MASARYK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Department of English Language and Literature

The Roles of the First Lady of the United States

Bachelor thesis

Brno 2018

Thesis supervisor: Author: Mgr. Zdeněk Janík, M.A., Ph.D. Eva Michalská

Abstract

The bachelor thesis deals with the general roles of the First Lady of the United States and their development throughout the history. It describes the individual roles and analyses the evolution of the office from the White House hostess to a political figure. It also examines the relationship between the roles and the time and social norms typical for the First Ladies' tenures. The thesis then focuses on the twentieth century and compares several First Ladies, including Eleanor Roosevelt, Jacqueline Kennedy, Nancy Reagan and Hillary Clinton. The aim is not only to describe their agenda and what they have in common but to analyse the evolution of the office during their tenures by examining the time and main events during their husbands' presidencies, the relationship of the presidential couple, and the influence of mass media.

Key words

First Lady, United States, White House, politics, media, Eleanor Roosevelt, Jacqueline Kennedy, Nancy Reagan, Hillary Clinton

Anotace

Tato bakalářská práce se zabývá rolemi první dámy Spojených států amerických a jejich historickým vývojem. Práce popisuje jednotlivé role a analyzuje vývoj pozice první dámy z hostitelky až na politickou osobnost. Práce dále zkoumá vztah mezi rolemi a obdobím, ve kterém první dámy úřad vykonávaly, společně se sociálními normami pro tato období typickými. Dále se bakalářská práce zaměřuje na dvacáté století a porovnává úřad Eleanor Roosevelt, Jacqueline Kennedy, Nancy Reagan a Hillary Clinton. Cílem není pouze popsat jejich činnost a společné rysy, ale analyzovat vývoj pozice první dámy během jejich úřadu skrze výzkum jednotlivých období a hlavních politických událostí, vztahu mezi první dámou a prezidentem, a vlivu médií.

Klíčová slova

První dáma, Spojené státy americké, Bílý dům, politika, média, Eleanor Roosevelt, Jacqueline Kennedy, Nancy Reagan, Hillary Clinton

Declaration

I hereby declare that I worked on my bachelor thesis independently and that I used only the sources listed in bibliography.

March 30, 2018 Eva Michalská

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to my supervisor Mgr. Zdeněk Janík, M.A., Ph.D. for his valuable advice and guidance throughout the process of writing this thesis. I would also like to thank my mother for her patience and immense support.

Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 8 1. The First Lady ...... 10 1.1. Origins of the Title ...... 10 1.2. Women in the Role ...... 11 2. The Roles of the First Lady ...... 12 2.1. Definition of the Role ...... 12 2.1.1. Legal Status ...... 12 2.2. The Diverse Roles of the First Lady ...... 13 2.2.1. First Lady as a Symbol ...... 13 2.2.2. White House Hostess ...... 13 2.2.3. Champion of Causes ...... 14 2.2.4. Presidential Campaigner ...... 16 2.2.5. Presidential Adviser and Political Partner ...... 19 2.3. The Evolution of the Roles ...... 25 2.3.1. The Early Years (1789–1817) ...... 25 2.3.2. The Passive Years (1817–1869) ...... 26 2.3.3. The Transitional Years (1869–1901) ...... 27 2.3.4. The Expanding Years (1901–1945) ...... 27 2.3.5. The Supportive Years (1945–1974) ...... 29 2.3.6. The Influential Years (1974–2001) ...... 30 2.3.7. The Recent Years (2001–current) and Future Development ...... 32 3. Office of the First Lady ...... 33 4. First Ladies of the 20th Century ...... 35 4.1. First Ladies within the Historical Context ...... 35 4.1.1. Eleanor Roosevelt ...... 36 4.1.2. Jacqueline Kennedy ...... 38 4.1.3. Nancy Reagan ...... 40 4.1.4. Hillary Clinton ...... 43 4.2. Relationship of the Presidential Couple ...... 44 4.2.1. Presidential Wife ...... 44 4.2.2. Presidential Partner ...... 45 4.3. Influence of the Media ...... 46 4.3.1. Advocacy Tool ...... 46 4.3.2. Celebrity Status ...... 48 4.3.3. Source of Criticism ...... 49 4.3.4. Setting Boundaries ...... 50 Conclusion ...... 52 Bibliography ...... 55

