forest Highway Inventory for future fund- seasonal Reasons for road closures include ing consideration Some reconstruction of col- providing for water quality, erosion control, pub- lector roads may also he needed in the future lic safety, reduction ofroad-user conflicts, reduc- tion of maintenance costs, legal mandates such Among the alternatives, artenal and collector as roads within wildernesses, managmg oppor- system management is essentially the same tunities for semi-primitive recreation, and pro- The major difference among alternatives regard- tection of wildlife or wildlife habitat for species ing the Forest transportation system would he that are intolerant of human disturbance the mileage and management of local roads Those alternatives with higher commodity pro- The indirect effect ofthe road system on cultural, duction will necessitate the need for increased scenic, fishery, range, timber, soil, water, and access in both roaded and unroaded areas, and __ 4-26 Chapter 4-Enuironmental Consequences the relocation of existing local roads presently construction Since roads often introdu~ca ~011- causing resource damage In alternatives where trast in line form or color, they arc either re- commodity emphasis is less, new road construc- stricted or designed to he screened, which nftccts tion will be less and road management strateges the cost of road construction in viewsheds will be implemented to reduce road densities Huntinghas seasonal effects on road use Hunt- Alternatives that promote both high recreation ing increases the amount of travel on the road use or high commodity production will generate system during a portion of the year higher traffic volumes Conversely, lower levels of use or production will reduce traffic volumes Roads in semi-primitive motorized recreation The location of activities, whether dispersed areas may be maintained ab a part of a high- evenly throughout the Forest or concentrated in clearance vehicle trail system rather than main- localized areas, will have a direct effect on traffic tainedas apart oftheroad system Additionally, volumes on specific roads When activities in an some roads in semi-primitive motorized recre- area are scheduled to occur at a high level for a ationareasmaybeclosedorobliterated toachieve short duration, followed by periods of non-activ- optimum road density levels for this off-highway ity, theintermittent trafficvolumes could exceed vehicle use the acceptable road capacity and may require reconstruction to a higher standard, which has a Soils and Geology Soil properties, rock prop- direct effect on other resources Therefore, the erties, and topography have direct effects on quantity, the location and the timing of timber transportation facilities Availability, location, and recreation program activities on each alter- design, construction, maintenance, reconstruc- native have an indirect effect on soil, water, tion, and costs of roads are affected by the geo- wildlife, and geology lopcal Characteristics of the Forest

Recreation Recreation use on the Forest cre- The existing Forest development road system is ates demand for roads to accommodate public affected similarly in all alternatives Most of travel The type of recreation use causes differ- the road system is on stable soil and rock ent kinds of effects on the road system Higher subgrades with few mass movement failures A recreation volumes create a demand, generally, few portions of the road system are on moder- for higher standard roads. Higher standard ately stable or unstable soil andlor subgrades roads can include features such as two lane or wide single lane, higher travel speeds, smoother Less stable soilshocks may result in an in- creased incidence of road failure and an in- roadway surfaces, and greater vlsibility creased need for road maintenance Mass soil Driving for pleasure creates the highest demand movement could result in loss ofroadbeds Road of any recreation use for roads open to public reconstruction is required more frequently, and is more costly on unstable soils Road mainte- travel. For those alternatives which focus on nance is also more costly on less stable soils creating the highest amounts of dispersed recre- ation, a portion is associated with driving for Timber Timber harvest and haul affect the pleasure. Demand for roads open for public use road system Alternatives producing the highest creates safety concerns and results in a need for timber harvests will have the greatest need dur- higher standard roads that are well maintained ing the planning horizon for an extensive and well-maintained road system All alternatives are proposing the creation of scenic by-ways through the Forest to attract Timber harvest creates a demand for low stan- more recreational use Dnving for pleasure will dard roads to gain access to harvest sites and be a pnmary activity along these scenic routes haul timber from the Forest Most road con- Facilities such as rest areas and interpretive struction on the Forest is in response to timber sites will be established and maintained to ac- access needs commodate more visitors Those alternatives which focus on high com- Alternatives with the highest number of scenic modity production will result in the most miles viewsheds protected have a direct effect on road of local (low standard)road being built Timber .~ Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-27 haul has A phvsical direct effect on roads. Re- Increase access for timber management, peated truck trips create wear on road surfaces resulting in more miles of road construc- and can lead to their eventual failure or need for tion and maintenance reconstruction Increase the potential for disturbance of Scheduling of timber activities in conjunction wildlife habitat, resulting in more com- with recreation actinties may have an indirect plex road management strateees for effect on traffic volumes When commercial permanent and seasonal road closures (commodity) haul and recreational traffic use the same roads, the combination can generate Increase access to the Forest for wood- enough traffic to warrant changes In road stan- cutters, anglers, off-highway vehicle rec- dards This results in wider roads, more con- reational opportunities, and hunters, structiodreconstruction expense, and increased which potentially create higher traffic maintenance costs volumes and result in a need for higher road standards Alternatives which produce the greatest quan- tities of timber haul also create the largest Water QualityFish Habitat New roads will amounts ofcooperative road maintenance funds, be located to avoid nparian areas In addition, which are collected from timber purchasers to roads presently located in riparian areas may be be used on Forest roads Therefore, those alter- relocated and reconstructed natives which produce higher haul volumes have more funds available for road mainte- Alternatives which focus on water quality en- hancement mll result in a proportionally larger nance This results in a higher percentage of amount of road closures or obliteration. This road miles being adequately maintained to the mll have a direct effect on road maintenance required standards Those alternatives which with fewer mles to maintain result in volumes lower than historic levels may increase the need for congressional budget funds Structures placed in streams to increase fish for maintaining roads Lower haul volumes habitat may have an indirect effect on bndges could reduce the need for maintenance or result or other engmeered structures during floods in reduced road maintenance or limited access in some areas if no replacement funds are pro- Wildlife Alternatives that promote areas set vided aside for wldlife management wdlnormally show a decrease in miles of open road, through a Other indirect effects include increased access combination ofroad management strategies such for firewood cutting, hunting or other forms of as permanent or seasonal road closures These motorized vehicle recreation alternatives also m11 have fewer miles of road constructed than alternatives which focus on Unroaded Areas The effect of entry into these high commodity or recreation uses. areas on transportation is included in the discus- sion of Wilderness and Further Planning Areas (2) Cumulative Effects in this Chapter No significant adverse cumulative effects are Expanding the road network into roadless ar- expected to occur to the transportation system eas could Forest Standards and Guidelines, as they apply to location design, operation and maintenance of Change the ROS setting and associated the transportation system, assure that it will recreational opportunities of these ar- serve its intended use over time eas, resulting- in a need to increase road standards Cumulative effects of the transportation system on other resources (indirect), such as water, Increase erosion and stream sedimenta- wildlife and soil, are possible and are discussed tion rates, resulting in more costly road in detail under those respective headings of this construction surfacing options Chapter

4-28 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences (3) Mitigation Measures Removing culverts likely to be blocked during periods of long-term non-use The construction, reconstruction, maintenance, (yearlong closures) to mitigate soil and and management of Forest roads utilize many water impacts and investment loss A mitigation measures that are derived from ens- short-term consequence on the water neering requirements Forest Standards and quality will occur when replacing the Guidelines also represent mitigation measures culverts dunng later entries Cost of mitigation measures to improve open roads for public use, as well as measures neces- The cost of many of these measures increases as sary for resource protection, are incorporated in roading and timber harvest occur on steep slopes all alternatives The following actinties are and sensitive soils examples of measures taken to mitigate impacts Prohibiting noncommercial traffic on weekdays . Outsloping road surfaces and addingcul- and commercial traffic on weekends, gating and verts on ditched roads to keep water from signing during commercial operations, and re- concentrating scheduling some outputs to other areas to mini- mize traffic are examples of traffic management . Rocking waterbars and drain dips to re- techniques They can be effectively used to duce erosion where water leaves the road mitigate safety conflicts between commercial and recreational uses, and eliminate the need for . Divertingwater onto undisturbed ground reconstruction where sediment can be filtered out Restnctions on use of the Forest's road system . Adding riprap at culvert outlets to stop can have a strong influence on the public's per- erosion ception of the Forest's management Increasing public understanding of the road management . Surfacing road travelways to reduce rut- strategy will increase acceptance and avert po- ting and permit their use for log and tential conflicts Information may be posted on firewood hauling when wet signs in the Forest and/or on visitor maps . Seeding cut and fill slopes, waste areas, PRF Alternative debris bunal sites, and unsurfaced roads to reduce erosion (Native seed is pre- Roads currently utilized for commodity produc- ferred ) tion would he maintained to allow passage by high clearance vehicles (full size pickups or larger . Draining spring areas adjacent to roads vehicles) Roads providing primary access to to protect the road investment and ac- developed recreation sites and other roads in commodate permitted uses high demand would be maintained to allow mod- erately-convenient travel with passenger cars . Minimizing undercutting of cut slopes Roads with little or no clearance would he closed dunng ditch cleaning operations to re- to vehicle use, road maintenance would he the duce exposing bare soil minimum needed to protect adjacent resources The mileage of roads maintained for use would . Reducing overall width of roads by de- be proportional to the level ofcommodity produc- signing travelways, turnouts and curve tion, primarily timber harvest widening for only the projected use . Obliteratinglocal roads no longerneeded CUR Alternative for management purposes and returning the land to productivity Obliteration This alternative has the highest timber harvest will temporarily increase soil movement, level and proportionally should have the great- but benefit soil and water resources by est amount of new road construction and recon- reducing erosion and sedimentation over struction over the next five decades Because of the long term its emphasis on commodity production, the CUR

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-29 Alternative should also have the most roads fering a variety of landscapes and levels of diff- open for use and the highest road maintenance culty Depending on the intensity of timber standards RoadmileagesforthePRF, EGP, and harvest and road construction, the scenic charac- TGP Alternatives were obtained from Version I1 ter of the area and actual trail routes can be FORPLAN analysis Mileages for the CUR Al- altered or use can be displaced, resulting in trail ternative were from Version I FORPLAN and closures, trail relocation or reconstruction. Each are, therefore, not comparable wth Version I1 alternative reflects a different level of trail sys- results It was not possible to re-run the analysis tem emphasis. These are, again, the result of for the CUR Alternative using Version I1 to get differences in harvest levels, in miles of road more updated mileage figures It is assumed constructed, and in how many unroaded and that the correlation between harvest levels and dispersed recreation areas are provided roaded access would result in CUR havlng the highest number of miles constructed and main- The removal oftrees along trails through vanous tained in the Forest development road system harvest methods, and associated post harvest Under the CUR Alternative, no new mlderness, treatments, wll alter the basic character of trail no Wild and Scenic Rivers, and no semi-primi- settings and may displace trail use Dunng tive non-motorized areas are proposed, leaving harvest and post harvest operations, affected more of the Forest available for roaded access trail segments may become impassable or de- stroyed The felling of trees, yarding, and resi- EGP Alternative due treatment activlties can block access for users, and destroy or disturbtralsurfaces These A minimum number of roads would be main- effects will typically result in temporary closures tained for vehicular use, and in nearly all cases, of the affected trail segments, trail relocations, high clearance vehicles would be needed to nego- and reconstruction of disturbed trail surfaces tiate the accessible roads Roads provldmg pn- mary access to recreation sites would be main- (2) Cumulative Effects tained to allow moderately convenient travel with passenger cars Where economically fea- Through expansion of the Forest trail system, sible, roads would be closed to vehicular use, users will be provided with improved, safer trails maintenance would be the minimum needed to and with new trails which will provlde more protect adjacent resources This alternative recreation opportunities Existing trails which would have the most roads closed to use, and the currently have resource or safety problems will lowest standards of maintenance and drivlng be corrected through time convenience (3) Mitigation Measures TGP Alternative Trails that pass through timber sale areas mll be Commodity production is lower than CUR, but protected during harvest operations by special higher than the PRF and EGP Alternatives sale layout, and contract preparation and ad- Road construction and reconstruction levels are ministration Seasonal loggmg restrictions may correspondingly higher than PRF and EGP No apply Rehabilitation of sites disturbed by log- new wilderness, Wild and Scenic Rivers outside gmg or road construction can mitigate long term of existing wilderness, or semi-pnmitive non- effects on these sites In some areas, trail reloca- motorized areas are proposed A greater portion tions or temporary trail closures may be consid- of the Forest is available for roaded access ered b. Trails PRF and EGP Alternatives

All Alternatives These alternatives would maintain the current trail system as well as have an intensive pro- (1) Direct and Zndirect Effects gram of new trail construction and reconstruc- tion Approximately 35 miles oftrails in the PRF Recreational trail systems are most desirable Alternative, and 25 miles in the EGP Alterna- when placed in a natural-appearing setting of- tive, would be constructed or reconstructed in

4-30 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences the first decade Lower timber harvest levels the point where they do not meet state stan- would proportionally affect fewer trail corndors dards, then the Forest will be forced to close the These alternatives would have the highest mile- systems, unless regular cyclic maintenance and age of trails retained in a natural setting periodic replacement continue CUR Alternative e. Dams

The CUR Alternative would add no more trails In addition to the 19 existing dams, anticipated to the present system except what is necessary new Forest Semce dams would vary from none for access into the Ishi Wilderness Due to the to six within the next 50 years depending upon relatively large amount of land allocated to tim- the alternative (six potential dams in PRF and ber management prescnptions, this alternative TGP, one in CUR, and none in EGP) Additional would have the lowest number of trails that dams would provide more water for livestock and would be in a natural setting Trail users could wildlife, as well as road watenng in certain expect to see significant amounts of timber har- areas. These may only entail a structure less vest along trail corridors outside of wilderness. than six feet high and impound less than 15 acre- Some trails would be relocated due to harvest feet of water activities and road construction f. Major Stream Crossings TGP Alternative Any major crossing needs would be treated the The TGP Alternative has a moderate program of same for all alternatives, through enwonmen- trail construction and reconstruction Appro=- tal analysis on a project-specific basis. mately ten miles oftrails would be constructed or reconstructed in the first decade The timber harvest level is higher than the PRF and EGP 6. FIREANDFUELS Alternatives Trail users should expect to see some timber management actimties along trail a. Fire corridors Trails that must be relocated wouldbe moved to more desirable locations or would be re- Wildfires not only cost large sums to control, they established in-place after harvest activities are also can affect fuels, soil productivity, air qual- completed Trail users' experiences would not be ity, mldlife, and the quality or quantity of water significantly affected by this alternative The degree of envlronmental impact depends on the size and intensity of a particular wildfire as c. Utility Corridors well as how often fire occurs on any indimdual site As would be expected, fires that start where For environmental consequences to utility corri- fuel loadings are high and moisture low will burn dors, see section 11, Lands, of this Chapter with the greatest intensities and cause the great- est impacts Wildfires frequently bum under d. Buildings, Water and Sewer such conditions On the other hand, fires burn- Systems ing where fuel loadings are low and moisture is high, such as prescribed fires, have low intensi- Continuing efforts are underway to obtain fund- ties, and environmental impacts are most often ing or other authority to acquire, purchase, or negliDble build Forest offices where leased buildings are now used. This effort would not vary by alterna- Soil is an indispensable resource of the forest tive, and no other significant changes in admin- ecosystem The intensity of fire, and the result- istrative sites are anticipated ing degree to which soils are exposed to heat, control the degree of changes in soil properties Most ofthe water and sewer systems are nearing due to fire Excessive heat affects land produc- the end of their design life, and will need major tivity and soil stability adversely If, on the other renovations within the next ten years, as well as hand, aboveground fuels bum at such low inten- continuing maintenance. If the systems fail to sity that soil temperature is not greatly increased,

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-3 1 land productivlty and soil stability may be unaf- accumulation and melt, and the potential for fected or even enhanced. Fire of low intensity surface and mass erosion. The most powerful facilitates cycling of some soil nutnents Im- and important water quality responses associ- mediately after a fire, soil pH, phosphorous, ated mth fire are sediment and turbidity. Fires exchangeable potassium, calcium, and magne- that consume the majonty of the duff layer and sium increase, but some mtrogen is lost due to expose large areas ofmneral soil close to streams volatilization The loss of nitrogen is insignifi- have the greatest negative impacts Prescribed cant on low intensity fires, but nitrogen lost from fire conducted when the duff moisture content the ecosystem due to hgh intensity fires burning exceeds 75 percent wll create few adverse ef- when fuel moisture is low can be as high as 15 to fects. 20 percent of the total nitrogen capital on the site Fortunately, mtrogen fixation, both symbi- All Alternatives otic and nonsymbiotic, often becomes more ac- tive follomng fire, and this restores essential (1) Direct and Indirect Effects mtrogen to the soil system Nitrogen is requred in vlrtually all plant growth in the forest ecosys- Wilderness Fire Management The effects of tem. fire in managed forests are usually negative, but some positive effects can also materialize, de- Low density fires may also help to control plant pending on the situation Fires can have benefi- pathogens and as a rule do not increase soil cial effects in wlderness under carefully pre- erosion Conversely, hgh intensity fires destroy scribed conditions In all alternatives, fires will organic mater and disrupt soil structure. Ths be allowed to play a more natural role in mlder- mcreases the threat of erosion and causes loss a ness An analysis of the ecosystem changes in in soil productivlty Factors to be considered in mlderness has shown some adverse impacts on evaluating the effects of fire on a specific site natural succession caused by the Forest's past include (a) the frequency ofburning, (b) the size policies of total fire suppression In all mlder- and intensity of the fire, and (c) mitigating ef- ness, natural ignitions from lightning mll be fects declared prescnbed fires as long as they burn The effects of fire on air quality are presented in mthm approved prescnption limits In short, the Am Quality section of this Chapter Uncon- this policy will allow fire to resume its natural trolled emissions of large volumes of smoke pri- role in wilderness ecosystems, but mthin safe manly affect visibility limits If a mlderness prescnbed fire exceeds its prescnption limts, it will be declared a wildfire Direct effects offire on wildlife vary to extremes and put out Suppression ofmlderness fires will Vertebrates rarely succumb to fire because they be managed mth minimum envlronmental im- can flee from it However, the immediate, post- pact and at minimum cost consistent with wil- fire-envlronment presents smvlngwildhfe with derness management direction a drastically changed habitat Effects may be positive or negative depending on the species The Thousand Lakes and Canbou Wildernesses For invertebrate animals, the main effects of fire contain extensive stands of mature lodgepole are short term Populations may drop because pine and red fir wth dense understories of shade animals themselves or their eggs are killed tolerant conifers. This envlronment is contrary Their food supply and shelter may be destroyed to natural conditions that would normally have or drastically reduced On the other hand, mdi- exlsted had fire been allowed to play its natural rect effects may cause population increases for role in these stands. Iffuture site-specific analy- some species as a result of vegetative changes sis indicates that these stands have been signifi- and increased forage after a fire. cantly altered from natural successional pro- cesses, and if natural fire cannot be allowed its Soil charactenstics are mtimately connected mth natural role, the use of planned, prescnbed igni- both the quantity and quality of water The tions will be considered impact of water on soils involves such factors as rainfall interception rates, rainfall infiltration In 1990,the Campbell Fire burned 131,000 acres rates, the soil's ability to store moisture, snow mthin the Ishi Wilderness, 80 percent of the

4-32 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences area Expected impacts from this fire on wildlife Wildfire Suppression The fire management and vegetation are: protection programs reqmred to efficiently imple- ment each alternative were descnbed and com- improved forage for mldhfe, cattle, and pared in Chapter 2 (under each alternative and the mld horse herd in this area. in the Companson of the Alternatives). Table 4- 8 shows the fire protection resources of each regeneration of decadent oak stands and alternative As discussed earlier, Table 4-7 shows chaparral the acreages expected to burn annually by de- cade. See Table 2-7 in Chapter 2 for the expected Prescnbed fire can be used in Special Interest burn acreages by each mldfire intensity class. Areas or Research Natural Areas, although the small size of most areas may make it infeasible Table 4-8 SIA and RNA management plans wdl specify conditions under whch fires from natural ip- Fire Management Protection Resources tions (as well as planned ignitions) m11 be al- lowed to hurn in order to be consistent mth Protection Alternative management objectives for the area Resource PRF CUR EGP TGP

Wildfire Occurrence Forest policy calls for the Prevention Units 6 9 6 6 suppression of mldfires in a cost effective man- ner while also mmimizing their effects on tim- En@ne 9 11 9 9 her, plantations, water quality, and other re- Crews sources Based on hstoncal fire occurrence Lookouts 6 8 6 6 data, Table 4-7 displays the expected average annual acreage burned by wildfire for each alter- Hotshot crew 1 1 1 1 native. Helicopter 1 1 1 1 Table 4-7 w/Crew

Expected Average Annual Acreage Burned By Wildfire Wildfire affects timber, range, water, soils, wild- Alternative life habitat, recreation, and wilderness. Decade PRF CUR EGP TGP Mosteffects are directly related to acreage burned and intensity of combustion. High intensity 1 760 818 757 761 mldfire can be very detnmental, whereas low intensity mldfire is, in many instances, benefi- 2 862 857 807 828 cial. The total acreages burned in decade 1and throughout the next 50 years are very similar for 3 873 916 871 897 all alternatives.

4 899 947 909 944 Fire management for all the alternatives would rely on the traditional approach of suppression. 5 878 984 913 937 Emphasizing fuel treatment involves slightly higher levels of nsk, but would result in less mmber harvest operations can cause damagmg dama@ng and more controllable, lower-inten- mldfires Sparks from trains and powerlines SitY wildfires Spread rates and total acreage can also result in severe wildfires under the nght burned may not be reduced Since the fine fuels conditions Natural ignitions fromlighting cause left after fuel treatment often burn more rapidly, the most damagmg wddfires and account for but less intensely, than the heamer fuels that most of the money spent on fire suppression. would be present mthout fuel treatment Over- all, fuel treatment would result in lower suppres- Few fires are caused by recreationists and fire- sion costs and less wildfire damage. Continued wood cutters and the number of acres burned is reliance on fire suppression without fuel treat- usually small ment allows fuel build-up, making fire suppres-

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-33 sion more difficult and expensive, and resource (3) Mitigation Measures loss more unacceptable Wddfire Suppressron The effects of wddfire Every alternative would allow a mlx of suppres- would be mitigated through fuel treatment, fire sion strategies: confinement, containment, or prevention programs, and cost effective fire sup- control. The appropnate strategy will depend pression. Fuel treatment would decrease the upon the applicable management prescnption, fuel available for mldfires, them intensity, and fire lnstory in the area, and expected fire inten- the difficulty of controlling such fires. Preven- sity Suppression strateges mll, therefore, be tion programs which concentrate on education consistent mth management objectives for the would decrease fires started by human activi- area and the resource values at risk ties Fire suppression would nntigate adverse impacts by keeping the size of the fire to a Prescribed Fire Use Residues from timber minimum while maxlmzing cost efficiency Co- harvest may need to be treated to reduce fire operative fire protection agreements mth State hazards and to prepare the land for planting and other local agencies m11 be encouraged These requlrements affect the Forest's fire enn- ronment On-site treatments may mean piling Prescnbed Frre Use Improvedutilization ofwood slash with tractors and burning it, or broadcast residues and yardmg unutilized material would burning Piling debns with tractors greatly reduce the need to use prescribed fires. The reduces the nsk of fire, and burning piles is chance of prescnbed fires escaping into mldfires relatively safe from the risk of fire escape. How- would be correspondingly reduced. ever, piling slash mth tractors compacts the soil, as discussed in the Soils section of tlns Chapter, Restncting burns to times when soil and duff and exposes the soil to erosion moisture is high would reduce impacts on the soil Rapid mop up of prescnbed burns would Figure 4-1 shows the number of acres treated by reduce amquahtyimpacts andchancesofescape prescnbed fire for decade 1for each alternative Acres not treated by prescnbed fire are treated b. Fuels using such methods as yarding unutihzed mate- rial (YUM). All Alternatives The effect of using prescribed fire on the air Direct and Indirect Effects resource is dmussed m the Am Quality section of (1) this Chapter Fuel loading, an important factor contnbuting to destructive wildfires, "111 vary by alternative Past expenence shows that a small percentage of Timber harvest actinties create the bulk of the the acreage treated by prescnbed fire will escape forest residue. The existence of heavy fuel loads control and become a mldfire. (both natural and from timber harvesting) in- creases the hazard of damagmg mldfires The (2) Cumulative Effects reduction of excessive fuel loads is pronded for as a part of timber harvesting actinties The average size and intensity of fires on the Lassen National Forest should not change in the The amount of timber harvest, by alternative, future The fire management philosophy may directly influences the amount of planned pre- change to allow for costhenefit mmnnzation scnbed burning Figure 4-1 displays this rela- Management wdl allow the use of prescnbed fire tionship The CUR Alternative would generate (both natural and planned prescnbed burns) to the greatest fuel treatment workload The EGP meet management objectivesfor timber and other Alternative would produce the lightest workload resources (e g., wilderness, range and wildlife) through all decades Fuel profiles forest-mde The use of prescnbed fire will reduce the poten- mll be directly affected by the quantity, location, tial for large, catastrophic fires in the future. and type oftimber harvest actinty Those stands under intense even-aged timber management create a fuels profile over time of light surface

4-34 Chapter 4-Envvonmental Consequences Figure 4-1 Prescribed Burning (Decade 1)

Fire-related Prescribed Burning (Acres) 4.000

2,000

I PRF CUR EGP TGP

6,000

4.000

2,000

0 PRF CUR EGP TOP

6,000

4.000

2.000-

0 PRF CUR EGP TOP

litter, light ground fuels, and a canopy of repro- by the scattered placement of group selection duction, saplings andor second growth. The harvest areas that compnse ths alternative. CUR and TGP Alternatives would result in the greatest quantity of this profile forest-mde. The (2) Cumulative Effects EGP Alternative, with the least amount of planned timber production, would produce the Fuel buildups affect forest resources in different least amount of residue requmng treatment ways and to varymg degrees, both because of This alternative would also produce the greatest their physical presence and because of the im- vanety of fuel patterns and mosaics. Fuel pro- pact they have on fire behavlor as compared to files throughout the Forest would be broken up what would happen under natural fuel condi-

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-35 tions The impact may be favorable or unfavor- When planning and implementing fuels able, depending upon the individual resource treatment, leave adequate snags, and involved, as well as the amount of fuel buildup. dead and down matenal, for mldlife and ecosystem needs; Highly flammablevegetative fuel (brush, timber reproduction, snags, and natural woody resi- Encourage industrial utilization of ac- dues) is accumulating faster than it is being tivity-created forest fuels; removed by natural decay, fire and other influ- ences. Consequently, mldland fires tend to burn Make more fuels available for the public mth greatermtensity, and are more difficult and to utilize for firewood and other home costly to control products (e g. fence posts),

Unless actions are taken soon to mitigate those Encourage theuse ofprescnbedfire from factors, the follomng conditions can be prebcted both planned or unplanned ignition with reasonable assurance sources

The trend of increasing fire incidence will continue, 7. FIREWOOD An mcreasing number of fires will burn mth greater mtensity, The plannmg issue for firewood reflects strong public interest in a sustained, rebable, and ac- More large fires will spread from the cessible supply offirewood. There is also a desire mldland vegetation and involve more that ths supply be allocated eqmtably The people and their homes; consequences of the alternatives on the firewood resource are therefore of great significance Damagestodownstreamareasfromflood- mg, mndblown dust, and sehmentation All Alternatives follomng major fires wll be magmfied; and, Under all alternatives, the Forest wlll continue to meet at least the current level of demand, Highly valuable wildlife habitat unll be estimated at 30,000 cords per year for decade 1 extremely vulnerable to long-term loss Forest Standards and Gmdelines reqmre the provision of a sustained supply offirewood Pref- Mitigation Measures erence will be gwen to indivldual domestic heat- (3) ing uses over commercial uses.

Fuel buildups and mldfire can be both advanta- The most sigmficant factors affecting firewood geous and harmful to all forest resources. The supplies are the level of timber harvest and the fuels management program holds the key to supply of cull logs, the amount of land available protectingandenhancingthose resources There- to harvest mortality, the level of new road con- fore, fuels managers must understand each indi- struction, and whether or not certain stands are vidual resource and the ways in wluch the re- to be managed for firewood sources mterrelate. Theycommumcate and work closely wth all Forest specialists. Harvestmg mortality has the potential to de- grade mldlife habitat for both snag dependent The following fuels management measures will and cavity dwelling species. Typically, sensitive be used to maintain fuel profiles that contnbute areas have been set aside or certain trees have to the most cost-efficient fire protection and use been marked mth signs to prevent their re- program moval, although these measures are not always successful In the future, the woodcutting pro- 0 Assure fuel management participation gram will be more intensively managed to reduce in all Forest activlties, adverse impacts upon mldlife habitat

4-36 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences The amount of firewood available annually is areas call for higher snag levels than those pre- shown for each alternative in Table 4-9 The scnptions that provlde for more intensive timber projected demand is also shown to allow com- management such as the T and V Prescriptions panson of supply and demand Lands allocated to a G, K, or L Prescnption will provide better habitat for snag dependent spe- Table 4-9 ciesthan theTorVPrescnptions Snaglevelsfor these prescnptions are descnbed in Chapter 4 of Potential Firewood Supply and Demand the Forest Plan under Management Prescnp- Alternative tions Decade Demand PRF CUR EGP TGP Although firewood collection reduces the total Estimated 1 30 69 70 64 85 suspended particulates from slash disposal op- Firewood erations, particulates increase in towns where Supply the fuelwood is consumed Currently, no State (Thousand 5 58 83 65 68 92 restnctions have been applied to consumers re- Cords per gardmg wood stove use m the Forest's zone of Year) influence. The regulation of particulate dis- charge from wood stoves may occur in the future a. Direct Effects e. Cumulative Effects

The availability of fuelwood is related to the The cumulative effects of the timber harvest timber harvest level In addition to providing program in all alternatives m11 result in a reduc- cull material at the landing, the timber program tion of size and amount of cull matenal available also bmlds and opens roads which improves Also, as stands are brought under management, access to natural mortality in timber stands. As the amount of natural mortality mll decrease. was discussed in Chapter 3 under Firewood, Consequently, other lands (pnvate or public) availability now meets current demand for all may serve as the supplier for the fuelwood con- alternatives As the population increases to sumer No significant cumulative effects are pre- expected levels within the impact area, demand dicted, including those potential effects on cavity may exceed avaiyability in the future Biomass nesters. Forest Standards and Guidelines are and thinning operations will also reduce stand designed to provlde suitable habitat and mini- mortality Over time, large diameter, standing mum or higher snag levels on all forested acres. or fallen dead firewood may become harder to find and the public may have to depend more on d. Mitigation Measures residues from the YUM yarding of cull matenal. State and federal air quality concerns may also The Forest can make more matenal available by reduce the desirability of firewood use in the leaving roads open longer or by allomng fire- future, or at least make it less desirable economi- wood cutting instead of precommercial or com- cally mercial thinning This is an administrative process that could be done mth any alternative, b. Indirect Effects but may conflict with other objectives including road closures for mldlife, soil protection and If traditional fuelwood becomes harder to find, maintenance. more people may smtch to other sources of heat or obtain fuelwood from commercial sources. Except for lodgepole and incense cedar, the For- est firewood program prohibits cutting of dead, The falling of snags for fuelwood may affect the standing trees greater than 21 inches DBH for populations of cavity nesting species, but Stan- the benefit of cavlty nesters, therefore reducing dards and Guidelines (Append= 0 of the Forest the indirect effects on wildlife However, based Plan) are designed to protect habitat for these on expenence, there mll still be some unautho- species, regardless of the alternative. Different rized falling of larger dead trees. If air quality snag levels are allocated through management becomes an issue in the future, the Lassen Na- prescnptions The G, K, and L Prescription tional Forest will cooperate with State or County

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-37 governments regarding firewood use as a means ments and timber harvest, on the potential habi- of mtigating indirect effects on air quality. tat capability are made PRF, EGP, and TGP Alternatives Currently, actual production of resident fish is near the potential production level, based on These alternatives provide firewood to meet ex- habitat capability However, actual production pected demand, and include 8,200 acres oflodge- of anadromous fish is only about 2 percent of the pole pine that mll be managed for firewood Forest’s habitat capability This deficit is due, in part, to downstream factors on non-Forest lands CUR Alternative which prevent the return ofan adequate number of adult spawning fish The California Depart- ment of Fish and Game and the Department of No lodgepole pine cutting areas are allocated. Water Resources are attempting to increase Expected demand mll be met anadromous runs returning to the Forest, mth the Forest’s cooperation

8. FISH Habitat productivlty is affected in two major ways. first, each alternative includes a specific Introduction amount of direct habitat improvement Second, watershed disturbance differs among alterna- The planmng issue for fish concerns the produc- tives according to the amount of road-budding, tivlty, quality, and diversity offish habitat on the loggmg, and grazing Both factors were consid- Forest, and how it should be protected and en- ered in determining potential production levels hanced The effects or impacts on fish resources for resident and anadromous fish A comparison can be separated mto two categones 1) the of nsk factors among of the alternatives is sum- potential negative effects of management activi- manzed in Table 4-10. ties on fish habitat Capability; and 2) the positive effects of habitat enhancement on the fishenes All Alternatives resource Fish habitat is affected dnectly by management activlties in nparian areas as well Under all alternatives, Best Management Prac- as indirectly by activlties in upland areas In tices for water quality and ripanan areas would general, land disturbance activlties influence be implemented In addition, Forest Standards the aquatic ecosystem by affecting streambank and Guidelines for the fishery resource require stability, runoff and sedimentation rates, water maintenance or improvement of habitat for de- temperatures, instream overhead cover, fish sired species of fish spawning and reanng habitat (distnbution and abundance), aquatic invertebrate production and All nparian areas mll be managed under the F nutnent availability Prescription whch calls for limited timber man- agement withm streamside management zones. Effects ofalternatives onfishenes were expressed Widths of these zones vary mth the significance in Chapter 2 as the capability of the habitat to classofthestreamasshowninAppendurRinthe produce harvested pounds of fish. Habitat capa- Plan No more than 2 5 percent of the inventory bility models were developed for chinook salmon, will be removed in any one decade, and only rainbow trout, and steelhead trout which were when it can be documented that timber manage- selected asManagement Indcator Species (MIS) ment mll maintain or enhance riparian values for the Forest These models assume a relation- Streamside management zones are effective huff- ship between fish habitat capability and the ers in mitigating the effects of other manage- physical charactenstics of streams, such as wa- ment activlties, in particular timber harvesting ter quality Estimates of habitat capability for and roads each of the MIS occurs m two steps First, the potential habitat capability of Forest habitats is Theobjective oftbe FPrescnption and theForest estimated Second, estimates of the effect of Standards and Guidelines under Fish is to com- management actiwbes, such as habitat enhance- ply mth the National Forest Management Act of

4-38 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Table 4-10 Fisheries Resource Risk Analysis (for 50 Year Period) AILrrnatlvc Risk Factors m m E(:P Fisheries Program Level Through Decade 5 (see Chapter 2) 1/ Resident Mod Low Mod Mod f 12%J 1-2‘81 (12%) 14% I Anadromous Mod Low Mod Mod (1%) (-8%) (]‘A) 1-49!) Timber Sale Quantity (MMBF) 96 171 94 118 Road ConstructxoniReconstruction 66 77 66 88 (miledyear thru Decade 1) Range (M AUMs thru Decade 1) 48 5 49 I 48 5 48 5 Land Disturbance Index 35 0 44 4 35 3 39 8 (Decade 1-5 average) 2/ Riparian and Adjacent Terr Zone 69 72 69 69 Affected by Activities (percent acreddecade) 2/ Watershed Improvement 75 75 150 75 (acres/years) through Decade 1 Proposed Wild & Scenic Rivers 76 0 76 16 (miles) Risk Low High Low Mod High l/ Percent values represent an increase or decrease In product& lpounds! from the 1982 base level 2/ Refer to section under Water and Riparian Areas

1976 and the implementing regulations found in mittent or seasonal), seasonal and perennial 36 CFR 219 19 These regulations state that wetlands, bogs, seeps, and pothole lakes Under “Fish and wildlife habitat shall be managed to all alternatives, at least a minimum level of maintain viable populations of existing native resident and anadromous fisheries production and desired non-native vertebrate species in the would be sustained by continuing to protect fish planning area ” In addition, 36 CFR 219 27(e) habitat Production for each alternative is sum- states “Nomanagementpracticescausingdetri- marized in Table 2-7 in Chapter 2 mental changes in water temperature orchemical composition, blockages of water courses, or de- a. Direct and Indirect Effects posits ofsediment shall be permitted within these areas (referring to riparian areas) which seri- Resource management activities such as timber OUslY and adversely affect water conditions or harvesting, related road construction and Iive- fish habitat ” stock grazing can increase peak flow and the amount oferosion enteringa drainage This may The F Prescription will be applied to all lands in result in an increase in turbidity and sediment and adjacent to lakes, streams (perennial, inter- levels, which directly affect water quality In-

Chapter 4-Envzronmental Consequences 4-39 creases in sediment levels influence fish in sev- and fishing opportunities, but the increase in eral wayb In suspension, (1)it blocks transmis- fishing pressure can result in potential sion of light, thereby reducing the depth where overharvest of wild stocks of fish Roads located photosynthesis can occur and potentially alter- within the floodplain can also modify stream ing productivity in the aquatic system, (2) it sinuosity damages the ~11membranes, causing mortality where concentrations are high and exposure is The TGP Alternative has more road construction prolonged, and (3) it can decrease foragmg effi- and reconstruction than the other three alterna- ciency for certain fish species, such as salmon tives at 88 miledyear in the first decade CUR and trout, which rely on sight for feeding Sedi- had the second highest with 77 miledyear in ment settling in the gravel beds is harmful in the decade 1, although this figure would be presum- followingways (1)itincreasessiltationofstream ably higher if analyzed through FORPLAN Ver- substrates which can suffocate eggs and young sion I1 Because the CUR Alternative was ana- fish occupymg this niche; (2)it reduces the avail- lyzed through Version I, there is no direct com- able living space for the production of fish food panson mth the other three Alternatives for organisms, and (3) it limits the available roads In proportion to its harvest level, CUR intergravel space important for fish refuge dur- would have the most road construction and re- ing winter and spring months when stream tem- construction. PRF and EGP have 66 nuledyear peratures are low and water levels high in the first decade The nsk to fisheries from road construction and reconstruction is expected Effects from Timber Management Timber to be highest under the CUR Alternative harvest in riparian areas can lead to removal of streamside shade, streambank failures, removal Effects from Range Management Livestock of future large wood material for stream struc- grazing along streambanks can adversely affect ture, and can cause ecologcal changes in the the fishery through changes in streamside veg- ripanan zone Adverse effects from these actiw etation, channel morphology and water quality ties include altenng nutrient cycles, altering Trampling of streambanks and loss of stream- stream flow and stream temperature, increasing side vegetation caused by livestock use can accel- sedimentation, and increasing fishing pressure erate soil erosion and alter the timing and vol- through improved access ume of streamflows In general, fish production can decrease as a result of (1) reductions in Under all alternatives, timber harvest in SMZ's streamside vegetation and overhangmg banks would be proposed only to enhance nparian val- which provide cover for fish, (2)changes in sub- ues and (except for CUR) no more than 25 strate composition and poollriffle ratios which percent of the inventory would be harvested per affect the quality and quantity of spawning and decade Under CUR, the maximum level would rearing areas, and (3) changes in water quality be 5 percent The nsk to fishenes from timber conditions Including increased water tempera- harvest would be highest under the CUR Alter- tures, nutnent loading and suspended sediment native with almost double the volume of that which directly affect egg and fish survival proposed under PRF and EGP The Land Distur- bance Index is highest at 44 4 under the CUR All alternatives would maintain the current graz- Alternative (Table 4-10) ing level or have a slight reduction (2 percent) in AUMs The range condition would be main- Effects from Roads Road construction and use tained or enhanced under all alternatives This are often the greatest potential sediment source would result in little change in the present level of all land disturbing activities, over both the of risk to fisheries Emphasis is placed on Forest short term and the long term Improperly de- Standards and Guidelines to maintain ripanan signed, constructed, or maintained road cross- values and fish habitat ings of streams can block fish passage and in- crease sediment deposited in fish spawning ar- Effects from Fish Habitat Improvements eas Roads constructed m ripanan areas can Fish habitat improvement is planned under all constrict the floodplain and channel, resulting in alternatives The number of proposed improve- changes in channel morphology and associated ment structures and affected acres for each al- habitat Roads also increase recreation access ternative are shown in Table 2-7 in Chapter 2

~~ ~ ~ ~~

4-40 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences These proposals have not had project specific techmques which call for uneven-aged manage- field renew or been subject to site-specific envl- ment ronmental analysis. Some of the projects are designed to rehabilitate past management- Transportation The goal to maintain or en- related activlties or problems caused by natural hance fish habitat capability results in increased events or conditions Improvement projects in- costs ofroad construction andmamtenance. Road clude, but are not limited to. channel stabiliza- crossings of anadromous fish streams and many tion, sehment retention structures, planting of resident fish streams require higher construc- ripanan vegetation, and timber management to tion costs for culverts or bridges. In the vicinity promote more vegetative diversity, especially offishstreams,fullbenchcutofroadsinhillsides increasing the hardwood component within is often required to prevent sediment from enter- streamside management zones mgstreams. Thesecosts areexpected to differ by alternative, and be proportional to the nnles of Effects from Other Resource Activities road constructed See Table 2-7 for estimates of Mineral activlties, recreation use and fire may miles of roads to be bwlt in decades 1 and 5. have an effect on fish, but generally these effects are local problems from a Forest-wide perspec- Visuals Maintenance and enhancement of fish tive. resources generally complement visual quality management. The F Prescnption calls for lim- b. Effects on Other Resources ited timber management withln nparian areas to mantain fish habitat capability These tim- Fish habitat, and its miuntenance and improve- bered areas usually enhance the vlsual condi- ment, may complement or confhct with the pro- tion Enhancement of fishenes in visually sensi- duction or capability of other resources. Some of tive areas may lead to a reduction in vlsual these interactions are discussed here by the quality where man-made structures are con- affected resource. structed However, most ofthe time,fish habitat enhancement projects can be constructed in a Cultural Resource Occasionally the location manner that mll meet the adoptedvisual quality of fish habitat enhancement projects may coin- objective cide with the location of cultural resource sites Development of fish projects requires careful Water Maintenance of water quality comple- cultural reconnassance to avoid any conflicts ments optimum fish habitat capability require- between the resources. Implementation of the ments. No appreciable Merence is anticipated Forest Standards and Guidelines for cultural between the PRF, EGP, and TGP Alternatives. resources should result in no negative effects to the cultural resources. The effect of fisheries on Wilderness and Wild and Scenic Rivers The cultural resources is not expected to change by Wilderness Act states that unlderness is "man- alternative aged so as topreserue its natural conditions", and precludes most fish enhancement activities Minerals Development of nnneral resources Current Forest Service hrection is that compa- may be restricted in order to maintain or en- rable projects identified outside of wilderness hance fish habitat. should be implemented first, pnor to implement- mg projects within wilderness. Fxh habitat Recreation Maintenance and improvement of structures within proposed Wild and Scenic Riv- fish resources generally has a complimentary ers could be allowed in "recreahonal" and "sce- benefit on recreation The effects of fishenes on nic" segments. "Wild segments wll be consid- recreation are not expected to change by altema- ered only when comparable enhancement projects tive. can not be located outside of these areas Im- provement structures mll be evaluated on a site Timber The maintenance of fish habitat in specific basis to detemne their compatibility npanan areas requires that some portions of mth the management objectives for exlsting and nparian areas be set aside from timber harvest, proposed wilderness, and proposed Wild and or have reduced timber ylelds due to harvest Scenic Rivers.