Introduction

The First Lady of the United States is one of the most visible political figures but at the same time the most shrouded in mystery. The institution has been a part of the presidency from its very beginning, yet the roles of the First Lady have never been officially defined. As a result, the individual tenures have significantly varied, and Martha Washington´s role in her husband´s presidency is nowadays hardly comparable to that of Hillary Clinton. The question arises as to why their approaches were so different. Was it their decision? How much have the roles of the First Lady changed? What is expected from modern First Ladies? Although there has never been a consensus on what their roles should be, this thesis examines the history of the institution and attempts to define various roles that the First Lady plays.

The thesis studies the diverse roles of the First Lady of the United States and how the roles have developed throughout the history. It focuses on the evolution of the institution from an exclusively ceremonial role to the First Lady´s active participation in the presidency and puts the changing approach of First Ladies towards the institution in historical context. The thesis then focuses on the development of the institution during the 20th century by examining the tenures of Eleanor Roosevelt, Jacqueline Kennedy, Nancy Reagan and Hillary Clinton and what role did the time of their tenures, the relationship with their husbands and the media play in their approaches.

The aim of the thesis is to define individual roles of the First Lady of the United States and describe the changes that the roles have undergone throughout the history by examining individual approaches of First Ladies towards the institution as well as the influence of the time of their tenures and the social norms typical for these historical periods. The aim of the thesis is to show that the role of the First Lady has professionalized throughout the history and that it parallels the general role of women, growing linearly with the shifting views of American society.

The thesis is divided into four chapters. The first chapter provides a brief history of the title “First Lady” and deals with non-spouses performing the duties of the First Lady.

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The second chapter examines the legal status of the First Lady and her responsibilities and describes the individual roles she performs. It also focuses on the evolution of the roles from the White House hostess to a political partner, as well as the First Ladies´ changing approach towards the institution.

The third chapter focuses on the First Lady´s staff and the history of the Office of the First Lady, established as a consequence of the gradual professionalization of the institution and the growth of the First Lady´s responsibilities.

The last chapter then focuses on the evolution of the First Lady´s institution in the 20th century. It compares the tenures of Eleanor Roosevelt, Jacqueline Kennedy, Nancy Reagan and Hillary Clinton, and analyses the evolution of the office during their First Ladyships by examining the time periods of their tenures, the relationship with their husbands, and the influence of mass media.

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1. The First Lady

1.1. Origins of the Title

While the manner of addressing the chief executive “President of the United States” was adopted as early as George Washington (1789–1797) became one, the origins of the title “First Lady” remain unclear. Martha Washington was addressed as “Lady Washington”, deriving from the influence of the predominant British culture and its respect and admiration for the British aristocracy. Besides the title “Lady”, which could be used not only for the president´s spouse but also for other women performing the task, First Ladies were referred to as “Presidentress” or “Mrs. President”. The praise of British heritage, however, was soon replaced by a rebellious attitude and an effort to establish a self- confident and independent democracy, resulting in the shift from the title “Lady” and the gradual preference of “Mrs. President” (Caroli, 1995, p. xv).

The first usage of the term “First Lady” is associated with President Zachary Taylor (1849–1850), who referred to the late Dolley Madison as “our First Lady for a half-century” (Watson, 2000, p. 7). However, the term was neglected and “Mrs. President” remained the prevailing title for several decades. Nevertheless, the title could not be used to address daughters or other relatives who were filling the role, for example Harriet Lane, the niece of bachelor president James Buchanan (1857–1861). As a solution, “Harper´s Weekly” used the term “Our Lady of the White House” (ibid.). Similarly to the case of Dolley Madison, this term did not endure.

The early reference to the current title “First Lady” can be assigned to American journalist Emily Briggs who in an 1870 newspaper article referred to Martha Washington as “the First Lady in the Land” (Caroli, 1995, p. xv). Lucy Hayes earned almost identical title during a cross-country trip with her husband, President Rutherford B. Hayes (1877– 1881), being addressed as the “First Lady of the Land” (ibid.). The title gained popularity in the first half of the twentieth century, as Washington became the center of attraction for the media. By Lou Hoover´s tenure (1929–1933), it had been abbreviated to “First Lady” and also included former White House hostesses. The media coverage of the New Deal and World War II allowed Eleanor Roosevelt (1933–1945) to popularize the title, which subsequently spread to other nations (The White House Historical Association, n.d.).

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1.2. Women in the Role

Although the title was adopted much later, the institution of the First Lady has been a part of the presidency from its very beginning. The role has been usually portrayed by presidential spouses, but not exclusively. While all presidents-elect since the beginning of the 20th century have been married and were accompanied in the White House by their wives, this was not the case for several former presidents. For various reasons, other female relatives then had to take the role of substitute First Ladies.

James Buchanan (1857–1861) and Grover Cleveland (1893–1897), for example, were bachelors during their election. While the former remained unmarried and his niece Harriet Lane played the role of the First Lady through his whole tenure, the latter got married during his time in office and his wife Frances took over the role that had been previously performed by his sister (Bushong, 2007).

Some presidents had to rely on their female relatives due to their wives´ deaths either before or during their time in the White House. That was also the case of Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921), who, although married for the first year of his presidency, lost his wife Ellen, and his eldest daughter Margaret substituted for her late mother for more than a year before her father remarried in 1915 (Watson, 1997). Widowed Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809), on the other hand, never remarried and the responsibilities of the First Lady were divided between his daughter Martha and Dolley Madison, the wife of Jefferson´s Secretary of State.

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2. The Roles of the First Lady

2.1. Definition of the Role

Unlike the President of the United States, the role of the First Lady is not defined by U.S. Constitution or any other official document. The lack of definition in federal law leaves First Ladies with no specific assignments and responsibilities, which, as a result, are left for each president and his spouse´s interpretation. Indeed, the role itself has been influenced and shaped throughout the history by changes in the society, public attitudes, and First Ladies themselves (Ingram, 1999, p. 488).

Despite her prominence, the First Lady is not elected, nor receives any salary. The pay disparity has been acknowledged by both Ronald Reagan (1981–1989) and Barack Obama (2009–2017). The former noted that “the Government with the First Lady gets an employee free; they have her just about as busy as they have me” (Reagan, 1982). Despite its demanding nature, the job is accompanied with many advantages, e.g. free accommodation or the possibility to travel around the world, which often serves as an argument against their income. Laura Bush (2013) herself stated that First Ladies should not be paid due to other benefits the position includes; moreover, she (ibid.) questioned the possibility to have a career and work at a paid job while performing the task of the First Lady. Even though there are no official restrictions forbidding employment, the established practice is to suspend or leave their careers during their husband´s presidencies and focus on the full-time job as public servants at the White House.

2.1.1. Legal Status

The lack of legal description and the undefined role of the First Lady is responsible for the ambiguity revolving around her involvement in the presidency. Although many former First Ladies had influenced the presidents from the position of their private advisers and engaged in political activities, the urgent need of legal definition arose during William “Bill” Clinton´s (1993–2001) tenure and his wife´s role in the Administration. Unprecedentedly, he assigned her the chair of the President´s Task Force on National Health Care Reform, which resulted in the litigation between the Association of American Physicians and Surgeons, Inc. and Hillary Rodham Clinton, bringing to question whether the presidential spouse is a private citizen or whether she has a status of

12 an officer or employee of the government (Wasserman, 1995). The specificity of the lawsuit prevented the court from reaching a clear verdict, concluding that apart from this particular case, the First Lady is not considered a governmental officer or employee (Eksterowicz & Roberts, 2004). That is, she is a private citizen without any official role within the legal system.

2.2. The Diverse Roles of the First Lady

2.2.1. First Lady as a Symbol

Although the First Lady is not elected, her position and activities reflect American society and culture the same way as those of the president. Gould (1985) points out her importance and the influence that the First Lady has on the nation:

It is too simple to say that their role has been symbolic. It has been wisely said that we live by symbols. How we view the First Lady is how we expect women to act, marriages to work, families to grow and Americans to live. In the most profound sense, the study of the First Ladies holds up a mirror to ourselves (p. 537).