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-41 Wildlife Maintenance and improvement of fish public ownershp predonunates along Md1 and habitat complement the needs ofwldhfe Ripar- Deer Creeks after these streams leave the Na- ian areas in an unharvested condition provlde tional Forest Extensive agncultural operations, high quality habitat for mldhfe species requir- diversions for irngation and municipal uses, and ingaquatic habitats and, often, old-growth forest oceanharvest allinfluencethenumberofsalmon conhtions. Bgher fish populations provlde returmng to suitable habitat on the Forest Ag- greater food supplies for many fish-eating wild- gressive actions need to be pursued by the State life species such as black bear and eagles. Smce of Cahfoma in concert with federal and local all alternatives maintain and enhance fish habi- governments in order to msure perpetuation of tats to the same degree, there are no differences this stock. Downstream "transportation" flows expected in the interaction among wildhfe and is one key restoration action item outlined in the fish between the alternatives upper SacramentoBver Fisheries and Riparian Habitat Management Plan (1989) that is cur- e. Cumulative Effects rently being implemented to help restore the anadromous stocks in Deer and Mill Creeks. Cumulative impacts are the additive effect of Restoration actions in conjunction wth contin- any land disturbance activlties over time and ued mamtenance and protection of stream con&- space. As previously &scussed, roads, timber tions both on and off Forest are cntical to their harvest and livestock grazing are all land man- future agement actinties that "cumulatively"influence the quality and quantity of aquatidriparian re- d. Mitigation Measures sources; these are based on continuation of known land use practices on all lands includmg Four mitigation measures designed to maintain National Forest, pnvate and other public lands. or enhance fish habitat are common to all alter- Implementation of Forest-wde Standards and natives: Forest Standards and Gmdelines, the Guidelines and vanous mitigation measures in Ripanan Prescnption, Best Management Prac- conjunction with site specific project assessments tices (BMPs)and habitat improvement projects by Forest personnel should insure that potential effects on aquatic resources are maintained Forest Standards and Guidelines Forest within acceptable levels. Standards and Guidehnes for fish apply across the Forest (see Chapter2). These Standards and Momtoring of cumulative effects of land man- Guldelmes will provlde for: (1) short and long- agement actinties on aquatic and riparian re- term mamtenance of fish habitat capability, (2) sources wll be done by conducting baseline stream bank and stream channel stability, (3) stream and watershed surveys dunng the first natural and beneficial quantities of large woody decade. This wll provide important mformation debns, (4)protection of water quality and tem- to compare against monitoring data obtained peratures, and (5) fish passage through stream during and after project implementation crossmg structures Changesmstream substratematenals, fishpopu- lation counts, water quality trends, and fish The Riparidish Prescription The Ripar- habitat conditions are some of the yardsticks ian/Fish (F) Prescnption is applied along all which will be used to detect change Thm dlbe perennial streams and nparian areas except morefullydefmedupon completion oftheForest's where ahigher pnonty prescnption applies such Fisheries Momtonng Plan as the Wilderness Prescription (see Chapter 4, Management Prescnptions m the Forest Plan) The primary factors used in analyzing cumula- The F Prescription was developed to recognize tive effects of the alternatives on the anadro- the umque values of nparian areas and give mous fishery are the quahty and quantity of fish preferential treatment to ripanan associated habitat onNahonal Forest lands, onintermingled and dependent resources where management non-National Forest lands withm the Forest conflicts emst. boundan, and on lands downstream from the Forest's boundary One area of concern is the The F Prescnption apphes to vanable mdth decline of spnng-run chmook salmon retunung streamside management zones (SMZs) based on to Mill and Deer Creeks Pnvate and other stream class stability, and type of stream (see

4-42 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Appendix R in the FEIS) SMZs apply to all be accomplished by the end of decade 2 Addi- alternatives tional habitat improvement that is not currently identified would also be accomphshed. The nsk Bank stability and large woody debns deposits of sedimentation to streams from watershed &s- would be maintained at natural levels. Shade turbance would be low due to reduced road bmld- producing vegetation would be maintamed in all mg and loggmg actinties. Overall (considenng streams, to meet management area objechves both habitat improvement and watershed dis- Livestock would be reduced, redistnbuted, or turbance), total annual production of resident excluded from riparian areas as needed Some fish would reach an estimated 54,000 pounds by areas may be fenced to protect nparian resources. decade 3 and remain at that level, 12 percent Rmberharvesting would be hmited toindmdual greater than the 1982 base year tree selection Riparian hardwood commumties would be maintained or improved. Anadromous Fish A moderate amount ofhabi- tat enhancement would be accomplished All Best Management Practices Best Manage- identified habitat improvement projects would ment Practices (BMPs), included in the Soil and be completed by decade 1. The nsk of sedimen- Watershed Conservation Handbook (Chapter 10, tation to streams from watershed dsturbance FSH 2509 221, are applied to all alternatives. would be low due to beneficial effects of semi- Best Management Practices are designed to meet primitive area designations, existing and recom- the requirements of the Clean Water Act, State mended unlderness, wild and scemc river man- Water Quality Standards, and to reduce the agement, and conservative streamside protec- potential for non-point source pollution entering tion in other areas. Overall, potential annual stream channels FSH 2509 22 prondes a guide fish production would remain stable at 140,000 for conducting land management actinties Ac- pounds, an increase of one percent over the 1982 tual BMPs to be incorporated into any activity potential level are developed based on those in the Handbook and the indindual project and site conditions. CUR Alternative For further discussion of the BMPs and water- shed mitigation, refer to the sections on Soils, Resident Fish A low amount of habitat would and Water and Riparian. be improved, requiringmore than five decades to complete all identified projects. Some newly- Fish Habitat Restoration Restoration is em- identified projects would also be accomphshed. phasized in all alternatives. It is the objective of Watershed disturbances would continue at a all alternatives to maintain fish habitat at emst- high level due to loggmg, road building, and ing levels, and to evaluate habitat improvement grazing. By decade 5, fisheries production would projects to rehabilitate conditions created by total a projected 47,000 pounds, which is two past land management activities and to improve percent lower than in 1982 on present conditions. In general, structural habitat improvement projects are considered as Anadromous Fish A low level of habitat en- last resort mitigation measures. hancement would occur. Half of the identified habitat improvement projects would be accom- PRF Alternative plished by decade 2 Watershed disturbance levels would be high due to increased road bmld- Anadromous fishery production values discussed ing and loggmg actinties in currently undis- below for each alternative are the sum of the turbed areas. Overall, production potential would sport and commercial catch values reported in reach approximately 127,000 pounds by decade Table 2-7. As discussed earlier, a fishenes re- 5, which is eight percent lower than in 1982. source nsk analysis, displaymg the primary fac- tors that affect water quality and habitat condi- EGP Alternative tions for each altemahve, is in Table 4-10. Resident Fish A moderate amount of habitat Resident Fish A moderate amount of habitat enhancement would be accomplished. All of the enhancement would be accomplished All of the identified habitat improvement projects would identified habitat improvement projects would be accomplished by the end of decade 2 Addi-

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-43 tional habitat improvement that is not currently 9. FORESTHEALTH identified would also be accomplished. Sedimen- tation due to watershed disturbance would be AU Alternatives low due to reduced road building and loggmg activlties. Overall (considenng both habitat im- a. Direct Effects provement and watershed disturbance), total annual production of resident fish would reach "Forest HealW is a condition where living and an estimated 54,000 pounds by decade 3 and nonlimg influences on the Forest (e g. insects, remam at that level, 12 percent greater than the diseases, silvlcultural treatments, harvesting 1982 base year practices, fire) do not threaten management ob- jectives either now or in the future. The discus- Anadromous Fish Amoderate amount ofhabi- sion of ths issue revolves pnmanly around ef- tat enhancement would be accomplished. All fects from insects and diseases. identlfied habitat improvement projects would be completed dunng decade 1. Watershed dis- Fire plays a major role in maintenance of forest turbance would be low due to beneficial effects of health on the Lassen National Forest. Too much sem-primitive areas designation, exlsting and fire mtensity can injure trees, predisposingthem recommended mlderness, wild and scenic river to insect and/or dxease entry. Too little fire management, and conservative streamside pro- interrupts natural ecologicalcyclesmmanyplant tection in other areas. Overall, potential annual communities on the Forest, histoncally leadmg fish produchon would remain stable at 140,000 to tree stand stagnation or species conversions to pounds, an mcrease of one percent over the 1982 undesirable species Absence of fires may also potential level. lead to msect or disease infestation Insect epidemcs, in particular, are common in these Alternative conditions, causing severe mortahty, fuel accu- TGP mulation, and eventually, stand replacement fires. Resident Fish A moderate amount of habitat enhancement would be accomplished All of the There are many naturally occurring organisms identified habitat improvement projects would that have the ability to alter the forest environ- be accomplished by the end of decade 2. Addi- ment. Ofparticular concern are those organisms tional habitat improvement that is not currently that may negatively affect estabhshment and identfied would also be accomplished Sedimen- growth of trees Most common of these are tation due to watershed disturbance would be at defoliating insects, bark beetles, fungal patho- amoderate level Overall(considenngbothhab1- gens, dwarfmistletoe, small mammals, and live- tat improvement and watershed disturbance), stock. Theriskofforest standdamage from these total annual production of resident fish would pests by implementing the alternatives is &s- reach an estimated 50,000 pounds by decade 3 cussed below. and remain at that level, which is four percent greater than the 1982 base year. Defoliators Insects that consume tree fohage are referred to as defoliators. Of particular con- Anadromous Fish A moderate amount ofhabi- cern is the Douglas-fir tussock moth, which has tat enhancement would be accomplished. All produced Forest-wide epidemcs in recent years identified habitat improvement projects would White fir sawflies can also be a problem Host be completed by decade 1. Watershed distur- tree species (e g white fir and Douglas-fir) wll bance levels would be high due to increased road increase as a result of natural regeneration in bullding and loggmg in currently undisturbed nuxed coder types, especially mth a hght har- areas. Overall, potential annual fish production vest, which maintains shaded conhtions favor- would stabilize at 133,000 pounds by decade 5, able for those species Ths can contribute to four percent lower than the 1982 potential level increased defoliator populations and subsequent

4-44 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences damage Tree planting that emphasizes non- Problems can also be prevented by proper host tree species (pines ) may reduce defoliator slash disposal and by timing timber har- habitat and damage to future stands Precom- vest activities to reduce the amount of mercial and commercial thinning may also limit green slash available in the spring and damage from defoliators by reducing height di- early summer versity in a stand, reducing the proportion of host species and maintaining stand vigor Har- Harvesting of mature and overmature vesting of mature timber by clearcutting or shel- stands, prompt salvage of infested trees, tenvood eliminates habitat for defoliators and and maintenance of non-susceptible spe- thus can reduce their populations Small iso- cies are other actinties that can reduce lated timber harvest areas have little impact, bark beetles but scheduled harvests over large acreages may significantly decrease populations by reducing Bark beetle populations may continue to remain the proportion of host species and breaking up high, but not necessarily epidemic in areas where the continuity of desirable habitat (Carlson, control measures are not applied, such as in 1983) Overstory removal can have similar ef- classified wilderness fects if the host trees are removed Selective harvests maintain host species in stands and Root Rot and Stem Decays This includes a create an uneven-aged condition which encour- variety of funa or bacteria which cause diseases ages the increase of defoliator populations and that infect the roots (root rot) or stems (stem damage decay) of host trees and cause growth loss, mor- tality of trees, or decay of sound wood Loss in Numerous natural controls play a part in regu- infested stands is estimated to be as high as 75 lating defoliator populations Birds eat large percent of normal growth (Fihp, 1982) The numbers and are particularly effective in young following actinties can affect the occurrence of stands (Garton, 1983, Wickman, 1981) How- root rots ever, as trees mature and conditions favoring defoliators improve, the effectiveness of birds in Natural regeneration in mixed conifer controlling defoliators decreases (Campbell, 1983, stands may result in an increase in root Carlson, 1983, Wickman, 1981: rots and stem decays in subsequent stands This is based on the assumption Bark Beetles Bark beetles are that group of that the new stand would be dominated insects that lay their eggs below the bark ofhost by true fir (Seidel, 1979) Planting can trees The larvae tunnel and feed in the inner reduce root rots and stem decays in fu- bark The past five years of drought in the Sierra ture stands if species other than true fir Nevada has increased western pine beetle are used (Seidel, 1981) (Dendroctonus) populations to epidemic propor- tion on some Forests Pine and fir engraver Clearcutting infested stands followed by beetles (Ipsspp )can also cause significant dam- regeneration with resistant species can age by killing the tops of trees Ips spp beetles reduce future incidence of root rots and usually breed in fresh green slash Although not stem decays (Filip, 1983; Dolph, 1980, epidemic on the Lassen, bark beetle infestations Seidel, 19811 Shelterwood harvest can are, nevertheless, extensive across the Forest have the same effects as clearcutting if The followmgmanagementactivities have proven resistant species are used for reforesta- effective in controlling bark beetles tion, but infected overstory trees may provide a source for the new stand's in- The most effective control of damage festation Sanitation and salvage cut- from bark beetles is to maintain trees in ting can remove obvious infected trees, a vigorous condition (Sartwell, 1976, but these treatments can also increase Amman, 1977,Dolph, 19831. This can be the likelihood for future occurrence of accomplished through precommercial or rots Selection cutting may increase in- commercial thinning festation from root rots and stem decays

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-45 Commercial and precommercial thinning aged conditions which tend to promote spread of can reduce loot rots and stem decays by dwarf mistletoe (Seidel, 1981; Barrett, 1979) removing infected or wounded trees, in- creasing the proportion of resistant spe- Both precommercial and commercial thmning cies, andmaitainingstandvlgorin some are effective methods of removing dwarf mstle- cases (Dolph, 1980, Roth, 1977) How- toe-mfected trees. Thinned ponderosa pine stands ever, care must be taken to prevent in- sometimes outgrow the vertical spread of dwarf jury to residual trees, or the benefits of mistletoe (Barrett, 1985) thinning may be lost Blister Rust The most important disease of Treating stumps with borax dunng har- sugar pine and western white pine is blister rust vesting activities has demonstrated suc- It is a major problem in the Sierra Nevada and on cess in reducingthe occurrence ofannosus the Lassen Bhster rust causes damage wherever root disease the alternative hostgenusRzbes occurs (Hepting, 1971) There is increasing public concern that Forest stands with little or no timber manage- blister rust is eliminating sugar pine as a natural ment activities would have endemic levels of component in mmxed conifer stands fungal achvity similar to what presently exlsts except when mldfires occur, reducing the num- Extensive research and effort is being done by ber of more susceptible tree species, such as the Forest Service to control the spread ofbhster those that occur in true fir stands rust On the Lassen National Forest, apparent disease-resistant trees are being located and DwarfMistletoe Dwarf mistletoe damages the protected Seedlings grown from seed collected host by reducing growth, lowenng wood quality, from these trees are being screened for disease and killingorpredisposmgits host to attack from resistance If the selected trees demonstrate other pests (Graham, 1967) Dwarf mistletoe on ability to transfer disease resistance to their ponderosa pine is of primary concern on this progeny, they are protected and will serve as Forest The following section discusses timber seed source for the reforestation program Seed management actinties that may occur in the orchards will also be initiated from cuttings alternatives considered, and their resulting ef- collected from resistant trees By the year 2000, fects on dwarf mistletoe it is hoped that all sugar pine reforestation needs will be satisfied by rust resistant seed Reforestation by planting or natural regenera- tion can reduce dwarf mistletoe by removing Elytroderma Disease Elytroderma disease of infection sources (Dolph, 1980), selecting resis- ponderosa and Jeffrey pine is visible in many tant species (Seidel, 1981),and creatingan even- areas of the Forest Symptoms are premature aged stand (Barrett, 1979) Planting is usually needle death, and deformed tvvlgs and branches more successful than natural regeneration to When infection is heavy, it can cause reduced reduce mistletoe because of more control over growth and vlgor Death may result, usually as these factors part of a pest complex including bark beetles. Direct control methods are not available In Clearcutting is an effective way to eliminate areas of high risk based on prevlous outbreaks, dwarf mistletoe in forest stands, as it removes nonsusceptible species should be favored Thin- the infection source (Dolph, 1980, Seidel, 1981) ning pine stands in high-risk sites may also Shelterwood harvest ulth later overstory re- improve tree vlgor and lessen the probability of moval can reduce dwarf mistletoe infestation if mortality because of bark beetle infestations. the overstory is removed before the regenerated stand is three feet tall (Dolph, 1980) Sanitation Animal Pests Animals that damage trees m- and salvage harvests in mature stands to reduce clude rodents such as rabbits, pocket gophers, mistletoe have not been effective In fact, re- ground squirrels, mice, voles, porcupines and peated sanitation and salvage cutting creates a cattle Deer can also cause damage These multiple-aged condition which can favor the animals feed on tree seedlings and seeds, di- spread of dwarfmistletoe (Barrett, 1979) Selec- rectly affecting reforestation of an area, Some tion harvest also creates multiple or uneven- interactions are

4-46 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Timber harvesting tends to increase cessive tree damage during loggmg and slash small mammal populations as it increases piling Inoculum build-up in stands occurs over the abundance of ground vegetation on time and the effects arc not noticeablc to the which many feed (Stoszek, 1976) Even- untrained observer until epidemic levels occur aged management especially increases Cover for wildlife will be reduced over time even the amount of food available for small though during initial infection stages this effect animals such as pocket gophers, which is minimal Without management, monitoring, have caused senous damage in planta- and treatment of root rots and stem decays, tions timber stands eventually "fall apart," eliminat- ing timber, wildlife and scenic values Scanfication or broadcast burning for site preparation will temporarily reduce Dwarf mistletoe (a parasite) also builds up to all or part oftheirhahitat (Stoszek, 1976, damagmg levels at a relatively slow rate, and Crouch, 1976) As a result, populations death of trees occurs after long periods of time, may change locally, hut the overall effect dependingon thespecies whichisinfected Again, on total small mammal populations over only severe damage is noticeable to the untrained time is expected to he insignificant observer, hut the effects are long lasting When senous, dwarf mistletoe is best controlled by Cattlegrazinginnewlyestahlishedplan- stand regeneration The major indirect effect is tations can trample seedlings, increase on timber production, hut with longlastinginfes- soil compaction, and consume new tations, visual quality, wildlife cover, and other growth Occassional seedling damage resource values are also reduced has occurred Successional reproduction and stocking levels have not been signifi- c. Cumulative Effects cantly affected by cattle grazing During conditions where populations are above b. Indirect Effects normal, all of the organisms discussed under "Direct" and "Indirect Effects" (with the excep- Healthy forests provide for the long-term pro- tion of small mammals), are symptomatic of duction of many benefits, including timber, sce- forest stand conditions that are not in line with nic resources, wildlife habitat and others natural processes Changes in major species composition (as the result ofthe exclusion of fire) Mured conifer and ponderosa pine stands that have created conditions favorable for these or- are stressed hy drought are predisposed to at- ganisms to flounsh, and cumulatively there is tack by bark beetles When this occurs, cover for substantial long-term nsk to management objec- wldlife is reduced, visual quality is lowered, and tives, including timber production, wildlife cover, timber productivity is temporarily foregone. vlsual quality and outdoor recreation In some These effects will last until the stand is either mixed conifer stands, dwarf mistletoe and root naturally or artificially (planted) regenerated, rots have been found together, causing stand and has grown for fifteen to twenty years, at damage to the point where the only option is to least Thisis anirretrievableloss ofthat particu- replace the stand with species adapted to site lar resource value for an extended penod oftime conditions In some pine stands, dwarfmistletoe can predispose trees to attack by hark beetles, Loss of wddlife cover from tussock moth defolia- creating cumulative stand damage tion can last up to ten years or longer Similar effects from bark beetle damage occur except The ability to predict the overall cumulative that it is usually more localized and wldlife effect of these organisms on Forest resources is cover is not eliminated Loss of wildlife cover, low Based on available information, the alter- timber productivity, and reduction ofvisual qual- natives can be ranked in terms of their risk of ity are the primary indirect effects from defoha- maintaining conditions favorable for cumula- tion tive, negative effects on Forest health Assump- tions are 1)wilderness and semi-pnmitive ar- Root rots and stem decays tend to increase with eas, where use of fire for forest stand mainte- poor timber management practices such as ex- nanceisnot anintegral partofmanagement, will

~ Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-47 provide future "breeding areas" for defoliators, PRF, CUR, EGP, and TGP bark beetles and dwarf mistletoe Stem decays Alternatives will also he prevalent, but root rots will probably stay at low, endemic levels, 2) the Forest will Implementation of the alternatives would m- maintain sufficient quality control in treated volve different levels of pest management and stands to minimize infestations, which will hold would likely result in varying severities of pest- true for all of the alternatives, 3) those alterna- related damage on the Forest Indicators ofpest- tives which emphasize uneven-aged manage- related damage include tree mortality, reduced mentwill have agreater nskofsustaininghigher growth, top-killing, and reduced quality and levels of defoliators, dwarf mstletoe, and root quantity of seed production Damage can result rots, and 4)alternatives with higher timber har- in sawtimber defect, understocked stands, delay vest schedules mll treat more acres in the short or failure of regeneration, reduced site produc- term, thereby reducing habitat for major insects tivity, hazardous trees, degraded or closed recre- and diseases Usingthese assumptions, the PRF ation sites, and other undesirable vegetation and EGP Alternatives would have a higher nsk changes of negatively affecting Forest health than CUR and TGP Vegetative management provides the best op- portunities to prevent or reduce the amount and d. Mitigation Measures impact of pest-related damage, although other direct preventive and control actions against Integrated pest management is key to reducing pests may he necessary in specific situations In the insect and disease impact on forest resource general, increases in stand management, in- values Integrated pest management is an ap- cluding control of stocking levels and species proach to reducing pest damage to tolerable composition, and the timely removal of stressed levels through a variety of techniques, including trees, should reduce insect and disease damage predators and parasites, genetically resistant The appropriate use of regeneration timher har- hosts, natural environmental modifications and, vest provides the means to remove stands par- when necessary and appropriate, chemical pesti- ticularly susceptible to, or currently experienc- cides State-of-the-art integrated pest manage- ing, unacceptably high levels of pest damage ment places emphasis on modifying the natural Examples include stands heavlly infected mth ennronment through silviculture dwarf mistletoe and/or mth high levels of mor- talityfrombarkheetle, root disease, or other pest The ultimate goal of silviculture in integrated complexes Although regeneration often creates pest management is the creation of plant diver- the need to control competing vegetation and sity both in species mix and in age distnhution pocket gophers, it also creates the opportunity to Plant diversity provides the greatest opportu- maintain insect and disease damage at accept- nity for ensuring a healthy forest Most insects able levels throughout the rotation of the stand. and diseases are host-specific, or depend upon Intermediate and selection harvest, through the plants which are under stress Therefore, in- removal of stressed indinduals and groups of creasing species, age class, and structural diver- trees, and the reduction of stocking to biolog.1- sity will decrease losses caused by insects and cally appropnate levels can also reduce and pre- diseases, and in turn reduce their impacts Di- vent insect and disease damage versity can he influenced through processes out- side the control ofthe land manager (windthrow, In order to compare alternatives, the intensity of mldfire, landslide, etc or purposefully directed vegetative management is used as a proxy to by the land manager indicate the opportunity to prevent and reduce damage Areas managed intensively for timher Scheduling timher harvest of high-nsk stands would present the greatest pest management before infestation occurs is another control mea- opportunities Other areas where the condition sure planned by the Forest To the extent fea- of the vegetation is important, such as in devel- sible, timber harvest in this as well as future oped recreation sites, would also present signifi- decades wd1 be scheduled in the most high nsk cant opportunities for pest management, even stands identified through silvlcultural prescnp- though timber production is not their primary tions objective Wildernesses, on theotherhand, would

4-48 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences present limited possibilities that would occur even-aged management (especially clearcutting only when pests were an immediate threat to and shelterwood harvesting) resources outside the wilderness boundary or threatened an unnatural loss of wilderness char- acter Areas managed non-intensively for tim- GEOLOGYAND ber production would have moderate pest man- 10. agement opportunities The intensity of vegeta- GROUNDWATER tive management for each alternative is shown in Table 2-7 in Chapter 2 for Reforestation, On the Forest, adverse geologxal impacts are Timber Stand Improvement, and Allowable Sale primanly a result of slope instability that is Quantity reflected by the occurrence of landslides and slumps Slope failure of soil and rock can be Defoliators Research literature is compelling caused by natural processes or as a result of towards use of management prescnptions that management activities Geologcally-sensitive utilize even-aged management (in mixed coni- lands constitute less than one percent of the fer) and the use of prescribed fire for control of Lassen National Forest defoliators The objective is to "reverse the suc- cessional trend created by nearly a century of a. Direct and Indirect Effects fire suppression, selective harvesting (mthout proper follow-up cultural practices), and an over- There are a vanety of direct and indirect effects all lack of awareness of ecoloBcal principles on the environment that result from geologc Significant outbreaks of defoliators such as the interactions Accelerated rates ofslumping above Douglas-fir tussockmoth have occurred recently, naturallevels are anunavoidable consequence of and will in all likelihood continue in the future building roads and harvesting timber In poten- The long-term effects are unknown, but ifpredic- tially unstable terrain The degree of effect can tions are accurate, recurring large scale defolia- vary greatly depending on location and design tions mll be common untd forest stands are brought under an "integrated pest management" Some ofthe indirect effects associated mth slump- strategy. Effects will probably be cumulative ing and landslides can include

All alternatives, except EGP, would be effective Loss of facilities and capital investments in reducing losses to defoliators because of the (pnmarily roads); large number of acres treated with even-aged management Increased cost and personnel required for management of areas where accel- Bark Beetles All alternatives are probably erated slumping has taken place, effective at reducing the risk from bark beetle damage because of proposed pre-commercial and Increased risk of injury, commercial thinning, and stand maintenance harvests Increased sediment to streams and res- ervoirs, Root Rots and Stem Decays All alternatives would be effective in reducing the risk from root Loss of shading for streams used by rots and stem decays in lands managed for vary- anadromous fish, ing levels of timber production Temporarydecrease in waterquahty(pr1- Dwarf Mistletoe All alternatives, except EGP, manly due to increases in turbidity), would be effective for prevention of dwarf mistle- toe The EGP Alternative would not be as effec- Visual impacts of landslide scars and tive as the other alternatives because of Its reli- deformed vegetation, ance on uneven-aged management Loss of productwe capability of the land Animal Pests Animal damage will probably due to erosion from slumps and land- increase with those alternatives that emphasize slides

Chapter 4-Envrronmental Consequences 4-49 b. Cumulative Effects Additional mitigation measures associated with timber harvesting include replacing clearcut sil- The analysis of cumulative effects takes into vicultural prescriptions mth partial cut pre- consideration past, present and future activlties scnptions. on National Forest and other lands. Impacts are reviewed with regard to the timing and intensity There are a number ofmitigationmeasures which of activities, their location and land sensitivity can be used to decrease the frequency and lessen the impacts of landslides which may be associ- Analysis of cumulative effects requires that ated with road construction. Mitigation mea- threshold values be established, above which the sures related to road construction can be sepa- cumulative effects are signficant and below which rated into two categories. prevention efforts and they are judged to be insignificant At this time, remedial efforts Prevention measures which there are no widely accepted methods or models are very effective include avoidance of unstable available to set threshold values for determining terrain during road location, as well as engi- the significance of cumulative effects of slope neenng and geotechnical site investigations to failures Further, because it is impossible to assess nsks and to provlde adequate project forecast the occurrence of storms which tngger design for encountered conditions Monitonng landslides, the prediction of when threshold val- mll be required to evaluate the effectiveness of ues mght be exceeded is not possible these measures in preventing slope failures re- lated to road construction The concentration ofmtensive management (road construction and timber harvest) in steep, poten- When road related failures occur, some of the tially unstable terrain is more likely to cause efforts to reduce the impacts (remedial efforts) greater cumulative impacts than the same ac- include removal of slide matenal, regrading tivlties in stable terrain Areas on the Forest and revegetating the slope, placement of filtra- where sensitive lands are Iocated have been tion and drainage structures at the slide, use of identified during the planmng process retaining structures, redirection of surface wa- ter away from the site, and interception and Significant adverse cumulative effects on geol- drainage of groundwater away from the failure ogy and groundwater are not expected to occur These methods are generally quite effective in from implementing any of the alternatives reconstructing the roadway and minimizmg the potential for future failure at that site, but envi- c. Mitigation Measures ronmental damages may have already occurred For large failures, these efforts can be very ex- A wide vanety of techniques are used to lessen pensive, and may not be totally effective the impacts or prevent accelerated mass move- ment resulting from timber harvest Foremost is Contamination of groundwater by toxlc materi- The most the identification of unstable terrain als during drilling operations or due to hazard- reliable and cost-effectivemethod in dealingmth ous materials spills would be managed through unstable terrain is simply avoidance of known plans of operation, special use permits, contract problem areas Project environmental assess- specifications, and contingency plans under all ments utilize detailed mapping to verify and update the location of unstable acres All of the alternatives The totalmhgatedeffect onground- alternatives call for the use of Best Management water for any of the alternatives will be negli- Practices to minimize impacts on water quality Dble by the avoidance of unstable soils PRF, CUR, EGP, and TGP The Forest Semce operates under the pnnciple Alternatives that management actions should be dispersed (by timing and location) rather than concen- The risk associated with geologw hazards is not trated, in order to avoid adverse cumulative expected to vary by alternative, nor is the threat effects to groundwater quality or quantity

~

4-50 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Stability hazards on Eocene non-marine and Coordination With Adjacent Landowners granitic soils are the same for all alternatives, Coordination efforts described in Chapter 3 will exposure to stability hazards is proportional to continue under all dlternativcs Thc avcragc of each alternative’s Land Disturbance Index, land adjustments is not expected to vary signifi- shown in Table 4-10 of this Chapter cantly by alternative, but specific areas to be acquired and their relative priority for acquisi- The CURAlternative has a higberriskofimpact- tion will vary in accordance with the theme of ing potentially unstable areas because of the each alternative greater area proposed for intensive timber man- agement and road construction TGP, PRF, and Utility Corridors Issuance of special use per- EGP have correspondingly less risk mits for utility corridors (powerlines and energy transmission) can have significant indirect ef- fects on other resources Land is often taken out 11. LANDS of production from other uses, or at least reduced in terms of availability The planning issue for the lands resource in- volves both landowner coordination and landownership adjustments how the Forest Specified areas must be avoided in locating new should coordinate its activities with adjacent utility corridors under any alternative desig- public and private landowners, and how it should nated and proposed wilderness, proposed wild reduce conflicts by exchangmgor acquiringlands and scenic river corridors, Research Natural The lands resource also includes utility corri- Areas, semi-primitive recreation areas, experi- dors, special uses, land withdrawals, rights of mental forests, Special Interest Areas, the Eagle way, and land line location The consequences Lake planning area, and areas used in the prac- are summarized below by these categories tice of Native American religions Since each alternative involves a different mix of these ar- All Alternatives eas, future corridor locations could be af- fected differently The corndor study cited in a. Direct, Indirect and Chapter 3 focused on an area north of the Forest Cumulative Effects for the location of a proposed eastlwest intertie Apossiblenorth-southintertie is also beingstud- Land Adjustments Under all alternatives, the led which, at the most, would affect less than a land adjustment program will result in a more hundred acres in the northwest corner of the consolidated land ownership pattern, reduced Forest Thus, no new demand for a major corri- administrative costs, fewer trespasses, better dor on the Forest is expected in the near future resource protection, improved public service and Under all alternatives, new facilities will he enhanced recreation opportunities Land adjust- located alongside existing facilities whenever ment is defined as land purchase, exchange, possible donation, or other authorized real estate action This program wll not vary notably among the Special Uses While the alternatives differ in alternatives the amount of land managed for particular pur- poses, these differences will have only a negh- Proposed land adjustments are subject to envi- able effect on the special uses (used by other ronmental analysis to determine social, economic parties) program and environmental effects. Two major adjust- ments that have high public interest are the Withdrawals Withdrawals vary by alternative exchange for relocation of the Eagle Lake Dis- and are discussed under the minerals section of trict office at the intersection of County A-1 and this Chapter Highway 36, and the proposed purchase unit at the south end of Eagle Lake Both of these Rights-of-way Acquisition and Land Line adjustments have the potential of greatly ex- Location Rights-of-way acquisition and land panding public service for visitors traveling to or line identification, posting, and marking pnori- recreating at Eagle Lake ties will vary in direct proportion to the allowable

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-51 timber sale quantity Joint funding mth adja- enforcement mll increase The incidence of cent landowners mll be used whenever possible, actinties on the Lassen National Forest that frequently allowing survey marking and bound- have reqmred a law enforcement response has ary line posting beyond the minimum reqmred been on a steady increase over the past decade for a specific timber sale In addition, the Forest This trend is expected to continue, regardless of will maintain those boundary and survey lines the selected alternative that are up to standards on a IO-year cycle Many factors affect the law enforcement equa- b. Mitigation Measures tion Area economcs and employment opportu- nities, recreational vlsitor use days, facility con- Standard and Guidelines in Chapter 2 stipulate ditions and security, promulgation of new laws measures to take in order to mitigate the effects and regulations, population changes and social of actions on other resource values (indirect ef- attitudes are but a few It is difficult to measure fects) Central to these measures is that any these mfluences accurately or scientifically, but proposed action must be consistent with empha- some histoncal examples can be relied upon ses associated with individuat management ar- eas, this applies to issuance of special use per- It is also difficult to define effects as "direct, mits as well (including utility corndors) All Indirect or cumulative", since one nolation of applications for permits must be renewed in law can contain all three For example, the accordance with NEPA regulations illegal woodcutter who removes a mldlife snag has a direct effect on that indwidual snag The Mitigation measures for pipelines, power lines and phone lines may include. indirect effect is that future mldlife habitat has been removed from the area A cumulative effect Erosion and drainage control (e g., mni- may be shown ifregulations are not enforced and mum clearing widths), repeat nolations occur over a large scale

Revegetation (primarily with native Certain effects, predicted by alternative, are grasses and other noninterferingvegeta- descnbed below Issues where there 1s no pro- tion); jected difference from the CUR Alternative are not discussed specifically Special measures at stream crossings (e g , nprap, concrete armonng, or deep All alternatives would produce an economic ef- trenchmg); fect, through an increased Forest budget with the additional funds required to augment law Construction of diversions or settling enforcement staffing ponds near water crossings, or linuting construction to specific seasons; Reduced timber harvesting will have a sigmfi- cant effect on law enforcement related actinties Location or camouflage to mtigate vi- Local economics and the employment situation sual effects on the landscape, or will change Some unemployed persons may resort to illegal actinties in lieu of IeDtimate Restriction of off-road vehicles to limit employment Examples of this could be an in- soil erosion crease in narcotics production on National For- est lands, and resource and property theft. Arson as a means of employment could also 12. LAW ENFORCEMENT increase Histoncal examples indicate that re- duction in the timber supply would lead to in- All Alternatives creased pnces, making unauthorized removal that much more lucrative This effect would be a. Direct, Indirect and slightly less significant in the TGP than in the Cumulative Effects PRF or EGP Alternatives

Although law enforcement effects are difficult to Additional trail construction and wilderness des- predict, it is certain that the need for law ignation under the PRF and EGP Alternatives

4-52 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences would result in an increase in visitor use days, an alleged violation has occurred and the sus- with a resultant increase in law enforce- pects are apprehended, reports in the media also ment activlties Vandalism of cultural resource act as a deterrent for others A series of articles sites will continue to be a problem New Wild and on the vandalism of cultural properties helped Scenic Rivers and Special Area designations expand the public's awareness of the importance under the two alternatives could result in in- of these unique sites, and why they need to be creased regulation and protection of these areas protected While a decrease in road maintenance could offset some increased vlsitor use, the rate of Personal contacts and interpretative informa- related accidents due to poor road conditions tion at major developed recreation sites or Forest could me,as well as the potential for tort claims. Servlce administrative offices are one of the best Withdrawal of acres from mineral leasing and ways to disseminate information on resource entry could cause a minor increase in trespasses management activities and protection. Signs at needing resolution by law enforcement actions. campgrounds, informational brochures or expla- nations by Forest Service Hosts and law enforce- The CUR and TGP Alternatives show the most ment officials all gwe visitors a better under- road and trail construction This would make standing of the Forest's resource management more of the Forest accessible and probably draw programs Education and information have a more vlsitors, slightly increasing related proh- positive impact on deternngviolations, and miti- lems Higher amounts of firewood made avail- gating the law enforcement workload able would bring ahout an increase in regulatory law enforcement actinties Increased biomass activity would reqmre additional law enforce- ment support in timber sale actinties related to 13. MINERALS the layout, preparation and accountability of biomass sales a. Direct and Indirect Effects

Under all alternatives, decreased acreage burned Exploration and development of mineral re- may lessen impacts of fire investigation, al- sources on the Forest have varymg effects on the though the decrease is insignificant overall envlronment The potential envlronmental ef- Added recreation opportunities could increase fects depend on methods, duration, and extent of the actual number of human caused starts. operations Ground disturbance associated with mineral and energy activlties can have impor- No change in wildlife-related law enforcement tant drect and indirect interactions with many activities is currently predicted for the alterna- of the environmental components described in tives, although requirements for the protection this Chapter Conversely, land allocations de- of spotted owl habitat may change in the future signed to protect various resources from the adverse effects of ground disturbing activlties b. Mitigation Measures can constrain mineral exploration and restrict development to varymg degrees Mitigation measures for law enforcement center on the tnangle of education, information, and Forest Service policy is to encourage and facih- enforcement The emphasis on education in- tate mineral exploration and development on all cludes school vlsits, summer campground pro- lands not withdrawn from mineral entry This grams such as the Junior Ranger Program, and policy would not change in any of the alterna- presentations to organized groups These pro- tives grams provide an opportunity for law enforce- ment officials to meet mth the public, explain Under the different alternatives, certain lands the regulations for protecting forest resources, are recommended for withdrawal from mining and respond to local concerns activity while other lands are recommended for management by vanous prescriptions The way Media contact, primarily newspapers and radio, lands are managed under each alternative will is another method of announcing changes in have a effect on the availability ofthose lands for forestregulationsanddetemngvlolations When mineral entry It will also have an indirect effect

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-53 on the cost of conducting exploration, develop made pnor to mineral mthdrawal, or where ment and reclamation activities. Management exlsting claims have been located in areas sub- prescnptions and the management of other re- ject to recommendations for mneral withdrawal. sources may affect the actual cost of operation; Highly restricted access due to management management prescnptions could also influence prescriptions and management area mrection interest in exploring some areas for their min- can discourage exploration and development. eral resources. Because the mineral potential for locatable min- The value of mineral resources is not well quan- erals is low, the likelihood of development is tified. Therefore it is difficult to assess the minimal for all of the alternatives. The acreage effects on minerals that each alternative would that would potentially be withdrawn from min- have in terms of dollars, tons at a certain grade eral entry varies considerably from one alterna- or billions of BTU's Likemse, since specific tive to the next. Ennronmental consequences of actinties have not been proposed, the indirect the alternatives on mineral development would effects of protectingother resources from mining be directly related to the size and kind of area impacts cannotbe specificallyquantifiedin terms that would be withdrawn from entry. The clos- of delays, cost of operating, cost of reclaiming or ing of roads for various resource actinties could in terms of production. These impacts will be have an adverse impact on access for mneral analyzed and quantified when specific activities exploration; however the construction of roads have been proposed and the location, scope and for other resources could also expose geologwally timing of an operation is known. As a conse- promising strata to prospectors and increase quence, the effects are best shown by analyzing access which would benefit mineral exploration the relative degree to which management pre- and development actinties scriptions may increase the cost of operating, limit the availability of land for mineral explora- Leasable Minerals With a valid pernut, people tion and development, or otherwise constrain can explore for leasable minerals on all public proposed mineral activities. lands not withdrawn from nnneral leasing laws Leasable minerals are primanly coal, oil, gas The differences in access affect the availability of and geothermal resources In an area where Forest lands for mineral exploration, develop- valid exlsting mineral nghts do not already ex- ment and reclamation In some areas such as wilderness, potential mineral resources may ist, leases and permits maybe granted under the never be identified or developed. When manage- provisions of all alternatives onlyiftheyincorpo- ment goals for other resources cannot be fully rate the management direction of the leasdper- met in conjunction with certain types of mneral mit area If an area has been leased, the leasee activities, the result is a conflict of interests. has the right to explore, produce, and develop Alternatives with highly restrictive access and leasable mineralswithreasonable access. Where stncter guidelines for smaller area disturbance other management goals cannot be completely would, in general, have lower environmental achieved while leasing activities contmue, con- risks and less impact from mineral entry. flicts may arise. Conversely, management pre- scnptions could impair access to leasable miner- Minerals and mineral related resources are als. Impacts of management prescriptions could grouped into three basic categories. Locatable, affect the type ofmineralleasingactivitypermit- Leasable, and Mineral Materials ted, the quality of information acquired about the potential and occurrence of the mineral re- Locatable Minerals The locatable mineral source, and the ability of the leasee to supply potential (gold, copper, silver and other precious nunerals to meet national demands (see Table 4- or semi-precious minerals) of the Forest is mod- 12) erate. Expenence indicates that only a small percent- Known locations of locatable minerals do not age of the leases are dnlled and an even smaller change with alternatives, but the availability for percentage make a discovery and are developed mineral exploration does (see Table 4-11). Con- Actinty on the bulk ofthe leases usually mll not flicts could occur 111 areas where claims were proceed beyond preliminary exploration.