In the light of this, the First Lady also demonstrates the changing role of women in society. However, she can do this only to a certain extent, due to her limited power and the prevailing demand of reflecting the traditional values and roles. As Benze (1990, p. 778) states, First Ladies must present themselves as loyal wives, good mothers, educated, groomed and cultivated women who take an interest in art and international events, and supporting partners, admiring their husbands and favouring their lives and activities over their own. At the same time, they are supposed to be strong, active individuals, promoting women´s independence and interests. As a result, these ambivalent expectations cause heavy criticism towards First Ladies, who are unable to please all Americans.

2.2.2. White House Hostess

Being the White House hostess can be considered to be the primary and traditional role of the First Lady. As social events serve as a unique opportunity for presidents to enhance their political and business relationships, First Ladies are expected to create a pleasant atmosphere, interact with guests, and ensure that they feel welcome (Ingram, 1999, p. 493).

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Martha Washington (1789–1797) was the first presidential spouse to play the role of a hostess, and the tradition has endured until now. In fact, she and her husband hosted separate receptions – the president would focus on formal meetings exclusively for men, whereas his wife on diverse events for both genders (Caroli, 1995). Several subsequent First Ladies are remembered for taking on the role of excellent hostesses, e.g. Dolley Madison or Mamie Eisenhower. The latter enjoyed meeting and entertaining political leaders or other important guests and considered it to be her main duty. Despite her health problems that would require careful planning, she is remembered as a charming and kind- hearted hostess who would always find a suitable topic to discuss (Teasley, 1989, pp. 85- 86).

Nevertheless, hosting receptions or state dinners have not been a popular activity among all First Ladies. Originally, Eleanor Roosevelt was hesitant about the role of a hostess, believing that it would suppress her political activism and interfere with her possibilities to help people in need. Gradually, she understood the potential of hosting social events and learned to exploit the role to promote her causes (Miller Center, n.d.-a). Her successor, Elizabeth “Bess” Truman (1945–1953), would limit her public appearances as much as possible, and although she fulfilled all duties that her role required, she regarded hosting social events as an obligation rather than pleasure (Caroli, 1995).

2.2.3. Champion of Causes

As presidential spouses, First Ladies are inherently connected to a certain amount of political power and influence, which enables them to draw attention to specific social causes and become their advocates. While the championship has been a fundamental part of the First Ladyship and occurred as early as during Dolley Madison´s tenure (1809– 1817), it originally took the form of supporting various charities and organizations. It was not until Jacqueline Kennedy (1961–1963) that the advocacy formalized and traditionalized. Since then, every First Lady has been expected to champion for a particular cause (National First Ladies´ Library, n.d.-a).

Naturally, historical events have played a crucial role in the choice of the causes. The center of attraction for Dolley Madison were orphans that emerged after the War of 1812. She was a co-founder and patron of an orphanage later known as the Washington

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City Orphan Asylum, and she also became its first directress (Abrams, 2018, p. 234). Similarly, the problematic period during her husband´s presidency and the question of slavery determined Mary Todd Lincoln´s (1861–1865) course of aid. Sharing the same values as her husband, she actively supported and funded Contraband Relief Association, an organization assisting newly-freed slaves established by her seamstress and a former slave, Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley (Harper, 2004, pp. 77-78).

Ellen Wilson, the first wife of President Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921), dedicated her one-year-long tenure to a cause which, for the first time in history, resulted in a federal legislation. She campaigned for better housing conditions of the predominantly African- American population and immigrants living in slums in the alleys of Washington D.C. The Alley Dwellings Act was designed to provide new housing for the poorest class of the capital and was passed in 1914, allegedly on President´s demand, just days before her death (Anthony, 2005, p. 48).

During the 1960´s, both Jacqueline Kennedy (1961–1963) and Claudia “Lady Bird” Johnson (1963–1969) devoted their time in office to creating a nicer environment. While Mrs. Kennedy focused on restoring the White House, Claudia Johnson expanded the concept of “beautification” to the whole country. She established a special committee that would help her decorate the capital city with flowers and hoped that the result would also prompt a change in other states. According to Biser (2016), they significantly improved the image of Washington D.C by planting around two million of daffodils in four years. Moreover, she introduced the Highway Beautification Act of 1965 which regulated advertisement along highways, upgraded their surroundings, and contributed to a better environment in overall.