~~ ~ ~~~

4-54 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Table4-11 Withdrawal of Locatable Mineral Resources By Mineral Potential and By Alternative

Withdrawal Locatable Mineral Existing PRF CUR EGP TGP Areas Potential Withdrawal (1984) a/

1 Wilderness VH Very High 0 0 0 0 0 H High 0 0 0 0 0 M Medium 0 90 0 90 0 L Low 32,983 54,477 32,983 75,979 32,983 LIU Probably Low 45,077 45,077 45,077 45,077 45,077 U Unknown 0 0 0 0 0

2 Wdd Segment, VH VeryHigh 0 0 0 0 0 WddandScemc H Hxzh 0 0 0 0 0 bver M Medium 0 500 0 500 0 L Low 0 8,790 0 8,790 0 LlLT Probably Low 0 7,105 0 7,105 5,400 U unknown 0 0 0 0 0

3 Research VH Very High 0 0 0 0 0 Natural Areas H High 0 0 0 0 0 M Medium 0 800 0 800 800 L Low 0 5,995 0 5,995 5,995 L/u Probably Low 521 3,518 521 3,518 3,518 U Unknown b/ 3,922 3,922 3,922 3,922 3,922

4. Nahonal VH Very High 0 0 0 0 0 Natural H High 0 0 0 0 0 Landmarks M Medium 0 0 0 0 0 L Low 0 0 0 0 0 LlLT Probably Low 0 0 0 100 0 U unknown 0 0 0 0 0

5 Special VH Very High 0 0 0 0 0 Interest Areas H High 0 0 0 0 0 M Medium 0 0 0 0 0 L Low 0 395 0 395 0 LlLT Probably Low 0 1,910 0 1,910 0 u Unknown 0 0 0 0 0

6. Eagle Lake VH Very High 0 0 0 0 0 Planmng Area e/ H mgh 0 0 0 0 0 M Med” 0 0 0 0 0 L LOW 0 0 0 0 0 LlLT Probably Low 0 40,280 0 40,280 0 U Unknown 0 0 0 0 0 Total Acres VH Very High 0 0 0 0 0 Recommended H High 0 0 0 0 0 for Mineral M Medium 0 1,265 0 1,390 800 Withdrawal d/ L Low 32,983 65,258 32,983 80,425 38,978 LIU Probably Low 45,598 88,333 45,598 80,313 45,598 u Unknown 3,922 3,922 3,922 3,922 3,922 Total 82,503 158,778 82,503 166,050 89,298

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-55 Table4-11 (continued) Withdrawal of Locatable Mineral Resources By Mineral Potential and By Alternative

Withdrawal Locatable Mineral Existing PRF CUR EGP TGP Areas Potential Withdrawal (1984) a/

Percent of VH Very High 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Lands H High 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Withdrawn M Mehum 0% 3% 0% 3% 2% From Each L Low 26% 52% 26% 64% 31% Mineral UU Probably Low 5% 9% 5% 9% 5% Potential U Unknown 19% 19% 19% 19% 19% Level el, t7 a/ Existing withdrawal acres are included in the alternatives b/ Cub Creek IS an existing RNA encompassing 3,922 acres It IS planned for withdrawal e/ Under the PRF and EGP Alternatives, the Eagle Lake Planning Area is not recommended for National Natural Land- mark or Spenal Interest Area classification, but IS proposed for withdrawal from mineral entry d/ For all alternatives, the 'Total Acres Recommended for Mineral Withdrawal" do not equal the anthmetical sum of "Withdrawal Areas" rows 1-6above This is because of several overlaps Wild and Scenic Rivers mthin wilderness, RNA's within wilderness, SINS wthm wilderness, areas recommended for both NNL and SIA,etc e/ The totals of mineral potential categories VHthrough U should not total 100%

W Total Lassen National Forest area is 1,129,585 acres The Forest-wide locatable mineral potential IS apprommately VH VeryHigh 6,475 acres 6 percent of Forest H High 600 acres 1percent of Forest M Medium 39,915 acres 3 5 percent of Forest L Law 126,670 acres 11 2 percent of Forest IJU Probably Low 935,140 acres 82 8 percent of Forest U Unknown 20,785 acres 18 percent of Forest

Table 4-12 Withdrawal of Leasable Mineral Resources By Mineral Potential and By Alternative

Withdrawal Locatable Mineral Enstmg PRF CUR EGP TGP Areas Potential Withdrawal (1984) a/

1 Wilderness VH Very High 14,892 6,767 0 7,832 H High 62,668 6,422 0 6,422 M Medmm 500 1,985 0 20,932 U Unknown 0 6,410 0 7,900

2 Wild VH Very High 0 0 0 Segment, H High 0 0 0 Wild and M Medium 10,773 0 10,773 Scenic Rwer U Unknown 5,622 0 5,622

~ 4-56 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Table 4-12 (continued) Withdrawal of Leasable Mineral Resources By Mineral Potential and By Alternative

Withdrawal Locatable Mineral Emsting PRF CUR EGP TGP Areas Potential Withdrawal (1984)a/

3 National VH VeryHigh 0 0 0 Natural H High 0 100 0 Landmarks M Medium 0 0 0 U Unknown 0 0 0

4 Special VH VeryHigh 110 110 0 InterestAreas H High 480 480 0 M Medium ,715 715 0 U Unknown 0 0 0 5 EadeLake- VH VervHish 0 0 0 0 Planrnng H High 0 9,600 0 9,600 0 Area bl M Medium 0 30,680 0 30,680 0 u unknawn 0 3 0 3 0

Total Acres VH Very~gh 14,892 21,659 14,892 22,724 14,892 Recommended H High 62,668 78,690 62,668 78,690 62,668 for Mineral M Medium 500 35,098 500 46,245 500 Withdrawal d u unknown 0 10,132 0 11,332 0

Total 78,060 145,579 78,060 158,991 78,060

Percent of VH VeryHigh 23% 33% 23% 34% 23% Lands H High 39% 50% 39% 50% 39% Withdrawn M Medium 0 1% 5% 0 1% 6% 0 1% From Each U Unknown 0% 7% 0% 8% 0% Mineral Potential Level df, e/ a/ Existmg withdrawal acres are lncluded In the alternatives b/ Under the PRF and EGP Altematwes, the Eagle Lake Planning Area IS not recommended for National Natural Landmark or Special Interest Area Classification, but 1s proposed for withdrawal from mineral entry el For all alternatives, the "Total Acres Recommended for Mineral withdrawal" do not equal the anthmetical sum of "Withdrawal Areas" rows 1-5above This IS because of several overlaps Wild and Scenic Rivers within wildemess, RNA's wthm wilderness, SIA's within wildemess, areas recommended for both NNL and SIA, etc d/ Totals of mineral potential categanes VH through U should not total 100% e/ Total Lassen National Forest area IS 1,129,585 acres The Forest-wide leasable mineral potential IS approximately

VH VeryHigh 66,100 acres 5 8 percent of Forest H High 159,020 acres 14 0 percent of Forest M Medium 765,036 acres 68 0 percent ofForest U Unknown 139,429 acres 12 2 percent of Forest Note Research Natural Areas were wthdrawn from locatable mineral entry, but withdrawal from mineral leasing IS not necessary (directional drilling 1s possible)

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-57 Mineral Materials Mineral materials are com- minimize or mitigate adverse impacts on those monvarieties of sand, gravel and cinders, etc. As resources requiring some degree of protection. the need for additional mineral materials devel- Only reasonable restrictions to mining can be ops, acreage will need to be set aside for them. legally imposed on areas not withdrawn. Environmental consequences from development of new and existing sources would result pnma- All Alternatives nly from the particular locahon in relation to other resources as well as the number of acres Because the same mining laws govern all alter- avalable The demand for additional pits and natives, the only variable for minerals manage- quames m11 be high in alternatives where tim- ment is the potential to locate and develop min- ber harvest levels are higher The consequences erals Alternatives calling for greater harvest are illustrated by analyzing how acre assign- and road construction levels will increase the ments to management areas may limt the avail- potential for locating minerals. ability of lands for minerals exploration and development or constrain proposed mineral ac- In general, the relationship between the Forest's tivlties. road system and mineral resources is a positive effect Common vanety mneral resources pro- b. Cumulative Effects vide the materials from which roads are con- structed and maintained, whereas the road sys- Because mining activlties are controlled by laws, tem provldes access for mineral exploration, de- regulations and site specific operating plans, velopment and production activities On the and are also subject to economic factors, mde- Forest, the donunant market for mineral maten- spread, new mining operations on the Forest are als is in support of the timber management unlikely. As a result, no sipfieant cumulative program effects on mining activities are anticipated un- der any alternative. The manner in which lands are to be managed under each alternative m11 have an effect on the e. Mitigation Measures availability and level of restnctions on these lands for mineral entry The establishment of Under all alternatives, Threatened and Endan- Research Natural areas and Special Interest gered plant and wildlife species would be pro- Areas have a direct effect, because of the poten- tected to the extent required by law, as would tial conflict between mining activlties mth sen- floodplains and wetlands Potential damage to sitive plants and unique plant communities archaeologxal and /or histone sites would re- Existing and proposed RNAs are recommended qure avoidance by the prospector or mer. Pro- for withdrawal from mineral entry Special In- tection of surface and subsurface waters from terest Areas are also recommended for vvlth- contamination would be requred, aswouldmam- drawal tenance of am quality For each mining develop- ment, a Plan of Operation would be prepared and Designation of wild, scenic or recreation river submitted to the Forest Semcefor approval, per reaches could have a significant direct effect on 36 CFR 228 The plan of operation would incor- mueral activities due to access restrictions porate these requrements, and others as needed, Designation ofwild nver segments would result and identify how each requirement would be in the withdrawal of land from mineral activlties met All mitigation costs would be borne by the mthm one quarter mile either side of the nver proponent Mining operations would also be In some cases, vvlthdrawal may be recommended subject to regulation by state agencies, such as in scenic nver segments Protection of visual the Regonal Water Quality Control Boards and resources on lands adjacent to the one quarter the Department of Fish and Game mile corridor may impact mneral activities on much larger areas due to public demand for Proposals for mineral exploration and develop- protection of those areas Removal of sand and ment are considered on a case-by-case basis gravel would be prohibited Direct and indirect When a proposal is received, the Forest Semce environmental effects on these areas would be works with a proponent and other agencies to minimal because of the access restnctions

4-58 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Table 4-13 Mineral Potential of Further Planning Areas (acres)

Mineral Potential Area Mineral Total -VH -H -M -L- L/U -U T!uE Area Butt Locatable 8,300 8,300 Mtn Leaseable 1,600 6,700 Heart Locatable 9,289 9,289 Lake Leaseable 2,867 6,422 Ishi Locatable 20,027 20,027 (B) Leasable 18,827 1,200 Mill Locatable 7,990 7,990 Creek Leasable 1,280 6,710 Trail Locatable 1,115 1,115 Lake Leasable 1,115 Wild Locatable 4,965 4,965 Cattle Leasable Mtn 4,965 VH - Very high, H - High, M - Moderate, L -Low, L/U - Probably low, U - Unknown (See Chapter 3 for definitions)

In all alternatives, the acres of existing and Leasable In addition to lands already with- proposed wlderness have already been mth- drawn, 67,519 acres would be withdrawn from drawn. The only mineral operations allowed mineral leasing Sixty-nine percent of the with- drawn acres have a “high” or “very high” poten- within these areas are those authorized by valid tial for the occurrence of leasable minerals Two existing rights at the time of the area’s designa- areas lying near Lassen VolcanicNational Park‘s tion as wilderness There is a low potential thermal areas(HeartLakeandWi1dCattleMoun- for identifylng new mineral resources in wilder- tain) would be recommended for mlderness and nesses. thereby reduce access to a potential geothermal resource The alternative, including existing Table 4-11 and 4-12 illustrate how the alterna- withdrawals, removes 45 percent of the Forest’s tives vary in the availability of the minerals “high” and “very high” acreage from mineral resource. Table 4-13 shows the mineral poten- leasing. tial of the further planning areas considered for wlderness designation in this planning process CUR Alternative No increase in withdrawn acreage would occur PRF Alternative This alternative would have the least adverse impact on minerals development Locatable In addition to lands already with- drawn, 76,275 acres would be withdrawn from EGP Alternative mineral entry. None have a “high”or “very high” potential for the occurrence of locatable miner- Locatable In addition to lands already wth- als drawn, 83,547 acres would be withdrawn from

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-59 mineral entry. None have a “high”or “very high” after a mldfire or timber harvesting Permanent potential for the occurrence of locatable miner- rangelands are designated as primary or second- als This is the largest locatable withdrawal of ary range, dependingon their accessibility, avail- any alternative able water, and livestock preference (see Glos- sary, Chapter 8, under Range) Leasable In addition to lands already mth- drawn, 80,931 acres would be mthdrawn from Transitory range created by timber harvest m11 mineral leasing Sixty-four percent of the mth- account for much of the Forest’s increased forage drawn acres have a “high” or “very high” poten- production under all alternatives Forage utili- tial for the occurrence of leasable minerals This zation within the transitory range may vary. is thelargest leasablemthdrawalof anyalterna- Utilization is limted by the difficulty in distnb- tive It removes 45 percent of the Forest’s “high” uting livestock to small and scattered units, and “very high” acreage from mineral leas- inability to control livestock dnft, natural barn- ing, including existing mthdrawals ers, lack of water, and the short-term nature of the forage Where livestock can be contained on TGP Alternative transitory range (by fencing), the expected utili- zation under all alternatives is approximately 80 Locatable In addition to lands already mth- percent of available forage, this level of utiliza- drawn, 6,795 acres would be withdrawn from tion will be quite apparent (1 e the area mll have mineral entry None have a “high”or “very high” a mowed appearance). Some transitory range potential for the occurrence of locatable miner- mll be unavailable due to seedling protection als. needs Fencing or other management control mll be needed to protect some plantations for the Leasable No additional acres would be mth- first three to five years of conifer regeneration drawn from mineral leasing. Excessive forage utilization by livestock on pn- mary and secondary ranges can negatively affect many resources npanan zone vegetation, range 14. RANGE condition and trend, soil structure and stability, level of undesirable vegetative species, recre- Introduction ation expenences, water quality, fishenes, and wildlife The effects depend on several factors Range forage is the vegetation used by mldhfe livestock distnbution, grazing intensity, range and livestock. In most cases, both kmds of improvements, stocking rates, timing and animals will use the same area, but often at duration of the grazing penod, utilization of different times of the year. The Forest, as a transitory range, climatic conditions, coopera- whole, provides forage in excess ofcurrent needs tion of permittees, and coordination with other Wildlife species use different vegetative areas resource use activities depending upon season of year and seventy of the winter. In mild mnters mth low snow There are three levels of grazing light, moder- depths, deer and antelope will use higher eleva- ate, and heavy For pnmary, secondary, and tions, which greatly increases the area they can most transitory range, the range con&tions (and use as winter range It is only during the more ultimately, the consequences) associated mth severe mnters, when deep snow forces the ani- these three levels of grazing are mals into lower-elevation areas, that competi- tion for forage becomes more intense Livestock 1 Light The forage appearance is uniform, can be managed to reduce or eliminate the com- lightly cropped and patchy Greater than 60 petition between domestic animals and game percent of the herbaceous forage remains Many animals plants have ungrazed seed heads Current an- nual growth of preferred browse species is less There are three types of range transitory, pn- than 40 percent utilized Litter accumulation is mary, and secondary Transitory range refers to increasing and the apparent soil condition trend land that can be grazed by wildlife and cattle is improvmg The apparent range condition is only until the trees become dominant such as improvlng

4-60 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 2. Moderate The forage appearance is mottled, transitory range. Group selection harvests are patchy, and uneven, 40 to 60 percent of the two acres or less in size; the edge effect from herbaceous forage remains Preferred browse these small units does not allow as much sun- species retain 30 to 50 percent of current annual light to penetrate to the ground and promote the growth Litter accumulations are replacing last growth of early seral vegetation As a result, years’ litter and maintaining or enhancing the forage production would not be as high apparent soil condition trend. The apparent Prescnbed burning of natural fuels and range range condition is being maintained or enhanced improvements (pnmanly juniper and chaparral removal) can increase forage production. Table 3 Heavy The forage appearance is uniformly 4-14 shows acres of prescnbed rangdwildlife smoothand closelymowed Less than40 percent burning. However, it is assumed here that the of herbaceous forage remains. Browse twigs most important influence on forage production is (current year’s growth) may be grazed from 80 to timber harvest The ranking in order of increas- 100 percent of total tmgs, creating a hedge ap- ing forage production is unchanged even with pearance Litter does not replace last year’s the effects of prescribed burning accumulations;bare soil spots arevlsible through- out the vegetated areas. The apparent soil con- Table 4-14 dition trend is not being maintained and the potential for erosion is increasmg The apparent Expected Acres in Early Seral Stages range condition is in a downward trend. and Range Use Alternative All Alternatives Decade PRF CUR EGP TGP Reforestation 1 3,600 5,900 3,600 5,000 a. Direct Effects 5 3,200 5,600 3,000 3,400 The management activlties descnbed in the vari- ous alternatives would have dnect effects on RangeJWlldlife 1 1,300 1,760 1,300 1,300 range vegetation. The alternatives will effect Fuel Treatment the availability, condition, and amount of per- (acres) 5 1,300 2,100 1,300 1,300 manent and transitory range. Timber harvest, Rance Use 1 485 497 485 485 the use of prescnbed fire, and livestock use are the pnmary tools for management of range veg- etation

The quantity of transitory range mll increase in Grazing by domestic livestock removes surplus alternatives which call for higher levels oftimber forage and converts it to a commodity Properly harvest nmber harvest opens up tree canopies, done, livestock grazing has minimal environ- allowing sunlight to reach the ground, which mental effects Likewise, use offorage or vegeta- increases forage production In recent years, tion by mldhfe or recreational livestock, or leav- timber harvest has become more intensive wth ing it ungrazed for recreational purposes, con- greater use of overstory removal, shelterwood, tributes to important uses and enjoyment of the and clearcutting This has the potential to boost National Forests. Grazing affects diversity in forage production more than selective harvest- plant communities in terms oftheir species com- ing. The degree of increase varies by alternative position and condition. Properly timed, grazing as displayed in Table 4-14. Using total acres of will maintain and encourage a number of highly harvest by even-aged methods, the CUR and palatable and nutntious plant species in the TGP Alternatives would increase forage produc- community, and plant vlgorwill be high Grasses tion on transitory range the most, followed by will include a large proportion of perennial spe- PRF To better utilize transitory range, live- cies that tend to decrease with improper grazing stock distnbution may need to be modified The use For many plant communities these would EGP Alternative would show the least increase include blue bunch wheatgrass and Idaho fes- because of its reliance on group selection har- cue Shrubs and forbs wd1 vary dependingon the vesting, which would have minimal effect on plant community

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-6 1 Improperly applied, livestock grazing can have Forest capacity and consequently m11 not com- adverse envlronmental effects. Repeated heavy pete signlficantly wth game species Deer and grazing that is not properly timed can reduce antelope forage needs are accounted for when species diversity, and shift species composition determmingcarrylng capacity and allowable use toward undesirable species and nox1ous weeds. by hvestock If conflicts do occur, allotment Plant species dmersity wll be low, as wll plant plans wdl be modified to insure satisfactory vigor. Annual grasses such as cheatgrass and range conditions. perennial grasses that tend to increase wth heavy grazing will replace the more desirable Grazing can lower the quality of recreation in and palatable forage species Forbs and shrubs developed and undeveloped areas Implementa- will vary depending on the plant community. In tion of the Standards and Guidelines are de- some commumties, grasses can be almost com- signed to prevent ths confict In all alterna- pletely replaced by weedy forbs. Less desirable tives, the level of grazing is not predicted to species result in lower productivlty and can im- conflict mth recreation. pact other uses on the Forest. If the impacted areas are along streamsides and wet meadows, Sensitive plant habitat can be damaged by graz- water quality, fishenes, and recreation can be ing. Implementation ofthe Standards and Gude- affected. lines would prevent this damage by excluding cattle oncertain management areas Momtonng Cattle favor nparian areas and some stream of cattle use on the exlsting allotments would channels which are sensitive to physical damage insure adequate data to change Standards and such as trampling and compaction. The vegeta- Gmdelmes if necessary. tion in these areas is an important component of stream bank stability, and fish and wldlife habi- Concentrations of cattle can damage tree seed- tat (see the fish, and the Water and Riparian lings in regeneration units The timing and sections of ths Chapter). Livestock grazmg in amount of use are predicted to limit ths damage riparian areas will be conducted under the Ri- to acceptable levels in all alternatives. Small areas of insignificant tree mortality due to tem- panan/Fish (F) prescription. In some cases, porary concentrations of cattle would still occur modification of livestock grazing practices or m all alternatives. fencing would be required Concentrations of cattle in npanan and wet Changes in commercial livestock grazing may areas can degrade water quality. Fecal contami- occur in response to increased recreational use. nation can be a problem to downstream users Public mssatisfaction with the presence of hve- The Ripariaflish Prescnption and Standards stock in popular recreation areas could reqmre and Gmdelines are designed to protect water changes in allotment boundanes, fencing and quality in all alternatives. Local areas would livestock management. still have concentrations of cattle use, but these areas would not degrade the fishenes resource. NOXIOUS weeds can adversely affect food produc- Fencing, and other livestock management strat- tion, wldlife habitat, visual quality, forage pro- egies, will be used as needed to protect ripanan duction, reforestation, recreational opportuni- resources hes, and land values Virtually every acre of land is susceptible to noxious weed infestatxon. Cattle can be a hazard to car and truck traffic on Those alternatives creatingmore acres ofground roads within the Forest, county roads and state disturbance will have the highest likelihood of hghways Thls effect would occur 111 all alterna- mcreasing nomous weed infestations tives b. Indirect Effects The wild horse herd and its temtory w11 con- tinue to be monitored to determme effects of Deer, antelope and cattle use the same forage management actinties and other external fac- component If the numbers of cattle increase, tors The herd population m11 be managed to this competition can reduce the habitat and for- exceed neither the current carrymg capacity of age needed by game species In all alternatives, the temtory nor the established population size, the use by cattle is predicted to be less than the based on a revlsed herd management plan.

4-62 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences c. Cumulative Effects cated, well-maintained fences will provide flex- ibihty for managmg livestock. Development of Heavy, continuous use of forage by livestock and livestock trails and dnftways provides access wldlife can interrupt the succession of natural over difficult terrain or through heavy cover to vegetation toward tree cover In these areas, areas receivlng light or no use Riding and overgrazing can also create bare ground. If proper salt placement can be helpful to improve vegetation cover is reduced over a large area, livestock distnbution. Livestock can be used as there can be cumulative effects on other re- a tool to release tree seedlings from grass compe- sources. Some of these effects are: (1)reduction tition. Certain areas can also be intensively of vegetative competition to improve growth re- grazed to reduce fire hazards sponse of trees (whch can subsequently shade out available grazing vegetation, thereby affect- Standards and Gwdelines identify what level of ing livestock and wldlife), and (2) overgrazing to use can be made of forage while either maintain- the point where bare ground is exposed (creating ing satisfactory Conditions or improvingunsatis- conditions conducive to erosion, lowered water quality, and reduced soil productivlty). factory conditions to satisfactory Management prescriptions provlde for the protection of other Because 15 percent of the npanan areas within resource values while allowing grazing use. current grazing allotments are in less than sat- isfactory condition, measures necessary for their Application of intensive grazing systems such as recovery may result in temporary reductions in rest rotation, deferred rotation, double rest, n- permitted stocking. Any reductions in permitted panan pasture, etc., if properly done, provlde for stock may impact the economics of the grazing distnhution and use of forage, while not exceed- operations on effected allotments. Jobs associ- ing utilization standards and other resource ated wth grazing in general are not expected to management objectives. go either up or down significantly wth any of the alternatives The long-term benefits of tempo- Other mtigation measures for grazing include: rary stock reduction are improvements in water quahty, wldlife habitat, and forage production. Production of forage for wildhfe 111 key wldlife areas to reduce competition wth d. Mitigation Measures domestic livestock.

Several mitigation measures could be imple- Seeding to key (preferably native) forage mented to reduce the effects of grazing on other species to improve forage production resources, whle maintaining range conditions. where it does not restnct tree establish- These measures are summanzed here. ment or growth.

Themostimportant partofmitigatingthe effects Grazing on transitory range when sig- of livestock use on other resources is knowing nificant damage to young trees will not what end results are expected, setting site-spe- be incurred cific objectives, and developing a comprehensive allotment management plan tomeet these objec- Timing of use by domestic livestock to tives A good management plan, implemented in achieve vegetative management objec- cooperation with the permittee, must provide tives. mitigation measures to maintam or enhance forage, water quality, timber, wldlife/fishenes Exclusion of livestock from ripanan and habitat, recreation use, and soil productivlty. other preferred areas when needed; con- trol of use patterns through structural Determination of the current capacity and improvement for cover and watershed amount of grazing use to be allowed must con- protection sider the requirements of all other resources in an area. Controlling livestock is equally impor- Monitonng of use and range conditions will pro- tant. Water should be provlded where it is vide the basis for adjustment of management needed. Once water sources are properly lo- and permitted stock where necessary to assure

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-63 that grazing objectives and satisfactory condi- necessary, livestock would be moved from ripar- tions are achieved. ian areas onto transitory range to allow qulcker recovery PRFAZternative Existing permittees could utihze the transitory Grazing use would have a slight drop (2percent) range with only minor changes in their livestock from the base year to 48,500 AUM’s per year in operahons; new allotments or recmtment of each decade. There mll be an increase in transi- new permittees would not be expected Grazing tory range in regenerated timber harvest areas. levels would be “light to moderate” on pnmary Where necessary, livestock will be moved from range, “hght” on secondary range, and Yight to riparian areas onto transitory range to allow the moderate” on transitory range Current range riparian areas to recover. Existing permittees conhtions would be mamtained and enhanced could utilize the transitory range unthout sig- nificant change in their livestock operations TGP Alternative New allotments or recruitment of new permit- tees would not be expected Grazmglevels would Dunng decade 1, grazing use would decrease 2 be “moderate” on primary range, ‘‘light”on sec- percent from the base year to 48,500 AUM’s per ondary range, and “moderate” on transitory year. This use would remain constant through range Current range conditions would be man- all five decades There would be an increase in tained or enhanced. transitory range Where necessary, livestock would be moved from ripanan areas onto transi- CUR Alternative tory range to allow the ripanan areas to recover.

During decade 1, forage avadabihty would re- Existing permittees could utilize the transitory man at the base year level of about 49,700 range without si&icant change in their live- AUM’s per year Thereafter use would be ex- stock operations, new allotments or recmtment pected to fluctuate up to 56,400 AUM’s, but level of new pernuttees would not be expected. Graz- off at 49,700AUM’s in decade 5 This fluctuation inglevels would be “moderate”onprimaryrange, is due to the change in regeneration acres each “light” on secondary range and “light” on transi- decade and the amount oftransitoryrange avail- tory range. Current range conditions would be able Production of AUM’s would be achieved maintained or enhanced. through implementation of the Range/Wildlife Prescnption on 98,000 acres and the Range Pre- scnption on 12,000 acres. Some current man- 15. RECREATION agement intensities would change to provlde protection of other resources and to maintain or Recreation, tounsm, and their related semces enhance apparent range condition. are becoming increasingly important to the economy of northeastern California Existing permittees’ livestock operations would adjust with the forage fluctuation, but new allot- Use of the Lassen National Forest for recreation ments or addrtional permittees would not be can be generally classified as either developed expected Grazing levels would be “light” to recreation or &spewed recreahon In order to “moderate” on primary and secondary ranges, descnbe potential recreation opportunrties as and “moderate” on transitory range Current accurately as possible, dispersed recreation has range condrtions would be maintained or en- been further divlded into roaded or unroaded hanced. (non-unlderness) dispersed recreation.

EGP Alternative Discussion of the effects of the alternatives on recreation focuses on recreation settings. Recre- Grazing use would decrease 2 percent from the ation settings are locations on the Forest ehb- base year to 48,500 AUM’s and reman constant iting certam envlronments that people choose at that level for all 5 decades There would be a for different recreation expenences The recre- -mal increase in transitory range. Where ation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) describes

4-64 Chapter 4-Envirorunental Consequences

~ these settings in terms of the types of recreation expenence, and the increased potential of hu- opportunities they offer. ROS classes are bnefly man-caused wldfire in dispersed camping sites. described in Chapter 3. They are: Pnmitive, In addition, an mcrease in litter, human waste, Semi-Pnmitive Non-motonzed, Sem-Pnmtive vandalism, and related effects can be expected in Motorized, Roaded Natural, and Rural. hspersed sites.

Outdoor recreation actimties on the Forest take Based on current estimates, the Forest d be place in many dflerent settmgs. The way the able to meet overall demand for developed recre- Forest is managed can affect, either directly or ation through Decade 3 111 all alternatives indirectly, those recreation settings as well as visitors' recreation experiences. The relative Developed sites that are rehabilitated and main- mixture of reereation settings and expenences tained at the standard semce level wll provide that are available to Forest visitors are deter- a more satisfying recreation experience than mned by the land allocations established for those sites maintamed at the limited service each alternative Land allocations would also level Well maintained sites are reduce the incidence of vandalism, and the nsk of site clo- determine to some extent the Forest's capacity sure due to continued degradation. for meetmg present and future demand for vari- ous recreation opportunities. Timber harvest and road construction activities in areas adjoining developed sites could alter the Impacts to the recreation resource would vary setting of those sites and the expenence of users. through the range of alternatives. These im- In either case, harvest activities can change the pacts are the result of management activities character of the surroundmg area in a manner that affect the quality of the recreation setting. that may alter the quality of experiences and opportumties typically associated with devel- Activities such as timber harvests, hvestockgraz- oped site use such as hiking, fishing, sight-see- ig,mining, and wildhfe management would all ing, and nature study. Projects adjacent to affect the recreation expenence by varying de- developed sites will be carefully planned to avoid grees Recreation facilities and services under impacts on the recreation expenence. each alternative can also affect recreation oppor- tunities, especially in developed recreation ar- Road construction and harvest actinties could eas. Management of recreation facilities and mcrease sedimentation, affecting fish habitat services includes operating and maintaining and fishing quality. They may also result in a campgrounds, trailheads, trails and associated heightened sense of commercial activity m the facilities, boat ramps, wnter sport sites, visitor area from mcreased noise levels, and lead to a information centers, and parkmg lots; and pro- reduction in quality of the overall recreation nding access to recreation areas. experience. Best Management Practices are designed to minimize sehmentation, and to pro- a. Direct Effects tect fisheries habitat and water quality for recre- ational enjoyment Developed Recreation Opportunities Alter- All alternatives provide a high degree of protec- natives may affect developed recreation settings tion for the settings of existing developed recre- in three basic ways: by eliminating sites, by the ation sites from surrounding management influ- manner in which individual sites are maintamed, ences Developed sites wll be managed under and by the type of management that is proposed the D (Developed Recreation)Prescription which in adjacent areas. permits only low levels ofharvest and road devel- opment. These areas are, therefore, buffered The elimination or closure of some developed from the normal effects of logging operations. sites may affect other sites The users of sites proposed for closure wll be displaced to other Dispersed Recreation Opportunities The developed sites, or will seek alternative experi- alternatives vary as to the quality of the recre- ences in dispersed and undeveloped areas. Sub- ation expenence, and the quality of access pro- sequent effects include: the possible overuse of vlded in particular ROS settings as shown in other developed sites, the loss of a preferred user Table 2-7 in Chapter 2

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-65 In addition, alternatives mth higher levels of The alternatives provlde varylng amounts of activlty for other resources, such as timber har- Semi-Pnmitive Motorized (SPM) opportunities vesting, can affect the recreation envlronment, The CUR, EGP andTGP Alternatives provldeno and resulting quality of expenence Indirect SPM areas on the Forest, while PRF allocates effects, such as temporary loss of trals or access 17,000 acres to this setting. As SPM settings are changes, will occur wth those alternatives that converted to RN and R settings, pnmanly through involve higher levels of ground hsturbing activl- timber harvest and road construction, opportu- ties. nities for challenging motonzed access to un- roaded and undeveloped areas become hnuted or The ability to meet the projected demand for are lost Typically, road development associated primitive (P) ROS settings varies among the with timber harvest activlties shortens access alternatives by the amount of proposed mlder- routes, bisects or replaces trail access, and im- ness Pnmitive recreation opportunities are proves road surfaces, thus altenng or eliminat- only avdable in designated wlderness Emst- mgprevlously difficult or challengmgsem-pmm- mg and proposed wilderness acreage for each tive motonzed recreation opportumties for Off- alternative is also displayed in Table 2-7 unth Highway Vehicle (OHV)users. EGP proposing the most acres, and CUR and TGP recommending no additional wilderness. The opportunity for OHV access on the Forest is related to the (1) the number of acres where Projected demands for dispersed recreation op- OWuse is prolnbited such as wilderness, spe- portunities would be met in all alternatives cial and SPNM areas, (2) the number of acres However, the alternatives vary considerably in where the use is permitted, but restncted to the amount of dispersed unroaded recreation designated roads and trails, and (3) the number opportumties that would be offered in Semi- of acres where the use is permitted as long as it Pnmitive Non-Motorized (SPNM) areas. does not compronuse other resource uses or val- ues. There is no appreciable difference among The availability of SPNM recreation opportuni- the alternatives in the number of mles available ties would depend on whether a number of cur- for summer or wmter OHV use Areas open to rently unroaded areas would be managed for OHV use are more restncted under the PRF and other resource development The PRF and EGP EGP Alternatives because ofthe number of acres Alternahves, wluch strongly emphasize unroaded recommended for wilderness and SPNM alloca- recreation, would provide the greatest opportu- tions nities for SPNM types of recreation activities The CUR and TGP Alternatives emphasize Roaded Natural (RN) and Rural (R) settings Roaded Natural (RN) settings, i e. commodity provlde the greatest opportumties for dispersed development, and would therefore offer the least roaded and off-highway recreation Both ofthese opportumty for unroaded recreation Unroaded settmgs are important to the majority of Forest areas mth SPNM settings that are managed for vlsitors The major difference between RN and R Roaded Natural (RN)or Rural (R) opportunities is the evldence of management activities associ- unll, in 10 to 20 years, be altered dramatically by ated wth each. The frequency and design char- roads and harvest umts. Over time, these areas actenstics of management activlties in the R would not provlde for user needs of isolation, settingwll result in an obvlously altered, rather solitude, and pnmitive type recreation in an than a natural appeanng landscape typical of unmodified natural envlronment Through al- the RN setting. All alternatives manage the teration of landforms and vegetation 111 SPNM same number of acres in an R setting (9,700). settings, areas for this opportunity type would The CUR and TGP Alternatives would have the shrink in both extent and quality, and fewer greatest effect on RN settings The natural users could be accommodated The sights and appearance of the RN setting would change sounds of forest management, such as loggmg through alteration of vegetative cover and land- traffic and harvest activities, mll be common forms as a result of timber harvest and road and occasionally in close prommity This unll construction The effects of road construction result in a loss ofisolation and solitude normally and harvest activlties such as exposed soil on associated wth unconfined recreation in SPNM steep slopes, cutbanks and unnatural vegetation settings. patterns mll be apparent

4-66 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Under the PRF, EGP, and TGP Alternatives, the Opportunities for using silvicultural techniques emsting trad system is improved and expanded. are limited due to accessibility problems. Op- No addhonal trslls are proposed under CUR tions include prescnbed fire and, in some cases, The effects of the alternatives on the Forest trail salvage harvestmg system are discussedunderthe Facilities section of this Chapter Motonzed recreational use (OWcauses dam- age to other resources when users fail to obey b. Indirect Effects laws and regulations or when the Forest fails to properly manage it. Soil erosion can be excessive The supplyldemand information in Chapter 3 of m steep areas, or in areas with low vegetation this document illustrates that the future de- cover Large numbers of motorized users can mand for unroaded recreation opportunities out- create erosion and an quality problems from side of mldemess is uncertaix Currently, the dust. &panan areas tend to receive hgher Forest is helow its projected maximum carrying resource damage than other areas because ofthe capacity for all mspersed recreation. If demand high level of access within them Standards and exceeds supply in later decades, there are at Guidelines are designed to limit this damage to least three possible indirect effects: 1)use could within acceptable levels, but public trust and continue beyond the capabilityofthe area result- respect for the land is a necessary component of ing in possible adverse effects on the social and the overall management scheme to control mo- physical attributes of the setting; 2) use may be torized use and protect other resources. displaced to mldemess areas, placing more de- mands on the wddemess resource; 3) users of Recreationalfacilities such as campgrounds, dis- unroaded areas may choose to take part in lei- persed campsites, trailheads, and trails impact sure activities in roaded settings. soils and watersheds by taking land out of pro- duction for construction purposes, and by expos- Providing recreational opportuties, through mg, compacting and msplacmg soils in areas of specific land allocations to Sem-Primitive Mo- heavy traffic torized andNon-Motorized settings, produces an inhrect, but significant effect on other resource Vegetation in areas providing Semi-Primitive users. Some effects are more appropriately de- Non-Motonzed recreation experiences would de- scnbed as foregone "opportunity costs" rather velopnaturallyandthe speciescompositionwould than as specific actions, because management depend onrandomdmturbances (1 e. mndstorms, for these SPM and SPNM settings reduces or fire, insects, and disease). Increased recreational elinnnates more commodity oriented endeavors use would increase the risk of human caused such as timber harvest, mineral exploration, and fves that may change thevegetation. This would recreational pursuits associated with maded set- also indirectly increase the risk of erosion in tings watersheds due to the temporary loss of ground cover. Areas managed for SPNM opportunities provlde quahty hunting expenences not found through- The presence of developed or expanded recre- out more intensively managed, roaded areas. ation sites near fishable streams and lakes could These "islands" of unroaded, non-manipulated contnbute to the reduction of local fish popula- vegetation offer seclusion and escape for many tions. Heavy fishmg pressure could reduce wild unldlife species, provldmg a challenge for those populations of trout and salmon in smaller hod- hunters wishing to use backcountry skills in ies of water to the extent that habitat would be purswt of game species. underutilized. Conversely, access to streams and lakes for recreational purposes encourages Sights and sounds of increased recreation may stohgof hatchery fish. reduce the quality of habitat for some wildlife Forest-wide Standards and Guidelines are de- Construction of developed sites or trails would signed to mminuze ths effect. increase traffic along roads leading to them and may mcrease vlsual sensitivlty. This may create Forest health is more difficult to maintain in conflicts mth land disturbing activlties adjacent areas allocated for Semi-Primitive recreation. to these recreation areas. Construction of devel-

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Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-67 oped recreation sites may also result in local Cross-country ski opportunities may be segre- conditions that do not meet the vlsual quality gated from snowmobile routes by issung a For- objectives for the whole vlewshed. est closure order prohibiting snowmobiles on certain trails More recreational opportunities would enhance the appeal of communities adjacent to the Forest Traffic controls can be initiated to restnct log and could increase jobs and income in tounst haul on weekends and holidays to facilitate rec- industnes. reation traffic and public safety e. Cumulative Effects Roads can be closed after log haul to further protect mldlife habitat resulting in more non- Cumulative effects for recreation relate mamly motonzed recreation (hunting) opportunities. to the development of areas which currently offer Pnmitive, and Semi-Primitive Non-Motonzed nmber sale areas can be left open for several recreation opportunities Alternatives which seasons after harvest for people to gather fire- would allocate emsting unroaded areas for tim- wood. ber harvesting and other resource development would gradually reduce opportunities for &s- PRF Alternative persed recreation in an unroaded setting The rate that unroaded areas would be developed Developed Demand for developed recreation indicates how some of the recreation opportuni- would be met through decade 3 by maintaining ties in a particular area would be modified from emsting facilities or constructing new fee camp- a Pnmitive or Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized grounds early in decade 1 in areas of highest setting to a Roaded Natural setting. The CUR demand. This campground construction, coupled Alternative would reduce unroaded recreation with construction of trailheads, Forest entrance opportunities much more rapidly than the other stations and other developments, rehabilitation alternatives of existing campgrounds, mamtenance at the standard semce level, and provlsion of an inter- d. Mitigation Measures pretive semces program, would provide for high quality recreation expenences Since part of the Measures designed to mitigate the effect of van- Butt Mountam Further PlamngArea would be ous activlties are identified in the Forest-mde reserved for slu area development, the potential Standards andGuidehnes, andManagement Pre- for meeting future demand for alpine skiing scnptions in Chapter 2 Some of the major would be retained. mitigation measures are listed below Dzspersed A full range of dispersed recreation To maintain semi-primitive recreation opportu- opportunities would be provlded A total of nities, some unroaded areas are designated as N 48,000 acres would be assigned to the Semi- (Semi-Primitive Non-Motorized Prescription) ar- Pnmtive Non-Motorized Prescnption, provld- eas. Vehicle use is not permitted in these areas ing ample opportunities for a pnnntive recre- ation expenence and avoiding overcrowhng of Scemc corndors are designatedto maintainnatu- similar areas In addition, 17,000 acres would be ral landscapes along specific roads and trails. assigned to the Senn-Pnmtive Motonzed Pre- scnption, maintaining opportunities for a high Road systems are designed and maintamed to accommodate different types and levels of recre- quality, sen-primitive expenence for OHV us- ation traffic ers. Roaded Natural-appeanng areas would provlde the balance of acres for OHV use The Developed sites are protected from nnneral en- total acreage open to OHV use (763,000 acres) try through the mthdrawal procedures These would be moderately low in companson to the sites are also maintained, managed and pro- TGP and EGP Alternatives, but it would still be tected dunng timber harvest through clauses in substantial. New construction and reconstruc- the timber sale contract. Areas where soil com- tion of trails, and a high level of trail mainte- paction is unacceptable mllbe rehabilitated and/ nance, would further enhance vlsitor expen- or rested ences over current conditions

4-68 Chapter 4-EnvironmentaI Consequences CUR AZternative acres would be assigned to the Semi-Pnmitive Non-Motonzed Prescnption. There would be no Deueloped No increase in developed recreation acres assigned to the Semi-Primitive Motonzed facilities would be provlded. As demand grows, Prescnption Opportunities for OHV use in a over 260,000 RVD’s would be turned away annu- semi-pnmitive setting would be few. However, ally by decade 5 No rehabilitation of developed most of the remaining Forest would be in a sites wouldbe performed, but maintenance would Roaded Natural setting and provlde opportuni- be sufficient to prevent a loss of facilities Main- ties for OHV use. Construction of new trads, tenance at the lirmted service level would result reconstruction of existing trails, and mainte- in some site degradation and a lower quahty nance at the standard level would enhance trail recreation experience. This would be somewhat users’ expenences. mtigated by using volunteers such as camp- ground hosts. TGP Alternative

Dzspersed A limited range of dispersed recre- Deueloped Demand would be met through de- ation opportunities would be provided. Little cade 3 by constructing fee campgrounds early in would be done to meet demand for unroaded the planning penod in areas of highest demand. recreation, and opportunities for solitude and a This campground construction, together with primitive recreation experience would decline. construction of trailheads, Forest entrance sta- In decade 1, some of the remaining further plan- tions and other developed sites, rehabilitation of nmg and unroaded areas would not be comt- existing campgrounds, maintenance at the stan- ted to other uses, but by decade 5 most probably dard semce level, and provlsion of an interpre- would be Roads would be constructed, forest tive semces program, would result in a high stands would be logged, and recreation would quality recreation expenence. Since the Butt have a vehicle orientation. A gradual crowdmg Mountain Further Planning Area would be re- would cause vlsitors to seek out the remaining served forsh area development, the potential for unroaded areas. This alternative would provide meeting future demand for alpine skiing would the greatest acreage open to OHV use, but no be retained. SPNM or SPM areas Reduced management and mamtenance would discourage dispersed use Dispersed A limited range of dispersed recre- and lessen the quality of the recreation expen- ation opportunities would be provided. Little ence Due to a low level oftrail maintenance, the would be done to meet unroaded recreation de- trail system could decline. mand Since no acres would be assigned to the Semi-Pnmitive Non-motonzed or Semi-Pnmi- EGP Alternative tive Motorized Presenptions, opportunities for solitude and semi-pnmitive recreation would Developed Demand would be met through de- decline In decade 1, most remaimng unroaded cade 3 by use of existing campgrounds and other acres would not be committed to other uses, but developed recreation sites New construction or by decade 5 the majonty would be. Roads would campground expansion would occur in decade 4 be constructed, forest stands would be logged, to meet 40 percent of the expected increase in and recreation would have a vehicle onentation demand Rehabilitation of major campgrounds Most of the Forest would be in the Roaded Natu- and maintenance at the standard semce level ral setting and would offer extensive areas for dunng decade 1 would enhance the recreation challengmg OHV use Due to a low level of trail experience at these sites. Continuing the present mamtenance, and limited construction and re- program of interpretive sennces would enhance construction, trail users’ recreation expenences recreation opportunities for some users Since would decline the Butt Mountain Further Planning Area would be recommended for wilderness, the opportumty to provlde a developed ski area there would be 16. SENSITW PLANTS foregone The Sensitive plants issue relates to how the Dcspersed A limted range of dispersed recre- Forest should provlde protection for its rare ation opportunities would be provlded; 55,000 plant populations, enhance Sensitive plant habi-

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-69 tat, if possible, and educate the public on the All Alternatives importance of rare species protection for biolog.1- cal dwersity and other values The pnmaly a. Direct and Indirect Effects management Objective is to nunimize negative impacts to Sensitive plant populations. The management objective for Sensitive plants is to provide habitat capable of indefimtely sup- Timber barvestmg and road buildmg are the most significant land-disturbing activities porting Sensitive plant species. Altematives that emphasize intensive timber harvest activi- impactmgpopulations ofsensitive plants mthm and adjacent to project areas. Other land-dis- ties (CUR and TGP) are most likely to have an turbing activities, such as trad work, wildhfe impact on habitat suitable for Sensitive plants. habitat and fisheries enhancement projects may Alternatives that allocate more land to prescnp- impact Sensitive plants. Land-disturbing activi- tions other than timber management (PRF and ties whch change the hydrologic regime of site EGP) result in better protection for Sensitive conditions can also affect Sensitive plant habi- plant habitat Altematives with lower timber tats. harvests also have fewer roads, and this means less potential impact on Sensitive plants. Table A few Sensitive plants prefer the habitat pro- 4-15 summarizes the risk analysis for Sensitive vided by early seral stages. Timber harvesting plants may be beneficial to these plants, although the vegetation changes may have to be designed to b. Cumulative Effects benefit the intended plant species. However, most Sensitive plants are restricted to specific, Without mitigation (primanly avoidance), tim- unusual habitats such as serpentine soils, spha- ber harvest, road construction, and other ground gnum bogs, or vernal pools. In most cases, the disturbing activities would cause habitat modifi- best management for these species is protection cation, which could result in the loss of indi- of their habitat from significant change. ndual plants or entire occurrences of Sensitive plants. This is hkely to cause a loss of genetic Grazing allotments can create unpacts on Sensi- dwersity over time and result in a declme of tive plants species and their habitat by livestock populations of Sensitive plant species. Those consuming the plants or by trampling Livestock altematwes that emphasize kmber management grazing can also encourage the introduction of (CUR and TGP) are likely to have greater cumu- competmg plant species lative effects than the PRF and EGP Altema- tives which have less ground disturbing actin- Natural and prescribed fire can be detrimental, ties neutral, or beneficial to Sensitive plant popula- tions, dependingon the plant species,the season, c. Mitigation Measures and the intensity of the burn. Forest-wide Standards and Guidelines for all Recreation facilities and activities could have an management activities contain measures to pre- adverse effect on some Sensitive plant species, vent overall loss Sensitive plant species and especially those plants which occur m meadows of or in subalpine habitats their habitats. These Standards and Guidelines would apply no matter which alternative is se- Land allocations affect Sensitive plant commu- lected. Under all alternatives, surveys would nities Designations such as Research Natural also be conducted prior to land-disturbing activi- Areas, Special Interest Areas, wilderness, Wild ties on potential habitat, thereby reducing the and Scenic Rivers, spotted owl habitat areas, chances of impacting unknown populations of marten and fisher habitat management areas, Sensitive plants. Effects on known populations and npanan areas can pronde protection to can be mitigated pnmarily by avoidingthe occur- Sensitive plant populations. Areas where land rence, or in some cases by project design which disturbing actinties are emphasized could po- maintains or enhances Sensitive plant habitat tentially have an adverse effect on populations of Because of this, the possibility of disappearance Sensitive plant species that occurwthin or adja- of a Sensitive plant species from the Forest due cent to these areas to project activity is remote However, the dis-

4-70 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Table 4-15 ll Sensitive Plant Analysis Risk Factors Base Decade Alternative Year- - I -1982 -PW --CUR EGP -TGP Land Disturbance index 44.9 I 36.5 44.3 36.6 40.2 (Efi’ecta of timber harvesting, road oonatm&ion, and ffre~) 5 34.1 42.1 32,2 37.1 Reforestation AcredYear 600 1 3,600 5,900 3,600 5,000 I 5 3,200 5,600 3,000 3,400 15 I. 16 i 16 21 5 4 * 3 4 -, Fuel Treatment AcredYear 2,640 1 2,450 3,760 2,450 2,450 (Fire-related and range/ rmldllfe fuel treatments) 5 2,450 4,100 2,450 2,450

~ra~ing(M +@MSI ’ 49.7 1 4825 - 45.7 48.5 48.5 7 -”~, ~. i6 , %5 48,5- -49,7 48.5 48.5 Semi-Pnmitive 146 4 1 48 0 0 550 0 Non-Motonzed (MAcres) 5 48 0 0 550 0

[email protected]) ~, -7gI 1 - 99.6 .78,1 121.1 78.1

x 8. ,. 5 99.6 781 121.1 78 1

Risk LOW i-hgh Low Mod * Updated mileage tiyes 8epsraling new construction from mmnstlV~ionare not available I tnbution and abundance of populations can vary Avoidmg populahons; as a consequence of implementing the various alternatives. Limiting the degree or magnitude of a proposed action; The Forest has begun writing specific manage- ment gudes for its Sensihve plants. Once ap- proved by the Forest Supervisor, these guides Timing of action to reduce negative im- will provide management direction for project pacts; planning in regard to site-specific populations of a particular species, and help mitigate their Repairing, rehabilitating or restorating disturbance after the action;

The followmg general measures may be em- Using alternate methods to achieve ployed to mitigate impacts to the Sensitive plant project goal resource:

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-71 17. SOILS pact soils, especially in sensitive nparian zones Intense fire may volatilize soil nutrients. Direct Changes in the productive qualities of the soil effects on soils are: resource have been related to hsturbances ans- mg from management actions on the ground. Effects from Energy Geothermal and small The magnitude of change is associated wth the hydroelectne energy sources could be developed type of hsturbance, the size or extent of the on the Forest Geothermal exploration and con- affected area and inherent sod properties gov- struction actinties can cause erosion. The small erning productimty. Erosion, nutnent loss, mass size (approxlmately one acre) of exploration sites movement (landshdes) and Compaction are ef- minimizes the impacts. Subsequent geothermal fects associated with management induced site development could create additional erosion changes to soil. Additional discussion about problems and also reduce local soil productivity. erosion and landslides may be found in the Geol- ogy/Groundwater section of thls Chapter. De- Small hydrologx projects can cause erosion, seh- clines in productinty occur due to alterations of ment dehvery and loss ofland productivity. Con- the soil's complex nutnent cychg system, as is struction actimties for diversions and penstocks the case with broadcast bunnng. Other dmtur- usuallyresults in soil disturbance and sedment bances affect the physical characteristics of the delivery to streams. Concentration of land dis- soil resource. Compaction and surface erosion turbmg activities in a stream unll likely move are examples of disturbances that modify the sediment into the stream Construction of the moisture holding capacity of soil, reducing mois- generation facilihes would use land that could ture available for seedling growth. produce future timber growth and yield

Physical disturbances related to log harvesting Biomass harvestmg for energy production may practices may increase surface erosion rates by decrease soil productimty over the long-term exposing the sod surface. Grounng site potential through compaction and the removal of woody can be lost through sod compaction. Tractor material whch can remove nutrients. Refer to harvesting operations and machme phgofslash the section on Biomass in this Chapter can compact soils. The use of fire to reduce fuel buld up mcreases soil exposure and reduces Effects from Fire The effects of fire on soils are highly vanahle, dependmg on: (1)the intensity surface orgamc matter. Nitrogen, considered a and duration of the fire, and (2) the transfer of limting nutnent to tree growth, is lost to the heat into the soil (dependent on the physical atmospherewhen organic matter is consumed by properties of the soil affected). Significant ben- fire. Some activities, like fertilization, improve eficial effects of low to moderate intensity iires soil productinty for a short period of time are: (1)exposureofrmneralsoil/ashseedbedsfor natural tree regeneration, (2) improved nutnent With timber harvest and removal of the conifer cycling; and (3) reduced levels of some patho- canopy, changes occur in the natural forces regu- genic micro-organisms Significant adverse ef- lating slope stability Higher levels of rainfall fects of hgh-to-extreme intensity fires are: (1) reaching the soil increase soil pore pressures. accelerated erosion (due to excessive mmeral soil Timber harvest and the subsequent loss of resis- exposure and/or creation of hydrophobic condi- tant forces of decaying tree roots increase the tions); (2) excessive nutrient volatillzahon (espe- potential for mass movement or debns flows. cially nitrogen and potassium); (3)loss ofhenefi- Construction of roads can alter natural forces of cia1 microorganisms, and (4) loss of organic mab slope stability and promote mcreases in the rate ter for nutnent holding capacity of soil of mass wasting in naturally unstable soils After extreme heating, air and water movement a. Direct Effects can be altered and the biologxal and chemcal properties of the soil can be affected, causing Rmber harvest and road construction have the reduced availability of nutnents for plants. Top- greatest potential to affect the soil through com- soil loss and mtensive bunnng can modify a soil's paction, hsplacement, or erosion Concentrated nutrients and create a nitrogen deficiency. Nu- grazing and recreation use may adversely im- tnent losses from fires will be most severe on

4-72 Chapter 4-Envuonmental Consequences

~~ high elevation, volcanic ash soils. This is be- EffectsfromReleasedRoadlessAreas Road- cause xutrogen deficiencies are already common less areas have provided protection for the on colder soils (higher elevations) and are wors- soil resource by elimnating road construction ened on sites where topsoil has been hsplaced or and mamtenance actinties that contribute to altered through intense burning soil hsturbance and erosion. The decision to enter roadless areas with roads and harvest Effects from Fisheries Soil disturbances from would have the same effect on forest soils as habitat improvement projects in streams can management actions on intensively managed increase delivery of sediment to streams. The lands. Some productiveland would be lost to new impacts mll belocated atequipment access pomts road construction Erosion from exposed road and where logs or boulders imbedded in the surfaces would have the potential to enter stream bank are moved or anchored. Such sedi- streams. ment sources are usually small and heal quickly. Effects from Road Construction and Re- Effects from Grazing Effects fmm cattle graz- construction (Also see the Facilities section of ing tend to be localized. Use of areas by cattle this Chapter.) Roads are the major nonpoint early in the spring when soils are high in mois- source of dmturbance and removal of the soil ture or in areas where soils are seasonally wet mantle, which can result in soil erosion and will result in compaction of the surface soil lay- increased sediment in streams This effect var- ers. The magnitude of the impact is greater ies by the amount of roads constructed, the sea- where the concentration of animals is hgher or son of construction, the types of soils, road sur- when the penod ofuse is long. Reduced idiltra- facing and design (includmg ditch and culvert tion rates in compacted areas will result in in- specifications), and the steepness of slope on creased surface erosion and, dependmg on prox- which the roads are constructed. imity to streams, a higher likelihood of sediment delivery to streams. Constructing roads during the wet penod of the year (November through May) mll encourage Tramphng by cattle breaks down protective veg- surface runoff, erosion, and sedimentation. New etative cover and mechanically breaks offthe soil roads are highly erodible dunng the first rains surface along stream side slopes. The slope destabilizing effect of trampling promotes ero- and/or snowmelt following construction sion and sediment delivery in streamside areas. Roads havlng high cutbanks produce more sedi- The number of Animal Unit Months (AUMs) ment than roads with low cutbanks. Freezing does not vary greatly among the alternatives and thawng, heating and coohng, and raindrop (see Table 2-10, Chapter 2). With adoption of action dislodge soil particles which travel into more restnctive utilization standards m npar- drainage ditches and are transported to streams. ian areas and range improvements designed to Road construction on slopes exceeding 70 per- disperse livestock, soil compaction and vegeta- cent often produces gravelly sidecast material tion loss in riparian areas will be reduced. Live- that can bury downslope vegetation and create a stock also add organic matter to the soil from drought condition, resulting in reduced soil-site feces and urine. Under some moisture condi- productinty. Sidecast can cause overloading of tions, hoofaction canbreakup surface crusts and the fill slope and subsequent loss of roadfills. improve water infiltration into soils Improper compaction, and logs and debris in fills Effects from Minerals Development of min- can cause road failures. Improper location and eral sites on most ofthe Forest has been confined inadequate number or size of drainage facilities to excavation of rock or cinders for road construc- can increase the incidence of road failures and tion. Several mning operations have occurred. road surface erosion. The largest, Carr Mine, was developed and pat- ented for private ownership. Forest productivity Roads lacking adequate surfacing lead to larger of mining sites are lost when development oc- quantities of sediment reaching streams The curs. Where developed sites promote channel- worst conditions exlst on roads constructed on ling of water, off site erosion and possible sedi- granitic soils, but only a few such roads exist on mentation of streams can result. the Forest.