In contrast with the first half of the 20th century, the second half was primarily symbolized by the battle against substance abuse and the attempt to improve American health care system. Elizabeth “Betty” Ford (1974–1977) would openly express her opinion towards conservative topics and draw attention to the importance of prevention by discussing her own health problems, namely breast cancer, mastectomy, alcoholism, and addiction to painkillers (Gergen, 2000). Her successor, Rosalynn Carter (1977–1981), was an advocate for mental health reform, aiming to destigmatize mental illnesses and to end discrimination against such patients. Her effort resulted in the Mental Health Systems Act of 1980 that would provide federal funds to a variety of mental health programs and

15 community centers (Carter, 1994). Nancy Reagan introduced an anti-drug campaign “Just Say No” that was closely aligned with the continuous War on Drugs advocated by both Richard Nixon (1969–1974) and Ronald Reagan (1981–1989). The campaign encouraged children not to use drugs and resist peer pressure, and consisted of visiting schools, fundraising, delivering speeches and television commercials (The Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation & Institute, n.d.). However, one of the most significant and boldest social causes belonged to Hillary Clinton (1993–2001). Although her attempt to reform American health care system and provide citizens with universal coverage was defeated, her role and close cooperation with President Clinton were hardly comparable to other First Ladies.

2.2.4. Presidential Campaigner

Nowadays, potential First Ladies often accompany their husbands during presidential campaigns or play the role of their surrogates and deliver speeches in their favour. Their goal is to present the candidates in a more favourable way, and describe their intentions and policies in approachable, everyday-life perspective.

However, the role of the campaigner is not the original role of the First Lady. As Watson (2000, p. 84) explains, the importance of presidential campaigns started to grow at the end of the 19th century, and significantly increased with the introduction of mass media. Formerly, the period during which the campaign took place was rather short, and the involvement of presidential spouses was uncommon. First Ladies became a part of the elections as early as with the arrival of the “front-porch campaigns” in the 1880´s (ibid.). Such campaigns were contradictory to the usual railroad campaigns and consisted of winning voters by receiving delegations of visitors at the house of the candidate and giving public speeches from the porch. Probably the most successful front-porch campaign belonged to President William McKinley (1897–1901) who managed to defeat his opponent also with the support of Women´s McKinley Club, which had produced buttons and other objects featuring a picture of McKinley´s wife, Ida. In addition, to refute rumours about her life and mental health, the first biography of potential First Lady was published for the electoral campaign purposes (Ford, 2008, p. 305).

Since the women´s public participation in politics was still rather undesirable at the turn of the century, supporting their husbands in their run for the presidency was a

16 way to seize a position of power and authority as the First Lady. Helen Taft (1909–1913), an ambitious wife of President William Taft, aimed to be the spouse of the chief executive and tried to forward her husband´s career as much as possible. She persuaded him to run for the president, supervised his speeches and other public performances, and closely monitored his approval ratings in newspaper articles. Moreover, she provided the support of the incumbent president Theodore Roosevelt, who from his position of Republican Party leader significantly contributed to Taft´s win (Cordery, 2001). However, her influence took place behind closed doors so as not to show William Taft as a candidate dependent on his wife´s opinion.

Florence Harding, on the other hand, helped her husband, President Warren Harding (1921–1923), openly and tactically. Although Eleanor Roosevelt is generally considered to be the one who shaped the role of the First Lady the most and created today´s expectations for the presidential spouse (Goodwin, 1995), the roots of substantial changes can be traced back to Florence Harding´s tenure. Her working experience as a journalist at Warren Harding´s newspaper taught her the importance and the ability to communicate with the media, which she was able to take advantage of. Not only did she engage celebrities and Hollywood movie stars for the first time in the presidential campaign, but she also became the first candidate´s wife that spoke to the press (Sibley, 2009). Additionally, as a supporter of women´s suffrage herself, she managed to gain votes of women as the 19th Amendment that granted women the right to vote had been ratified just before the elections. Thus, she was the first among First Ladies who could vote for her husband (ibid.).

Eleanor Roosevelt (1933–1945) understood very well that her husband´s election would result in limitations in her own political and social life. In her autobiography (1961) she stated:

From a personal standpoint, I did not want my husband to be president. I realized, however, that it was impossible to keep a man out of public service when that was what he wanted and was undoubtedly well equipped for. It was pure selfishness on my part, and I never mentioned my feelings on the subject to him (pp. 76-77).