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-73 Road reconstruction on the Forest is a source of areas where surface soil has been pushed mto sehment that occurs when an old road is cleared wndrows or piles along wth stumps and loggmg of protective vegetation Similar to new road debns Since surface soil displacement or re- construction, exposed soils will tend to erode for moval is a long-term or nearly permanent site one to several years after reconstruction disturbance, effects on nutrient cyclmg are sig- nficant Since most of the Forest’s transportation system is already in place, new construction does not The amount of soil compaction depends on the vary significantly by alternative (see Table 2-7, number of acres affected by ground-based log- Chapter 2) gmg equipment (e.g. tractor or rubber tired skidder) and by the method of post-harvest site The potential to increase sediment production preparation. Cable yarding systems move logs lies manly in accessing currently unroaded ar- with at least one end suspended These systems eas, since new road construction creates more cause less soil disturbance than tractor yarding sehment than emsting roads Alternatives wth and can be used on steeper slopes where tractors the least impact on these areas are PRF and are not suitable. EGP, which contmne management of some of these areas in an unroaded condition. The CUR For each harvest entry, the extent of soil dutur- and TGP Alternatives pose an increasing nsk of bance depends on the logging system and associ- soil loss from these areas. ated road network, terrain and soil factors, vol- ume oftimber removed, size oflogs, weather, soil Effects from Timber Harvest Due to the conhtion and skills of indimdual equipment op- relatively gentle terrain on the Lassen National erators. The most complex, expensive yarding Forest, tractor yardmg is the most common systems are designed to operate m the steepest method of timber harvest, especially on slopes terrain and to have the least impact in terms of under 35 percent. Multiple trips over the same sod compaction and displacement; thus, careful area with a tractor or rubber-tired shdder can practices m difficult, erosion-prone terram may cause detnmental soil compaction and displace- have soil erosion impacts comparable to poor ment practices carried out on naturally stable flat ground Generally, downhill cable yarding tends Soil compaction reduces site productivity by re- to concentrate runoff and snowmelt, creatmg a ducing the pore space in the soil, creates a physi- greater erosion hazard at receinng landmgs. cal barrier to plant roots, and reduces the infil- tration and percolation rates of water into and Overall, acres of compaction on the Forest will through the soil. Seedlings growng in densely increasem the shortterm asprenously unentered compacted soils show lower growth rates com- timber stands are harvested The Forest unll pared wth seedlings growng in undisturbed only begm to reduce the degraded acreage when sites. Researchers have identified a relationship previously entered (and compacted)areas are re- between soil bulk density increases and decreases entered and rehabilitated Forest-wde Stan- in tree growth. dards and Guidelines emphasize the need to maintain an aggressive rehabilitation program. Displacement occurs when fertile surface soil is The alternatives can be rated in terms of how removed or pushed aside, exposing subsoil. Dis- well they manage for compaction over time, based placement can occur over large areas dunng on rate of timber harvest, percent of tractor machine site preparation or on smaller areas on versus skyline logging, use of even-aged versus skid trails and landings. uneven-aged management, and total acres avail- able for timber harvest. Machine piling of slash and other site prepara- tion actinties can tnple the area of ground dis- Effects from Vegetation Management actin- turbed beyond that caused by timber harvest, ties usually cause disturbances in the soil sur- greatly increasing soil damage caused by com- face that w11 cause changes in the type ofvegeta- paction, puddling and dmplacement. Dramatic tion that reestablishes The greatest changes in growth reductions have been demonstrated on vegetationmlloccuronroad surfaces andassoci-

4-74 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences ated cut and fill slopes The removal of soil and delivery and compaction associated unth man- replacement mth rocks eliminates vegetation agement actinties Improvement measures in- from the road pnsm Natural vegetation grow- clude gully stabilization, seeding to control ero- ing on cut and fill slopes has lower vlgor Road sion, road obliteration, and npping of compacted cut and fill slopes are often seeded with grasses soils to control erosion. Effects from Wild and Scenic Rivers Wild Temporary spur roads and roads no longer needed and scenic river recommendations afford more in the transportation system can be cultivated protection for the soil resource by restncting and revegetated, but the site's soil productinty management actions that would result in distur- cannot be totally restored Subsequent vegeta- bance. The Wild sections of nver courses would tive growth unll be stunted for many years. receive the greatest protection from manage- ment actinties. Alower level of protection would On hot, dry sites, surface evaporation rates in- be provlded by a Scenic designation. A Recre- crease when protective litter layers are removed. ation designation would allow the most develop- Vegetation establishment is slowed on disturbed ment areas where surface soils are hotter and dner than before Effects from Wildlife Wildlife improvement activlties often prescribe grass seedmg in har- Disturbances associatedmthtimber harvest and vested areas or willow and alder plantings along site preparation favor the establishment of pio- streams. Such vegetative cover holds soil par- neenng plants on the site. When nitrogen kng ticles in place and promotes nutnent cycling. species suchas Ceanothus revegetate thesite, an increase in soil nitrogen levels will result. Such Logging Residue Management The extent of pioneering brush species often build soil produc- residue management is determined in part hy tivity silvlculturd and fuel treatment objectives Treat- ment options include machine piling, broadcast Effects from Water figh energy hydrologic burning, hand piling and yarding unutilizeable events from high hourly rainfall rates or rapid material melting of snow packs have the potential to detach and transport large qualities of soil mate- rial. Erosion rates are dependent on the soil Machine piling, involvlng crawler tractors, has properties, slope gradients and the extent and the greatest potential to harm the soil resources configuration of soil exposure. Erosion rates by compacting soil, removlng nutrient ennched from exposed road surfaces can be high Gully- surface organic or mineral soil layers and expos- ing and nllrng often result from high ramfall ing the soil surface to agents of erosion. Machine events Compacted soils, unth reduced infiltra- piling oRen results in the entire harvest area tion rates, can have higher erosion rates than being travelled over The increased use of smaller nearby undisturbed soils. Surface runoff from track hoe and shovel equipment in piling opera- compacted areas delivers sediment to streams. tions has resulted in less impacts to the soil In areas where hot prescribed fires have pro- resource from machinery operation duced water repellent layers below the soil sur- face, rates of surface erosion mll be greater The amount of surface organic matter consumed dunng broadcast burns is a concern for contin- The size of soil particles relates closely to sedi- ued fertility of the site Important nitrogen ment delivery Because smaller sized soil par- reserves held in the surface litter layer are vola- ticles are transported farther distances in over- tilized with fire. Nitrogen is a limiting nutrient land surface flow, soils havlng a high percentage for tree growth. Hot fires that totally consume of such particles mll be more likely to increase the surface litter layers and transfer heat into turbidity levels in nearby streams the upper soil surface can cause the vohtization and loss of nitrogen needed for grounng new Effects from Watershed Improvement trees. Prescribed spnng fires are typically low Projects Improvement projects seek to correct intensity burns that expose only small areas of degraded soil conditions of erosion, sediment soil and create only minor nitrogen losses.

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-75 Another fuel treatment tool is the removal of Erosion and compaction impacts are localized unmerchantable matenal from harvested areas and typically dmontinuous or scattered in har- Removal of this matenal may reduce levels of vested areas Regeneration after soil distur- large woody debris on the site below levels ca- bance can occur in a three to five year penod on pable ofsustaininglong termproductivlty Clean- the west side of the Forest For the dner east ing up fuels can create undesirable losses m side, revegetation may require seven years or fertility. longer

Recent findings suggest that large woody mate- The length of time natural forces need to act to nal is a conduit for maintaining healthy ecosys- restore compacted soil to normal bulk densities tems by provlding habitat for small mammals, is not known In envlronments where freeze actmg as a substrate for beneficial fimg.1 and thaw action is present, the upper two inches of semng as nutnent storage over long penods of the compacted zone eventually returns to time precompacted conditions In more moderate climates, freeze thaw action does not allevlate b. Indirect Effects compaction The effects of soil compaction fol- lomng tractor harvest can last longer than 40 years. Changes in soil charactenstics can affect water quality. An increase in soil compaction, erosion Commercial and pre-commercial thinnmg with or displacement can cause an increase in stream ground based equipment may add to exlsting sedimentation. The effect of sedimentation on compaction damage from previous harvest ac- fish habitat is discussed in the Fish section of tivlties Compaction from successive thinning this Chapter. entnes is also cumulative

Reduced site productivity caused by compaction, Cumulative effects to soil productivlty will be volatilization or erosion can, in turn, reduce the greatest mth those alternatives with the largest growth rate of future stands and can influence tmber harvest and road construction program. the density and dwersity of both cover and forage With higher harvest levels, more acres m11 be for wildlife. The actual reduction of site produc- compacted by tractor harvest operations, and by tivity is dinicult to predict due to the complex road construction and reconstruction Higher interrelationship among stand stoclung, genetic harvest levels will also result in more site prepa- improvement, mitigation measures, soil distur- ration activlty that can cause soil erosion, nutri- bance, natural recovery, climate, and other fac- ent loss from prescnbed burnmg, and the re- tors Though potentialimpacts to site productiv- moval of woody matenal important for ecosys- ity are real, they do not vary sigmficantly by tem stability. alternative The greatest, adverse cumulative effects on soil e. Cumulative Effects productivlty are anticipated mth the CURAlter- native, which schedules 7,900 acres of regenera- Impacts to soil productivity occur on site Off site tion harvest, 3,000 acres of commercial thinning effects occur when eroded matenal ormass move- and 19,000 acres of intermediate harvest in de- ments delivermatenal to stream systems. There cade l Additional cumulative effects would are no impacts to the soil resource from off- occur, from combined timber harvest and site Forest management activlties preparation activlties and from multiple timber harvest entnes occurnng mth thinning treat- Separate management actions prescnbed on the ments. Cumulative effects to soil productivlty land have the potential to create soil distur- with the TGP Alternative is somewhat less than bances that are cumulative in their effects on soil in CUR, mth 5,400 acres of regeneration har- productivity Compaction disturbances attnb- vesting in the first decade, 4,700 acres of com- uted to site preparation would be in addition to mercial thinning and 5,800 acres ofintermediate compaction damage from loggmgoperations Pro- harvests ductivlty reducing effects of broadcast burning would also be cumulative to compaction damage The PRF and EGP Alternatives schedule the on the site lowest levels of timber harvest Regeneration

4-76 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences harvest cuts and thimngs total 4,000 and 4,700 barnng roads, skid trails and log drag comdors, acres, respectively, with 5,500 acres proposed for designating streamside management zones, leav- intermediate harvest A smaller acreage wll be ing down woody matenal, and applymg a grass/ disturbed by management activities, and fewer mulch mixture to areas of exposed soil and bare acres w111 be treated wth multi-entry thnnings cut and fill slopes of forest roads Using cable systems to reduce acreage harvested by tractors d. Mitigation Measures can mnimize erosion impacts Broadcast burn- ing can be timed and executed to avoid removing Specific Standards and Guidelines, presented in the dufflayer. Prescnbed spnngbroadcast burn- Chapter 4 of the accompanylng Forest Plan, ing is an effective measure in reducing duff address the management concerns related to consumption and exposure of soil on steeper soils The intent of the standards is to place slopes thresholds on acceptable resource impacts for compaction, erosion and broadcast burning. Where general seed and mulch applications are Rehabilitative treatments are required if soil not adequate to control erosion, "roll down" nets damage exceeds the threshold value or mats can be applied The effectiveness of erosion control measures will be monitored dur- In addition to Standards and Guidelines, other ing and after project implementation management practices have been used to reduce the amount of compaction in harvested units. Practices to reduce sedimentation in streams Such measures include. 1) avoidance of the include leavlng strips of timber and brush along impact by harvesting wth cable loggmg sys- creeks to serve as sediment filters, use of water tems, 2) limiting tractor harvest to penods when bars in situations where channelling can occur, soil moisture is relatively low; 3) prescribing minimizing soil exposure, and spacing culverts low-ground-pressure tracked vehicles; and 4) frequently enough to prevent water in roadside designating skid trails that operators must use ditches from traveling long distances A vanety dunng harvest. Alternatives to piling slash by of retaining structures can be used to channel tractor include broadcast burning, lopping and water flow and prevent soil movement Roads scattering, hand-piling, and shovel and track that have served their purpose can be npped and hoe piling. These methods (especially hand- seeded, "put to bed," so that the area can once piling) are costly, and broadcast burning can again support vegetation The surface ofheavlly adversely impact soil fertility and air quality, used roads, or roads in sensitive areas, can be while increasing the nsk of creating unwanted stabilized by pavlng or surfacing mth gravel to wldfires. reduce sediment production.

Once compaction damage has been sustained, Nutnent losses caused by removal of woody mitigation includes deep subsoil ripping. The material can be mitigated by leaving five down effectiveness of npping depends upon the type of logs of 40 cubic feet or more in volume per treated implement used, soil properties, and soil mois- acre. Effectiveness of this mitigation is uncer- ture content. Data can be collected to help tain because the amount of material needed for evaluate the effectiveness of npping 111 restoring maintaining long term productivity for different the productive qualities of compacted soils. Such ecosystems has not been determined Mitigation information is needed to quantify the effects of provides for a minimum level of organic matenal compaction-related growth reductions in man- be left as a source of organic carbon to fuel the aged stands. The effectiveness of measures to microbiologx populations important to the nu- mitigate compaction will be monitored using a tnent cycling process. point transect sampling system Long term changes m productivity may be evaluated through Base nutnent concentration requirements for measurements of tree growth taken at ten year different Forest soil types must be developed to intervals, and by comparing the results with adequately evaluate the impacts of harvesting data from similar, uncompacted stands on nutrient deplehon.

Mitigation techniques for erosion beyond the Research has demonstrated that applications of listed Standards and Guidelines include water nitrogen, although expensive, are highly effec-

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-77 tive in increasing short term productivlty More the main cause of the increase in LDI Water- information is needed about Forest stand re- shed improvement projects would help mtigate sponses to fertilization on different Forest soil effects of increased timber harvesting and meet types minimum management requirements See the Facilities section of this Chapter for additional mitigation measures related to roads. 18. SPECIAL AREAS

All Alternatives The issue for Special Areas focuses on two ques- tions. what new areas should be recommended, Since several factors affect soil productivlty, the and what management should the Forest’s emst- Land Disturbance Index (LDI) is used to com- ing and proposed Special Areas receive Special pare each alternative’s potential effect on soil Areas include. (a) Experimental Forests, (b) productivlty The LDI is an estimate of the Research Natural Areas, (c) National Natural “equivalent roaded acres” created by an alterna- tive. The LDI represents Forest-wde effects of Landmarks, and(d) SpecialInterest Areas. Ths major land-disturbing activlties, such as timber section describes the general environmental con- harvesting, road building, and fire. For further sequences of the alternatives to each of these. definition of LDI, see section a. of the Water and Appendms F, G, and H, respectively, describe in Ripanan Areas section of this Chapter detail the consequences to the latter three cat- egories. PRF Alternative To summarize the effects on all types of special The Land Disturbance Index (LDI) for decade areas together, all alternatives will continue 1 current management on the existing special ar- would be 36.5. Increased disturbance from road construction and increased recreational use and eas, whch are two experimental forests and two site development would be offset hy a lower Research Natural Areas totalling 20,695 acres timber harvest and watershed stabilization or (1.8percent of the Forest) The CURAlternative improvement projects There is a steady de- would add no new special areas The TGP Alter- crease m LDI to 34.1 by decade 5. native would add the s1x candidate Research Natural Areas established for scientific andlor CUR Alternative natural baseline purposes for a total of 30,507 acres (2 7 percent of the Forest) The PRFAlter- The LDI would be 443 for decade 1 and de- native would add SIX candidate Research Natu- creases to 42 l in decade 5 Minor loss of soil ral Areas, and seven Special Interest Areas, for productivity could result in decades 2 and 3 due a total of 32,812 acres. The EGP Alternative to timber harvesting, livestock grazing, and use would add the six candidate Research Natural of developed recreation sites. Fewer projects Areas, plus one recommended National Natural would be done to rehabilitate deteriorated wa- Landmark, and seven Special Interest Areas, for tersheds a total of 32,912 acres (2.9 percent ofthe Forest). These would be established under 36 CFR 294.1 EGP Alternative for scientific, natural baseline, and/or recre- ationaVecologica1significance. The LDI for the first decade is 36.6, declining to 32.2 by decade 5 Timber harvesting in this a. Direct and Indirect Effects alternative is group selection, rather than clearcutting, whch accounts for a lower LDI The direct and indirect effects for each type of than CUR and TGP In addition, watershed special area are descnbed below improvement projects would help mtigate any effects of harvesting activlties (1) Experimental Forests

TGP Alternative Expenmental Forests are managed by the Pa- cific Southwest Forest and Range Expenment The LDI would be 40.2 in decade 1,declining to Station Because management responsibility for 39.8 by decade 5 Increased timber harvesting is expenmental forests does not he at the National

4-78 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Forest level, the Blacks Mountain and Swain Forest are considered possible NNL candidates. Mountain Expenmental Forests would continue The consequence of not listing would be to leave to be managed according to emsting manage- the sites avalable for activities that may de- ment plans under all alternatives Thus, the grade some of those values including timber consequences of each alternative on expenmen- harvest, road construction and mning The tal forests are neglig.lble specific consequences of listing or not listing each candidate National Natural Landmark are (2) Research Natural Areas listed in Appendix G, National Natural Land- mark Evaluation General consequences for each All alternatives mll involve protection of the alternative are descnbed below existmg RNA’s: Blacks Mountain and Cub Creek (4,443 acres). They mll continue to be managed PRF, CUR and TGP Alternatives to preserve their natural condition, under provl- sions of their exstmg establishment reports, No areas would be recommended for national and will be avalable for scientific study as natural landmarks. The candidate areas would baselines of undisturbed ecological conditions be available for a full range of possible develop- and processes Development activities mll con- ment activlties including timber harvest, and tinue to be prohbited, mcluding timber manage- geothermal, oil and gas, and mneral develop- ment, road bmlding, concentrated recreation, ment. Public interest and recreation would not mineral exploration and development. See Ap- be heightened by NNL listing, and the lack of pendix F, ResearchNatural Area Evaluation, for special protective measures could allow the more specific consequences of RNA designation. umque natural values to be degraded

PRF, EGP, and TGP Alternatives EGP Alternative

Sur candidate areas totalling 9,812 acres would One 100 acre area would be recommended to the become RNA’s (pending completion of evaluation National Park Semce for listmg as a National and establishment by the Chief of the Forest Natural Landmark Deep Hole The area would Service) and be managed to preserve their natu- be protected in its natural condition by mth- ralconditionfor scientific study They are Green dramng it from mneral entry and precluding Island Lake, Indian Creek, Soda Ridge, Tim- timber harvest on the floor of the crater. More bered Crater, Mayfield, and Graham Pinery speclfic management provlsions would be estab- The Forest would prepare an establishment re- lished in an NNL area management plan pre- port for each, specifylngmanagement pronsions. pared by the Forest after listing by the Secretary Development activlties would be prohibited, and of the Interior Listing would increase interest the areas would be withdrawn from mineral in, and bring recreation to the area. It would also entry All candidate RNA’s mll be managed to facilitate more protection and interpretation of maintain their inherent qualities until final se- its unique features lection and approval by the Regonal Forester and Chief. (4) Special Interest Areas

CUR Alternative The consequence of special interest area (SIA) classification (establishment) would be to pre- No new RNA’s would be recommended. The serve and draw attention to the recreational, 9,812 acres of candidate RNA’s would be avail- ecologmal, educational, and research potential of able for development activlties. areas havlngparticularly important natural his- tory values. The consequence of non-classifica- (3)National Natural Landmarks tion would be to leave the areas available for activities that may degrade some ofthese values The consequence of national natural landmark such as timber harvesting, mining, road buld- (NNL) listing would be to preserve sites illus- ing, concentrated recreation, and livestock graz- trating the geological and ecological character of ing. The specfie consequences of classification the Nation, and to draw attention to their educa- and non-classification for each candidate special tional and scientific values Seven areas on the interest area are descnbed in Appendix H, Spe-

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-79 cia1 Interest Area Evaluation General conse- Calling attention to an area by designating it as quences of each alternative are descnbed below. an SIA has the potential to increase vlsitor use, whch may have an adverse effect on the feature PRF and EGP Alternatives for which the SIA was established, such as the Willow Lake bog An SIA management plan (to Seven areas totalling 2,305 acres would be clas- be developed for each area)mll specify measures sified as special interest areas under 36 CFR to protect significant features while provlding 294.1 Black Rock, Crater Lake, Deep Hole, mterpretative opportumties for SIA visitors. Homermeerheart, Montgomery Creek Grove, Murken, and Willow Lake Bog. They would be protected m their natural condibon for public c. Mitigation Measures enjoyment, and managed to protect the specific geoloDc, scenic, or botamcal features for which If an area is not selected for Special Area desig- the areas were estabhshed Specific manage- nation, vegetative and recreation visitor man- ment provlsions would be established in SIA agement techniques could be used to help mti- management plans, which the Forest would pre- gate any potential adverse impacts on pare after area classification hy the ReDonal nonselection If management of nonselected Forester Withdrawal from mineral entry would Special Areas were to follow closely the Stan- be recommended, and timber harvesting and dards and Guidelines for selected areas, these other vegetation manipulation would be prohb- could be considered as mtigation measures to ited in the Montgomery Creek Grove, Willow help offset the potential negative impact of Lake Bog, and Murken botanical areas. Live- nonselection. Momtonng dunng project imple- stock grazing would continue in the areas until mentation could also be done to mantain the SIA plans reconsider the issue. Timber harvest- sultability of nonselected areas for future desig- ing conformng to a visual quality objective of nation. Partial Retention could continue in the others. SIA status would increase recreational and edu- cational use of the areas; it would also faditate more interpretation and protection of the unique 19. TIMBER features Harvest actinties associated mth the vanous CUR and TGP Alternatives altematives will affect the structure and species composition of future stands of timber. In turn, No areas would be classified as special interest timber harvest and related activlties (thinning, areas. The candidate areas would be available planting, slash treatment, etc )have significant for the full range of possible development activl- effects on nearly all other components of the ties noted above Public interpretation and rec- envlronment (indirect effects) Each alternative reation would not be heightened, and lack of provides substantially different levels of timber special protective measures could allow the spe- production Increases or decreases from current cial natural values to be degraded. programmed harvest levels can have significant and cumulative effects on both the socio-eco- b. Cumulative Effects nomic setting in northeast California, and on long-term productivlty oftimber and other forest Land allocations that call for more intensive resources. management such astimber production aremost likely to affect potential Special Areas that are not recommended for designation. Ths could Even-aged management (clearcutting and shel- result from the alteration of natural settmgs In terwood cutting) mll be the pnmary silvlcul- many mstances, retention of the natural envi- tural treatment used in three ofthe altematives- ronment is crucial to mparting and protecting -PRF,CUR, and TGP Uneven-aged manage- the values which qualify an area as a Special ment in the form of group selection harvests Area The CUR and TGP Alternatives have the would be used in sensitive mew areas and in greatest potential impact on Special Areas from selected mldllfe management areas Group se- proposed management activities, whle PRF and lection mll be emphasized in the EGP Alterna- EGP have less. tive.

4-80 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences The effects of the alternatives on the timber Each alternative started out mth the same ten- resource are displayed in this section Envlron- tatively available and smtable landbase for tim- mental effects from timber outputs are displayed ber management. Based on the theme of each throughout all of Chapter 4 In particular, the alternative, some ofthese acres were later deter- sections on Economc, Social, Fire, Soils,Vegeta- mned not to be smtable. This occurred if the tion and Diversity, Water and Ripanan, and land was (1)assigned to other resource uses that Wildlife display some key envlronmental effects precluded timber management, (2)needed to due to timber harvest meet mimmum management requirements or other objectives that precluded or limited timber All Alternatives management; or (3)determined not to be cost efficient in meeting management objectives over a. Direct Effects the planning honzon. These lands are classified as “not sutable” for timber production in the The overall timber management issue is two- alternative. fold what areas should be allocated to timber production, and what practices should be con- Removlng land from the suitable land base re- ducted there To predict the envlronmental con- duces the potential allowable timber harvest sequences of each alternative on the timber re- The magnitude of this reduction depends not source, the followng aspects are addressed. only on the amount of land removed, but also on its relative productinty Reductions can be some- Determination of suitable timber lands. what mitigated by increasing timber manage- ment intensity on the remruning suitable acre- Timber management on slutable timber age lands Unsuitable TimberLands Forest lands not avrul- Allowable sale quantity, long-term sus- able for timber production are considered un- tained yield, growth, and departure. suitable. These include classified areas such as Wilderness and Research Natural Areas In Silvlcultural and harvest practices adhtion, timbered lands lymgmthn sem-pnmi- tive motorized and non-motorized areas are con- Projected future condition of the timber sidered unsuitable. Spotted owl, marten and resource fisher habitat areas, and proposed Wild and Scenic Rivers are also considered unsuitable for The conceptual background of these aspects is timbermanagement Onunsmtablehmberlands, gwen in the next section, “All Alternatives,” harvesting may occur on rare occasions to reduce which also describes consequences that are com- unacceptable losses from forest pests or drought, mon to all alternatives. Consequences that dif- and to improve or maintain wildlife habitat fer between alternatives are shown on Table 4- 16, and are described in the subsequent subsec- (2) Timber Management On tions Suitable Timber Lands

(1) Determination Of Suitable Timber management on suitable timber lands is Timber Lands categonzed as full, modified, or limited. Full management is high yield forestry charactenzed Suitable Tzmber Lands The ability ofthe Forest by silvlcultural practices such as clearcutting, to produce timber is mainly determined by the shelterwood, and group selection cutting Avail- quantity and quality of lands allocated to timber able acres considered for full timber manage- production. The procedure for determiningwhch ment are denved from Timber (T) Prescnption lands are “suitable” is descnbed in Appendlx N, lands “Identification of Lands for “her Production ” Using this procedure, the Forest identified Modified management uses these same prac- 770,110 acres as tentatively suitable, whch rep- tices, but may require modified sizes and shapes resents about 68 percent of the total land base. of harvest areas or longer rotations of regener-

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-8 1 Table 4-16 Timber Consequences of Each Alternative Alternative -PRF -CUR -EGP TGp Smtable Timberland 596,341 744,577 585,881 633,796

Satable Acres by Prodwon Full 245,082 394,418 280,083 283,977 Category Modified 87,958 148,792 47,552 111,232 Limited 254,301 201,367 258,246 238,587 Average Annual Sale Quantity, Decade 1 96 171 94 118 (MMBF) Decade 5 113 171 94 124 Long-Term Sustained Yield 139 215 95 157 Capacity, (MMBF) Average Annual Growth, Decade 1 201 216 190 2 10 (MMBF) 1/ Decade 5 119 153 95 146 Regeneration Harvest (Acres) Clearcut Decade 1 16,000 38,000 0 33,000 Decade 5 16,000 39,000 0 3i);OoO Shelterwood Decade 1 10,000 21,000 0 2,000 Decade 5 7,600 17,000 0 700

Overstory Removal Decade 1 9.000 20,000 9,000 ”*- 9,000 Decade 5 7,100 0 7,600 6$00 Group Selection Decade 1 5,000 0 31,000 10,400 Decade 5 5,000 0 25,000 0 Timber Stand Improvement Decade 1 4,700 8,000 4,700 4,700 (acres) Decade 5 7,000 5,100 4,100 10,400 Expected Plantation Acres Decade 1 72 100 73 73 Burned Decade 2 72 500 73 73 Decade 3 97 1,100 98 98 Decade 4 530 1,600 182 914 Decade 5 1,038 1,600 102 2,120 Minunum Rotation Age (yrs): 120-150 60-90 120-150 70-110 Stand Character At Minimum Min 18-45 14-30 18-45 14-35 Rotation 2/ Diameter (Inches) Ave. 32 22 32 24 Diameter (Inches) Min Height 80-170 70-130 80-170 70-150 (Feet) Ave. Height 125 100 125 110 (feet)

1/ Includes growth on smtable acres only 2/ 50-100 trees per acre would exceed these sizes

4-82 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences atedstands, comparedtofullmanagement Modi- sustained yleld capacities between each alterna- fied timber management is applied to a vanety of tive reflect both (1)the number of acres avail- lands, including those assigned a Visual Quality able for timber management, and (2) the inten- Objective (VQO) of Partial Retention, and can sity of timber management scheduled for those result in the extension of rotation ages by 15-25 acres LTSYC would be larger for alternatives years Available acres considered for momfied havlng more acres allocated to full timber man- timber management are denved fromViewmm- agement ASQ would likemse be higher, but the ber (V) Presenption lands. existing timber inventory and growth on suit- able timber land, cost-efficiency, management Limited management primanly involves indi- constraints, and budget limitations (if any) re- vidual tree cutting. Limited management is duce it below the LTSYC The LTSYC is the applied to lands assigned a VQO of Retention as theoretical upper limit for the ASQ. well as other areas such as mldlife habitat, old growth retention areas, and npanan zones Aval- The CUR Alternative has the most acres as- able acres considered for limited timber manage- signed to full timber management and the high- ment are derived from RipananlFish (F), Old est LTSYC, followed by the TGP Alternative On GrowtWGoshawk (G),and Rocky/Sparse (K)Pre - a decadal average, all stand growth is periodi- scription lands Successively lower yields per cally harvested on lands allocated to full timber acre are expected to result from modified and management, no increase in inventory is seen limited management; economic losses m11 also over the long term. Harvesting practices on occur Discussion ofthese management concepts lands receimng modified and limited timber is found in Appendlx N. The discussion of the management are designed to achieve additional appropnate use of even-aged and uneven-aged resource objectives, such as vlsual quality, and management methods is found in Appendix 0. do not capture all the growth in these stands

(3) Allowable Sale Quantity and As stands become more regulated across the Long-Term Sustained Yield Forest, the ASQ for the PRF and TGP Alterna- tives approaches long-term sustained yleld For The Allowable Sale Quantity (ASQ) is based on example, by decade 5, the AS& for the PRF the sutable or scheduled acres modeled in FOR- Alternative increases to 127 MMBF in both PLAN analysis The suitable acres associated sawlogs and other products This represents 91 mth the AS& vary by alternative andrange from percent of LTSYC The ASQ for the TGP Alter- 585,881 acres with the EGP Alternative to native in decade 5 is 140 MMBF or 89 percent of 744,577 acres mth CUR Although ASQ is ex- LTSYC pressed as an average annual quantity, it actu- ally applies on a decade basis because the amount Similar increases for decade 5 are not shown for of timber sold each year may vary The principle CUR and EGP In EGP, no use of herbicides is of nondeclining yeld applies to all of the alterna- planned to regenerate stands. This will preclude tives, this requires that the AS& for any decade some areas from being considered for harvesting must be equal to or greater than that of the where herbicide applications would be essential previous decade Additional non-scheduled har- to achieve fully stocked conditions after regen- vests (not included in the ASQ) may be obtained eration Lands not considered are typically so by salvage cutting on some land classified as not steep that mechanical site preparation is not suited for timber production. The Forest’s previ- possible, and manual release is not practical due ous Timber Management Plan (1975) had an to economic, safety and other factors ongmalASQofabout 28milhoncubicfeet(179 2 million board feet) per year Departures from the ASQ (in cubic feet) are allowed under certain circumstances (36 CFR The long-term sustained yleld capacity (LTSYC) 219.16), including those where implementation is a prediction of the maximum timber volume of the normal base sale schedule would cause a that can be sustained annually from the avail- substantial adverse impact upon a community in able and suitable timber lands on the Forest, the economic area in which a Forest is located consistent with the multiple use objectives of By definition, departure requires a future de- each alternative The differences in long-term crease in the timber sale and harvest schedule to

Chapter 4-Enuuonmental Consequences 4-83 bring the ASQ in line mth long-term sustained cies such as ponderosa and Jeffrey pine Even- yield Harvest levels are monitored and adjusted aged silvlcultural systems are emphasized in all every ten years to insure that long-term sus- alternatives except EGP tained yeld is not reduced Of the 770,110 acres sutable for timber produc- Growth and inventory of forest stands is mea- tion on the Forest, 57 percent are in mixed sured in units of cubic foot volume because it is conifer type, 29 percent are in eastside pine, and dependent on numerous product requirements 10 percent are in red fir, and 4 percent are in occumngmthin a locale, region, or the nation as lodgepole pine All of these types are swtable for a whole. Board foot volume measurement varies even-aged management as described in Agncul- wth size of trees and is designed for certam tural Handbook No 445, Silvlcultural Systems product specifications and current technology It for the Major Timber Types ofthe United States. is presently Forest Service policy (FSM 1922 15) Dunng the past three decades, harvesting on the to use cubic foot volume as a measurement of Swain Mountain Expenmental Forest (located long-term sustmned yield, as well as to regulate within the administrative boundaries of the the amount of timber to be offered and sold as Almanor Ranger District) in the red fir timber specified by the allowable timber sale quantity. typehas demonstrated success mobtamingnatu- ral regeneration using small clearcut, shelter- Tables were constructed for MBF and MCF per wood, and seed-tree systems. For eastside pine acre, resulting in vanable board footlcubic foot and mlxed conifer timber types, artificial regen- ratios betweenemsting strataand secondgrowth eration followmg clearcuts has been successful over time In existing stands, strata which have over the past three decades m northern Cahfor- higher volumes per acre tend to also have higher nia provlded that good site preparation, tree board foot/cubic foot ratios. In second growth handling, and nursery practices are adhered to stands, the board footlcubic foot ratios increase as the stand gets older and tree chameters m- Clearcuttmg will be used on the Lassen National crease. Forest in all alternatives except EGP only when it can be shown that it provldes the best silvlcul- The stands scheduled for harvest in the first tural system for managing a stand while meet- decades are those with the highest economic ing other resource objectives. Reasons for select- value while meeting the management objectives ing clearcutting are site-specific and may in- of the alternative. These stands happen to also have a higher board footlcubic foot ratio As secondgrowth stands are harvested with alower To regenerate under-stocked stands. economicvalue, theymll have a lower board footl cubic footratio. Hence, boardfeetharvestedover To encourage shade intolerant conifer time declines while cubic feet remain constant. species To reduce fire hazard (4) Silvicultural And Harvest Practices To minimize nsks due to insects and (a)Cutting Practices &sease. Histoncally, the Lassen National Forest has used intermediate (sanitation and salvage) har- To lessen the extent of ground chstur- vesting extensively. Until recently, very few bance and watershed impacts. plantations were established outside ofreforest- ingwldfires. The net result ofthis is an age class To improve stand growth structure of stands heady skewed to the middle age classes In some cases, past intermediate Group selection is considered an uneven-aged cutting has left sites under-stocked Here, even- silvlcultural system This system creates small aged silvlcultural systems can be used to. (1) openmgs of two acres or less within the forest improve stockmglevels;(2) improvegrowth rates; canopy The PRF, EGP, and TGP Alternatives, and (3)aid in reducing the incidence of disease by design, incorporate group selection harvest- In addition, even-aged management is used to ing The PRF Alternative designates compart- increase the occurrence of shade intolerant spe- ments wthin three Management Areas in which

4-84 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences group selection wdl be emphasized These se- which would die, and promotes vigor of the re- lected Management Areas are located to piovide sidual trees increasing the productive life span a good test ofgroup selection in the eastside pine, (rotation)of the stand mixed conifer, and red fir timber types EGP relies entirely on group selection for all regen- For Forest modeling purposes, minimum rota- eration harvests where planting is necessary tion ages are defined This is needed to deter- TGP stnves for a balance (in terms of acres mine a potential yield for the Forest and is most treated) between clearcutting and harvests with useful in modeling yelds from plantations. Ro- group selection, shelterwood, and individual tree tation ages for existing stands is difficult to selection determine as past growth history, harvest, and tree mortality are, in most cases, unknown. Individual tree selection is the other uneven- Again, for modeling purposes and based on data aged silvicultural system This system is incor- collected for the major timber types (normal porated into all alternatives and is primarily yeld tables), certam size classes in existmgstands reserved for acres managed for resources other are assumed to reach culmination of mean an- than timber such as riparian zones, visually nual growth. For individual project proposals, sensitive areas, or wildlife areas rotation ages for individual stands will be based on site specific information and resource needs Commercial thinning (included as an intermedi- ate harvesting technique) is included in all alter- Modelingrotation ages vanes by timber type and natives. Commercial thmnings are proposed in land management objectives The PRF and EGP existing stands to maintain acceptable stocking Alternatives assign minimum rotation ages of levels, and to promote the growth and vigor of 120 years and emphasize commercial thinning residual trees In the future, commercial thin- CUR and TGP have minimum rotation ages set nings mll become more important in regener- between 60 to 110 years ated areas as these stands grow and mature. Sanitatiodsalvage harvesting (an intermediate (d) Reforestation and Timber harvesting technique) wll be done for all alter- Stand Improuement natives to reduce losses due to insects, disease, Regenerated even-age stands will generally be 5- and fire Thinning, sanitation, and salvage in- 20 acres in size and much more uniform in size termediate harvest systems, along wth indi- and species composition than most existing vidual tree selection, will also be the pnmary stands. Regenerated group selection stands will harvest methods on rocky sites be less than two acres in size All existing species will be maintained, but proportions will differ (b) Logging Systems Use of all loggmg systems to harvest timber will On the east side of the Forest, ponderosa pine continue on the Forest under all alternatives and Jeffrey pine will be the major species planted Selection of appropriate systems will be done at On the west side, white fir, red fir and ponderosa the project level and mll be based on silvicul- pine will be the major species planted Incense tural needs, watershed protection, operational cedar would not be extensively planted because feasibility, and costs The proportion of harvest it grows slower than the other species. Douglas- by the vanous systems would not vary signifi- fir will be planted where it naturally occurs. cantly by alternative, since all slope classes are harvested similarly in all alternatives. Until recently, planting sugar pine has been discouraged. Sugar pine is susceptible to the (e) Rotation Age fungal disease, white pine blister rust, which is The time penod between plantation establish- well established on the Lassen National Forest ment and final harvest is known as the rotation as it is in most of California While older trees age The minimum rotation for a stand is deter- can survive with blister rust infections, seed- mined by the point in time where growth in cubic lings can not Hence, investments associated feet of wood no longer is increasing To foresters, with planting sugar pine were a poor nsk this concept is defined as the culmination of mean annual increment of cubic foot growth The Forest is actively participating in a program Intermediate commercial thinningharvests trees designed to identify disease resistant, mature,

~~ ~~ ~ Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-85 seed producingsugar pine These trees are being maintaining timber productivity and providing protected from harvest Through testing proce- an enjoyable family outing Because it is difficult dures, trees can be identified as resistant to the to control the cutting of proper trees, the indi- disease or not. The Forest is currently planting vidual Christmas tree program has the potential rust resistant seedlings grown from seed from to reduce timber productivity Damage to wet identified rust resistant parent trees. By the roads on both the Forest and pnvate lands may year 2000, all projected sugar pine reforestation continue However, the Forest will continue the needs are expected to be met with rust resistant program under all alternatives to maintain a seedlings quality recreational expenence

Incense cedar and white fir will continue to occur (e) Effects Of Wildfire On Plantations naturally both in uncut islands of young growth To maintain the allowable harvest on the Forest, inside regeneration units and areas adjacent to planted trees must reach merchantable size most regenerated areas. These species are more However, young, well-stocked plantations are shade-tolerant than ponderosa pine, so natural more susceptible to destruction by wildfire than seed dissemination would maintain these two many emsting stands As more of the Forest species as a vlable component of the new stands becomes even-aged, increasing acreages mll be in this hazardous condition. The expected plan- Red fir will continue to dominate in its habitat. tation acreage that would burn is shown by Sbelterwood cutting for natural regeneration alternative in Table 4-16 will be used to a greater extent in true fir stands than in other timber types Losses due to mldfire have been accounted for in the calculation of the alrowable sale quantity Increasing the dominance of planted species and (ASQ) for each alternative. The fire manage- growing trees of uniform size generates environ- ment program selected for each alternative is the mental nsks. Such stands are believed to be most cost-efficient program expected to keep the susceptible to widespread insect and disease burned plantation acreage near these acceptable damage. This belief is based on the premse that levels. Reforestation of burned areas is part of uniform stands provide a greater host source for the annual reforestation target. damagmgorganisms, and that pure stands overly tax critical soil nutrients However, maintain- (5) Projected Condition of the ing trees in a healthy, vigorous condition is the Timber Resource best defense against insect and disease damage. The control of competing vegetation and proper On landareas allocated to fullormodifledtimber stocking through release and thinning will foster management, regeneration harvests mll con- such favorable conditions under all alternatives. tinue the conversion of existing timber stands toward a mosaic of even-aged stands of dflenng Site Preparation Reforestation mll rely heanly ages. Depending on the alternative, by the end on tractor piling and burning of slash to reduce of decade 5, a projected 25 to 60 percent of the fuels and provlde access to the ground for plant- presently poorly-stocked stands and 40 to 80 ing Broadcast burning will be used on steeper percent of the well-stocked stands mll be regen- slopes where tractors cannot operate See the erated, impronng overall forest vlgor. Most Fire and Soils sections ofthis Chapterforfurther existing timber stands wll be regenerated by dmmssion on site preparation impacts for each decades 9 to 12. After that time, harvests will alternative come from regenerated stands where tree size and species mll vary mth site productivlty and Timber Stand Improvement (TSI) Substantial other resource management goals timber stand improvement, mcluding release from competing vegetation and precommercial Where full timber management is used, stand thinning, will be practiced under all alterna- size wdl range from 5 to 20 acres (or larger in tives special circumstances) and the nunimum rota- tion will be 60-150years. Where modified timber Christmas Trees Under all alternatives, Chnst- management is needed to preserve mldlife habi- mas trees mll be harvested mth the objective of tat or meet a vlsual quality objective of Reten-

4-86 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences tion or Partial Retention, stand size w11 gener- proper stand management) These stages com- ally range from 1 to 20 acres, the minimum pnse the second largest percentage oftotal grow- rotation age will be 80-170 years, and trees wll ing stock for all alternatives in future decades. range from 20 inches to 48 inches or more in The PRF and TGP Alternatives may exhibit diameter Tree density (50-100 per acre) and higher levels of diversity of stand structure due height would be similar under both full and to a mix of both even- and uneven-aged manage- modified timber management ment The EGP Alternative may have higher percentages of whte fir, and other more shade In areas allocated to limited timber manage- tolerant species, in younger age classes due to ment, changes will not be readily apparent for successional pressure afforded through uneven- many decades, since harvest of individual trees aged management. The CUR Alternative will or small groups will tend to maintain the present exhibit lower levels of structural diversity due to appearance Shade intolerant species such as even-aged management and associated harvest ponderosa and Jeffrey pine will gradually be levels The species composition in even-aged, replaced with shade-tolerant species such as younger stands (and future growng stock) w11 white and red fir be pnmanly early successional species such as ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir. b. Indirect Effects

The rate at which timber is harvested (particu- Table 4-17 larly mature and overmature timber), plus the level of management intensity, has significant Large Sawtimber and Old Growth Maintained Under Each Alternative (Thousands nfAcrenl a/ effects on future stand structure, distnbution of sizelage classes, species composition, productiv- Alternative ity, and ultimately future harvest levels on the Base Year 1982 Decade PRF CUR EGP TGP Lassen National Forest In those areas of the __ Forest allocated for long-term production of tim- ber, it is an objective to establish a "regulated 123 2 106 131 97 110 forest" in which there are reasonable assurances of a "sustained yeld of timber products over the 5 243 162 236 228 long term Economic and administrative rea- a/ Stands with greater than 40 percent crown cover sons are the basis for this objective But both - - overcutting and undercutting of timber under a planned regulatory condition can create future deficits of both size and volume because such The volume of timber harvested today has sig- cutting controls the rate of new stand formation nificant effects on the economic structure and through regeneration A regulated forest can be social fabric of local communities Rmber pro- mamtained mth either even- or uneven-aged vides Jobs both directly (through local loggmg management (or a combination of the two). and timber manufacturing) and indirectly (through secondary support industnes and ser- The "regulated" Lassen National Forest of the vices) These effects are also cumulative in that future would contain a vanety of size classes and timber produced on the Forest is used in other species of timber Modeling techniques are not communities wthin an area referred to as the currently available to portray an accurate de- "Extended Area Of Influence " Future timber scription of the Forest by alternative, but esti- supplies will affect the ability of pnmary manu- mates of future successional stages (found in facturers of timber products to compete in a Tables 4-17 and 4-18) provide some insight into market plagued with uncertainties, as well as the future forest. As can be seen, large sawtim- the ability of local communities to finance county ber and old growth age classes (Stage 4) will school and road programs See the Economc and compnse the highest percentage of total forested Social sections of this Chapter for analysis of acres in future decades for all alternatives except timber harvest and effects on local communities. CUR Stages 2 and 3 reflect timber stands in which sites are fully occupied and timber stands Timber harvest impacts almost all other re- are growing at near maximum rates (assuming sources on the Forest, some positively and some

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-87 Table 4-18 a

Vegetation Diversity by Alternative Percent of (a) Conifer Forest Formation and (b) Chaparral and Sagebrush Formations in Vanous Age Classes, and Diversity Index Values for Alternatives

a. Conifer Forest Formation 11

Successional Alternative

Stage~ 2/ ~~.~Base.~ Year 1982 Decade PFLF CUR EGP TGP 1 4 2 6 7 8 9 5 12 8 25 12

2 48 2 4 8 3 3 5 14 18 7 20

3 32 2 67 68 68 67 5 17 53 14 15

4 (Including 16 2 23 17 21 21 Old-Growth) 5 57 21 54 53

Diversity 0 82 2 0 65 0 69 0 65 0 66 Index 5 0 83 0 85 0.82 0 86

1/ Conifer forest formation consists of mlxed conifer, red fir, lodgepole pine, and eastside pine habitat types

2/ Successional stages indicate dominate tree size classes 1) seedling, 2) saplings, 3) poles and small sawtimber, and 4) medmm and large sawtimber, including old growth.