She accompanied him on campaign trails but did not directly participate in the campaign itself if not necessary. Nevertheless, as Franklin D. Roosevelt had been

17 diagnosed with polio, which paralyzed the lower half of his body, she travelled alone and organized meetings on his behalf during his time in office.

Three subsequent First Ladies refrained from individual public campaigning and preferred to solely accompany their husbands on the campaign trails. Mamie Eisenhower (1953–1961) helped Dwight D. Eisenhower to improve his speeches, gave interviews, and focused on making an impression of a good housewife as well as an educated, travelled woman. The public expressed their support through massive rounds of applause during her appearances and memorabilia with her picture and slogans such as “I Like Ike, But I LOVE MAMIE” (Schneider & Schneider, 2005, p. 267).

Unlike Mrs. Eisenhower, Jacqueline Kennedy (1961–1963) could not travel with her husband around the country due to her pregnancy. Still, she proved to be a successful campaigner, as she gave numerous interviews to magazines and television, filmed and recorded commercials also in foreign languages, answered letters, and, most importantly, wrote a weekly column “Campaign Wife” that would combine personal stories with information on her husband´s policies (Richardson, 2016).

John F. Kennedy´s Republican opponent built his whole ad campaign on his wife, Thelma “Pat” Nixon, who eventually became the First Lady in 1969. According to the National Museum of American History, she was “the first candidate´s wife to “run” for first lady” (n.d.), being portrayed on campaign memorabilia similar to those of Mamie Eisenhower and targeting mainly on housewives, being supported by the technology development and the rapid increase of televisions owned by American households. During Richard Nixon´s second presidential candidacy, however, Mrs. Nixon withdrew from the prominent figure she portrayed in 1960 and decided to solely play the role of her husband´s companion.

Claudia “Lady Bird” Johnson (1963–1969) fundamentally shifted the role of the candidate´s wife by making a campaign trip to the troubled South without her husband instead of playing a minor role as his escort. Since President Johnson´s travel would pose a security risk after having signed the Civil Rights Act, the First Lady decided to go on a whistle-stop tour on her own and gain the support of Southerners. “The Lady Bird Special” travelled through eight states, from Washington, D.C. to New Orleans, in which the First Lady spoke with Democratic party leaders and tried to convince people to vote

18 for her husband (Russell, 1999). Similarly, Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter (1977–1981) campaigned separately, as they had concluded that it would allow them to visit more places, and thus increase their chances of success. She promoted her husband whenever she had the opportunity to do so, including speeches in local radio stations or debates with citizens. The campaign became her main occupation, during which she adopted her own cause, focused on mental health (Caroli, 1995).

Although the First Lady´s role as a campaigner had been gradually expanding, Bill Clinton´s presidential campaign reached a new level in the amount of attention drawn to the candidate´s wife. Hillary Clinton (1993–2001) took a public interest in politics and her close partnership with her husband brought into question how big of a role she would have in the Administration. This concern grew especially with Bill Clinton´s remark that, with his election, America would get two for the price of one (Clinton, 2003, p. 105); that is, she was believed to serve as a co-President. Moreover, as an independent woman and a successful attorney, she did not fit the traditional notions of the First Lady and, for many people, women in general. On account of this, another wave of criticism was initiated by her defence of pursuing her own career, which appeared to be a public shaming of stay- at-home mothers (Burgan, 2008). Later, for the purpose of the campaign, Hillary Clinton decided to adopt the approach of former First Ladies, and her public appearances became less controversial.

2.2.5. Presidential Adviser and Political Partner

As the wife of the chief executive, the First Lady finds herself in the middle of a political environment, which brings her a certain level of power. The influence she has on the president comes naturally with their marriage and private life which they often share long before their stay in the White House. It might be tempting to credit Florence Harding (1921–1923) or Eleanor Roosevelt (1933–1945) with the first involvement of First Ladies in politics, since American politics had appeared to be the exclusive domain of men for a long time; nevertheless, it is important to understand that the vast majority of decision- making takes place behind closed doors, hence the actors in the process often remain unknown to the public.

Indeed, Florence Harding´s tenure marked the first time of the First Lady´s public comments on politics and her open involvement in the campaign and presidency. Previous

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First Ladies, however, made substantial political contributions as well, though these were “often restricted to more private spaces” (Parry-Giles & Blair, 2002, p. 568). By virtue of the capital´s environment, political wives always had the advantage of less restricted social norms in terms of the possibility of entering “public places that in other cities remained the sole province of men” (Allgor, 2000, p. 113) and engaging in a variety of activities and discussions concerning politics, with Martha Washington (1789–1797) being the first First Lady to do so. Such practices were originally situated in places intended for meeting and interacting with government officials and their wives, for example dining rooms or parlours (Parry-Giles & Blair, 2002).

Abigail Adams (1797–1801) served as her husband´s adviser even prior to his presidency, and while in office, she often shared her opinion on important subjects. According to O´Connor, Nye and Van Assendelft (1996), the President relied heavily upon her counsel, and her political involvement continued even after having received criticism of exceeding her authority. In contrast with modern First Ladies, such reaction was not too much of a threat to the presidency at that time, as First Ladies´ activity was not heavily discussed in media (ibid.). Similarly, Dolley Madison, who served as a First Lady not only for her husband James Madison (1809–1817) but also for his widowed predecessor Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809), became instantly interested in politics and took advantage of her role of a hostess to influence their political opponents. The political partnership between her and her husband earned a remark from his party´s nomination opponent that he had been defeated by “both Mr. and Mrs. Madison” (Wasserman, 1995, p. 1227).

Sarah Polk (1845–1849) ensured that her own strong opinions would not be too provoking by presenting them as her husband´s (Bumgarner, 1997, p. 59). In private, however, she worked as President Polk´s secretary and closest counsellor whose opinions were of the highest importance, favoured even over advices given by his Cabinet. Mrs. Polk accompanied her husband during congressional debates, helped to enhance his speeches, and collected important newspaper articles that would be desirable for him to read (Wekkin, 2000). Furthermore, she generally preferred discussing politics with male guests to chatting with other women, who sometimes complained that Mrs. Polk did not stay with them to discuss less serious topics (Bumgarner, 1997, p. 59).

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Compared to their predecessors, the political activism of First Ladies in the second half of the 19th century was minimal, although the role was played by well-educated and rational women (Watson, 1997). Their activity was complicated by serious illnesses during their time in White House and by the lack of encouragement to actively contribute to the presidency. Lucy Hayes (1877–1881), for example, had supported women´s liberation while in college; however, when she became the First Lady, President Hayes discouraged her from being politically active (ibid.).

After this rather passive period, Helen Taft (1909–1913) was the first First Lady of the 20th century whose initiative, ability to make good judgments, and quick decision- making started the transformation of the political role of modern presidential spouses. Her prominent role in her husband´s presidency was based on their strong partnership, and she influenced his decisions and opinions on important subjects. Their alliance was already apparent on President Taft´s first day in office. Unprecedentedly, she accompanied him on his ride from inauguration, since President Roosevelt had decided not to follow the established tradition of escorting his presidential successor to the White House (Waggenspack, 2004). While in office, Mrs. Taft attended her husband´s conferences and other meetings with government officials where she would also share her personal opinions. However, in May 1909 she suffered a stroke which caused her to lose the ability to speak and paralyzed the right half of her body, and her full recovery lasted almost two years during which her performance as the First Lady was minimal (Cordery, 2001, p. 222). Helen Taft would deny accusations of her influence over her husband, but it was her who persuaded him to run for the president and attempted to help him to exceed in the role. Although women´s public participation in politics was still rather undesirable at that time, her rhetoric established the basis for the forthcoming changes in the role of the First Lady (Waggenspack, 2004).

These changes started to develop during President Woodrow Wilson´s (1913– 1921) first tenure. After the death of his first wife in 1914, he remarried, and Edith Wilson became the First Lady. She decided not to champion any cause and focused on assisting her husband instead. According to Ingram (1999), president trusted her completely and he would even share confidential information with her; therefore, she knew his personal opinions on many subjects, which later allowed her to act on his behalf. In 1919, President Wilson suffered a stroke which limited his performance, and in order to prevent his

21 dismissal Mrs. Wilson decided to serve as his steward. As Wasserman (1995) points out, she argued against the accusations that she had usurped the presidency. Her assistance allegedly consisted only of meeting with the members of the cabinet on president´s behalf, seeking her husband´s opinion on critical issues, and notifying others of his decision; thus, she cannot be considered to be the first presidential spouse to openly and independently take interest and participate in politics. However, she admitted that she did not inform her husband about everything she was asked so as not to disturb him more than necessary (ibid.). Such participation in the presidency had never been seen before, and to this day Edith Wilson remains one of the most active First Ladies with the most significant access to power.