Table 4-18 b

Vegetation Diversity by Alternative

b. Chaparral and Sagebrush Formations 3/

Age Class Alternative (years) Base Year 1982 Decade PRF CUR EGP TGP

0-20 8 1 17 21 17 17 5 34 21 34 34

20-40 9 1 14 10 14 14 5 2 14 4 4

40+ 83 69 69 69 69 62 65 62 62

Diversity 0 52 0 76 0 74 0 76 0 76 Index 0 72 0.80 0 72 0 72

3/ Chaparral and sagebrush formations consist of sagebrush, bitterbrush, wedgeleafceanothus, andmanzanita types

~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~

4-88 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences negatively. mmber harvest reduces old growth. have been developed from research results, as Harvesting also changes (but does not necessax- well as from practical on-the-ground experience ily reduce) biologxal diversity of both plants and on what is effective. Monitonng will also be used animals existing on the Forest Effects on these to determme the effectiveness of mitigation mea- two environmental components (old growth and sures. biologcal diversity) can be cumulative; effects are hscussed in detail in the Vegetation and Dispersmg harvest units reduces effects on wa- Diversity section of this Chapter. tershed, wildlife populations and habitat, and scenery. Dispersal can increase windthrow be- Also see the Air Quality, Cultural Resources, cause it increases the amount of edge per unit Fish, Forest Health, Recreation, Soils, Visual area Resources, Water and Riparian, and Wildlife sections of this Chapter. A vanety of different species and ages of vegeta- tion for wildlfe, fish, soil and watershed re- c. Cumulative Effects sources will be provlded on the Forest at all times through planting, seeding, and encouragingnatu- Cumulative effects of timber harvest on other ral regeneration. Health and stand vlgor would envlronmental components are discussed under be improved through encouragmg species diver- those relevant headings mentioned above In sification in all management practices summary, the cumulative effects of the alterna- tives on timber relate pnmanly to social and Prescribed burning, and other forms of site prepa- economcissues and are discussedin detail in the ration and vegetative management, will be Economic and Social sections of this Chapter. planned to limit the intensity oftreatment This The cumulative effects on timber per se are helps to preserve the ability of the plant commu- reflected in projections of productivlty and com- nity to return to the desired ecologxal diversity position offuture stands, which have been calcu- through normal succession in the years after lated as current and future volume available for harvest. harvest(i e long-termsustainedyleldand ASQ) It is assumed that application of proper silvicul- The Forest Plan includes a monitoring strategy tural systems, including specific cultural treat- to evaluate how well the standard for diversity is ments such as thinning and planting with ge- being met. netically improved seedlings, will increase fu- ture productivity of forest stands. Planting would increase biomass production and shorten the time trees are absent Bare soil d. Mitigation Measures would be held in place by litter layers and new hve root masses Created openings would be Mitigation measures are designed to protect or reforested more qluckly than if left to natural enhance forest resources Management activi- regeneration ties in all alternatives will be governed by For- est-wide Standards and Gludelines which m- In many cases, it is possible to save advanced clude management reqmrements and Best Man- regeneration on sites where clearcutting, group agement Practices. Direction provided in the cutting, and shelterwood cutting is implemented management areas is another source of mitiga- The size of the advanced regeneration ranges tion measure description. from seedlings to poles The number of trees left vanes due to the following factors The effectiveness of any mitigation measure will depend on a complex vanety of site-specific con- thriftiness of regeneration; ditions The conditions and resultant impacts are analyzed dunng project level planning in an actual number oftrees in the understory; environmental analysis. Project planners and appropnate line managers will select the com- slope, binahon of mhgahon measures wlucb best address the nature and degree of risk of the impacts from number of larger trees harvested (log- the specific project Most mitigation techniques gng damage).

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-89 Acceptable stocking levels would be achieved ofmajorfires, but to a lesser degreethan clearcut- within five years of regeneration harvest Natu- ting. Any activlty taking place on a timber sale ral regeneration, wlnch is dependent on periodic area would be covered in the timher sale con- seed crops, cannot always be assured within five tract, which would include requirements for years Where natural regeneration is the pre- equipment and operating procedures that re- ferred method, adequate stoclung would, in most duce the potential for fire. These precautionary cases, occurwithinfiveyears. Itwouldalwayshe measures would be used in each alternative. In followed by continued efforts to achieve mini- spite of these measures, some fires would prob- mum stoclung, assummg the full range of man- ably escape, hut there would not be any si@- agement tools are available. cant change from histonc levels. Snags and logs left for wildlife should provide at PRF Alternative least minimum amounts of nutrients for recy- cling through the soil to replace harvested and This alternative would harvest about 96 milhon burned vegetation. Down logs are a component board feet per year. The alternative would re- of stable ecosystems and contnbute to long-term generate26,OOOacresindecadeIbyclearcut and productivlty shelterwood methods and 5,000 acres by the group selection method. During the 16-decade Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive plant planning honzon, timber would be harvested and animal species would he protected from from about 596,341 smtable acres, which is 77 degradation. Biologwal evaluations will deter- percent of the tentatively suitable timber land mine presence, location, amount, and extent of About 43 percent of this sutable land would Sensitive species. %s information will be used receive full timber management, 15percentwould in the decision-making process for every man- receive moddied timber management, and 42 agement activity. Project design would consider percent would receive only limited timber man- speciesviability for all Threatened, Endangered, agement and Sensitive species. About 8,200 acres of the lodgepole pine timber Even-aged management is the predomnant sil- type would he managed for firewood production vicultural strategy on the Lassen National For- rather than sawtimber production. Firewood est for three of four alternatives. Spatial distri- harvests would remove mdividualtrees or groups bution of units mll, over time, develop a mosiuc ranging from 1 to 40 acres. These stands would of age classes and heterogeneous fuel profiles be regenerated with lodgepole pine or a mixture that wll be more resistant to the spread of major of species. wildfires than would a homogeneous arrange- ment. Interlocking crowns, large accumulations During the planning horizon, the following fac- ofsurfacefuels, andunderstoryvegetation, would tors would affect the timber resource: (1) the be broken up by areas with relatively low flam- View/Timber Prescription is applied to 168,000 mability. Fire suppression effectiveness would acres of land. Less intensive management be increased as a result of discontinuous fuel through individual tree or small group selection profiles and improved access. would be required on these lands. The time interval for harvesting adjacent timber stands Units would remain relatively fire-resistant un- would be extended from 15 to 25 years; (2) til silvicultural achvities, such asprecommercial maintaimng40 spotted owl temtones, one Habi- thnning, begin to contribute to the buildup of tatConservationArea(HCA), 19martenandfive fine fuels. Plantations often shade old logging fisher management areas would allocate about slash, presentmg a hazardous fuel complex. The 98,000 acres of timber land to a no scheduled potential rate of spread mll drop sharply and timber harvest prescnption; (3) managingripar- then start to increase again after each thinning ian zones under hmited timber management operation and fuel treatment. would extend rotations to 400 years and affect 28,000 acres; (4) managing old growth retention Harvest cutting methods such as shelterwood, areas and goshawk territones would extend ro- single-tree selection, and group selection also tations to at least 200 years and affect 20,300 mod& vegetation. This serves to reduce spread acres.

4-90 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences CUR Alternative ment through individual tree or small group selection, and by extending the time interval for This alternative would harvest about 171mllion harvesting adjacent timber stands from 15 to 25 board feet per year, the highest among all alter- years, (2) scheduling no timber harvest on 1,650 natives It would regenerate 59,000 acres in acres in each of40 spotted owl temtones and one decade 1by clearcut and shelterwood methods HCA, as well as in marten and fisher habitat, By decade 5, a projected one-third of all poorly- would affect about 98,000 acres of smtable tim- stocked stands and two-thirds of all well-stocked ber land, (3) limited timber management in n- stands would be regenerated Dunng the 16- panan areas would extend rotations to 400 years decade planning honzon, this alternative would and affect some 28,000 acres, (4) managmg old harvest timber from about 744,577 sultable acres, growth retention and goshawk terntones would which is 97 percent of the tentatively suitable extend rotations to at least 200 years and affect lands About 53 percent of this sultable land 20,300 acres would receive full timber management, 20 per- cent would receive modified timber management, About 8,200 acres of the lodgepole pine timber and 27 percent would receive only limted timber type would be managed for firewood production management rather than timber production. Firewood har- vesting would remove indindual trees rangmg Dunng the planning honzon, the follomng fac- from 1to 40 acres. The stands would be regener- tors would affect the hber resource: (1) the ated mth lodgepole pine or a nuxture of species ViewiTimber Prescription would affect 111,000 acres of land by requmngless intensive manage- TGP Alternative ment through individual tree or small group selection, and by extending the time interval for This alternative would harvest about 118 million harvesting adjacent timber stands from 15 to 25 board feet per year. It would regenerate 35,000 years; (2)maintairung39 spotted owl terntones, acres in decade 1 by clearcut and shelterwood one HCA, 19marten, and five fisher areas would methods, and 10,400 acres by the group selection allocate 96,000 to no scheduled or limited timber method. Dunng the 16-decade planning hon- harvest prescnptions; (3) limited timber man- zon, this alternative would harvest timber from agement 111 npanan areas would extend rota- about 633,796 suitable acres, which is 82 percent tions to 400 years and affect 31,000 acres ofthe tentatively suitable timber land About 45 percent of this sultable land would receive full EGP Alternative timber management; 18 percent would receive modified timber management, and only 37 per- This alternative would harvest about 94 million cent would receive limited timber management. board feet per year, reflecting the emphasis on a broad array of resource outputs It would regen- Dunng the planning honzon, the following fac- erate 31,000 acres in decade 1 by the group tors would affect the timber resource: (1) the selection method. During the 16-decade plan- ViewiTimber Prescription is applied to 146,000 ning horizon, timber would be harvested from acres ofland Less intensive management would about 585,881 suitable acres, which is 76 percent be required on these acres and the time interval ofthe tentatively suitable timber land About 48 for harvesting adjacent timber stands would be percent of this suitable land would receive full extendedfrom 15to25years, (2) mantaming40 timber management; 8 percent would receive spotted owl territories, one HCA, 19 marten and modified timber management; and about 44 per- four fisher management areas to no scheduled cent would receive only limited timber manage- timber harvest would affect 98,000 acres; (3) ment limited timber management in ripanan areas would extend rotations to 400 years and affect Dunng the planning honzon, the follomng fac- 35,000 acres of suitable timberland; (4) manag- tors would affect the timber resource (1) the ing old growth retention areas and goshawk ViewPTimber Prescnption would affect 127,000 temtones would extend rotations to at least 200 acres of land by requinng less intensive manage- years and affect 20,300 acres

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-9 1 20. VEGETATION AND life or fishenes habitat, the stands are valuable DlVERSJTY as recreation areas For instance large, old trees provide shade and are vlsually pleasing on hik- ing trails Old growth stands also have value in Introduction maintaining soil productivity due to the large amount of organic matter left to decompose and This planning issue covers how the Forest’s veg- enrich the soil, which also maintains high water etation resources should be managed through quality by reducing erosion. time, and how vegetation and wldlife diversity should be provided while continuing other re- Old growth is included in successional stage “4”. source outputs. Diversity is the vanation m This successional stage serves as a useful indica- vegetation, and thus habitat, that exists m the tor of the relative number of acres of mature Forest. It may be described as the richness, stands in each of the altematives. Old growth evenness, and pattern exhibited among habitat acreages are discussed under Habitat Stage Di- types, habitat stages, and special habitat ele- versityandaredisplayedinTable4-18.Whenan ments (snags, down wood, hardwoods, etc In increase in successional stage “4” acres is pro- this discussion, diversity is addressed at four jected, it is worth noting that many of the ad&- different levels: 1) Habitat Type Diuersity-- tional acres wll not have old growth character- the relative amounts ofvarious habitat types; 2) istics intially (such as decadence and age). Me- Habitat Stage Diversity-the distribution of each hum sawtimber (successional stage “3”) that habitat type within various age, size, and canopy grows into large sawtimber stands would still cover classes; 3) Within-Stand Diversity--the require additional time to acquire all of the species composition and abundance of special charactenstics associated with old growth. habitat elements within individual habitat stages; and 4) Pattern-the sizes and juxtaposi- Forest-mde Standards and Guidehnes provide tion of habitat stages. These four components of that at least five percent of the acreage of each diversity are discussed separately below vegetative type and seral stage be mamtained in each management area It was assumed that An important element of the diversity issue is sufficient acres would exist in the early seral the amount of old growth that would remain stages wthout designatmg spedc areas. How- under the various alternatives. Late seral forest ever, late successional stands are most at risk stages are important to the many old growth from intensive timber management and have, dependent species of animals and plants. With a therefore, been identified in each management general reduction of old growth forests in the area. Pacific States, habitat for these species is de- creasing and some species have become endan- Late successional stands needed to meet the five gered. The Forest Service is directed to provide percent diversity minimum were modeled for for diversity in terms of distribution and abun- FORPLAN analysis with the following consider- dance ofall &fferent plant and animal communi- ations: The stands contain relatively large trees ties. The National Forest Management Act of (greater than 24 inches, timber size class 4,5, or 1976 states through the implementing regula- 6) mth moderate to high cover (greater than 40 tions found in 36 CFR 219.26,”Forest planning percent crown cover, cover class N or Q. If shall provide for druersity of plant and animal stands meeting these requirements were not communitzes and tree species consistent with the present in the management area, then the “next overall multiple-use objectives of the planning best” stands were chosen, with the assumption area. ” that they will develop old growth characteristics over time Tentative old growth retention areas Old growth stands are important for maintain- were identified for this modeling Old growth mg biological diversity of plant and anmal com- retention areas will be vedied for each manage- munities, and genetic vanability within species, ment area as part of the enwonmental analysis all of which may be useful to present or future of proposed projects. generations as a chemical or genetic reservoir for medicines, food products, or other commodities. All stands meeting these requirements found in In addition to old growth values for plant, mld- wlderness areas, SOHA’S, furbearer habitat,

4-92 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences goshawk temtones, Special Interest Areas, pro- Habitat Stage Diversity Table 4-18 (page 4- posed Wild and Scenic Rivers or other reserved 88) summanzes the forest and shrub habitat areas were counted first toward meeting the stage component of vegetation diversity, specifi- seral stage diversity acreage figure for the man- cally, the relative extent of each size and age agement area. Adhtional stands reqmred to class is shown Acreages of the seedling, small meet the five percent mnimum figure were se- sawtimber, and large sawtimber sizes will in- lected based on their proxlmity to reserved areas crease (Table 4-18a) The "Diversity Index" val- or nparian comdors whenever possible. This ues in Table 4-18a show the degree to which the wll reduce fragmentation, facilitate manage- acreages of the vanous stages approach maxi- ment, and provide a logical network of smtable mum diversity-a value of 100, where the acre- habitat and travelways for old growth dependent ages of each stage are identical. Diversity index species. These stands are to be managed under values for forest habitats indicate that all alter- a limited timber management prescnption. Tim- natives are relatively high and fairly similar, ber harvests would be designed to improve habi- and that habitat stage diversity will decrease tat for the species being emphasized, and no initially and then increase over time in all alter- more than five percent of the stanhng volume natives Shrub age class diversity also increases would be removed in any decade. m the planning penod (compared to base year conditions) under all alternatives as a portion of By setting aside stands for old growth retention, the old decadent brush is converted to young other resources w11 be impacted to a greater or brush stands by prescribed burning and other lesser degree The decrease in timber harvest treatments (Table 4-18b). At least a minimum and accompanymg road construction in these amount of old growth conifer habitat would re- stands wll potentially have a positive effect on mam from retention of wlderness, streamside, cultural resources, fishenes, Sensitive plants, semi-pnmitive, spotted owl and furbearer areas, soils, vlsual resources, water quality, and many and old growth retention areas under each alter- wldhfe species by reducing the amount ofground native However, some ofthe old-growth acreage disturbance. However, the reduced timber yleld reported is rocky, sparse timberland that does wll decrease the amount of wood available for not necessarily provlde habitat for species re- biomass and/orsawlogproducts. Effects on range quinng denser old-growth forest forage availability and early seral stage habitat wildlife species are less clear, but outputs for The only other vegetation change common to all these resources wll be somewhat reduced For- alternatives is a projected decline in blue oak est fuels loadings may be significently affected (Quercusdougglaszz) numbers due to natural mor- by old growth management, since an old growth tality and a lack of regeneration. The cause of standischaracterized byrelativelylarge amounts regeneration failure is not well understood, but of standing and fallen dead material, which po- is under study. It is expected that amanagement tentially increases the fire hazard recommendation to resolve this problem w11 be available toward the end of decade 1 All Alternatives Within-Stand Diversity The increase in re- a. Direct and Indirect Effects generation under all alternatives mll result in Forest-wide declines in vertically-diverse timber Habitat Type Diversity Forest activities wll stands, hardwoods, snags, and down logs. How- alter only three of the components of diversity- ever, a certain amount of this type of diversity habitat stage diversity, within stand diversity, wll be mamtained in all stands through use of and pattern. Habitat type diversity is the rela- Forest-wide Standards and Gmdelines intended tive amounts of vanous habitat types on the to insure that vlable populations of all native Forest, such as red fir forest, montane chaparral, species remain in each alternative In particu- dry meadow, etc. Since no maJor habitat type lar, management is used to insure that tree conversions are planned, no significant changes species diversity remains similar to that found in in the amounts of the vanous habitat types the natural stand for the area. For example, would occur under any alternative, thus, the sugar pine has been dechmng in California and habitat type diversity component is not discussed elsewhere because of mortality from the non- further native blister rust fungus The Forest is worlung

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-93 on a program ofidentifylng blister rust resistant Amount ofold growth and mature stands strains of sugar pine for replantmg, to insure harvested; that this species remains a component of mixed conifer stands where it is naturally found. Distnbutionofharvest umts and remam- ing uncut stands; Vegetative diversity is also maintained by man- agement of special areas such aswetlands, npar- Shape of harvest umts and remauung ian zones, wild and scenic mer corridors, lava uncut stands; flows, Research Natural Areas, and Special In- terest Areas. Many of these contam unusual Number and distnbution of roads; vegetative types which are maintained m their natural states, and may contain unusual plant Natural distribution patterns of old speaes, whch increase the species richness as- growth and mature forest. pect of vegetative diversity. These special areas mterspersed with managed forest land also in- Although arrangement and shape of harvest crease spatial drversity, which is desirable for units can be designed to reduce fragmentation, species that prefer ecotones on the edges of dif- the amount of old growth and mature forest ferent habitat types. harvested has a larger effect on the degree of fragmentation. For example, lf70 percent ofthe In addition, a number of management prescnp- old growth and mature forest in a geographic tions would provide for mthn-stand drversity by areais harvestedandconverted to youngstands, maintainmg multi-layered canopies, snags and fragmentation would occur regardless of shape other structural elements, and species' diversity. and distribution of harvest units Shape and The use of modified, limted, or no timber man- distribution of harvest units may be designed in agement mll be applied in vanous amounts a manner that retains corndors and reservoirs of under all alternatives. The total number of acres diversity, but these cannot substitute for lost receiving the Late Successional, Semi-Primitive habitat Motorized and Non-Motonzed, Special Areas, Ripandish, Viewmmber, Wilderness, and Roads are significant contributors to forest frag- Minimum Management Prescnptions serve as mentation. A number of small mammals, indicators of within-stand diversity. am- phibians, and invertebrates will not cross roads. Pattern Maxlmum sizes of regenerated timber Roads also introduce grazmg animals, machn- stands and the length of time between cutting ery, and humans which can be detrimental to adjacent stands are defined in Forest-wide Stan- native plant and animal Epecies. dards and Guidelines. This will maintain a minimum level of spatial diversity in all alterna- Road construction and maintenance is closely tives tied to the timber harvest program. Roads gen- erally are built where harvest occurs, and the Fragmentation is a particular concern. Frag- densityofroadsinagwenareaiscorrelatedwith mented or discontinuous habitat restricts the intensity of harvest in that area abdity of some species to migrate, colonize, re- produce successfully or exchange genes between Differences in pattern among the PRF, EGP and populations. The ecologxal and evolutionary TGP Alternatives would, for the most part, be interactions between species m isolated forest nnnor. The CUR Alternative with its higher stands becomes similar to those in island ecosys- harvest level and reliance on even-aged manage- tems These stands typically have low popula- ment would lead to greater fragmentation of old tion numbers, small habitat area, empty ecosys- growth stands. tem mches, and low genetic variability. Their species and communities are more vulnerable to b. Cumulative Effects catastrophic disturbance, deletenous genetic dnft, and changes in habitat capability. The total numbers ofplant and animal species on the Forest should change httle or not at all as a The degree of fragmentation of old growth and result of the alternatives All alternatives are mature forest is dependent on: expected to mamtain vlable populations of all

4-94 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences plant and animal species Their distnbution and CUR Alternative abundance mll vary according to natural range and location of suitable habitat, and the alterna- Habitat Stage Diversity Stage diversity of coni- tive chosen for the Forest Plan fer types would decline initially in the first two decades and then increase through decade 5 c. Mitigation Measures Large sawtimber and old growth acres would increase to 107 percent ofthe base year in decade Mitigation measures for vegetation and diver- 2, and increase to 132 percent of the 1982 level sity include (162,000 acres) by decade 5 Shrub stage diver- sity would reach a high level in decade 1, and Forest-mde Standards and Guidelines, increase slightly by decade 5

Monitonng of mldhfe and vegetative Within-Stand Diversity This alternative pro- diversity, vides 39 SOHA'S and a relatively low number of acres in prescnptions that would maintain high Federal and State laws, and Forest Ser- within-stand diversity Therefore, few forested vice policies, regarding Threatened, En- areas would exceed minimum standards for dangered and Sensitive species. snags, logs, and hardwoods Vertical foliage diversity would be low in most areas Dependent Current knowledge concerning all the compo- nents necessary for the maintenance of diversity wldllfe would occur in low densities. is inadequate Planmng concepts for pronding diversity may become better developed in the EGP Alternative future Project planning for "landscape" diver- sity (spatial distribution of diversity elements) Habitat Stage Diversity Stage diversity in coni- mll be more frequently employed in the envlron- fer types would decrease initially, but return to mental assessment process for site-specific project the 1982 level by decade 5 Large sawtimber and actinties old growth acres would decline to 79 percent of the 1982 level during decade 2 and increase to PRF Alternative 192 percent (236,000 acres) by decade 5 Shrub age class diversity would be similar to the PRF Habitat Stage Diversity Diversity index values Alternative in Table 4-18 indicate habitat stage diversity for conifer forests would decline from the 1982 base Within-StandDiversity Anetworkof40 SOHA'S year value through decade 2 and then increase is pronded A relatively large number of acres Large sawtimber and old growth acres would are assigned to prescriptions that maintain high decrease to 106,000 acres by decade 2, but by amounts of snags, down wood, mixed plant spe- decade 5 would increase to 243,000 acres, 198 cies, and vertical structural diversity Wildlife percent of the 1982 level In shrub types, diver- dependent on these elements would occur at sity would increase markedly in decade 1 due to moderate population levels continuation of the recently-begun program of prescnbed burning, but would decline slightly by TGP Alternative decade 5 Habitat Stage Diversity Habitat stage diversity Within-Stand Diversity This alternative has 40 for conifer forests would decline initially in the SOHA'S and a relatively large number of acres first two decades, then increase through decade assigned to prescnptions that maintain high 5. Large sawtimber and old growth habitat amounts of snags, down wood, mixed plant spe- would decrease to 89 percent of base year in cies, and vertical structural diversity. Wildlife decade 2, and then increase to 185 percent dependent on these elements would occur at (228,000 acres) by decade 5 Shrub stage diver- moderate population levels sity would be similar to the PRF Alternative

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-95 Wtthzn-Stand Dzversity This alternative has 40 design mll consider nsual resources under any SOHA's and a moderate number of acres as- alternative, so that such habitat improvements signed to prescriptions that maintain high mll appear natural. amounts of snags, down wood, mixed plant spe- cies, and vertical structural diversity. Wildlife Effects from Vegetation-Range Manage- dependent on these elements would occur at ment Heavy grazing by livestock results 111 a moderate population levels. generally altered landscape appearance. Struc- tural improvements, especially fences, may be vlsuallyevldent, and coulddetrad from thenatu- ral landscape. Generally, improvements are 21. VISUAI, RESOURCES small and localized, and they have a minor effect on the scenic quality of the surrounding area. Introduction There is little difference among the alternatives in amount of grazing use proposed. Effects on scenic quality are measured by the degree ofchange from the natural condition of an Effects from Timber Management Timber area. Alandscape may appear natural or heady harvest can impact vlsual quality because the altered depenhng on the extent of the manage- removal of trees creates strong visual contrasts ment actmties in the area. of line, form, color, and texture when compared to naturallandscapes. Theseimpacts are ofmost The most significant effects on the visual re- concern when seen from primary and secondary sources are from vegetation and landform alter- travel routes and visitor destinations. View- ations typically associated mth resource man- sheds seen from such areas are classified as agement activities such as timber harvest, road havlng sensitivity levels one or two. Alteration construchon,recreation faahty development, and of undisturbed landscapes by timber harvest mineral exploration and development. may be considered negative even if the VQO is met, because the existing nsual conditions will Visual quality objectives (VQOs) have been es- be changed. In general, the visual effects of tablished across the Forest based on the Na- timber management are more acceptable where tional Forest Visual Management System (VMS). there is existing disturbance to the natural land- The VMS process is bnefly discussed in Chapter scape than in places where no change in natural 3. TheseVQOs are descnbed as follows: Preser- scenery has occurred. nmber management may uatron, which allows management activities that also be used to improve visual quality, particu- are not obvious to the casual observer; Reten- larly where there are opportunities to rehabili- tion, which has management activlties that are tate unacceptable modification of the landscape noticeable, but do not dominate the landscape; or to remove unwanted view-screening vegeta- Partial Retentzon, which has changes that are tion. noticeable, but do not attract attention; Mod@ cation, where management activities are obvi- The visual management system mll be used in ous, but blend in mth the surrounding land- the design and layout of timber harvest units, scape; and Maximum Modificataon where man- regardless of alternative. Projects will be de- agement actinties are obvious and dominate the signed to meet visual quality objectives. How- landscape ever, the existmg visual condition (EVC) of the Forest would differ by alternative. The CUR Effects on visual resources from other manage- Alternative has the greatest number of acres ment activities are descnbed below proposed for timber management, predominately with even-aged methods. Effects on the visual a. Direct and Indirect Effects quality mll behighest with CUR and proportion- ally lower with TGP, PRF and EGP Effects from Wildliie and Fisheries Man- agement Some habitat improvement projects, Effects from Minerals and Energy Develop- such as prescribed burns and aspen regenera- ment Mmeral or energy exploration and subse- tion cuts, could change the short-term character quent development could have an effect on visual of the landscape in some local areas Project resources in any alternative Although efforts

4-96 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences will be made to reduce the vlsual effect of miner- b. Cumulative Effects als activity, the nature of developments is such that Visual Quality Objectives may be difficult to Forest Standards and Guidelines for visual re- meet In some cases, VQOs would likely not be source management would apply to any alterna- met over the short term, although long-term tive Although each alternative would result in mitigation through effective siting and other a change in EVC level in some areas, the overall measures could result in VQOs bemg attained vlsual character of the Forest would not change Existing mneral nghts would be honored Spe- cial stipulations to protect surface resources greatly dunng the first decade. Dunng the 50- would apply in all alternatives The CUR and year planning penod, significant changes in EVC TGP Alternatives have the greatest potential for could result from road construction and timber mneral and energy activities to affect vlsual management Special Consideration would con- quahty PRF and EGP recommend more acres tinue to be given to areas that are visible from for mineral wthdrawal and, therefore, have less sensitive travel routes Factors such as visual potential of adversely impacting vlsual quality sensitivlty, scenic quality, and distance from from exploration or development vlewers would continue to be used to direct project design Effects from Utilities Development Utility comdors are long, mde, and usually straight The EVC level would be most likely to change clearings mth high contrast to natural land- from natural to more altered landscapes under scapes Corndors on the Forest are few and will the CUR and TGP Alternatives A larger part of not change by alternative, but their impacts are the Forest would be managed to meet VQO's of severe and persistent Under all alternatives, it Modification and Mmmum Modification Vi- is possible that vlsual quality would be damaged sual management would emphasize timber sale by placement of new utilities, or replacement and other project design to meet vlsual quality and improvement of emsting ones. objectives. Efforts to mitigate potential negative effects on scenic quahty would increase. More EffectsfromRoads Roads create a dominating areas of the Forest would remain in natural vlsual contrast on steeper slopes. Cuts and fills accentuate that contrast. The alternatives that landscapes in the PRF and EGP Alternatives, provlde for construction of more roads in unde- andmoreareas wouldbemanaged tomeetVQOs veloped areas have the greatest potential to of Retention and Partial Retention The EGP change exlsting vlsual conditions. The CUR and Alternative would maintain scenic values over TGPAlternatives would have the most impact on most of the Forest wth its emphasis on uneven- visual quality from road construction, because aged management they bmld more roads On pnvate lands a&oining the Forest, timber Effects from Trails On some trails, current harvest has occurred and wll continue Pnvate levels of trail mamtenance are not sufficient to land owners are not expected to change their protect soil and stream banks, and there are land management activities, therefore, there vlsual effects associated mth erosion and dam- may be cumulative adverse impacts on Forest age to stream crossings The PRF and EGP viewsheds where the pnvate lands are seen from Alternatives provlde the greatest emphasis on campgrounds, communities, and pnmary travel trad construction and reconstruction Under routes. these alternatives, the vlsual effect of trails in poor condition would be reduced Visual effects would be greater under CUR and TGP which call c. Mitigation Measures for less trail construction and reconstruction. Mitigation in all alternatives would occur dunng Effects from Fire Under all alternatives, wild- Forest Plan implementation and project design fire could alter the character of the landscape. stages Standards and Guidelines in the Forest Prescnbed burn plans for other resource man- Plan and the Forest Semce Handbook senes on agement activlties would include consideration visual resource management would guide miti- of vlsual resources to blend bums in with the gation efforts. Examples ofmitigation that would natural landscape commonly be used include

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-97 Clcarcut units can be positioned so they The effects of mitigation include increased costs hlend into the landscape Roads can be to resource developers and permit holders, po- designed to limit their visual effect on tential loss of revenues to federal and State the landscape governments, increased levels and costs of For- est Service administration, and potential incon- Intensities of management actinties can venience for visitors who are trymg to reach or bc rcduccd so they are evident, without use parts of the Forest. dominating the landscape Alternatives Unattractive views can be softened by AU feathenng the edges of harvest units, maintaining vegetative corridors be- Forest Standards and Guidelines for visual re- tween units and planting vegetation. sources require that the highest possible visual quality be maintained throughout the Forest, Viewshed management plans can he de- commensurate with other resource needs. In all veloped and implemented that will pro- alternatives, campgrounds will retain a natural tect, enhance andlor perpetuate the sce- looking appearance in the foreground distance nic values of an area. zone. The existing wilderness areas (Canbou, Thousand Lakes, and Ishi), amounting to 78,060 Uneven-aged timber management can acres, mll retain their completely natural ap- he implemented to retain a relatively pearance. The Eagle Lake backdrop is protected unbroken canopy and diversity in sizes in all alternatives by meeting InventonedVQO’s, of trees in an area resulting in a natural-appeanng landscape as viewed from the lake and its shoreline. All Harvest unit size can be reduced to lessen alternatives will meet at least Partial Retention the visual impact to an area. Residue in foreground and middleground along State from timber harvests can be eliminated Highways 299 and 89, as part of the Pacific through various slash disposal tech- Southwest Region’s Minimum Implementation niques and fuelwood gathering Requirements (See Appendm B )

Low VAC areas can be avoided VAC Full timber management is restncted by VQO (Visual Absorption Capability) is the requirements in Presenration, Retention and ability of the landscape to absorb modifi- Partial Retention areas This results in less cations and retain its aesthetic qualities Landscape areas that show change more volume being available to contribute towards the than others (e.g., open meadows or allowable sale quantity for all the alternatives ndgetops) can be avoided when design- Timber stands are managed at less than their ing activities such as roads or harvest full potential. On the other hand, Retention and units Partial Retention areas can often provlde suit- able wildlife habitat or travel corndors for spe- Many other design techniques can be utilized to cies that requre stands with more dense canopy mitigate visual impacts of management activi- cover and structural diversity. Soil erosion and ties. These are descnbed in the National Forest compaction would be less in stands that are only Landscape Management Series (USDA, Vol 2, partially cut to maintain VQOs A protective Chapter 6,1973-1985). vegetative cover will reduce the likelihood of stream sedimentation with its accompanyng Other management prescriptions will mitigate effects on water quality and fish habitat. There the effects of land disturbing actinties by main- is less impact on recreational opportunities and taimng the natural appearance of the landscape user expenences in areas managed nnth a VQO These include the: Wilderness, Special Areas, of Retention or Partial Retention. Management Semi-Pnmitive Non-Motorized, Semi-Primitive actinties areblendedmth the surroundmgland- Motonzed, Old GrowtWGoshawk, Late Succes- scape to reduce sharp contrasts in line, form, sional, RipananiFish, and Rocky/Sparse Pre- color and texture This is generally more pleas- scnptions. ing to the Forest vlsitor.

4-98 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Each alternative allows varymg levels of alter- several sem-pnmitive non-motonzed areas, eight nation within the landscape These levels of Research Natural Areas and seven Special Inter- change are represented by the Visual Quality est Areas would provlde 164,600 acres of com- ObJeCtiVeS of each alternative. Management pletely natural-appearing landscape Several prescriptions can also be used as a measure of other areas with high scenic values would be Visual Quality Objectives Alternatives can then managed to retain their natural appearingland- be compared by their respective VQOs and man- scapes such as proposed Wild and Scenic River agementprescnptions. For example, the nmber comdors. (T) Prescnption represents a VQO of Modifica- tion or Manmum Modification because full tim- As landscapes in the general forest area become ber management wl1 occur on these lands The increasingly modified, those Forest visitors seek- Viewmimber (VI Prescnption is generally com- ing naturally-appeanng landscapes will have patible with a VQO of Retention or Partial Re- more opportunities than under the CUR and tention, as only modified timber management is TGP Alternatives, but slightly less than the EGP permitted In some cases, constraints imposed Alternative Overcrowding of naturally-appear- by a management prescnption could place an ing areas due to population growth and increased area in a higher VQO than its present designa- vlsitor use is less likely to occur in this alterna- tion These constrants may allow less alteration tive than under the CUR or TGP Alternatives, of the landscape than the VQO but more likely than the EGP Alternative PRF Alternative CUR Alternative

This alternative would meet Preservation or The CUR Alternative would meet Preservation Retention on 365,500 acres (32 percent) of or Retention on 283,000 acres (25 percent of the 1,129,585 total Forest acres There would be Forest.) There would be 318,800 acres in Partial approxlmately 454,200 acres of Partial Reten- Retention and an average of 528,600 acres of tion and 309,900 acres of Modification or Maxi- Modification or Maximum Modification Visual mum Modfication Visual Quality ObJeCtiVeS. Quahty ObJeCtiVeS Mo&fication and Maximum Modification and Maximum Modification Visual Modification VQOs represent an increase of Quality Objectives represent a decrease of 105,200 acres from 1982. The overall visual 113,500 acres from 1982. quality that would result is below the midpoint of all alternatives Along all State highways, county paved roads, and other key roads and trails, the foreground Along most State highways, foreground distance would appear natural to the travelmg public, the zones would appear natural to the traveling middleground would appear slightly modified. public; mddleground would appear slightlymodi- The background would be dominated by obvlous fied Background areas would be dominated by alterations to the landscape, primarily due to obvlous alterations to the landscape, pnmarily timber harvesting and road building For other from timber harvesting and road construction primary and secondary travel routes, foreground For other primary and secondary travel routes, zones would appear almost natural to partially foreground zones would appear almost natural modified(wth minorevldenceofhuman changes) to partially modified, wth minor evidence of Middleground and background areas would ap- human changes Middleground and background pear to be dominated by obvious landscape alter- areas would be dominated by obvious landscape ations alterations.

Most vlsually-sensitive foreground zones would While most visually sensitive foreground zones retain a natural appearance, many mews that would retain a natural appearance, many views extend into middleground and background would into middleground and background would be be visually dominated by timber harvests visually dominated by timber harvests No new areas would be designated for wlderness or Two designated wilderness areas, four proposed semi-pnmitive recreation, Research Natural wldernesses (Heart Lake, Mill Creek, Trail Lake Areas or Special Interest Areas Therefore, no B, and part ofwild Cattle Mountain), along with additional areas would be retained for completely

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-99 natural-appeanng landscapes. Most of the gen- acres from 1982 The overall vlsual quality is eral forest would appearpartiallymodifie& about slightly lower than the PRF Alternative 12 perccnt would appear dominated by land disturbing activlties such as timber harvest. The visual comdors of State Highways 32, 36, 44, 89, and 299 would appear natural. Views EGP Alternative from other pnmary and secondary travel routes and recreation use areas would vary from natu- This alternative would meet Preservation or ral appearing to modified. Most of the general Retention on 392,600 acres (35 percent) of the Forest area would appear partially modified; Forest There would be 457,000 acres in Partial about 4 percent of the general Forest would Retention, and approxlmately 280,000 acres of appear dominated by management activities. Modification Visual Quality Objectives The ModificatiodMwmum Mohfication VQO indi- As landscapes away from the major roads be- cates a decrease of 143,400 acres from 1982 This come increasingly modified, those forest vlsitors alternative has the most acres in the Preserva- seekingnaturally -appearing landscapes will tend tion VQO due to the highest amount of proposed to concentrate in designated wilderness, areas wilderness The overall vlsual quality that would managed for spotted owl, marten, fisher, and result is the highest of all alternatives, due to the goshawk habitat, and other areas mth special reliance on group selection harvests designations that preclude or linut timber har- vesting No additional unlderness would be rec- Along State Highways, the foreground and ommended wlth this alternative No acres would middleground view comdors would appear natu- be managed for semi-pnnutive non-motonzed ral to travelers Background areas seen from recreation settings. As the populationgrows and these highways wouldvary from natural appear- vlsitor use increases, overcrowding may occur ing to partially modified Other hgh use roads, recreation areas, lakes, and National Recreation d. Visual Resource Indicators and Scenic trails would appear natural in fore- grounds and slightly modified in middleground Visual Quality Index Visual quality index and background. Views from the remaining (VQI) is a measure used to compare the impacts secondary roads and use areas would vary from of the alternatives on vlsual resources relative to natural appearing to slightly modified the exlsting vlsual condition. Figure 4-2 illus- trates the estimated change in vlsual conhtion As landscapes in the general forest areas become over time. The assumption is made that by increasingly modified, vlsitors seekingnaturally- decade 5 the vlsual condition that is represented appeanng landscapes wlll have more options by theVQI mll equal the Adopted Visual Quality available to them than under the other alterna- Objectives. Also refer to Chapter 2 for a discus- tives Additional mlderness areas wlll be desig- sion on the impacts of alternatives on visual nated; Wild and Scenic Rwer corndors will be quality established alongMill, Deer and Antelope Creeks; and adhtional acres would be managed for semi- Visual Rehabilitation Needs The existing pnmitive non-motorized recreation Areas man- vlsual condition of some areas on the Forest aged for spotted owl, marten, fisher, and gos- would not meet the Visual Quality Objectives hawk habitat would also provide naturally-ap- proposed in the alternatives As a result, vlsual pearing landscapes. rehabilitation is needed to bnng those areas into conformance mth the proposed VQO's Reha- TGP Alternative bilitation would take the form of natural vegeta- tive growth or it could requre active measures This alternative would meet Preservation or The number of acres not meetmg visual quality Retention on 325,900 acres (29 percent) of the objectives of each alternative is illustrated in Forest. There would be 479,700 acres in Partial Figure 4-3 Retention and approxlmately 324,000 acres of Modification and Maximum Modification Visual Future Visual Condition Table 4-19 shows Quality Objectives Modification and Maximum the Future Visual Condition (FVC)expected to Modification VQOs show a decrease of 99,400 result from each alternative by decade 5. It

4- 100 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences _. -~ Figure 4-2

Visual Quality Index (VQI), Decade 5

Maximuin Possible Exnting Visual -Condition, 1980 Inventoried Visual Quality ObJeCtives, 1979

- - Minimum Posslble

T 1 PFW CUR EGP

rl rl

- PRF CUR EGP TGP

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-101 Pable 4-19 Pcres of Existing and Future Visual Conditions By Variety Class and by Uternative in Decade 5 (Thousands of Acres) Vote. Future Visual Condition (FVC) is assumed to be the same as the alternatives' Visual auality Objectives by decade 5. Inventoned Enstine Alternative Conditio Class b/ M M -nd g,alitv Condition Obiective e/ (1982) -dl -PRF -EGP __TGP I/P A 17 4 62 7 36 2 20 9 46.8 22.3 B 54 3 147 2 59.1 47 0 62.9 49 1 C 27 5 72.5 15 9 13 6 24.7 15 9 WR A 77 5 45 9 63 6 68 5 25.8 50 1 B 88 7 471.7 165 3 122 9 142 0 145 6 C 0.0 137.6 25.4 10.1 90.4 42.9 IIWR A 20 8 89 40.8 28 6 13 7 52 e B 310 0 109 6 304.4 206 7 338.2 278 3 C 110 0 28.3 109 0 82 7 105.1 148.6 N/M A 0.0 28 0.0 79 0.0 oa B 231.7 21 9 160 1 303 7 168.0 218 7 C 73.8 92 94 0 82 7 112 0 65 3 V/MM A 0.0 3 0.0 00 0.0 oa B 0.0 31 0.0 00 00 oa C 117.9 39 55 8 134 3 0.0 40 a vI/uM A 0.0 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.c B 0.0 4.0 00 0.0 0.0 0.c C 0.0 00 00 0.0 00 0.c d The six Visual Condition levels measure degrees of human-caused alteration of the landscape. They lndicate levels of alteration ranging from untouched, pristine lands :Visual Condtion I) to extremely altered, unnatural landscapes (Visual VI). See Figures 3-20 md 3-21 Beside the Visual Condition number is a letter designating the equivalent Visual Quality Objective as follows: P for Preservation, R for Retention, PR for Partial Retenixon. M For Modfication, MM for Maximum Modificahon, and UM for Unacceptable Modification b/ The three Variety Classes mdicate the natural scenic quality of landscapes. Variety Class A refers to highly scemc, distinchve areas, Variety Class B is assoclated with common or typical landscapes; and Variety Class C corresponds to dull, monotonous landscapes d Inventoned Visual Quality Objectives are denved from an inventory system that does not g-enerate any Preservation acres unless the land has been or is awaiting classification as wilderness, Research Natural Areas, etc The imtial VQO is the result of an inventory process and sets prehnunary goals on predicted acceptable amounts of landscape alteration pnor to the consideration of other resource values.

d/ The Existing Visual Con&tion is a baseline measure of the current level of visual quality on the Forest (inventory completed in 1982) It is &splayed here to allow mmpanson of current condrixons to the Future Visual Conditions that would be generated by each altemative in order to show how eonditions d change.

~ ~ ~~ 4-102 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences shows the predicted distnbution of acreage for exposure to wnd and evaporation. Both effects each FVC subdivlded by vanety class By decade could alter the yield and timing of runoff 5, vlsual condition is expected to reach the same level as the Adopted Visual Quality objectives Two types of water yleld are predicted in the for each alternative. The Inventoned Visual Forest’s FORPLAN analysis “Total water” is the Quality Objectives (IVQOs)and ExistiigVisual total annual runoff from Forest lands and is Condition (EVC) are shown on the left side ofthe altered by timber harvesting and by prescnbed table to allow for compansons. In ths way one fire in brushlands. Some unnter high flows often can compare how altered the land would look “spill”past hydroelectnc and imgation company under each alternative (FVC)compared to how it &versions unthout being used “Use-season wa- presently looks (EVC). ter” is the portion flowmg during the imgation season to downstream agncultural areas and is Predictions of Future Visual Conditions are in affectedpnmanly by vegetationremoval in snow- large part based on the percentage of land to be pack areas. “Use-season water” has a higher harvested each decade since- timber harvests market value than water that flows off in the generate the most vlsual impacts of any manage- mnter months because it can be fully used to ment actinty By decade 5, the overall vlsual generate power and for irrigation In the discus- conmtion is expected to reach a steady state as sion of each alternative below, changes in water the regrowth of harvest units balances the ef- ylelds are compared agamst the estimated 1982 fects of new harvesting. base year ylelds.

Water Quality Water quality is directly af- 22. WATERAND fected by Forest land conditions and is an mdica- tor of general Forest health. This impact analy- RIPARIANAREAS sis of the alternatives considers three aspects of water quality. the land condition, the expected Water water yield meeting State water quality objec- tives, and the potential for water yield to devlate The planning issues for water deal with both from these objectives. Land condition is esti- water quantity (yleld) and water quakty, includ- mated by a Forest-unde Land Disturbance Index ing cumulative watershed impacts, water alloca- (LDI) The LDI is an estimate of the “eqruvalent tions in dry areas, effects on pothole lakes, hy- roaded acres” created by an alternative. LDI is droelectnc generation effects, and protection of used to compare the Forest-wide effects of alter- riparian areas Water is a basic resource that natives because it expresses the disturbance has high economicvalue for domestic, power, and created by management activities such as tim- mgahon uses It also benefits other ~‘esources, ber harvesting, road building, and fire Each including timber, range, fishenes, vlsual qual- activity is assigned an “eqruvalent roaded acres” ity, and recreation. Any activlty that disturbs (ERA) value, which is a per-acre disturbance the land surface or alters vegetation could affect value relative to the maximum possible distur- water quality and nparian resources. Manage- bance (defined as that created by one acre of ment alternatives could affect water resources recently constructed road). The ERA’S of all by influencing water ylelds and timing, changing activities are summed and added to the ERA water quality, and causing adverse cumulative total from the exlsting Forest road system to give watershed impacts. Each is discussed below the total LDI for an alternative The LDI model accounts for healing of harvested stands and Water Yield and Timing Vegetation affects prescnbed burn areas. The method used to water yield and timing directly by evapo- calculate LDI is described in the Forest Planning transpiration (plant use) and indirectly by influ- Records. Figure 4-4 shows the components that encing the timing of snowpack melting. Removal add up to form the LDI for the PRF alternative of vegetation by timber harvest, road construc- tion, or fire reduces evapotranspiration and thus Because the Forest lacks detailed information on increases total water yleld. Removal of vegeta- the current amount of land disturbance, no di- tive cover in areas with snowpack can increase rect compansons of alternatives with the 1982 snowmelt, due to loss of shade and increased base year are possible. For the purposes of this

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-103 analysis, thebaseyear(1982)LDIisassumedto extent, intensity, or schedules ofprojects to keep be the same as for the CUR Alternative in cumulative watershed impactsbelowthe "thresh- decade 1. old'' above whch water quahty would worsen. In areas where a formal cumulative watershed ef- Changes in potential for water yleld to meet fects analysis is not feasible or where streams Federal and State water quality objectives and are in isolated, closed-basin watersheds, Forest the dewation therefrom are estimated by consid- Standards and Guidehnes restnct surface dis- ering three factors: turbance on sensitive watershed lands to five percent per decade. 1. The Land Disturbance Index, Riparian Areas 2 Sensitivlty of Forest streams to upland disturbance, Riparian areas, floodplains, and wetlands form 3. Proposed mitigations and watershed the transition between the upslope terrestrial management program emphasis. ecosystem and the aquatic ecosystem. fiparian areas provide shade, large woodymaterials, struc- The iirst factor, LDI, was just discussed The tural and vertical diversity, stability, and vital second factor, sensitivity of Forest streams, is an niches in the food chain. Ripanan areas are also environmental constant under all alternatives a pdcularly diverse part of the ecosystem, that is not discussed further. The thrd factor providing critical plant and wildlife habitat considers inventoned watershed improvement diversity and a substantial portion of the needs and the degree of emphasis placed on Forest's dispersed recreation. Ripanan areas proactive watershed management and rigor in commonly have highly productive timber sites implementing BMPs and frequently seem to offer the most expement and accessible locations for roads, landings, CumulativeWatershedImpacts Forest Stan- stream crossings, and other land-disturbing fa- dards and Guidehnes common to all alternatives cihties. require cumulative watershed impact analyses whenplanningfor management activities. These Trees in and adjacent to ripanan areas contrib- analyses require Forest managers to adjust the ute large woody material to the aquatic and

Ygure 44 and Disturbance Index Components, PRF Alternative .. I New road effects ~ %

Fire effects

Shelterwood effects

Clearcut effects

Existing roads & harvesting 70%

l~'~I'~~l~~'1~~~1 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% Percent Contribution to Land Disturbance Index

4-104 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences

~~ npanan ecosystems. Large woody matenal is gional Water Quality Control Boards'basin plans recruited into stream channels when trees are and in waste discharge requirements) and imple- blown over, or the tops are broken out. This mentation of Best Management Practices mll matenal influences the creation and stability of safeguard emsting water uses. No degradation stream channels by armonng streambanks and is permtted in "Outstanding National Resource by directing and dissipating streamflows. Waters" which include designated Wild and Sce- nic Rwers Practices within or adjacent to npanan areas which could affect water quality and stream In order to assess the effects of the various conditions are those which influence shade, proposed alternatives on water, it is necessary to streambank stability, the rate of input of large analyze and discuss interactions mth various woody material, floodplain charactenstics, and watershed components including geology, soil, wetland characteristics These are discussed fish and vegetation The reader is encouraged to further on. refer to other sections in this Chapter for a more detailed discussion and understanding of effects Streamside management zones, lakeshores, and related to these other components. other nparian areas described in Chapter 3 will be managed by the Ripariafish (F) Prescrip- Assumptions for predicting effects on watershed tion, except in special areas managed under resources and values include more restnctive conditions (e g., mlderness ar- eas). (Refer to the Forest-wide Standards and nmber harvest and road construction Guidelines under Water and Ripanan Areas, can increase soil erosion rates and the and Appendix R for an example of more specific magmtude and frequency of peak flows, guidelines ) Under the F Prescription, only hm- similar to that observed in the past and ited timber management would occur in ripanan reported in the current scientific litera- areas Timber harvesting must maintain npar- ture ian values Erosion rates and the occurrence ofpeak flows are hrectly related to the amount a. Direct Effects of timber harvest and road construction within a watershed, and the location of The National Forest Management Act (NFMA) such disturbances relative to sensitive and the Clean Water Act (CWA) provlde the watershed lands (ripanan areas, un- direction for evaluating the direct, indirect and stable lands, etc.) cumdativeeffects ofproposed altematives. Other Adverse effects mll be minimal if water- laws and regulations are cited where applicable. shedhsturbanceis keptbelow eachthird Specifically, NFMA requires that: order watersheds threshold of concern (TOC) (See Glossary). ". soil, slope, or other watershed conditions will not be irreversibly damaged;" Mitigation measures, such as the imple- mentation of Best Management Prac- ". . . protection is provided for streams, stream- tices, unll reduce erosion rates and the banks, shorelines, lakes, wetlands, and other potential for management-induced peak bodies of water from detrimental changes in wa- flows, but will not eliminate these ef- ter temperature or chemical composition, block- fects. Such measures are less effective if ages of water courses, or deposits of sediment. . . disturbance exceeds a sub-basin's TOC. likely to seriously and adversely affect water conditions or fish habitat. I' Stream systems and watershed charac- tenstics arein dynamic equlibnum. Sig- The Clean Water Act declares a policy to "restore nificant changes in erosion rates and and maintain" clean water and directs each state mstream channel stabfityupsetthe equ- to adopt antidegradation policies. The State's librium, leading to degraded water qual- antidegradation policy (as descnbed in the Re- ity and fish habitat.

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-105 Some watersheds are more sensitive to changes in sediment yield and shade along management disturbances than otherwa- streams tersheds. Watershed sensitivltyis afunc- tion of vanous inherent watershed char- Consequences can include reduced infiltration acteristics including soil erosion poten- rates and capacity, water channelization, over- tial, occurrence of unstable lands land water flow, and increased susceptibility of (earthflows, etc ), channel charactens- the soil to detachment and displacement due to tics and condition, and the percentage of the impact of raindrops Ground disturbance is the watershedarealyingmthinthetran- the first step in a process that eventually leads to sient snow zone. Appropnate thresholds soil movement and reduction of water quality of concem for each watershed are deter- from sedimentation (see the Soils section in this mned during project planmng. Chapter). The potential for impact becomes greater on steeper slopes and more erodible soils. Alternatives which avoid or reduce the amount of management disturbance Removal of streamside vegetation can have a with sensitwe watersheds mll result &rect effect on watertemperature unthpotential in less potential for adverse watershed for increased temperatures during summer effects. months, and for lower temperatures m wmter. Increased ice formation can result m stream Dispersing watershed impact areas (ar- bank damage. Increased water temperatures easdisturbedby timberharvest androad also reduce the amount of oxygen that can be construction) over time and avoidance of dissolvedin water At hgher temperatures more sensitive lands is effective in mmmzlng rapid decomposition of organic debns (needles, adverse watershed effects leaves, branches) in streams may reduce dis- solved oxygen below critical levels for fish. Higher Watershed impact areas "recover" hy- stream temperatures in conjunction mth in- drologically as a function of vegetative creased availability of nutnents and sunlight regrowth. Hydrologic recovery vanes by may contribute to the formation of nuisance locations, the type ofvegetation, and the blooms of algae degree of initial dmturbance. Removal of large woody matenal, or the sources In the absence of mtigation measures, the fol- of future matenal, by timber harvesting activi- lowing effects may occur. ties may lead to the eventual widening of chan- nels on low grahent (generally Class I and 11) Effects fromManagementActivities Signifi- streams This, in turn, may result in the loss of cant interactions mth the water and riparian productive land area, filling of pools, and shal- resources are possible from any management lower, more exposed aquatic habitat. On steeper activity that disturbs the soil, reduces root gradient Class I11 and IV streams, instream strength on steep slopes, reduces organicmatter, wood controls the movement of sediment through disrupts watershed drainage, or reduces npar- the system by trapping silts, sands, gravels and ian vegetation Road construction, timber har- cobbles Loss of instream wood and the source of vest, fuels treatment, recreation use, grazing, future recmtment may accelerate the release of fire and the development of energy resources or these sehments to downstream Class I and I1 mineral deposits are the pnncipal resource man- streams. Moreover, removal of instream wood agement actinties with potential for adverse and its stabilizing role may mcrease the fre- impacts on water and npanan-dependent re- quency and extent of debns torrents origmahng sources. in these upper headwater streams.

Effects from Timber Management Timber Effects from Roads While road effects are management actinties, including timber har- often difficult to separate from timber harvest vest, slash treatment and site preparation can effects, it is generally agreed that roads account affect the water resource 111 varymg degrees for the majonty of severe sediment problems and through the removal of vegetation; the exposure, are often the conduits between sehment source compaction or dsturbance of mneral soil, and areas (skid trails, landings, cuthill slopes) and

4-106 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences stream channels The magnitude of the impact to streams and lakes, increasing the nsk of is determined by such factors as season and adversely affecting water quality. amount of use, soil charactenstics, terrain, veg- etation, and the likelihood of sediment from Fislnng trmls and heady-used "dispersed camp- source areas reaching a watercourse Roads sites along steams and lakeshores can be ex- constructed adjacent to (parallel to) streams de- posed, leading to erosion and movement of sedi- liver up to twce the amount of sediment as that ment into nearby waters. frommid-slope orndge top roads. Roads parallel to streams may reduce shade on some sites by as Effects from Livestock Grazing Vegetation muchas43 percent(SkeesickandStewart, 1981). removal and soil compaction (especially of moist npanan soils) by grazing animals can reduce In addition to road location, construction meth- mfiltration and increase the potential for over- ods and design elements may dlrectly mfluence land flow and soil erosion. Ths can change waterquahty and channel stabihty. Uncompacted sedimentation, peak flows, and channel mor- fills and sidecast construction techniques, where phology Grazing is reported to be 25 to 60 excess soil matenal is pushed over the side, are percent heavler on streambanks in nparian ar- pnmary sources of sediment and a cause of eas than on adjoining uplands (Nelson and Platts, debris shdes and debns torrents. Roads and fills 1985) This concentration can lead to sigmficant constructed mth uncompacted soil matenal be- soil disturbance and compaction mthin the ri- come saturated and fail more readdy than roads parian areas Removal of streamside vegetation constructed with compacted fills. Low standard through excessive browsing has a direct effect on or temporary roads remaining open after the stream temperature, especially on sites where penod of intended use may become chronic shade trees are insufficient or laclung or where sources of erosion and sediment. grasses and shrubs provlde a large proportion of the effective shade Effects from Off-Highway Vehicles The op- eration of off-highway vehcles (OHV's) can af- Heavy grazing of riparian areas and the result- fect water quality through the destruction of ant loss of vegetative cover and livestock tram- vegetation; compacting and rutting road sur- pling can lead to bank sloughing and collapse. faces; and breaching of water bars, berms or Streamside grazing frequently collapses over- hangmg banks that provlde valuable overhead cross drains The magnitude of the impact is and thermal cover for fish Such streambank determinedhy such factors as season and amount degradation increases sediment loading, fills of use, soil characteristics, terrain, vegetation, pools, and creates mder, shallower channels. and the proximity to a watercourse Impacts to the chemical quality of water are quite vanable and difficult to monitor, but in- Effects from Recreation Intensive recreation creases in orgamc matter and bactena often can affect water quality primarily through the occur as a result of grazing destruction of vegetation and compaction of soil. This results in reduced infiltration and Effects from Fire Wildfire effects on water channelization of water, subsequent accelerated quality come about pnmanly through increased erosion, and entry ofsediment into watercourses. sedimentation and mass soil movement follow- Roads and trails providingaccess for recreational ing the destruction ofvegetation and exposure of use may have associated impacts as discussed mneral soil to increased runoff. The flushing of prevlously . ash deposits into streams may alter the concen- tration of some chemical elements, hut this effect Summer homes, developed campgrounds, man- on water quality is bnefandnot wellunderstood. nas, and ski areas all have the potential to Runoff from burned areas usually washes fire- impact water quality. In addition to vegetation released nitrates and phosphates into streams alteration and soil disturbance, other potential where they are quickly assimilated by aquatic impacts maymclude septic systemmalfunctions, life In addition, theloss ofvegetationin ripanan spills or inappropnate disposal of hazardous areas exposes the water surface to increased matenals, etc. Many recreational developments solar radiation which directly affects water tem- and recreational residences are located adjacent perature and the growth of algae.

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-107 The negative effects of mldfire on water quality aged actinties should not produce significantly may be increased as a result of measures taken hgher levels of sehment than natural occur- to bnng a fire under control (e.g , from fireline rences If mitigation measures should fail, ex- construction or dnft of fire retardant drops into cessive sediment can smother fish eggs and fry, lakes or streams) or through salvage loggmg smother and scour stream bottom plants and operations follomng a major fire aquatic orgamsms that anchor the food chain, cloud water, abrade fish gills, and reduce vlsual Prescribed burning has the potential to affect appeal of waters used for recreation Sedimenta- ripanan areas and the water resource directly tion also increases the cost of treating water throughthe destructionofvegetatnand changes destined for human use Filling in of reservoirs in the character of some soils causing them to is another cost of sedimentation become water repellent or hydrophobic Wild- fires, although they have potential for great c. Cumulative Effects impact, are not a planned event and their effects are difficult to predict. Proper planning for Cumulative effects are the sum total ofindividu- prescnbed fires can reduce possible adverse ef- ally minor, but collectively significant actions fects on water quality. taking place over a period of time. The distribu- tion of actinties through time and space should Effects from Mining Activities Mining activi- greatly reduce the potential for cumulative ef- ties can affect water quality by exposing spoil fects Each of the alternatives included con- piles and tailings to erosion, increasmg the po- stramts on the amount and location of timber tential for sedimentation. Poorly designed or harvest over time The goal of this harvest maintained settling ponds are a hazard to down- dispersion is to spread out the effects of indi- stream water resources Chemcals can leach vidual actinties. into streamcourses from spoil piles or treatment processes. Mineral and geothermal exploration The methodology developed for assessing water- and development may have potential impacts shed sensitivlty and estimated threshold of con- related to vegetation removal, road construction, cern (TOC)levels for watershed disturbance pro- and possible disruption of aquifers or rmxing of vides a framework for assessing cumulative ef- groundwater The full extent of such potential fects, and dispersing activities over time and impacts is not fully understood and is difficult to space. Project level planning is the most appro- assess Potential water quality effects are fur- pnate level for afocused cumulativeeffects analy- ther considered dunng ennronmental analysis sis and site-specific design of mitigation mea- of proposed mmng actinties sures and Best Management Practices (BMPs) Project plans consider activities on both Na- b. Indirect Effects tional Forest land and non-National Forest land within major watersheds and subdrainages dur- Indirect effects are often difficult to separate inga cumulative watershed effects analysis. The from direct effects, they interact with almost Lassen National Forest m11 cooperate with pri- every aspect of the waterhpanan resource, and vate owners of large land areas, to minimize the they are some of the most important impacts to potential for adverse, cumulative watershed ef- be dealt with by land managers fects by considering the timing of both public and pnvate land disturbance. Cumulative water- The ultimate effect on water quality is deter- shed effects analysis will be conducted in accor- mned by how much sediment reaches a water- dance mth R5 FSH 2509 22, Chapter 3D Poten- course and the value placed on the use of that tial effects of increased peak flows and sediment water, e g., fish production, irngation, recre- m11 be mitigated pnmanly by dispersion of ac- ational or domestic use Natural erosion and tinties in space and time and the implementa- periodic flood events introduce a certain amount tion of BMPs of sediment into aquatic ecosystems, at the same time asthey scour the streambeds and rearrange d. Mitigation Measures rock and gravel that fish need for spawning Major floods can transport bedloads of spawning Avery important mitigation measure which will and hiding cover to the lowlands Properly man- be applied to all alternatives is avoidance Sim-

4- 108 Chapter 4-Enuuonmental Consequences ply put, if the risk of producing undesirable growing deciduous vegetation to provlde sum- effectsaretoogreat, theprojectoraportionofthe mer shade in minimal time The RipananlFish project will not he implemented Prescnption requires maintenance of shade, ex- cept where other nparian resources could ben- The National Forest Management Act requires efit from shade changes For example, removal that timber harvesting and other management of overstory conifers could promote the estah- activities occur only where watershed conditions lishment or rejuvenation of riparian hardwoods will not be irreversibly damaged Each alterna- Acres assigned to the RipananlFish Prescnption tive has the potential to affect the quantity and vary between alternatives, because some are quality of water and the conditions of flood- protected by more restrictive W (Wilderness) or plains, wetlands, and other npanan areas. Miti- S (Special Areas) Prescnptions gation measures are designed and intended to minimize the nsk of adverse effects on the water Measures to minimize direct disturbance to resources See also mitigation measures under stream channels may include use of yarding the different envlronmental components in this equipment capable of suspending logs over the Chapter channel and streamhanks and directional felling of harvest trees Mitigation of surface erosion The most important means by which water qual- from harvest units or other site disturbances is ity will be protected is the implementation of accomplished by measures which retain or re- Best Management Practices (BMPs) associated place soil cover The choice of yarding system wth vanous management activities. Protection (e g ,tractor, cable or helicopter) and fuel reduc- of water quality with BMPs is developed and tion prescnptions directly influences the poten- implemented at the project level to best meet site tial for soil erosion Maintenance of streamside conditions and resource needs Best Manage- and nparian groundcover vegetation and woody ment Practices wll eliminate or minimize im- material is required by Forest Standards and pacts to waterquahty. They augment and comple- Guidelines, and good cover can he effective in ment Forest-wide and management area Stan- preventing the transport of soil to streams dards and Guidelines (Chapter 4, Forest Plan). A discussion of BMPs and their application in Potentially unstable lands occur on less than one protecting water quality is presented in Appen- percent of the Lassen National Forest. Localized dix Q of the Forest Plan. potential for sediment delivery to the stream system through mass wasting or the occurrence Mitigation measures, which include designation of debris torrents can be mitigated by retaining of streamside management zones (SMZs) along the root strength of live trees in potentially streams or around other water bodies, reduced unstable areas, as identified during project plan- harvest levels and frequency of entry, use of ning Specific prescnptions will consider the designated skid trails, and specific cntena for interaction of root strength, soils, geologx char- stream crossings, are designed to achieve a high acteristics, groundwater, and proximity to a rate of success (90 percent or greater) The stream, lake, or wetland, etc Retention or addi- success of particular applications, however, var- tion of large woody material, and provisions to ies Unexpected or unusually severe climatic insure future recruitment of large woody mate- events, availabihtyoffunding and staffing, know- rial can reduce the frequency of debris torrents, ledge and understanding of a measure by opera- particularly in steep headwater stream channels tors and administrators are factors which can (Class I11 and IV). This, in turn, reduces the rate reduce effectiveness In addition to mitigation at which debris torrents enter Class I and I1 built into the Standards and Guidelines, site- streams. specific measures can be implemented if condi- tions warrant To reduce the sediment production potential associated with roads or other site developments, Specific measures to mitigate potential increases extensive or intensive mitigation measures will in stream temperature may include implemen- be incorporated in project design These mea- tation of timber harvest prescriptions which sures may also be costly A key measure is to maintain nparian shade, or revegetation of'dis- avoid sensitive, unstable areas Other mitiga- turbed or burned nparian areas with rapidly tions may include, but are not limited to, special

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-109 road design and construction considerations at shed and riparian conditions due to implementa- stream crossings, on steep slopes, or on poten- tion of Forest Standards and Guldelines In all hally unstable areas Typical construction con- alternatives, the Forest wlll use Best Manage- siderations include specified compaction of fills ment Practices (BMP's) and analyze and miti- and prevention of soil sidecasting on steep slopes gate cumulative watershed impacts of land-dis- and adjacent to streams. Providing stable road turbing projects, in accordance with Forest Plan surfaces through paving or rocking, while ini- direction. Areas treated by the RipariMish (F) tially more costly, reduces overall impacts on Prescription vary between alternatives, because water quality and runoff over time. Mulching EGP and PRF protect some ripanan areas wlth and revegetating road cutbanks, fillslopes, or more restnctive Wilderness (W) or Special Areas other disturbed soil surfaces near stream cross- (S)Prescnptions ings, follow-up applications of fertilizer to veg- etated roads cuts and fills, slash filter windrows Total water ylelds wdl be similar under all alter- below road tills, and obliteration of temporary roads following harvest activlty are additional natives, varying within one percent of the 1982 examples of effective mitigation measures. Par- base year ylelds. By decade 5, use season water allel road construction will be avoided in the yleld would increase one percent for all alterna- streamside management zones of perennial twes except CUR. Potential effects on water streams. quality and riparian disturbance, and planned watershed improvement efforts, differ slightly Mitigation after the fact is often not as effective among the alternatives, (see specific alternative in reducing impacts as conducting the activity in discussion) Alternatives' effects on water are a manner which reduces or controls the impact. displayed in Table 4-20. Emergency fire reha- Ripping and tillage following harvest is seldom bilitation work would be done after most wild- as effective in maintaining the hydrologx prop- fires, to nutigate suppression-related hsturbance erties of a soil as is the use of designated skid (e g., fireline construction) and to the extent trails to control the amount of an area impacted. needed to protect instream and downstream uses from adverse, post-fire effects In addition to mitigation measures, all the alter- natives incorporate features (e g ,soil and water PRF Alternative improvement projects and nparian zone improve- ment targets) which contnbute to an overall Land disturbance in decade would be per- betterment in watershed condition. Structural 1 18 cent lower than the assumed base year and nonstructural improvements are more site 1982 specific than BMPs. They are designed to im- value and would be 23 percent lower by decade 5. prove productivity, stability or diversity of an This disturbance includes impacts of livestock area in order to increase its ability to absorb grazing in stream corridors, and limited timber impacts. Examples include: water develop- harvest in streamside management zones. Wa- ments, salt block placement and grass seeding ter yields would continue to meet State stan- designed to draw grazing animals away from dards. Due to less clearcutting than in the CUR riparian areas, fencingor herding to reduce pres- Alternative, there would be a steady decline in sure on sensitive areas, and altering the grazing the LDI and water quality would be better man- system. Structural and nonstructural improve- tained or improved. The proportion of ripanan ment measures also include installing weirs to and adjacent terrestrial zones potentially af- control water and sediment delivery, planting fected by resource management activities over willow and alder to improve streamside shade or decades 1 through 5 would be 69 percent. Any managing beaver populations to rehabilitate de- timber harvesting impacts in ripanan zones graded watersheds. Each alternative mcludes would be minor (around 2.5 percent ofthe inven- targets for watershed improvement projects. tory) per decade. All identified watershed im- provement projects would be completed by de- AU Alternatives cade 2, and five acres per year would be restored thereafter to solve presently-unidentified, new, All alternatives will maintain an acceptable level or recumng problems An ongoing program of water flow and quality, and acceptable water- would improve 20 acres ofripanan area per year.

4-110 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Table 4-20 Water Resources and Riparian Effects Base Year Alternative Effect 1982 Decade PRF CUR EGP TG?

Total Yield (Thousand Acre 1,308 1 1,304 1,308 1,303 1,305 FtNr) a/ 5 1,301 1,308 1,299 1,302

Use Season Water 536 1 546 536 546 543 (Thousand Acre FtlYr) 5 551 536 556 548

LDI (Thousand Equivalent 44 3 1 36 5 44 3 36 6 40 2 Roaded Acres) b/ 5 34 1 42 1 32 2 37 1

Riparian and Adjacent Terrestrial 60 1-5 69 72 69 69 Zone Affected(% of lave J Acres/Decade) d

Potential Decline in Water Yield 0 1 0 0 0 0 Meeting Objectives (%I 5 0 0 0 0

Watershed Improvement 10 1 75 75 150 75 (AcresNear) 5 5 5 5 5

Riparian Zone Improvements 5 1 20 5 20 10 (AcresNear) .5 20 5 20 10

a/ All flows are expected to continue to meet Federal and State quality standards

b/ Estimated

d Reflects estimated livestock grazinglmpacts Timber harvesting has been reduced to a minor level in ripanan areas

CUR Alternative EGP Alternative

Land disturbance in decade 1 would be the same Land disturbance would decrease over the as- as that assumed for 1982, and 5 percent lower in sumed 1982 level by 18 percent in decade 1, and decade 5 Water quality would still meet Federal by 27 percent in decade 5 Water ylelds produced and State water quality objectives by decade 5 would meet Federal and State water quality Water ylelds would continue at base levels Over objectives in all decades, with a potential for 50 years, 72 percent of npanan and adjacent improvement of water quality and channel con- terrestnal zones would be affected by resource ditions by decade 5. Over 50 years, the propor- management activities, resulting in continued tion of ripanan and adjacent terrestnal zones damage to some riparian areas Timber harvest- potentially affected by resource management ing would remove 5 percent of the inventory per activities would be moderate (69 percent), show- decade, twice that of the other alternatives Wa- ing a slight decrease when compared to CUR All tershed improvements would be accomplished in identified watershed improvement projects would two decades Ripanan areas would continue to be completed during decade 1, and any pres- be improved at 5 acres per year ently-unidentified, new, or recurring problems

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-111 would be corrected promptly An ongoing pro- unpolluted These represent vestiges of primi- gram would improve20acresofriparian area per tive America Scenic river areas are those rivers, year or sections of rivers, that are free of zmpound- ments, with shorelines or watersheds still largely TGP Alternative pnmitive and natural appearing Limited access by roads and dispersed campground facilities TGP burning and harvest levels would create a may occur in places. Recreational nver areas LDI nine percent below the assumed 1982 base retain mostly natural, free-flomng characteris- lcvel in decade 1and 16 percent below base level tics, but shorelines may show evldence of some in decade 5 The potential for ripanan and agncultural or forestry uses, past water diver- adjacent terrestrial zone effects from manage- sions, or existing minor improvements or diver- ment activities would be the same as PRF and sions EGP, bccause of a similar assignment of sensi- tive watershed lands to a reduced Regulation Mill Creek, Deer Creek, and Antelope Creek are Class 111 yield at 2 5 percent of the Inventory per the three candidate Wild and Scenic Rivers. The decade Watershed improvements would be ac- alternatives recommend vanous mixes of their complished in two decades An ongoing npanan segments for wld, scenic, recreational, and no area improvement program would treat 10 acres special designation, as descnbed in Chapter 2, per year. Section E (Alternatives Considered in Detail), and shown in Tables E-11, E-12, and E-I3 of Appendix E 23. WILD AND SCENIC RIVERS a. Direct and Indirect Effects Introduction The kinds and amounts of activities and changes The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 (Public acceptable within a nver comdor depend on Law 90-542 as amended) established a method whether it is designated as a mld, scenic or for providing federal protection for our remain- recreational nver. Because the Forest Plan is ing free-flowing nvers, and presemng them and not site specific, it is not possible to descnbe their immediate environments for the use and precisely how an imhdual stream may be af- enjoyment of present and future generations fected by future projects when their exact loca- tion and nature have not yet been determined It The setting of a Wild and Scenic River provldes is possible, however, to describe and to &splay for a wide range of recreational opportunities the general effects of various management ac- which are enhanced by the river's free-flowing tivities on the ehgbility and potential classifica- condition, its outstandingly remarkable values tion of rivers by refernng to groupings of man- and the quality of its surrounding environment agement prescriptions which allow intensive de- As required by the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, velopment, moderate development, or retam an the area within designated river corridors will be essentially unmodified natural setting. These managed to protect, and where possible, en- potential effects are descnbed below m general hance the nver's outstandingly remarkable val- terms The effects on each tentatively ehgble ues, and protect its free-flowmg condition and nver are described in more detail in Appendur E designated classification. Eligble rivers will be in Tables E-14, E-15, and E-16. managed as if they were designated until they are found unsutable or are released from fur- Specific lunds of forest activities and uses can ther consideration by congressional action. affect the classification or ehgbility of nvers These are The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act defines three classes of rivers wcld, scenic, and recreataonal Effects from Timber Harvesting Timberhar- Wild nver areas are those rivers, or sections of vesting, and associated road and landing fanli- nvers, that are free of impoundments and gener- ties, can have a major effect on the potential for ally inaccessibleexcept by trail, with watersheds a river to be considered eligble, and which clas- or shorelines essentially pnmitive and waters sification it meets if eligble Extensive, highly

4-1 12 Chapter 4-Envuonmental Consequences vlsible and ongoing timber harvesting within a not significantly alter the free-flowmg character river corridor could result in the river becoming of the river or conflict with the values for which ineligble for wild and scenic status Where the nver is designated timber harvest maintains the natural appear- ance of the forest as seen from the nver and its Effects from River Designation Conversely, banks, it may qualify for scenic classification designation of a river as a component of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System can Effects from Water Project Development affect the management of various resources The Any major impoundment for water storage or Wild and Scenic Rivers Act provides that the hydroelectnc power would cause a river segment study boundary include, at a minimum, the area to be inellable. None of the tentatively eligble within one quarter mile either side of the high nvers is actively being considered for such a water mark of the nver. Final boundaries can project at the present time Low dams and and do vary from this minimum, but generally diversions, penstocks, transmission lines and follow the one quarter mile guideline. Upon other facilities may affect the classification ofthe designation by Congress, final boundanes will be determined when the management plan for river, depending on their visibility and extent each nver is prepared Where nvers are desig- Where they are vlsually subordinate, the river nated in wilderness, the Wild and Scenic Rivers may be classified as a recreational nver Where Act provldes that the most restnctive provlsions such features dominate the landscape, the nver of the laws apply is likely to be inelig.lble Designation as a wild river results in the area Effects from Mining Large scale mining activ- being withdrawn from mineral entry Timber ity could result in a tentatively elig.lble nver harvest is generally unacceptable and outputs of becoming inehgble, or result in its being ehgble timber from tentatively suitable forest lands only in the recreational classification Some that might have occurred are essentially fore- types of mineral exploration which are vlsually gone Construction of major recreation facilities, subordinate may not affect the classification of a roads, powerlines and other features are not river as scenic or recreational allowed The potential for hydroelectric power generation is also foregone. Designation would Effects from Recreation Development De- not affect the rights of landowners within a mld velopment of trals and dispersed campsites would nver area unless zoning or other regulatory not affect the wild classification of a nver. Devel- changes were enacted by local governments opment of major recreation sites, boat launches, Designation, particularly where tributary and other visitor facilities would generally cause streams or important vlsual features he outside a nver to meet only the recreational classifica- the corridor, could affect the management of tion. lands adjacent to a wild nver by requiring more constraints on water quality and visual effects of projects. The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act also Effects from Roads Any construction of a requires that upstream water projects may not public use road in the river corndor would elimi- significantly degrade the river values within the nate that segment of river from classification as designated segments and that downstream im- a wild nver Construction of roads and bridges poundments may not back water up into the which occasionally cross or reach the nver would designated segments not affect the classification of a scenic river, assuming such roads are infrequent and rela- Designation as a scenic rwer places significant tively inconspicuous Construction of a major constraints on the management of timber in the highway or extensive road system could limit a river corridor, although small sales generally out river to the recreational classification ofview ofthe river orrecreation sitescould occur. The area is not withdrawn from mineral entry, Effects from Fishery Improvements Con- but costs of mining could increase as a result of structed fish passages and other structures asso- standards for visual quality The potential for ciated ulth enhancement of fish habitat may hydroelectnc power generation is foregone. Con- occur in the wild classification, ifthe facility does struction of major recreation facilities would not

~ ~ Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-113 occur. Roads, while allowed, could be more features outside the nver corridor as mewed expensive as design seeks to minimize the vlsual from the river and main travelways along the impact and the number of bndge crossings. Ef- river. The river's free-flowing character and fects on management of adjacent lands would be classification will be protected until there is less than for a wild river, although activities congressional action River specific manage- affecting sensitive vlsual features may be con- ment plans, scheduled for completion within strained resulting in increased cost or reduced three years after designation, mll provide fur- output ther direction to protect and/or enhance nver values Designation as a recreational river places fewer constraints on management and development For the CUR and TGP Alternatives, the land- activlties, although the potential for new diver- scape character outside the corridor as mewed sions and hydroelectric power generation is fore- from the nver, or main travelways along the gone Timber may be harvested, although vlsual river, would be degraded through time as inten- constraints can increase the cost of loggmg or sive timber harvest takes place on adjacent ar- reduce outputs slightly eas

Suitability In Appendix E, Tables E-1, E-2, and For rivers not recommended, the cumulative E-3 summanze the number of river segments effects of a vanety of activlties may change their and miles for Mill, Deer, and Antelope Creeks outstandingly remarkable values and free-flow- Tables E-11, E-12, and E-13 display the alloca- ing condition as described in the Wild and Scenic tion of indivldual streams by classification (mld, Rivers Act This could bmt a nver's future scenic, and recreational) in the alternatives In consideration for inclusion into the National some cases, a stream is shown in a mld classifi- Wild and Scenic Rivers System cation in one alternative and in a different clas- sification in another The intent ofthis is to show c. Mitigation Measures the nver designated in its current (most unde- veloped) condition in one alternative, and to The direction set forth in the Standards and provide development opportunities in another Guidelmes for all recommended rivers provldes alternative, while still indicating the nver is the basis for protection of a nver's free flowing suitable to be considered as a wild, scenic or character and values for which it was found recreational nver eligible Use of the Standards and Guidelines, the Ripanaflish (F)and Special Areas (S) Pre- Again, any Wild and Scenic River recommenda- scriptions will mitigate effects of management tion in a Forest Plan is a preliminary administra- activlties Additional direction will be developed tive recommendation that will receive further in each management plan once a river is desig- review and possible modification by the Chief of nated The effects of crowding on campsites and the Forest Service, the Secretary of Agnculture, trail systems can be reduced by substituting and the President of the United States Con- facilities and dispersing recreation use Access gress has reserved the authority to make final to the nver corndors, provlded by the construc- decisions on the designation of rivers as part of tion and maintenance of signs and trails, m11 the Wild and Scenic Rivers System Therefore, govern the location and degree of effects to these Wild and Scenic River recommendations are not areas from public use appealable under the agency's administrative appeal procedures Some management practices on lands adjacent to a river corndor can be employed to insure that b. Cumulative Effects effects ofvegetation manipulation remain subor- dinate to the general scene of the area These For the PRF, EGP and TGP Alternatives, no practices include adjustments in the size and cumulative effects on the outstandingly remark- location of timber harvest units and created able values for recommended Wild and Scenic openings, the regulation ofharvest rates, the use Rivers aFe anticipated. Forest-mde Standards of uneven-aged management practices such as and Guidelines require that those values be group selection or individual tree selection, hand protected andor enhanced, including the vlsual piling and burning of harvest debris; immediate

4-114 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences reforestation ofdisturbed sites, and locating roads cluding new campgrounds which would attract to be visually inconspicuous from the river sur- use from the wild designations The recommen- face and nverbanks dations all he within the Ishi Wilderness On Mill Creek, 8 0 miles are recommended for wild PRF and EGP Alternatives On Deer Creek, 8 0 miles are recommended for wild All of the segments outside the wilderness A total of 76 miles on three creeks are recom- would be available for hydroelectric develcp- mended for Wild and Scenic Rivers On Mill ment, fish habitat projects, mineral entry, leas- Creek, a total of32 miles are recommended PRF ing and development, extensive fee campground and EGP recommend 16 5 miles for wild (8 0 development, full timber harvesting, and road within the Ishi Wilderness and 8 5 within the construction About 0 6 MMBF per year would proposed Mill Creek Wilderness), 6 0 miles for be available for harvesting However, water scenic, and 9 5 miles for recreational On Deer quality and scenic quality may decrease to the Creek, 30 0 miles are recommended 18 0 miles degree that development occurs outside the wil- for wild (8 0 miles within the Ishi Wilderness), derness 4 0 miles for scenic, and 8 0 miles for recre- ational On Antelope Creek, 14 miles are recom- mended Both PRF and EGP recommend all 14 24. WILDERNESS AND FURTHER miles for wild The amenity values (cultural PLANNING AREAS resources, resident and anadromous fisheries, wldlife, primitive recreation, visual quality, and Introduction water quality) would receive a moderately high degree of protection In the wild segments, the The envronmental qualities of naturalness and commodity opportunities such as hydroelectric solitude characterize designated wilderness. projects, mineral exploration and development, Wilderness will continue to provide a range of recreation developments, timber harvest and recreation opportunities that interweave the road construction wouldbemostlyforegone Also, physical and bioloacal features of water, air, major fish habitat improvement structures would soil, geology, vegetation, fish and wildlife with be incompatible, but inconspicuous ones would particular social factors such as isolation, re- be acceptable About 0 6 MMBF potential an- moteness and personal challenge nual timber yield would be foregone The Wilderness Act of 1964 states that Wilder- CUR Alternative ness is to be managed in such a manner "deuoted to the public purposes of recreataonal, scenic, No segments would be recommended for wild, scientific, educational, conseruataon and histori- scenic, or recreational designation Deer and cal use" only to the extent that the essential Mill Creeks (outside the Ishi Wilderness) and wilderness character of the area is protected Antelope Creek would remain open to hydroelec- Managers are faced, therefore, with the problem tric development, mineral entry, leasing and of accommodating human use yet preserving an development, recreation development,major fish area's wilderness quality. Given that any use of habitat structures, full timber harvests in the the environment produces at least some impact, upper forested segments, and full road construc- managers must identify where, and to what tion To the degree that such projects are con- extent, varymg degrees of change are appropn- ducted, fisheries, visual quality, and water qual- ate and acceptable within wilderness settings ity would be reduced below existing levels About 0 6 MMBF per year would be available for har- All alternatives will permit present grazing use vesting to continue within existing and recommended wilderness Grazing activities will be managed TGP Alternative through allotment management plans (AMPs). Distribution, number of cattle, and season of use This alternative would recommend small will be modified as needed with the AMPs Graz- amounts of wild river, and leave most of the ing will not be permitted in proposed wilderness segments open for commodity developments, in- where not currently established.

Chapter 4-Envtronmental Consequences 4-115 Although activities, such as timber harvest, can The disposition of currently unroaded (but non- came localized effects near wilderness bound- wilderness) areas can have indirect consequences aries, the most significant effects on wilderness to existing wilderness If the unroaded acreage settings are relative to access and the amount now available for backcountrylnon-motorized and type of recreation use that a particular area forms of recreation is eliminated or significantly receives reduced, persons who seek that kind of recre- ation on the Forest would be limited to desig- Roads provide access to wilderness settings, and nated and proposed wilderness This, in turn, trails facilitate and organize recreation use within could lead to crowding and to a reduction in the designated wilderness Trails allow people to amount of land that provides solitude or a qual- take advantageofpnmitiveandunconfined types ity wilderness experience If use is causing of recreation opportunities An extensive trail unacceptable resource degradation, administra- system can result in fewer contacts between tive restrictions may be imposed to maintain users, but could cause increased effects to physi- wilderness quality cal and biologxal aspects of the environment Increased access can also cause overuse of desir- b. Cumulative Effects able campsites and attractions For example, horseback riders need water and meadow areas There are cumulative effects on wilderness as a for maintaining their stock, and tend to utilize consequence of any of the proposed alternatives larger campsites One such effect is the designation or non-desig- nation of lands as wilderness by Congress Ap- a. Direct and Indirect Effects proximately seven percent of the Forest is cur- rently designated wlderness This has the effect Management activities on non-wilderness lands of preservlng a wide range of natural resources have direct as well as indirect consequences on in their natural condition In wilderness, water, wilderness These potential consequences of the vegetation, soil and air quality will be main- alternatives can be grouped by two kinds of land tained in a natural state The non-designation of allocation decisions further planning areas may result in the devel- opment of such land Over time, these areas may Management oflands located adjacent to become unsuitable for future wilderness consid- the wilderness boundary eration All the alternatives allocate portions of some roadless areas to commodity development Management of lands which are cur- This will increase the nsk that semi-primitive rently unroaded and available for back- non-motorized recreation expenences of some countrylnon-motorized recreation activi- roadless areas may be reduced ties e. Mitigation Measures Timber harvest would result in harvest units and new roads adjacent to wilderness As log- Wilderness settings will be managed in all alter- gmg continued over the long-term, the potential natives through the application of Forest-wide for wilderness visitors to see and hear nearby Standards and Guidelines. Mitigation measures timber management activities would increase consist of a broad range of actions that avoid, The scenic quality of adjacent areas as viewed minimize, rectify, reduce, or compensate for en- from within wilderness may be reduced Road vironmental effects systems developed for timber harvest could re- sult in increased accesslvisitation to the adjacent Establishment and monitoring ofwilderness car- portion ofthe wlderness, causing a change in the rying capacities and limits of acceptable change wilderness setting for that area This could (the LAC process) will aid in reducing the conse- reduce the opportunities for solitude and the quences of potential over-use within wilderness kind of recreation experience many wilderness The LAC process gwes primary attention to visitors seek In short, as more timber manage- maintaining acceptable wilderness conditions, ment activity occurs immediately adjacent to and prescribing actions to protect or achieve the wilderness, the greater the potential effect on desired conditions Ifthe conditions are not met, nearby wilderness character action will be taken to bring them into an accept-

4-116 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences able range Such actions can include outreach Dunng the past 80 years, natural fires in wilder- and education efforts aimed at wilderness visi- ness have generally been suppressed. Because of tors, as well as more formal measures Some of this change in the fire reame, there has been these formal measures are trail closures, re- some increase in forest residues, although the stricted capacity trailhead designs, campsite clo- buildup hasnotgenerallyreached acntical level sures, wilderness entry permits, and restrictions Over time however, this may develop into a on group size or length of stay greater problem and larger, more intense wild- fires can be expected in the future The longer Typical areas receivlng high use are arterial trail fire is kept out of these areas, the more the corridors, areas where major trails intersect, vegetation develops towards a climax seral stage converge, or lead to places of high interest or with higher accumulations of natural dead and destination, and stagmg areas and trailheads downmatenal This wasevldencedbythe 131,000 More groups will encounter each other in these acre Campbell Fire, a wldfire that burned 80 locations percent of the Ishi Wilderness in 1990 Pre- scribed burns may be considered in wilderness where necessary to perpetuate natural ecosys- Popular campsites can be degraded by overuse tem succession without threatening public safety These are typically sites adjacent to lakes and or adjacent non-wilderness lands For addi- rivers. To mitigate these effects, campsites can tional information on prescribed burning and be designated if resource damage indicates a fire suppression in wilderness, see the Fire and need Dispersal of camps from each other and Fuels section in this chapter from attractive features within the wilderness can reduce the effects of concentrated use To Relative to adverse impacts adjacent to the wil- manage high intensity use and resource degra- derness boundaries, some ofthe mitigation mea- dation, camping may be prohibited in specific sures available include: seasonal loggmg re- areas to facilitate recovery of natural conditions. strictions, design of harvest units (sensitive to visual concerns, potential windfall problems and Grazing use w111 be managed through allotment slash disposal needs), road closures and the use management plans (AMP's)to mitigate impacts of aerial loggmg systems (which eliminate the on wilderness values Impacts from equestrian need for road access) users will be mitigated by designating campsites for their use, by temporarily "resting" sites that All Alternatives show resource degradation from concentrated use, and by restricting the number of nders or Any wilderness recommendation in a Forest Plan group size if needed is a preliminary administrative recommenda- tion that will receive further review and possible Although all prescribed burning on the Lassen modification by the Chief of the Forest Semce, National Forest will be scheduled for times when the Secretary of Agriculture, and the President winds are expected to disperse smoke concentra- ofthe United States Congress has reserved the tions, smoke and haze may be evident in the authority to make final decisions on wilderness airshed over or adjacent to wilderness The designation Therefore, this wilderness recom- Clean Aw Act and its 1977 Amendments man- mendation is not appealable under the agency's date air quality and visibility protection for the administrative appeal procedures CaribouandThousand Lakes Wildernesses Both of these wildernesses are Class I areas while the Opportunities for solitude and a wilderness rec- Ishi Wilderness is designated as Class I1 Addi- reation experience will continue to be providedin tional mitigation measures for reducing the im- all alternatives by theThousand Lakes, Caribou, pacts of prescribed burning on wilderness air and Ishi Wildernesses (78,060 acres) Each area quality values include the scheduling of burns will be managed under its respective wilderness to avoid high wilderness recreation use periods, implementation plan to provide a quality wilder- increasing woodutilization on harvest units, and ness experience decreasing suspended particulate emissions pro- duction from slash burning (See also the discus- A complete discussion of the environmental con- sion on Am Quality in this Chapter) sequences of committing each further planning

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequer ices 4-1 17 area to wilderness or to other uses is included in tain areas, to improve range, watershed, and Appendix C, Further Planning Area Description wildlife resources and their outputs, and to in- and Analysis Other unroaded areas on the crease non-motonzed and motorized recreation Forest are covered under the Recreation section experiences through access and site develop- in this Chapter and in Appendix M The follow- ments ing is a summary by alternative Natural-appeanng areas available for solitude PRF Alternative and freedomfromman's actinties wouldbe gradu- ally reduced The opportunity for additional Approxlmately two percent ofthe Forest, (21,584 wilderness acres would be foregone The quality acres) would be recommended for new wilder- of wilderness expenence would remain at the ness (Heart Lake and portions of Wild Cattle current level. Minimum management require- Mountain, Mill Creek, and Trail Lake B further ments for cultural resource protection would be planning areas). The Heart Lake and Wild met Cattle Mountain areas are contiguous to Lassen Volcanic National Park Wilderness, and the Trail EGP Alternative Lake B area to the Canbou Wilderness Mill Creek is adjacent to the Ishi Wilderness These The EGP Alternative would recommend 43,086 areas would complement emsting wilderness. acres for the new wilderness, all of the further Designation as wilderness would preserve the planning areas except Butt Mountain and a opportunities for solitude and challenge associ- portion ofTrail Lake B Butt Mountain would be ated with pnmitive recreation Recreation use is classified as semi-pnmitive non-motonzed, and now estimated at 8,800 RVD's for these four beunavailablefor apossible ski area) TheHeart areas and would be expected to increase over Lake and Wild Cattle Mountain areas are con- time tiguous to Lassen Volcanic National Park, and the inclusion of their 14,254 acres in the wilder- The remaining further planning areas would be ness system would complement the Park wil- managed under non-mlderness prescnptions. derness Lying adjacent to the Ishi Wilder- These include Minimal Management, View"- ness, the addition of the Ishi B and Mill ber, Rocky/Sparse and Timber for Butt Moun- Creek further planniiig areas to wilderness tain, Semi-Primitive Motonzed, Semi-Pnmitive (28,017 acres) would create a 69,117 acre Ishi Non-Motorized, Special Areas and Viewflimber Wilderness Complex for Ishi B, and Viewfhmber, Late Successional management prescnptions for the southern por- Wilderness designation would preserve the op- tion of Wild Cattle Mountain These prescnp- portunity for solitude and challenge associated tions would provide varyng degrees of motor- wth pnmitive recreation Recreation use for all ized, non-motorized, and primitive recreation the further planning areas is now estimated at The Butt Mountain prescriptions preserve the 13,600 recreation visitor days (RVD's) Of that opportunity for a possible downhill ski area total, 1,800 visitor days are estimated to be off- Opportunities to harvest 4 7 MMBF annually highway vehicle use in the Ishi B further plan- would be foregone from the areas recommended nmg area The inclusion of Ishi B as mlderness for wilderness, 0 9 MMBF would be available on would eliminate the use of motorized vehicles the remaining lands with timber management and associated RVD's There would be a moder- prescriptions ate increase in wilderness use because of ex- pected recreation trends, population pressures, CUR and TGP Alternatives and public knowledge Wilderness designation would protect cultural resources and wildlife All further planning areas (51,686 acres) would habitat, and maintain scenic values, and water be considered and planned for non-wilderness quality The mlderness attnbutes in a vanety of management The opportunities would exist to high elevation, canyon, and foothill wildlands harvest up to 5 6 MMBF annually on 24,864 would be preserved for future generations Op- suitable acres, to produce energy through geo- portunities to harvest 5 6 MMBF annually would thermal and hydroelectnc developments in cer- be foregone

4-118 Chupter 4-Environmental Consequences 25. WILDLIFE NFMA implementing regulations direct that “Fishand wildlife hahital \hall hc manugel Lo Introduction maintain uiahle population\ of eni>ting natiue and desired non-native vertebrate species in lhe This section describes the potential effect each planning area For planning purposes, a uiahle alternative may have on the habitat conditions population shall he regarded as one which has and population trends of Management Indicator the estimated numbers and distrihation of repro- Species (MIS) MIS are the species for which ductive mdiuiduals to insure its continued exiat- population and habitat objectives have been es- ence 15 well dh5trihuted in the planning area In order to insure that viable populations will he tablished They are vertebrate or invertebrate maintained, habitat must he provided to .support, species whose population changes are used to at least, a minimum number of reproductive assess the effects ofland management activities tndivtduals and that habitat must be well dis- Through the MIS concept, the total number of tributed so that those individuals can interact species that occurs within a planning area is withothers intheplanningarea” (36 CFR219 19) reduced to a manageable set that collectively All alternatives must comply with this direction represent the complex of habitat, species, and associated management concerns MIS are used “Viability” is an attribute that is difficult to to meet the requirements of the National Forest define in absolute numbers An exact number for Management Act (NFMAJ for maintenance of viablepopulationsisnot known without consid- population vlability and biologxal diversity, and erable detailed population dynamics informa- to establish management goals for species in tion for each species This level of precision is not public demand. Population viability is the abil- available for most of the species on the Lassen ity of a population to sustain itself naturally because extensive Inventories of population lev- MIS are also the species which, along with each els and habitat conditions have not been done one’shabitat, will be monitored following imple- The MIS habitat capability models in Appendix mentation of the Forest Plan 0 of the Forest Plan were used to identify the amount of habitat and condition class needed to Management Indicator Species selected on the sustain long-term Viability Lassen represent Federally listed Threatened “Well distributed” is also an attribute that is and Endangered species, Forest Service Sensi- difficult to define It is assumed that viable tive species, important harvest species, and populations will remain well-distributed within groups of species associated with key habitats the planning area by the establishment of units that are likely to be at nsk as a result ofmanage- of suitable habitat and connecting corridors be- ment activities on the Forest Ifhabitat require- tween them. These units and corndors will allow ments for Management Indicator Species are for the genetic interchange and successful repro- met, habitat quantity and quality are assumed duction of individuals within a population to be adequate for those species represented by the Management Indicator Species The main effects of the alternatives on wildlife would occur from changes in habitat types and in Management Indicator Species identified on the diversity of forest condition classes Changes in Forest include bald eagle and peregrine falcon habitat result in changes in populations of asso- (both Federally listed as Endangered), northern ciated species No single set ofhabitat conditions spotted owl (Federally listed as Threatened), will meet the needs of all wildlife species Man- California spotted owl, northern goshawk, fisher agmg for one species that requires early succes- and marten (listed as Sensitive by ReDon 5 ofthe sional stages or vegetation condition classes could Forest Service), bufflehead, osprey, hairy and adversely affect those species that need old growth pileated woodpeckers (snag dependent species), and vice versa To evaluate the effects of each deer, pronghorn, black bear, gray squirrel and alternative on wildlife, the impacts on each spe- cies or group of species must be determined mallard (harvest species), and chinook salmon, steelhead trout and rainbow trout (water and Vegetative change, and subsequent changes in riparian dependent species) wildlife populations, are caused by many man-

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Chapter 4-Environmental Consequcr?:cs 4-119 agcment activities In forested stands, changes The Shasta crayfish is the only invertebrate result mainly from timber management (har- species found on or near the Forest that is a vest, site preparation, release, thinning) In non- Federally listed Endangered species It occurs in timbered areas, grazing and fire are dominant the Fall River and Hat Creek subdrainages, and influences Human disturbance results both that portion of the Pit River which connects indirectly from road construction and its result- them A recovery plan has not been adopted for ing increase in human use, and directly from the species at this time The Forest will protect recreation development Additional factors that and/or enhance all known and potential habitat influence the actual number of animals found in for Shasta crayfish an area include the effects ofhunting, predators, disease, yearly changes in weather and forage In January 1987, the US Fish and Wildlife production, and competition with other animals Service received a petition requesting the listing All of these factors have an effect on animal of the northern spotted owl as an Endangered populations species under the Endangered Species Act On June 23, 1989, the Fish and Wildlife Servlce Threatened and Endangered Species Fed- proposed to list the northern spotted owl as erally listed Threatened and Endangered spe- Threatened Following this proposal, a commit- cies are those plant and animal species formally tee of scientists and researchers was formed to listed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service gather known information on the habitat re- under the authority of the Endangered Species quirements ofthis sub-species Their task was to Act of 1973, as amended An Endangered species develop a scientifically credible conservation strategy for the northern spotted owl in Wash- is defined as one which is in danger of extinction ington, Oregon, and the Klamath province of throughout all or a significant portion of its northern California This group was called the range A Threatened species is defined as one Interagency Scientific Committee to Address the which is likely to become endangered within the Conservation of the Northern Spotted Owl, or foreseeable future throughout all or a significant better known as the ISC In Apnll990, the ISC portion of its range recommended the creation of Habitat Conserva- tion Areas (HCA) to replace the SOHA concept. Baldeagle, peregrine falcon, Shastacrayfish and One HCA, comprising 9,548 acres is located on northern spotted owl recovery goals are manage- the Shasta-Trinity National Forest on land par- ment objectives in all alternatives The Forest tially administered by the Lassen Two SOHA'S will continue to gwe these species priority in all were within the HCA One was located outside resource management decisions Habitat that is of the HCA, but still within the area of study by currently occupied or has high potential for fu- the ISC These SOHA'S are no longer being ture use will be managed to maintain its suitabil- managed as part of the Forest's SOHA network ity This will be done by applying special man- now that they fall under the HCA strategy agement prescriptions, some of which may in- clude limiting human disturbance in critical time Pending enactment of new legslation, any apph- penods such as the nesting season cable action by the Endangered Species Commit- tee, adoption of a recovery plan by the Fish and Population levels and habitat management strat- Wildlife Service, or the results offurther biolop eses will be based on current recovery plans or cal consultation between the Forest Service and on the bioloecal data that was used to establish the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Forest Semce listing The Forest's recovery goal for bald eagles will conduct timber management activities in a is 16 reproducing pairs and three pairs for per- manner not inconsistent with the Interagency egrine falcons Not all nesting sites for bald Scientific Committee recommendations eagles and peregrine falcons have been identi- fied on the Forest to meet recovery goals, al- Sensitive Wildlife Species The Reaonal For- though potential habitat has been located For ester has identified several "Sensitive" species bald eagles, potential habitat exists for an esti- They are animal species whose population vi- mated maximum of 19 nesting pairs At least ability is a concern on National Forests within five areas are considered suitable eyries for use the Reeon Sensitive species may also be species by peregrine falcons astheir population recovers whose current populations and/or habitats are

4-120 Chapter 4-Envuonmental Consequences reduced or restricted, or species that are consid- The PRF, EGP, and TGP Alternatives provide a ered vulnerable to various management activi- network of 40 SOHA's and the HCA, totalling ties Special management emphasis is needed to 75,100 acres. No scheduled timber harvesting prevent the species from becoming Threatened will occur in these areas, resulting in a 27 MMBF or Endangered Identification of Sensitive spe- per year loss ofyield Salvage and some thinning cies and emphasis on the management of Sensi- activities may be appropriate under certain cir- tive species habitat are Forest Service policy cumstances to remove timber killed from fire, goals Management for Sensitive species is not drought, or insect infestations For any of these directly related to Federally designated Threat- alternatives, timber management will only be ened and Endangered species which are pro- proposed when it can be demonstrated through a tected under the Endangered Species Act The hioloBcal evaluation and NEPA analysis that Forest Service goal for Sensitive species man- quality owl habitat will be maintained after agement is to insure that species numbers and treatment distnbution are adequate so that no Federal listing will be required and no Forest extirpation The CUR Alternative provides the minimum will occur California spotted owl, marten, fisher, network of 39 SOHA'S and the HCA Scheduled northern goshawk, Sierra Nevada red fox, great timber harvesting would occur in these areas in gray owl, and willow flycatcher are ReBon 5 accordance with specifications in the Reponal Sensitive species that occur on the Forest The Guide In this alternative, each SOHAis defined effects on Sensitive species that are not MIS are as a circle within a 15 mile radius around a core also briefly discussed below nesting area (the maximum radius used by spot- tedowlsinareas ofhighhabitat capability) This Calzfornza Spotted Owls Habitat sufficient to circle is equivalent to 4,500 acres, ofwhich 1,000 maintain a minimum vlable population of Cali- acres of suitable base habitat were identified fornia spotted owls was determined from the along with 650 acres of replacement habitat model described in the Final Environmental Even-aged management would be deferred in Impact Statement for the Pacific Southwest Re- the 300 acre nesting core during the first decade Dona1 Guide (1984) Direction m the ReBonal Guide stated that suitable spotted owl habitat is The objective of harvesting within the 4,500 acre composed of mature and over-mature timbered circle is to reach regulated stand conditions over stands having multi-layered conditions, a canopy time to insure a steady supply of volume from the closure of 70 percent or greater, and obvlous SOHA network while still meeting habitat suit- decadence Each SOHAmust have 1,000 acres of ability requirements The implied rotation is base habitat consisting of 300 contiguous acres approximately 240years Using even-aged silvi- for a nesting core, and an additional 300 contigu- cultural methods, about 30 MMBFperyear could ous acres to serve as an alternate nesting core be harvested Within SOHAs that do not cur- The remaining 400 acres may occur in three or rently have 1,000 acres of suitable base habitat, less blocks, none of which are to be less than 60 silvicultural prescriptions would be designed to acres in size In addition, 650 acres of replace- grow this habitat as soon as possible Timber ment habitat is required within the SOHA management would only be proposed when it could be demonstrated through the SOHAMan- SOHA'S are grouped in a network throughout agement Plan and NEPA analysis that quality the known range of the species to allow for owl habitat would be maintained by treatments continued dispersion and random interchange between members of the population The net- The current amounts of suitable habitat in the work consists of groups of three or more SOHA'S Lassen's SOHA network are below the habitat separated by not more than 15 miles The requirements and the population viability stan- groups are spaced between six and twelve miles dards set forth in the Reoonal Guide Of the apart Using these criteria for vegetative condi- 40,000 acres designated as base habitat, 68 per- tion and spatial arrangement, the Lassen devel- cent (or 27,200 acres1 are suitable, 32 percent do oped a network of 39 SOHA's as the minimum not contain the vegetative conditions necessary needed to maintain long-term species viability to maintain population viability at this time All on the Forest This network meets the require- SOHA's will have the required acres of suitable ments of the ReDonal Guide habitat within the next three to five decades ~- Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-121 Surveys since 1985 have located 191 spotted The ISC report raised senous questions about owls on the Forest Of these, 87 are paired the establishment of a SOHA network to main- There were 17 reproducingpairs on the Forest in tain long-term viability for spotted owls At 1990 and 36 in 1991 Within the SOHAnetwork, present an interagency task force has been es- reproduction has been recorded in 24 sites over tablished to evaluate other management options the past five years, 19 SOHA's have had occu- in place of the SOHA network Until more pancy, and three SOHA'S had presence Seven information is known or management direction SOHA's have more than one pair of owls Also changes, the Forest will continueusingtheSOHA see Appendix S in the Plan concept In the meantime, all proposed land disturbing activities will undergo cumulative It is important to note that spotted owls (both effects analysis (CEA) to assess their impact on single birds and pairs) have been found in habi- suitable owl habitat outside of the SOHA net- tat that does not meet the habitat capability work In order to preserve future management model described in Appendix 0 in the accompa- options, no degradation of presently suitable nymg Forest Plan This phenomenon may result habitat will occur Continued monitoring each when suitable habitat is eliminated on a signifi- field season will assess current populations and cant portion of the owl's range, and there is habitat use This information mll be used to displacement of owls into the remaining avail- determine if the SOHA network, as well as m- able habitat or forced occupancy of generally tenm protection of non-network owls and the unsuitable habitat During this interim period, CEA, is maintaining species viability as planned which can extend over several years, actual popu- lation numbers can be far above the remaining Fisher and Marten The management objective habitat's carrymgcapacity Under these circum- for marten and fisher is to maintam and enhance stances, population surveysmaybeofhttlevalue their population where possible, to insure they Long-term viability on the Forest is a minimum do not become federally listed as Threatened or of 39 pairs sustained by a habitat network of 39 Endangered Marten and fisher are elusive spe- SOHA'S The effects of alternatives vary by the cies, and little is known about their habitat number of SOHA's provided, and the amount of requirements or current population levels on the forest land in an old growth condition for in- Forest Suitable marten and fisher habitat was terim, non-network owl management identified based on the latest scientific knowl- edge as summarized in a comprehensive reaonal Because the present SOHA network does not literature review in November 1989 contain the required acres of suitable habitat as defined in the Regonal Guide to maintain popu- The Forest will manage for marten and fisher by lation viability, the Forest developed a manage- designating management areas and corridors ment strategy to protect non-network owls dur- that contain enough suitable habitat as identi- ing the interim Under this strategy, an addi- fied in the reponal literature renew Habitat tional 125 acres will be protected for each non- management areas are connected by corridors network pair of owls inventoried This 125 acre that permit movement between them along ri- size delineation was developed from the stan- parian zones or through saddles over ridges. dards and guides in the ISC report for known This will allow for successful recruitment and pairs ofowls outside ofHCA's The report recom- integration ofoffspring into the gene pool Habi- mends 80 acres or a 1/4 mile radius circle (125 tat areas and corridors have also been located to acres) for these pairs. The Forest agreed that provide, to the greatest extent possible, for move- 125 acres for known pairs outside of SOHA's ment of individuals between areas of suitable would provide for minimal nesting habitat and habitat on adjacent National Forests the opportunity for dispersal into the SOHA network If a single owl is found, 125 acres will Under the medium habitat capability model in be protected for up to two field seasons to allow Appendix 0 of the Forest Plan, the home range enough time for biologxts to determine the sta- for fisher comprises 9,800 acres with a minimum tus of the bird Management of non-network stand size of 80 acres Habitat areas are spaced owls will continue until there is a reproducing 3-8 miles apart Travel corridors between the pair within each SOHA in the network, an esti- areas are 600 feet wide These areas are continu- mated three to five decades from now ous blocks of land with a majority of the area

4-122 Chapler 4-Envronmental Consequences comprised of well stocked, large 5awtimber and C;rivil (;ruy Oiul Tbi. owl, proh,ihly this tcitv\l old growth stands Five fisher areas have been owl in the Sieira Nevada, has been confirmed a5 identified on the Lassen, totaling 63,380 acres a resident on the Forest It prefers dense, older Two ofthese areas also overlap with four marten timber stands bordering meadows and may areas change its territory sea.;onally Large snags arc required for nesting and perching Marten requirements under the medium habitat capability model call for 2,100 acres of home Little is known about the great gray Owl's popu- range with a minimum stand size of 80 acres lation or distnbution on the Forest However, its Again, large sawtimber and old growth stands habitat will he protected by managmg meadow are considered suitable for marten habitat Man- ecotones under the F Riparian/Fish Prescrip- agement areas are spaced approximately three tion, as outlined in Chapter 4 in the Forest Plan miles apart with an average corridor width of The Forest's snag management levels, discussed 600 feet to provide a travelway to other areas A in Appendix 0 in the Plan, will provide snags to total of 19 management areas were established meet the requirements of this species on the Forest for marten compnsing 30,395 acres Population levels and habitat conditions would The current amounts of suitable habitat within probably mot be affected by the PRF and EGP fisher and marten habitat management areas Alternatives Effects would be more significant are below the habitat requirements and the popu- under the CUR and TGP Alternatives with their lation viability standards set forth in the litera- greater emphasis on timber management, re- ture review Of the 94,000 acres tentatively gene1 ation harvesting, and road construction identified as habitat, 33 percent do not contain the vegetative conditions necessary to maintain Northern Goshawk A network of 113 goshawk population viability In addition, little is known management areas IGMA's) has been established about the current population levels of these elu- over the Forest that meets the standards in the sive species Until habitat areas are inventoried Pacific Southwest Regional Guide Goshawk and population surveys are conducted, the For- territories were established to maintain a den- est cannot reliably predict the effect land dis- sity of at least one territory per 18 square miles turbing activities would have on marten and Distances between territories or clumps of terri- fisher tories do not exceed 12 miles Each territory contains a minimum of 50 acres of suitable habi- Scheduled timber harvesting is deferred in mar- tat which is composed of mature and over-ma- ten and fisher management areas (and in their ture, multi-layered timbered stands Each GMA connecting corridors) in the PRF, EGP and TGP was located with preference gwen to known ac- Alternatives, resulting in a 7 MMBF per year tive or historic nest locations The remaining decline in yield The management areas are areas were located based on habitat suitability located primarily in places with a history of and spatial distribution requirements As new sightings and on lands already withdrawn from goshawk nests are located, a GMA will be created full timber management Establishment ofthese around the nesting pair to replace an existing, management areas and corridors is expected to unused GMA provide sufficient habitat to maintain popula- tions at levels that will contribute to long-term Timber management activities may occur within viability in the Sierra Nevada and Klamath goshawk territories, except during the nesting provinces season when there is occupancy Treatments are restricted to salvage and sanitation harvests to As withSOHA's, somesalvageor thinningactivi- maintain the structural integrity of the stand ties may be appropriate under certain conditions and habitat suitability Thinning may also oc- to remove timber killed by fire, drought or in- cur sects, or to improve and protect habitat for these species Timber management will not occur On September 26, 1991, a petition was tiled by unless proposed treatments maintain habitat several conservation groups to list the northern suitability goshawk asThreatened within its western range

. ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~ - Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-123 The U S Fish and WildlifeServiceannouncedin ers) is most accurately depicted by the Forest's the Januaiy 7. 1992 Federal Register that the snag management levels, discussed in Appendix northein goshawk in thr "forested West" is not a 0 These levels are based upon snag densities listable entity However, the USFWS is in initi- that have been found to support desirable popu- ating a Status Review on their own due to the lations of snag dependent species However, high level ofconcern and indications of declining maximum populations have not been established populations and habitats The goshawk is cur- for most snag dependent species, and the Forest's rently being upgraded to a Category 2 species existing snag habitat levels are not completely throughout its range in the United States The known USFWS will make a finding on the status renew in one year They will then decide whether to Each alternative will provide snags to meet the propose the species for listing by January 7, viability requirements ofthese species An aver- 1993 Ifit is proposed for listing at that time, the age ofat least 1 5 snags per acre will be provided USFWS will determine whether Federal listing through time in all forested areas Snags will be is warranted by January 7, 1994 of various diameters and condition classes, and will be located near water, riparian zones, mead- Sierra Nevada Red Fox Our knowledge of the ows and other openings where possible Green, Sierra Nevada red fox on the Forest is based on "cull" trees can be substituted for dead snags, widely scattered sighting records covering many provided at least one dead snag remains per acre diverse habitat types These records indicate Green snags must be live trees at least 30 feet that the red fox is rather general in its habitat tall, showing defects including at least one of the requirements and not particularly abundant in following charactenstics broken top, spike top any habitat type Actual population levels would 1/4 of tree dead), large dead limbs that would probably not be affected to a significant degree provide cavity forming potential, existing cavi- by any of the alternatives ties, or defects in the bole that could become cavities Willow Flycatcher This uncommon summer resi- dent has been identified on the Forest It is found Down wood is a habitat component that affects in riparian, deciduous habitats and in wet mead- habitat quality for most snag dependent species ows with willow thickets Willow flycatcher by providing foragmg habitat and increased populations are declining due to the destruction amounts of prey Each alternative will provide of riparian habitat throughout California and down wood averagmg at least 15 logs per acre in nest parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds (John- eastside pine, 3 per acre in mixed conifer and 4 son 1963, 1966, Gaines 1977) per acre in true fir Logs are to be a minimum of 15 feet long and a minimum of 15 inches in Riparian habitat will be protected in all alterna- diameter on the small end of the log tives by using Best Management Practices (For- est Plan, Appendix &) and by managmg riparian Continued removal of snags and down wood for zones under the F Ripanaflish Prescription, firewood in all alternatives will reduce habitat discussed in Chapter 4 in the Forest Plan for species dependent on these elements The difficulty of enforcingminimum snag levels with Management effects on population levels and firewood cutters can make this a significant habitat conditions would be greatest under the problem in certain areas CUR Alternative as riparian areas are more intensively managed for timber production The Harvest Species All alternatives will provide PRF, EGP, and TGP Alternatives propose tim- habitat to support harvest species above viable ber harvesting in riparian areas only when ri- population levels Deer and antelope habitat parian values can be maintained or enhanced will be most influenced by the amount and types They also place more emphasis on range man- of timber practices, amount of prescribed burns agement and the restoration of degraded npar- and wildfires, and rangeland conditions There ian conditions is significant highway mortality of deer on the Forest, particularly during migrational periods, Snag Dependent Species Habitat capability due to automobile accidents Tables 2-3 through for snag dependent species (such as woodpeck- 2-6 show total deer numbers and habitat im-

~~~ ~

4-124 Chapter $-Environmental Consequences provementforeach alternative Table 4-21 shows resource values Water and riparian dependent the capability (capacity) of deer mnter range fish species are discussed in more detail in the that lies wthin the Forest for each alternative Fish section of this chapter (In ths section, rainbow trout are discussed under resident fish; Antelope are dependent upon the qualityofrange- chinook salmon and steelhead are discussed land resources, Unless management activlties under anadromous fish ) are proposed within their habitat, few impacts are anticipated under any of the alternatives All Alternatives Minimum management requirements outlined a. Direct and Indirect Effects in Appendix 0 of the Forest Plan for oaks and wetlands mll maintain populations of western gray squirrels and mallards The effects of implementing the various alterna- tives on wildlife were evaluated considering the direct and indirect risk to populations and habi- Table 4-21 tat conditions from resource management prac- tices Generally, all alternatives except CUR Deer Winter Range Capability provide for improved habitat diversity Base Year Alternative Effects from Recreation Management In- 1982 PRF CUR EGP TGP creased recreational use of the Forest is pro- jected in all alternatives except CUR Four Winter 296 281 329 284 285 recreation-associated activlties (motonzed ve- Range Deer hicle use, developed campgrounds, dispersed Numbers recreation use and consumptive use of wildlife) (Thousand Deer) would provlde the greatest risk to mldlife

Motonzed vehicle use, both on-highway and off- Water and Riparian Dependent Species highway, would be evaluated annually and Chinook salmon, steelhead and rainbow trout changes in access would be made to diffuse ef- are selected fish Management Indicator Species fects to a level consistent with the goals and for water and ripanan areas. Under all alterna- objectives of each alternative tives, habitat mll be provided to support popula- tions above vlable levels for each species Con- Use associated wth developed campgrounds can stant to all alternatives are Best Management affect distnbution of some wildlife species, their Practices for water quality and ripanan area habitat, or increase the risk of conflict mth management, Forest Standards and Guidelines certain species such as the black bear Dispersed for fish, and specific nparian area management recreation can also directly affect mldlife by measures as directed under the F Riparidsh Prescnption Implementation of these manage- reducing available habitat and increasing the ment practices and gutdelines mll insure that nsk for conflict between man and species that the characteristics and functions of nparian ar- require remote habitat eas wll be buffered during forest management activlties, and that they wll provlde current and New, developed campgrounds are proposed mth future fish habitat requirements and maintain all of the alternatives to meet anticipated de- overall channel integrity. Since fish are consid- mand through decade 3, except CUR Only the erednparian-dependentresources, they are gwen PRF Alternative would provlde a full range of preferential considerationin npanan areas where dispersed recreation opportunities on 65,000 conflicts among land use activlties might occur acres of semi-primitive areas A limited range of dispersed recreation would be provlded in the Predicted production levels for MIS vary by al- other three alternatives New campgrounds and ternative, depending on the level of watershed dispersed recreation opportunities will be evalu- disturbance and the added effort required to ated, and mitigation measures ml1 be proposed insure maintenance and restoration of aquatic to reduce or hffuse the effects on mldlife

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4- 125 Effects from Wilderness Management Wil- would result in little change in the present level derness and proposed mlderness areas allow of nsk to mldlife Emphasis is placed in the natural ecoloacal change to take place. A posi- Forest Standards and Guidelines, and Manage- tive effect of wilderness is the low-risk manage- ment Prescnptions to meet mldhfe habitat and ment scheme whch reduces the potential for forage needs, as well as maintain ripanan val- human hsturbance to mldlife and their habitat ues Wilderness most benefits those species that are dependent upon late successional ecosystems Effects from Timber Management Risk to and prefer remote habitat Wilderness designa- the wildlife resource in terms of population vi- tion of forested lands does not usually benefit ability and distribution of habitat vanes by the early successional species amount and intensity of timber management applied mmber management can have both Wilderness excludes opportunities to improve positive andnegative affects onmldlife Through wildlife habitat through vegetative manipula- coordmation, harvesting can 1) create more tion or to increase habitat diversity that would habitat for species dependent on openings, 2) be he beneficial to species such as blacktail or mule used as a tool to establish and maintain a diver- deer Vegetative manipulation such as prescnbed sity of forest communities and habitats that are burning is often restncted, although wildfires favorable to many species of wildlife, 3) regener- may be allowed to burn mthout suppression in ate aspen and oak stands where conifers are some cases invading, 4) and restore meadows or wet areas by removing encroaching lodgepole or other spe- The EGP Alternative provides the most area cies managed as mlderness mth 121,146 acres. PRF proposes 99,644 acres for wilderness manage- Timber management also has a nsk of nega- ment No additional wilderness areas are pro- tively affecting wildlife The loss of mature posed with the CUR or TGP Alternatives, exist- forest and old-growth habitat affects those spe- mg mlderness would remain at 78,060 acres cies that are dependent upon old growth ecosys- tems and decadent conditions Harvesting can Effects from Range Management Livestock also increase the nsk to wildlife from higher grazing affects many wildlife species Though levels of human disturbance, increased road ac- modification of habitat, there is a high risk for cess, reduced hidinghhermal cover, and loss of grazing to adversely affect species which rely on remote, undisturbed habitat openings, early successional stages, and ripar- ian areas Wildlife, particularly deer and ante- The CUR Alternative treats the most acres by lope, competemthlivestockfor forage, space and even-aged methods (5,900 acredyear) followed water in nparian and mnter range areas Live- by TGP mth 3,500 acredyear, and PRF mth stock grazing can also affect wildlife by reducing 2,600 acredyear This form of regeneration cover orby mahng availablegreen forage through benefits species that rely on operungs, early the removal of mature foliage. successional conditions, and transitory range The EGP Alternahve proposes 3,100 acredyear Range treatments can have both positive and in group selection ("patch')cuts, two acres or less negative effects for wildlife due to modification of in size. Effects on wildlife from ths form of plant species composition and distnbution Struc- uneven-aged management need to be studied to tural improvements such as water developments determine utilization by early and late succes- can also increase habitat for some species of sional species wildlife Another potential effect on mldlife can come fromfencing used to control livestockmove- mmber harvesting in old growth forests reduces ment, especially around ripanan areas Fences in habitat Capability for spotted owl, marten, and can cause injuries or block wildlife movement fisher The CUR Alternative has the highest allowable sale quantity and number of acres that All alternatives wouldmaintain the current graz- are treated by even-aged management It has ing level or have a slight reduction (2 percent) in the greatest potential Forest-mde to reduce habi- AUM's The range condition would be main- tat capability for late successional species The tained or enhanced under all alternatives This EGP Alternative has the lowest allowable sale

4-126 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences quantity and the lowest potential to reduce habi- same for all the alternatives Overall, the CUR tat capability Under all alternatives, harvest Alternative has the greatest risk to wildlife from units will be planned to minimize fragmentation roaded access and disturbance. of suitable habitat and provide connecting corri- dors between larger blocks of old growth areas Effects from PrescribedBurning Preplanned In addition, habitat areas have been established ignitions can be used as a tool to manipulate for old growth dependent species to maintain vegetation and improve wildlife habitat This is population viability, and insure that they re- particularly true for deer, but also true for other main well-distnbuted throughout their range. species that require a diversity ofcover and food types Preplanned ignitions to benefit wildlife Effects from Roads and Trails Interaction are prohibited in wilderness PRF, EGP, and between humans and wildlife, particularly where TGP Alternatives treat 1,300 acreslyear in de- wildlife is hunted, has a high risk of negatively cade l for the benefit of wildlife CUR proposes affecting many wildlife species For certain spe- 1,760 acredyear cies, such as the black bear, conflict can lead to a loss of individuals or reduced habitat value b. Cumulative Effects Motorized access tends to increase the frequency of these interactions Effects from road building, timber harvest, rec- reation activlties, and habitat changes can all All alternatives would have restrictions on off- contribute to the cumulative effects on suitable highway use to reduce the risk to wildlife In habitat for old growth dependent species Activi- some areas, the restrictions would also limit ties on adjacent private land will also reduce old motorized access to trails Non-system roads growth habitat outside of National Forest own- would be evaluated and those not necessary for ership On the other hand, timber management management purposes would be closed to elimi- activities may improve the quantity of food re- nate casual vehicle use Some ofthe closed roads sources for deer, antelope and other early seral could be used as trails for off-highway vehicles speci e s

Wildlife and wildlife habitat is disturbed by new All alternatives would be expected to maintain road construction Roads constructed to timber the viability of California spotted owl popula- harvest areas allow the public greater access to tions through the current SOHA network The the Forest, and provide increased opportunities CURAlternative calls for scheduled timber man- for human and wildlife interactions Although agement in SOHA's Harvesting may reduce roads also provide travelways for wildlife, roads suitable habitat below the medium habitat capa- which remain open may result in increased hunt- bility level descnbed in Appendix 0 of the Forest ingpressure, traffic, and wildlife mortality Road Plan However, SOHA management direction construction can also displace one population may change as a result of continuing research into the territory of another, resulting in in- and monitoring of the habitat requirements for creased competition for space, cover and forage this subspecies Northern spotted owl viability would be maintained with established Habitat The number of roads constructed reconstructed Conservation Areas throughout Oregon, Wash- or maintained for use is proportional to the level ington and the Klamath Province in northern of an alternative's commodity production, pri- Califorma marily timber production and recreation The CUR Alternative, presumably, ha5 more road Using current information and management di- construction and reconstruction than the other rection, all alternatives would maintain the vi- three alternatives TGP has the second highest ability of marten and fisher popdations The with 88 miledyear in decade 1 PRF and EGP CUR Alternative calls for limited timber man- have 66 miledyear of road construction and re- agement, in marten and fisher areas Harvesting construction in the first decade Maintained may reduce suitable habitat below the medium roads are approximately the same for all four habitat capability level described in Appendix 0 alternatives (3,472miles)indecade 1 Roads and ofthe Forest Plan Extensive harvesting activity trails open to off-highway vehicle use in the on National Forest and adjacent private lands summer and in the winter are also virtually the will reduce the opportunity for individuals to

Chapter 4-Envtronmental Consequcwces 4- 127 interchange and mix gene pools between cumulative effects analysis will be conducted unconnected blocks of suitable habitat The pnor to any land disturbing activity that may greatest adverse, cumulative effects would be in impact owl habitat Designated SOHA's will be those alternatives that would cause the most monitored annually to determine pair occupancy reduction in habitat The CUR and TGP Alter- and reproductive status General population natives have the highest risk trends for spotted owls can be determined by monitonng across the Forest The Forest will The recovery plans for bald eagles and peregrine maintain the flexibility to manipulate the spot- falcons consider the requirements on all owner- ted owl network in response to information gath- ships and assign habitat protection goals to pub- ered through monitonng or as new management lic land agencies Adverse, cumulative effects direction is developed would be prevented by adherence to the recovery plans for these two species in all alternatives Old growth habitat lost to timber harvest, fires or natural catastrophes cannot be mitigated If c. Mitigation Measures new silvicultural methods are established to harvest timber while simultaneously providing Wildlife can be managed on the Forest in two for "old growth structural charactenstics at an ways (1)by protection and (2)by the application early stand age, these methods may provide of Standards and Guidelines Protection in- mitigation possibilities in the future Under all volves specific land allocations such asthe HCAs, ofthe alternatives, old growth habitat for cavlty SOHA's, marten and fisher habitat management nesters, martens, fishers, pileated woodpeckers areas In other areas, Forest Standards and and spotted owls would decline Guidelines for wildlife resources will guide tim- ber management, road building, fuels manage- Some alternatives preserve significantly more ment, mining, and livestock grazing wildlife habitat wth old growth charactenstics than others In all alternatives, thshabitat type The management objective for wildlife resources will gradually hminish and by the fifth decade is to provide a mix of habitat capable of indefi- will be greatly reduced in commodity-oriented nitely supporting all native and desirable non- alternatives However, all alternatives would native wldlife species Protection of Manage- increase the number of acres in large sawtimber ment Indicator Species is achieved through man- stands by decade 5 which would partially offset agement of specific habitat types and/or struc- the decline of old growth The PRF and EGP tures, including snags, dead and down woody Alternatives protect a significantlylarger amount debris, deer range, mature/old growth, ripanad of wildlife habitat with old growth characteris- hardwood habitat, and Threatened, Endangered tics than the other alternatives The PRF and and Sensitive species habitat. EGP Alternatives provide old growth habitat through SOHA's, wilderness, semi-pnmitive and In all alternatives, Threatened and Endangered special areas, riparian zones, old growth reten- species will be protected as required under the tion areas, and marten and fisher habitat. Endangered Species Act In the PRF, CUR and EGP Alternatives, greater emphasis is placed on Mitigation for loss of snag habitat involves the protecting additional habitat by the fifth decade retention ofcurrent and futuresnags forprimary for bald eagles and peregrine falcons The TGP cavity excavators on lands suitable for timber Alternative maintains habitat at recovery goals harvest Retention of cavlty nester habitat may be best achieved byretaininghabitat "islands" as Spotted owl nests and roosting sites found out- opposed to single trees Islands retain some side designated Spotted Owl Habitat Areas (in habitat integnty, while individual snags provide areas managed for timber production) will be a single nest, foragmg or perch site only Nest protected through Forest-mde Standards and boxes and the drilling of nest holes in trees are Guidelines The Standards and Guidelines di- used to supplement habitat, but are generally rect that 125 acres be protected around every viewed as a last resort, to be used only when non-network nesting pair of owls and around natural habitat is unavailable Mitigation for single birds for up to two field seasons until pair dead and down woody material includes reten- status can be determined Owl surveys and tion ofslash piles and large woody debris on new

4-128 Chupter 4-Environmental Consequences harvest units Mitigation for loss of dead and All alternatives provide for various habitat Im- down habitat on existing harvest units may also provement projects through implementation of be feasible Logs, root wads or other woody the Sikes Act (Public Law 93-452) as well ab K-V debris can often be placed in adjacent uncut (Knutson-Vandenburg) projects Implementa- stands tion of habitat improvement projects would in- crease deer habitat capability More projects All bald eagle and peregnne falcon habitat is may also be done if alternative funding sources protected in all alternatives A specific land are available allocation for bald eagles is included under the Late Successional (L) Prescnption PRF Alternative

The management objective for deer is to provide Threatened and Endangered Species This alter- habitat capable of indefinitely supporting these native would protect all Threatened and Endan- species All alternatives are designed to meet gered species and their habitat. Consultation this objective in at least a minimally adequate with the U S Fish and Wildlife Service will be fashion Alternatives with lower timber har- done any time a project is proposed that may vests have fewer roads, which result in less affect a Threatened or Endangered species Po- disturbance to deer and antelope and thus higher tential effects will be mitigated by evaluating the habitat capability Each alternative has a differ- needs of the species in each management deci- ent potential for deer habitat Capability, as dis- sion Measures such as seasonal avoidance or played in Table 2-7 in Chapter 2 Increased relocation of planned activities will be used to forage will be available on transitory range cre- avoid negative effects At least 19 current or ated by timber harvesting The CURAlternative potential bald eagle nest territories would be has the most regenerated acres, and therefore, a protected and managed to provide long-term higher proportion of transitory range In all habitat The Forest’s goal of 16 nesting pairs is alternatives, projects such as creation of perma- expected to be reached by the first decade, and nent meadows, forage seeding and road closures possibly exceeded, due to habitat protection and would occur, but the amount differs by alterna- recent increased population size for the species tive over its range

The PRF and EGP Alternatives provide for more The Forest would continue to protect five suit- old growth habitat while CUR and TGP provide able breeding areas for peregnne falcons and less Loss of old growth includes loss of optimal would actively participate in population recov- thermal cover This would decrease habitat ery activities, in conformance with species capability for deer, especially when significant recovery plan objectives This includes nest loss of optimal cover occurs within winter range monitoring, collection of eggs for artificial hatch- There is a subsequent increase in deer forage ing, etc until the recovery goal of three nesting with the reduction of old growth However, pairs for the Lassen is met By decade 2, Forest increased forage does not compensate for the loss Plan direction calls for five nesting pairs of per- of thermal cover Alternatives that maintain egrine falcons quality thermal cover, particularly in winter range, would also result in better long tem pro- Shasta crayfish habitat will be protected A tection species recovery plan has not been adopted at this time No planned management actions are The suitability of vegetative cover for wildlife is expected to affect this species or its habitat modified by the amount of roads open to the public The effectiveness of wildlife hiding cover The recent listing of the northern spotted owl as is reduced by an increase in roads and road use Threatened requires development of a species Specific roads can be closed to protect wildlife recovery plan The recovery plan, when adopted, travel corridors or hiding cover Closed roads will be followed by the Forest in all management can be seeded to provide some forage for wildlife decisions Deer use of otherwise suitable feeding and rest- ing areas is reduced adjacent to open primary Sensitiue Species Population densities for Cah- and secondary roads forma spotted owl, goshawk, marten, and fisher

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-129 would be lower in areas under full timber man- dards in the next three to five decades, the agement (Timber Prescription lands) New road additional protection for non-network owls will construction and even-aged timber management, no longer be needed in particular clearcutting, would reduce habitat suitability for these species in some areas A network of 113 goshawk management areas would be established, based on known nest sites Designated habitat areas for fisher,marten, spot- and suitable habitat where nest history is un- ted owl, goshawk, plus old growth retention known Goshawk management areas will pro- areas, Research Natural Areas, Special Interest vide for distribution of this species over the Areas, proposed Wild and Scenic River corridors, Forest semi-pnmitive areas, and wildernesses will all contribute late seral stage vegetation They Five fisher management areas and 19 marten contain abundant snag and down log densities areas would provide adequate amounts of habi- which areimportant habitat components for these tat spatially arranged to provlde for successful species Forested areas receiving no scheduled recrutment of young and dispersal across the or limited timber management (228,794 and length of the Forest and to adjacent lands 254,301 acres respectively) could provide suit- able habitat where crown condition and struc- Snug Dependent Specaes Species dependent on tural diversity requirements can be met snags and/or down logs for nesting or foragmg will have improved habitat suitability over the The PRF Alternative would provide for 106,000 existing situation due to higher snag and down acres of large sawtimber in decade 2, a decrease log retention levels In addition, there would be of 14 percent from 1982 By decade 5, however, 243,000 acres (by decade 5) maintained in large there should be 243,000 acres, an increase of sawhmber stands that will acquire the charac- 120,000 acres from 1982 as young sawtimber teristic decadence ofoldgrowth stands overtime stands mature Compared to the other alterna- In the future, species such as hairy and pileated tives, PRF ranks highest in the total number of woodpeckers that are dependent on snags for acres of large sawtimber provided by decade 5 nesting, would be expected to have improved Large sawtimber stands have many attnbutes of habitat conditions on the Forest with this alter- old growth such as percent canopy closure, aver- native Management prescriptions that are com- age diameter, and structural attnbutes How- patible with the maintenance of high snag and ever, they may lack other qualities such as deca- down log density levels are Wilderness, Special dence Large sawtimber stands are considered Areas, Semi-Primitive, Old GrowtWGoshawk, suitable habitat for these Sensitive species if Late Successional, and Rocky/Sparse they are greater than 80 acres in size, and are spatially arranged to permit movement and suc- Harvest Species Summer range habitat for deer cessful interaction and reproduction As such, and to a lesser extent, pronghorn, would be these areas will add to the vegetative diversity improved by the regeneration ofup to 4,000 acres found on the Forest, and contnbute to species of forested habitat per year, including 600 acres viability and distribution of habitat for wildlife regenerated by the Early Successional Prescrip- dependent upon late successional ecosystems tion Additional habitat improvement would re- sult from prescnbed burning 1,300 acres per The SOHA network will provide 40 habitat areas year Summer deer habitat capability would for the California spotted owl Currently, there decrease according to the habitat capability model is not enough suitable habitat wthin the net- used to predict population levels based on man- work to maintain species viability Until suffi- agement activities In decade one, population cient habitat is available, spotted owl pairs would levels would decrease seven percent from the be protected outside ofthe management areas by 1982 level to 45,600 By decade five, habitat locatingnest or day roost sites, and protecting at capability would improve to 47,200 deer Winter least 125 acres of suitable habitat around them range habitat Capability for deer would decrease Day roost sites will be protected for up to two by five percent to 28,100 in decade 1and remain field seasons to determine if there is pair status stable thereafter Road construction would in- When the SOHA network IS up to reeonal stan- crease human disturbance of deer

~ ~ Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences Wetlands maintenance and development for spotted owl populations are expected to decline waterfowl would occur on 20 acres per year to just those pairs mthin SOHA’s dunng decade 1, providing a moderate increase in waterfowl population Moderate timber har- Nineteen marten, five fisher and 113 goshawk vest would retain more hardwoods for squirrels management areas would provlde suitable habi- tat, spatially arranged to allow for reproductive Additional road building and even-aged timber success and genetic interchange between man- management would reduce escape cover, and agement areas and adjacent lands nmber har- increase human disturbance factors for black vesting is scheduled within goshawk, marten, bear These effects will be mitigated by the and fisher areas under this alternative. Pnmary number ofacres that wlll receive no scheduled or treatments mll be the removal of salvage and only limited timber management. sanitation volume Silvlcultural prescnptions wl11 be designed to maintain habitat conditions CUR Alternative at the medium habitat capability level as shown in Appendix 0 of the Forest Plan Effects of Threatened and Endangered Species This alter- harvesting on population vlabihty and hstribu- native protects Threatened and Endangered spe- tion are unknown at this time, and would be cies Higher levels of road construction and monitored as projects are implemented. timber harvest activlties would potentially af- fect habitat quality for bald eagles in some areas By decade 5, there will be fewer acres in large Nineteen terntones for bald eagles and five sawtimber stands than any of the other alterna- eynes for peregnne falcons would be mintained tives, resulting in reduced habitat for these Sen- by decade 2 Recovery goals for these species sitive species There are no proposed Research would be met in decade 1 The recovery plan Naturalheas, Special Interest Areas, Wild and objectives for the northern spotted owl wlll be Scenic River corndors, wildernesses, or semi- followed when they are developed. pnmitive areas that would be managed under a late seral prescnption. The CURAlternative has Habitat for the Shasta crayfish will be protected more acres under full timber management where it occurs A recovery plan has not devel- (394,418)and proposes more even-aged manage- oped, however no planned management actions ment (5,900 acredyear) than the other alterna- are expected to affect this species or its habitat tives While this management strategy can ben- efit species dependent upon early successional Sensrtrue Species This alternative provides habi- vegetation, it does not provlde vegetative diver- tat for 39 pairs of spotted owls in a network of sity, suitablecoverorfoodsourcesfor latesucces- management areas across their range on the sional species. Forest Each SOHA would be managed to main- tain 1,000 acres of old growth or mature sawtim- Snag Dependent Species These species would beras base habitat and 650 acres as replacement occur at low to moderate populabons under this habitat Over time, the base habitat area would alternative, especially in eastside pine stands A be moved to the replacement habitat to allow large number of acres would be assigned to pre- those stands to be harvested Currently, there is scnptions that utilize full timber management not enough suitable habitat mthin the spotted and therefore, provlde low snag habitat capabil- owl network to maintain species viability Tim- ity Compatible management prescnptions are ber harvesting is scheduled in the SOHA net- the same as those listed under the PRF Alterna- work in an effort to accelerate the growth of tive suitable habitat and capture yleld in excess of suitabihty requirements. Designated stands Haruest Species About 1,760 acres per year within 15miles of the nesting core would be would be burned to improve deer forage and harvested using even-aged methods It is esti- approximately 7,900 acres per year would be mated that the SOHA network would meet re- regenerated. None of the regenerated forested Dona1 standards in the next three to five de- lands would receive the Early Successional Pre- cades Spotted owl pairs would not be protected scnption Deer summer range capacity would outside ofthe management areas Because ofthe increase to 49,700 in decade 1, a one percent intensity of timber management under CUR, increase over the 1982 level, but nine percent

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-131 below the population goal. By decade 5, the affect these Sensitive species, particularly mar- population would reach 52,600 (seven percent ten and fisher which are more tolerant of open- above 1982) Deer mnter range capacity would ings mtlnn dense stands. Monitonng during increase by 11 percent, to 32,900 deer in decade and after project implementation would deter- 1. Pronghorn summer range would be improved mine how population levels and distribution are as a result of rangeland improvements for live- being affected by harvest actinties and road stock and deer habitat improvement. Wetlands construction. maintenance and development would continue at the rate of 5 acres per year Habitat qualityfor Designatedhabitatareas for fisher, marten, spot- black bears and gray squirrels would decline ted owl, goshawk, plus old growth retention Roadbuilding would reduce escape cover for deer areas, Research Natural Areas, Special Interest and black bear High timber production and Areas, proposed Wild and Scenic River comdors, firewood utilization would reduce hardwoods and senn-pnmitive areas, and mldernesses mll all snags in many areas, along with populations of contain late seral stage vegetation mth abun- dependent species dant snag and down log densities which are important habitat components for these species EGP Alternative Forested areas receiving no scheduled or limited timber management (239,254 and 258,246 acres Threatened and Endangered Species Ths alter- respectively)could provlde smtable habitat where native provldes protection and management of crown condition and structural diversity re- 16 bald eagle nesting terntones in the first quirements are met decade to meet recovery plan objectives Nine- teen nesting terntones m11 be provlded by de- Tlns alternative would provlde for 97,000 acres cade 2 five peregnne falcon eynes mll be of large sawhmber in decade 2, a decrease of 21 protected to exceed the recovery plan goal of percent from 1982. By decade 5, however, there three nesting pairs for this species, also by de- would be 236,000 acres, an increase of 113,000 cade 2 The Forest would actively participate in acres over 1982 as young sawtimber stands ma- population recovery activlties such as nest moni- ture. EGP would provlde the second highest tonng, collection of eggs for artificial hatching, amount of habitat in large sawtimber stands etc until recovery ohjectives are reached. Large sawtimber stands have many attnbutes of old growth such as percent canopy closure, aver- The recent listing of the northern spotted owl as age diameter, and structural attnbutes, but they Threatened reqrures development of a species may lackother qualities such as decadence. Large recovery plan. Therecoveryplan, when adopted, sawtimber stands are considered suitable habi- will be followed by the Forest in all management tat for these Sensitive species if they are greater decisions. It may allow some activlties that could than 80 acres KI size, and are spatially arranged reduce habitat smtability for northern spotted to perrmt successful interaction and reproduc- owls in certain areas However, no management tion As such, these areas would add to the actions would be implemented that would hmin- vegetative diversity found on the Forest, and ish vlability of this species on the Forest contnbute to species viability and distnbution of habitat for mldhfe dependent on late succes- Shasta crayfish habitat will be protected Al- sional ecosystems though a recovery plan has not been adopted for this species, there are no planned management The SOHA network would provlde 40 habitat activlties that are expected to affect them or areas for the Calfornia spotted owl. As mth the their habitat PRF Alternative, there is not enough suitable habitat mthin the network atthe present time Sensitive Species Population densities for Cali- Spotted owl pairs would be protected outside of fornia spotted owl, goshawk, marten, and fisher the management areas by locating nest or day would decline in areas under full timber man- roost sites, and protecting at least 125 acres of agement (mmber Prescnption lands) 'Ilmber suitable habitat around them When the SOHA would be harvested pnmanly by group selection network is up to reDona1 standards in the next cuts two acres or less in size It is unknown how three to five decades, the additional protectlon this method of uneven-aged management mll for non-network owls would no longer be needed

4-132 Chapter 4-&uironmental Consequences A network of 200 goshawk management areas Shasta crayfish habitat will be protected where would be established, based on known nest sites it occurs When developed, recovery plan ohjcc- and suitable habitat where nest history is un- tives for the northern spotted owl would bc fol- known Goshawk management areas would pro- lowed vide for distnbution of this species over the Forest Sensrtiue Species Moderate amounts of habitat would be available for spotted owls, goshawks, Five fisher management areas and 19 marten marten and fisher Forty spotted owl habitat areas would provide adequate amounts of habi- areas would beprotected, and 113goshawkman- tat spatially arranged to provide for successful agement areas would be maintained Fisher and recruitment of young and dispersal across the marten management areas and corridors would length of the Forest and to adjacent lands exist as in the other alternatives

Snag Dependent Species Species dependent on Population densities for these species would be snags and/or down logs for nesting or foragmg reduced in areas under full timber management mll have improved habitat suitability over the (Timber Prescriptionlands) Under this alterna- existing situation due to higher snag and down tive, there areno Special InterestAreas,nosemi- log retention levels In addition, there would be pnmitive areas, no proposed wilderness areas, 236,000 acres (by decade 5) maintained in large and fewer miles in proposed Wild and Scenic sawtimber stands that will acquire the charac- River corridors that could provlde potential habi- tensticdecadence ofoldgrowth stands overtime tat for late successional species In the future, species such as hairy and pileated woodpeckers that are dependent on snags for The TGP Alternative would provide for 110,000 nesting, would be expected to have improved acres of large sawtimber In decade 2, a decrease habitat conditions on the Forest with this alter- of ten percent from 1982 By decade 5, however, native. Compatible management prescnptions there would be 228,000 acres, an increase of where high snag and down log densities would 105,000 acres over 1982 as young sawtimber occur are the same as those listed under the PRF stands mature Compared to the other three Alternative alternatives, TGP ranks third in the total num- ber of acres of large sawtimber provided by de- Harvest Species About 1,300 acres per year of cade 5 As with PRF and EGP, these areas would non-timbered deer habitat would be burned in add to the vegetative diversity found on the summer and winter ranges A moderate number Forest, and contribute to species viability and of timbered acres (average 4,000 per year) would distribution of habitat for wildlife dependent on be regenerated including 600 per year under the late successional ecosystems Early Successional Prescription Deer summer habitat capability would decrease by 11 percent A total of 283,977 forested areas would receive from 1982 in decade 1to 43,600 deer By decade full timber management, the second highest 5, deer capability would increase to 49,400, one among the alternatives TGP also proposes the percent above 1982. Deer unnter range capabil- second highest amount of timber harvesting with ity woulddecrease byfourpercentto28,400 deer even-aged management methods (3,500 acres/ Moderate timber harvest levels would retain year), primarily clearcutting This management more hardwoods for squirrels and provide less strategy would benefit species dependent upon road disturbance for bears Wetlands mainte- early successional vegetation, but would not pro- nance and development for waterfowl would oc- vide vegetative diversity, suitable cover or food cur on 40 acres per year during decade 1, provid- sources for late successional species Group ing a moderate increase in waterfowl population selection cuts are also proposed Monitoring would determine how population levels of these TGP Alternative species and habitat use would be affected by uneven-aged management methods. Threatened and Endangered Species Minimum recovery goals would be met Sixteen existing or Snag Dependent Species Snag densities would potential bald eagle terntones and three poten- be at a minimum on those acres receiving full tial peregrine falcon sites would be maintained timber management High snag and down log

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-133 densities would persist in areas assigned to the Short-term reductions of air quality will occur Wilderness, Special Areas, Old GrowtWGoshawk, due to dust and engme emissions as a result of Rocky/Sparse, Semi-Primitive, and Late Succes- increased vehicle use sional Prescriptions, andlarge sawtimber stands that will develop decadence over time Cultural Resources The Forest-wide Stan- dards and Guidelines and Forest Monitonng and Harvest Specres About 1,300 acreslyear of deer Evaluation Plan are designed to insure that habitat would be improved by prescnbed hurn- known cultural resources, and those discovered ing The Early Successional Prescription would dunngland managementactinties, are protected not be applied to any regenerated forested acres and mitigated from adverse effects Current Because 5,400 acres per year would be regener- inventory methods are designed to locate all ated under the Timber Prescription, a consider- significant cultural resources However, due to able amount of low to moderate quality forage variable field conditions, ground visibility dur- would be created Deer numbers would decrease ing survey, the preservation qualities of cultural to 44,500 in decade 1, nine percent below the resources and other factors, all sites may not be 1982 population level Numbers would increase to 49,000 deer by decade 5 Deer winter range located during the inventory If they are not capability would decrease by four percent to discovered and protected during project actin- 28,500 animals A higher timber harvest level ties, some sites may be inadvertently damaged than the PRF and EGP Alternatives would re- or destroyed Cultural sites located in wilder- tain adequate hardwoods for squrrel However, ness, along wild and scenic nver corndors and in there would be more disturbance for bears due to other areas where project actinty is limited roaded access into harvest units and loggmg would also limit cultural resource inventones. activities Twenty acres of ripanan habitat per As a result, some cultural sites may be lost or year in decade 1 would be restored or improved, damaged from natural agents or dispersed recre- providing a moderate increase in waterfowl popu- ation use Such impacts are unavoidable pend- lation ing advances in inventory methods and comple- tion of surveys in limited project activlty areas. C. ADVERSE Increased public access and dispersed recreation in some alternatives could ultimately lead to ENVIRONMENTAL disturbance of cultural resources Timber man- EFFECTS THAT CANNOT agement and road construction unavoidably in- crease the potential for inadvertent damage to BE AVOIDED cultural properties, regardless of the precau- tions Unavoidable disturbance from wildfires, Despite the application of mitigating measures landslides, and floods will continue to Forest management actinties, some adverse environmental effects cannot be avoided The Fire Impacts to the total array of Forest re- most significant of these include sources from wldfire cannot he totally avoided Air Quality Impacts to air quality cannot be Their occurrence will be random in both time and avoided in the range of alternatives, however, all space, but areas wlth the highest probabilities of the impacts will be temporary Wildfires will for an ignition can be identified The severity of continue to occur, and generally at times and the impact will be dependent on the intensity of under conditions that produce more TSP than a the fire, and this will be determined by site- prescribed fire of equal size In addition, these specific parameters such asfuel loading, weather will usually take place under weather conditions conditions, and topography which are not conducive to good smoke dispersal Short-term soil erosion and loss of vegetation An expanding program of prescnbed burning wlll occur during construction of firelines, de- would create smoke that could impair vlsibihty spite preventive measures The buildup of fuels for Forest users or nearby residents despite ef- will continue in areas protected by a fire exclu- forts to direct smoke away from populated areas sion philosophy Soil erosion and the use of This would be a short-term effect generally last- aerially delivered fire retardants may result in ing less than one day each time it occurred short-term water quality degradation Recre-

4-134 Chapter 4-Enutronmental Consequences ational opportunities may be interrupted or hm- Forest users will encounter more controls and ited in fire areas for short penods of time The restrictions as management intensity, resource aftermath of small fires will remain visible for a competition and population levels continue to short time The location of a major fire will increase over time remain visible through the vegetation for de- cades Smoke will be produced Soil, Water, and Riparian Areas Although Forest-wide Standards and Guidelines, BMPs, Adverseimpactswll alsooccurtosomeresources, and the Monitoring and Evaluation Plan have such as soil and air quality, from the use of been designed to prevent significant adverse prescribed fire in the treatment of activity and effects to soil and water, the potential for their natural fuels, and from wildlife habitat mainte- occurrence does exist Sediment production will nance The severity of these impacts will be exceed natural rates as long as roads are built, dependent on the intensity and duration of the timber is harvested, and other activities take prescribed fire Normally, the prescnption will place whichdisturb thevegetationandsoil Sedi- be designed so that the activity is implemented ment will be produced by surface erosion, chan- to achieve an acceptable level of impact to target nel erosion, and landslides and non-target resource values State and Federal water quality standards for Range Forest-wide Standards and Guidelines turbidity may not be met temporarily in some to improve nparian conditions may initially re- specific locations because of the difficulty in sult in increased costs in grazing managemenk preventing all soil erosion from newly disturbed e g. in installation of improvements (fencing and sites However, BMPs, Standards and Guide- water developments), herding and transport to lines, and monitoring will prevent or mitigate control stock distnbution and use, and possible any appreciable adverse soil and water impact to slight reductions in stocking levels the established beneficial uses In addition, the Lassen National Forest will coordinate mth the Recreation Areas currently suitable for unde- Forest Service ReBonal Office, the State Water velopedrecreation (ROScategonesofsemi-Pnrm- Resources Control Board, the Central Valley and Lahontan Regional Water Quality Control tive Non-motorized or Semi-Pnmitive Motor- Boards, and the Environmental Protection ized) would become unsuitable for this type of Agency in regard to BMP implementation Cur- recreation expenence when they are allocated to rent practices will be continually updated when uses that permit road construction and/or timber new information or improved methods are devel- harvest Management practices could perma- oped, which are both technically correct and nently destroy or modify the areas' remote, natu- practical in application ral attnbutes, making them unsuitable for some forms of dispersed recreation Sediment and turbidity origmating from areas managed for timber production have the great- Developed recreation sites are susceptible to est potential to adversely impact fish habitat wear and vandalism effects Some impacts can Stream water temperatures could increase in be mitigated through maintenance, reconstruc- certain stream reaches if ripanan vegetation is tion, and various preventive or enforcement inadvertently removed (such as blowdown), but methods to reduce vandalism. should remain unchanged or be reduced under normal conditions over time Social and Economic Levels of commodity and amenity resources provided by the Forest will Drinking water may be contaminated by human significantly decrease in response to changmg use, especially when such use is concentrated conditions and legal requirements Decrease in along streams Domestic water supply, if di- timber harvest levels in three of the alternatives verted directly from Forest streams, could be or a decrease in amenity resources have direct adversely affected dunng or shortly after road effects on local communities, governments and construction or other activities, and for short businesses in terms of socio-economic variables periods during more intense winter storms How- such as occupational lifestyles, leisure, attitudes, ever, the degree of impact will be both short in beliefs, values and community institutions duration and limited due to site specific planning

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4- 135 requirements and mitigations provided through and sanitation harvests, and removal of less the Standards and Gudelines desirable species in densely forested areas by thinnings Intensively managed or regulated Existing or potential conditions that could ad- forests may provide less habitat for species de- versely impact the soil or water resource will be pendent on old growth, snags and down mate- treated through watershed restoration or reha- rial Depending on the area, managed indimdual bilitation improvement projects stands may or may not have less habitat and species diversity. Across a landscape, habitat Soil displacement or erosion can be expected to and species diversity will generally be main- result from planned management actinties, such tained with management as vegetation removal, slash disposal, log skid- ding, prescnbed fire, construction and mainte- Visual Quality Standards and Guidelines for nance of roads, trmls, transmission facilities, nsualresource management specify Visual Qual- recreation sites and others Soil productivlty ity Objectives (VQOs)for each management area will be maintained, except for sites dedicated to The VQO's of Retention and Partial Retention roads, skid trails, log landings, recreation sites provide for alterations which do not dominate and other facilities or uses that may compact the thecharacter ofthe naturallandscape TheVQO soil, alter soil profiles or deplete nutrients. An of Modification provides for alterations which estimated less than one percent of the Forest dommate the natural landscape character, but area will be occupied by permanent roads or borrow elements of line, form, color, and texture facilities Expenence has shown that temporary from the natural setting to the extent and scale road surfaces can be revegetated, but the produc- that the alteration blends in with it In the tivity is reduced Forest-wide, an estimated 15 foreground, and to some extent in the middle- percent of tractor logged areas will experience an ground distance, viewers may find the alter- increase in soil bulk densities or compaction ations to be excessive 111 terms of their own Thesefactors, in turn, have indirect effects relat- expectations ing to reduced wildlife habitat, vegetative pro- ductivity, incidence and spread ofnonous weeds, Short-term decreases in the nsual quality of and increase in stream sedimentation over time foreground and middleground areas seen from travel corndors will result from periodic regen- Direct disturbance of soils from off-highway ve- eration timber harvest and road construction hicle use on open areas would result in some Prescnbed burns create some textural and color erosion and impairment of productinty, regard- changes in conifer landscapes, but the visual less of preventive erosion control efforts condition should deteriorate only slightly Firelines around large wldfires would create a Timber A loss of growth and yleld will occur on strong, unnatural contrast on the landscape and, lands managedfor other resourceobjectives than in some cases, a senous impmment of visual full timber production The resultant decline in quality for the viewer the Allowable Sale Quantity will have direct social and economic effects in terms of lower Wildlife Under all alternatives, the amount of employment levels in the timber industry and old growth forest will be reduced over the plan- reduced revenues to county road and school pro- ning period Populatrons of wildlife species de- grams pendent on old growth forests, such as pileated woodpecker, marten, and spotted owl, will de- Vegetation and Diversity Forest vegetation cline in some areas will be altered in respect to species composition, stand structure and age With the exception of Although large sawtimber stands will increase those acres retained in old growth, Special Ar- over time for all four alternatives, old growth eas, wildlife habitat, semi-primitive areas, and timber stands wll not be replaced as fast as they wilderness, existing mature forest on suitable are cut For example, although both fisher and lands will be subject to timber management marten habitat and populations were once wide- Management treatments include overstory re- spread, these species may decrease to a corridor moval of old growth trees from multi-storied of 19 marten areas and five fisher areas Suit- stands, clearcuts, group selection cuts, salvage able habitat in areas managed under the Old

4-136 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences GrowtWGoshawk, Late Successional, Riparian/ Some Forest uses may produce both short-term Fish, Semi-Pnmitive, Special Areas, and Wil- and long-term negative consequences For cx- derness Prescriptions may provide occupancy, ample soil exposure to harsh environmental and increase distribution of these species conditions, such as desiccation, severe fire, nu- trient removal, compaction or erosion, can result Wildlife species will be temporarily and, occa- in a gradual decrease in timber and range supply sionally permanently, displaced when habitat is for future generations It is soil protection, then, disturbed or removed by timber management, that is paramount both to a sufficiency of annual facility development, recreation use, and road harvest and to a sustained yield building The Forest-wide Standards and Guidelines for Decrease in snag habitat for cavity dependent soil and water are common to all alternatives wildlife will orcur due to timber harvesting, and have the potential to maintain soil produc- firewood cutting, and salvage programs A corre- tivity Through project implementation, moni- sponding decrease in cavity dependent wildlife toring and improvement of practices, long-term species is expected under all alternatives productivity of the Forest can be maintained

Habitat capability for deer will decrease in de- Timber The most significant activity proposed cade one for three ofthe alternatives according to by the alternatives is the management of vegeta- the Forest habitat capability model This may be tion for timber production, wildlife habitat, rec- a reflection in the accuracy of the model or a reation, range use and visual resources Well- decline in habitat quality or both planned and carefully managed short-term projects can and do produce effects that will increase long-term productivity For example, D. RELATIONSHIP harvestingunmanaged, stagnated stands oftrees BETWEEN will lead to the creation of plantations of young trees trees that with proper management will SHORT-TERM USES increase long-term production AND LONG-TERM PRODUCTMTY Lands identified as unsuitable for sustained yield timber management have been allocated for soil, watershed or wildlife habitat protection Disper- The relationship between short-term uses of the environment and the maintenance and enhance- sion of timber harvest activity, retention of old growth and protection of riparian areas have all ment of long-term productivity is complex For- est management of public lands is purposefully a been planned in order to prevent long-term im- long-term venture, but one that must serve the pairment of the land and maintain resource year-to-year needs of society productivity

Some practices and activities proposed in the Openings created by timber harvests increase alternatives may produce benefits at the ex- the forage needed for the maintenance of deer pense oflong-term productivity ofthe land These herds Conversely, the construction of tempo- uses are short-term In the sense that they may rary project roads and landings, mechanical slash occur for a relatively short duration while their piling, and log skidding compact the soil. Unless effects may last beyond the planning horizon, or proper mitigation measures are taken, these possibly in perpetuity actinties reduce long-term timber productivity on a site-specific basis Soil Longtermproductivityrefers to the contin- ued ability of the land to provide resource out- Vegetation and Diversity In the long term, puts This inherent ability is lost if soil produc- diversity is directly related to forest health and tinty and hydrolog.lc charactenstics are impaired, productivity Generally those alternatives that or if the physical character of the landscape is have larger land areas allocated to non-con- altered beyond short-term recoverability Long- sumptive uses are dominated by natural pro- term productivity depends on conservation of the cesses In actively managed areas, the health soil and health of its living system and productivityoftheForestis aconcern There-

Chapter 4-Enuuonmental Consequences 4-137 fore, the risk of diversity loss and long-term range of alternatives Mitigatingmeasures such productivity is least under the PRF and EGP as Yarding Unmerchantable Material, chipping Alternatives, which have less consumptive uses and burying will, however, require the irretriev- able commitment of fossil fuels. Wildlife Wildlife species occurring within the Forest will be assured of long-term population Cultural Resources Timber harvest, facility viability However, fluctuations in populations construction, visitor use, theft, and vandalism will occur Those alternatives (CUR and TGP) may destroy irreplaceable archeoloacal and his- with higher timber levels will support higher toncal sites These sites can be damaged by populations ofwildlife species that use harvested project activities that disturb prevlously uniden- areas The PRF and EGP Alternatives, which tified sites They can also be impaired by the harvest fewer acres, wll supportrelatively higher recovery of cultural resources in conflict with populations of wildlife species that are depen- project activlties. The commonmitigationmethod dent on old-growth forests, hardwood stands, used before a site is removed is to undertake a and snag habitat In all the alternatives, accept- data recovery or documentation program of the able but long-term reductions of old growth and site Once undertaken, the effects of data recov- snag dependent species are expected to occur ery are an irreversible commitment to the re- based on the information we now have on their source These programs can only recover part, habitat requirements Monitoring and addi- not all of the significant values contamed by the tional research will tell if large sawtimber us site Much of the important aspects of cultural stands wll provide suitable alternate habitat for resources lies in their continued existence for these species Large sawtimber stands will in- future generations to study and enjoy as part of crease over time for all the alternatives their cultural hentage Once a site is removed or irreparably disturbed, these values are perma- nently lost E. IRREVERSIBLE OR IRRETRIEVABLE Energy The use offossil fuels in the administra- tion of the National Forest is an irreversible COMMITMENT OF resource commitment Alternatives vary only by RESOURCES the amount

Irreversible commitments of resources are den- Facilities The majonty oftheroads constructed sions causing changes that cannot be reversed, on the Forest become permanent features on the onceused, the resources cannot be reinstatednor landscape Roads which are scheduled for recla- can opportunities be renewed Irreversible com- mation do not return the land to its prior produc- mitments apply to activities or events such as tive state For all roads on the transportation mining, road construction, cultural resource dis- system, thereis adefinite long-termloss ofeither turbance, and dam construction that affect non- some or all of site productivlty wthin the exca- renewable or depletable resources vated road pnsm

Irretnevable commitments are opportunities for Construction of dams is one possible irreversible production or use of resources that are foregone action that is beyond the scope of Forest plan- for a period of time because ofland use decisions, ning, since the initiation lies outside Forest Ser- allocations, or constraints Examples are loss of vice authority In the event of proposals stem- timber production, livestock grazing, or devel- ming from external sources, site specific enw- oped recreation outputs to provide for such ben- ronmental analyses would explore the extent efits as enhanced wildlife habitat or visual qual- and consequences of irreversible commitments ity The decisions are reversible, but the produc- The role of the Forest Semce would be to miti- tion opportunities foregone while the constraints gate impacts on associated resources and seek to are in effect are irretrievable hold irreversible commitments to a minimum Air Quality There is no irreversible or irretriev- Fire There is no irreversible commitment of able commitment of resources associated with resources associated with the fire prevention, the temporary impacts to air quality over the

4-138 Chapter 4-Env1ronmental Consequences suppression, or fuels programs, as they could be Visual Resources The commitment of Forest curtailed at any time There will be a minor land to development ofpermanent facilities, such irreversible commitment of fossil fuels involved as roads, rock pits, and utility corndors consti- mth various fire management actimties tute an irreversible and irretnevable commit- ment of the natural appearance of the landscape Minerals In all alternatives, development of in most cases, although efforts are made to miti- the mineral resources would lead to an irrevers- gate these effects ible commitment of those resources and, in many cases, to the land thereby affected Wild and Scenic Rivers Designation of the inventoried Wild and Scenic Rivers would per- Recreation The commitment of the Forest's manentlyreduce or prohibit timber harvest Min- unroaded areas to timber production constitutes eral exploration and development is also re- an irretrievable loss of the primitive character stncted or prohibited Construction of dams, required to maintain the physical settings neces- diversions, and hydropower development will not be recommended sary for pnmtive and semi-primitive non-mo- tonzed recreation expenences Wilderness and Unroaded Areas Wilderness potential (charactenstics) in those roadless ar- Soil and Water There is an inherent nsk of eas allocated to management where develop- accelerating erosion, and other changes in the ment may occur is irretrievably lost This irre- physical and biologxal properties of soils, when tnevableloss, though,wlloccuronlyuponproject harvesting timber and building roads on the implementation and not as a direct effect of the Forest Surface and channel erosion, severe soil Forest Plan allocation compaction and displacement, damage to proper functioningofsoilbiolo@calprocesses, etc ,could Wildlife Old-growth habitat for wildlife, once lead to eitherahmitedor totalloss ofsite produc- harvested, cannot be replaced through regrowth tivity Productivity, once lost, requires a long over the planning penod For example, a loss of time for natural processes to restore The soil old-growth mthin mnter range would equate to and water protection measures identified in the irretnevable loss of optimal cover for deer. Un- Forest-mde Standards and Guidelines, and in- der all alternatives,overallacreagesofoldgrowth corporated into Best Management Practices, are habitat would decline on the Forest during the designed to minimze the potential for irrevers- planning period. There is some nsk that the ible losses fromproposed management practices number, size and dispersal of old growth habitat allocated to management indicator species may Timber Some forested acres are allocated to not be sufficient to maintain viable populations other than a timber prescription in each alterna- over time tive; an average production of 265 board feet per acre per year that could contnbute to the allow- able sale quantity (ASQ)would be irretnevably F. POSSIBLE CONFLICTS lost. WITH FEDERAL, Vegetation and Diversity Grazing allotments REGIONAL, STATE, AND may be restncted to protect other resource val- LOCAL LAND USE ues such as riparian areas This would consti- PLANS, INCLUDING tute an irretnevable loss to the permittees INDIANPLANS Old-growth forests, once harvested, are consid- ered an irretrievable loss To develop old-growth There are no known conflicts with plans of coop- forest characteristics, again, will require ap- erating or affected agencies, including. proximately 200 years Insects, disease, and fire can also contnbute to this loss If left unman- 1 United States Department of the aged, stand decadence may alter the old growth Interior-Lassen Volcanic National Park sufficiently to set the vegetative structure hack a West Prospect Fire Lookout to an early successional stage The result would Operations be a natural change, or loss, of old growth b Prescribed Burns

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4-139 2 Umted States Department of the In the past, the Lassen National Forest and the Interior - Bureau of Land Management, counties have attempted to keep private and PGTPGE Pipeline public land use compatible Where pnvate lands are scattered and intermingled mth the Forest, 3 State of California - Department of National Forest needs generally prevail Near Transportation communities, the Forest adjusts uses where fea- a. Snow removal sible to respond to local public needs. b. Deer Mortality Study 4. California Department of Fish G. ENERGY and Game a. Vernal pool fencing REQUIREMENTS b. Susan River Trout Habitat AND CONSERVATION Enhancement POTENTIAL c Deer Habitat Improvement With the emphasis on energy conservation, For- 5 California Department of Boating and est management activities and energy programs Waterways - Gallatin Manna have raised concerns that ment discussion The Reconstruction objective of this evaluation is to provlde addi- tional considerations through which Forest Plan- 6 Califorma State University at Chico nmg alternatives can be assessed and compared. a. Scenic Byways Nomination Report The followmg analysis provldes a descriptive b Almanor Campground Masterplan means to determne energy characteristics of Forest-based resources. Its purpose is to supple- 7 USDI Bureau of Land Management, ment economic and enwonmental considerations USDI National Park Service, USDA rather than to replace them Forest Service, California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection - Coop Energy is consumed in the administration and Fire Protection Agreement use ofthe natural resources of the Forest Major energy sources are gasoline, diesel fuel, liquefied 8 Cooperative Law Enforcement Agree- petroleum, electricity, and wood ments with Plumas County, Tehama County, Shasta County, Butte County, Energy is ylelded as hydroelectric power, fuel- and Lassen County Sheriffs Depart- wood, red meat, and energy-use reduction The ments followingdiscussion descnbes the estimated con- sumption and yeld of energy for all alternatives 9 Shasta County - NOXIOUSWeed Eradication Biomass and Firewood Energy can be con- sumed by (1)loggmg residue removal, (2)chip - 10. Lassen County Economic Development ping, (3) chip transportation, and (4) firewood Strategy Plan cuttmgand transportation Energyis now ylelded in home firewood use Additional energy is also Minerals The effects of implementing any al- ylelded from electrical generating plants ternative may conflict with the objectives of others and Federal mining laws. The Mining Facilities The Forest consumes about 42 billion Law of 1872 predates all other laws that govern Bntish Thermal Units (BTU's) each year in gen- Forest Service activlty Conflicts do arise be- eral admmistration, halffor vehicles and halffor tween administration of mining operations and buildings In an attempt to reduce energy con- management of other resource values such as sumption, the Forest uses fuel efficient vehicles visual quality, wilderness, water, Sensitive mld- such as motorcycles and compact pickups, and life and plants, mld, scenic, and recreational provldes van pooling from work centers to project nvers, and recreation areas Existing buldings have been retrofitted

4- 140 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences with more efficient lighting and heating sys- management direction The bald eagle, per- tems, additional insulation, and water heater egrine falcon and Shasta crayfi5h arp the onlv blankets Endangered \pecies which occur on Lhv I,d,sen The northern spotted owl is the only Threatened A 1983 study showed that through a retrofitting species found on the Forest program the Forest could save as much as 3 145 million BTU's per year A Savings-to-Invest- While some of the alternative5 would provide ment Ratio (SIR) analysis performed for Forest greater protection that others, none of the alter- buildings indicated a potential fivepercent sav- natives would have a significant adverse impact ings through the use ofweather-stripping, caulk- on Threatened nr Endangered species The Fin- ing, water heater blanketing, and similar mea- est will comply with all appropriate Threatened sures As costs increase for energy and as tech- and Endangered species recovery plans, regard- nology advances, additional cost-effective retro- less of the alternative Provision is made in the fitting opportunities will become available, thus Forest Plan to pursue informal or formal consul- reducing the energy requirements of the Forest tation as necessary during project design and environmental analysis Fire Management Fire management involves energy consumption in suppressing wildfires and Effects on Prime Farmland, Rangeland, treating fuels Both types of fire consume wood and Forest Land All the proposed actions in energy Fire management, or fire itself, yields no alternatives are consistent with the intent of the useful energy SecretaryofAgriculture direction (FSH 1909 15) for protecting and managing prime lands Range Energy is consumed in forage and struc- tural improvement, cattle transport, and travel Effects ofAlternatives on the Human Envi- ofpermittees Energy yield is from meat produc- ronment The civil rights of any American citi- tion zen are not differentially affected by implemen- tation of any alternative Recreation Energy is consumed by (1) opera- tion, maintenance, and construction of recre- Effects on Wetlands and Floodplains No ation sites, (2)transportation to recreation sites, significant adverse effects within areas of wet- and (3) recreation use (e g , water skiing, off- lands and floodplains are anticipated This is highway vehicle travel, etc ) Recreation yields largely due to the very small size of upslope no quantifiable energy wetlands, i e ,tinybogs and small ponds, and the limited amount of floodplains in stream and Timber Energy is consumed by (1)forest man- river areas Where floodplains exist, they are agement, (2) loggmg, (3) road construction and allocated to theRiparian/Fish Prescription which maintenance, (4) log transport to mills, (5) log restricts management activities and develop- processing, (6) lumbertransport to the consumer, ment Other than existing developments, such and (7)building construction Energy is yielded as roads and campgrounds, management within by utilizing residue as fuel and by savings from riparian areas IS extremely limited The Forest constructive use of energy-efficient materials intends to increase the number ofacres managed as wetlands Opportunities for wetland develop- ment will be implemented where feasible Water Energy consumed in obtaining water is small Substantial energy is yielded by hydro- Protection is also afforded to these areas through electric generating facilities BMP's incorporated in the Standards and Guide- lines, in requirements of the RipariadFish Pre- scription, in environmental analyses, and by H. OTHER DISCLOSURES Executive Orders 11988 (floodplains) and 11990 (wetlands) Collectively, these provide excellent Effects of Alternatives on Threatened and direction to insure that management activities Endangered Species and Critical Habitat do not have unacceptable adverse impacts on the Regardless ofthe aiternative, protection oflisted wetlands and floodplains Avoidance of these species will take precedence over other land areas will also he a common practice

Chapter 4-Environmental Conseqttcnces 4-141 Effects of the Alternatives on Urban Qual- hensive inventory of all Forest land and detailed ity, Including Historic and Cultural Re- studies of habitat requirements of plants found sources This FEIS dcals with wildland re- on the Forest Also useful for management sources and as such does not directly affect ur- would be reproductive and genetic studies of ban quality, or historic or cultural resources Sensitive plant populations Some of this infor- within an urban environment mation will be gathered in the process of develop- ing management guides for each Sensitive plant species I. INCOMPLETE OR Timber Group selection harvesting has not UNAVAILABLE been extensively used on the Lassen National INFORMATION Forest for the past three decades Prior to that, a system (called Unit Area Control) mimicked Forest management is not a definite science group selection harvests Small openings were Knowledge is continually evolving on how to created to encourage natural regeneration As maintain healthy and diverse communities of explained in Appendix 0, this system failed for forest plants and animals while providing com- three reasons ( 1)small groups of natural regen- modity uses on National Forest lands In many eration could not be efficiently managed, (2)the instances, it was not possible to fully assess cutting guidelines could not be used consistently, resource impacts from management activities and (3) many of the small groups were unavoid- because important information was not avail- ably destroyedwhenlarge treesinadjacent stands able This is particularly true for the manage- were felled ment of Sensitive wildlife species There has not been enough research in the Sierra Nevada and Because of this history, widespread application Klamath provinces to determine how manage- of group selection harvest is not recommended ment activities, such as timberharvesting, affect until additional information is obtained about Sensitive wildlife populations and habitat distri- the reliability of this treatment method in regen- bution Reeonal direction, a reaonal literature erating stands Factors to be studied include (1) review and habitat capability models were used the economic feasibility of this form of uneven- to establish habitat and/or vlable population aged management, (2)the success in regenerat- levels However, considerably more research is ing well-stocked stands within five years, (3)the needed to verify these assumptions This is the effect on plant and animal diversity; and (4)the purpose of monitonng and other field studies management implications of tracking numerous The discussion in this chapter is based on the group selection units over time best information available to evaluate environ- mental consequences Group selection harvest warrants a cautious approach until these studies have been com- Fish Additional research is needed on the abun- pleted Research will be on-going for the next dance, distribution, and habitat conditions and several decades, both on the Lassen and else- habitat requirements for resident and anadro- where in the Pacific Southwest Reaon mous fisheries Overthe past decade, the spring- run chinook salmon population has declined dra- Vegetation and Diversity Biolopcal diversity matically This decline is partially attnbuted to is a rapidly evolving field of study within the downstream water uses outside of National For- scientific community This includes diversity of est lands However, more information is needed plant communities and species, as well as ge- on the relationship between anadromous smolt netic diversity within species The Forest’s man- production and the number of adults which sub- agement of diversity and Sensitive species is sequently return and reach spawning grounds based on the best information currently avail- within the Lassen National Forest able Changes in management may follow as our base of knowledge expands Sensitive Plants Much is unknown about the distribution and abundance of Sensitive plants Specific research needs for managmg vegetative on the Forest Specific needs include a compre- diversityinclude refining the Characteristics that

4-142 Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences define old growth stands and the specific param- map with this information is needed to evaluate eters required by old growth dependent plants the cumulative effects of timber practices at the and animals, particularly Sensitive or unusual Forest level species There is uncertainty in the best way to manage old growth stands over time to insure It is unclear to what degree Management Indica- that old growth values are retained and losses to tor Species represent habitat quality for species wildfire, pests or other catastrophic events are that have similar habitat requirements The minimized Other information needs include the reliability of habitat modeling in statistically best ways to manage younger stands required for evaluating population levels has not been tested future old growth when suitable old growth is not currently present in a management area Tech- on the Lassen As a result, their accuracy is niques are needed to manage younger stands so unknown For example, the deer models were that they qmckly develop desired old growth based on information contained in State deer characteristics herd plans

Wildlife Much is unknown about wildlife spe- California spotted owls have been found in what cies abundance, distnbution, and habitat needs is considered to he less than suitable habitats on the Forest The marten, fisher, great gray Their presence in these habitats’may be a result owl, northern goshawk, California spotted owl, of displacement from more suitable habitat (both Sierra Nevada red fox, and willow flycatcher are on and off the Forest) that has been modified or all ReDon 5 Sensitive species that occur on the due to a lack of knowledge of what constitutes Forest However, information about their cur- suitable habitat Long-term studies are needed rent population levels, distribution, habitat re- to determine if these owls are maintainingvlable quirements and life history is not completely population levels This type of displacement adequate for consideration in management deci- may also he occurring with other species sions. Without this information, the Forest can not reliably predict to what extent timber har- Continued monitoring is needed to evaluate the vesting or other land disturbing activities may effectiveness of the SOHA network in maintain- affect these species It is also unclear what silvlcultural prescnptions are compatible with ing population viability and species distnbution their needs During project analyses, the Forest In addition, monitoring results will provide in- will use the most current research data and formation on how non-network owl management incorporate new information as ithecomes avail- is contributing to population viability As new able. information from research, inventories or moni- toring is obtained, Forest management direction Quality, quantity, and spatial distribution of may change to provide healthy populations of all wildlife habitat across the Forest is not known A fish and wildlife species

Chapter 4-Environmental Consequences 4- 143