Her successor, Florence Harding (1921–1923), can be viewed as the initiator of the changes of the First Ladyship in terms of political activism. Whereas previous First Ladies had attempted to keep their supposed influence on their husbands out of sight, Mrs. Harding openly commented on their mutual relationship, saying “I know what´s best for the President. I put him in the White House. He does well when he listens to me and poorly when he does not” (cited in Pine, 2014, p. 20). Indeed, she helped him significantly during his presidential campaign by speaking to the press and appealing to women voters who had been given the right to vote just before the elections. She revolutionized the role by her public support of gender equality, woman suffrage, and their active participation in politics. As Sibley (2016) explains, such behaviour was being approved of at that time, as the female activism became a current topic, and Florence Harding accomplished to combine the traditional duties with new possibilities that her position offered. She was recognized by contemporary media as President Harding´s equal partner, and the country “briefly, and for the only time in its history, managed to welcome a first lady with a mind of her own” (Schneider & Schneider, 2005, p. 209).

The difference between Florence Harding and Eleanor Roosevelt (1933–1945) lays in the source and the direction of their political activism. While the former channelled it into her husband´s success and shared the presidency with him, the latter managed to maintain her independence and use her newly acquired nationwide voice to her own agenda while simultaneously supporting and promoting her husband´s policy.

Prior to her First Ladyship, Eleanor Roosevelt had already been an outspoken and independent activist with a successful career which her husband´s candidacy presumably

22 jeopardized. Despite her concerns, the limitations did not include all her activities, and therefore she could use her prominent position not only to complement her husband´s administration but also to confront contemporary challenges the nation was facing on her own. She was deeply involved in social activism and domestic politics, advocating for the rights of socially disadvantaged groups of people, namely women, minorities or unemployed (Burrell, 2000). Besides the contributions to the decision-making and the possibility to promote her own causes, Eleanor Roosevelt´s political partnership with her husband also included travelling and organizing meetings on his behalf due to his pre- presidential polio diagnosis that limited his mobility. Having established a new model of political and social activism, she set a precedent for how to pursue a cause or a campaign and following First Ladies have continued to be affected by her impact on the institution. Moreover, her political participation extended her time in the White House, as she accepted an offer to serve as an American delegate at the United Nations (Gould, 2001).

In sharp contrast to her predecessor, Elizabeth “Bess” Truman (1945–1953) distanced herself from expressing her opinion on politics in public. Rather, she preferred to silently accompany her husband and let him discuss public issues, which depicted her as not overly interested in state affairs. However, as Ingram (1999) points out, away from the public eye, she had an invaluable role in his administration and decision-making. She freely expressed her opinions and views and President Truman acknowledged her as his most important adviser and “full partner” (p. 503).

While both Mamie Eisenhower (1953–1961) and Jacqueline Kennedy (1961– 1963) did not interfere in their husbands´ presidencies and preferred not to comment on political matters, Lyndon Johnson´s (1963–1969) inauguration marked the beginning of an era of strong partnerships among presidential couples. The political cooperation between Claudia “Lady Bird” Johnson and her husband was formed on the basis of their mutual respect. She served as his trusted adviser, helped him with his press conferences, and assisted him in defending the Civil Rights Act during the period of intensified racial tensions. In return, President Johnson actively supported her “beautification” of the country (Eksterowicz & Paynter, 2000). Her championship of the cause included intensive lobbying and, most importantly, introducing the Highway Beautification Act of 1965, the origins of which were occasionally criticized by members of Congress and labelled as “the First Lady´s bill” (Black, 2001, p. 17).

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One of the most profound partnerships of presidential couples was that of Rosalynn and Jimmy Carter (1977–1981). As Eleanor Roosevelt before, Mrs. Carter created a new dimension of the First Ladyship and the participation of presidential spouses in the Administration. Their personal and professional partnership derived from their strong marriage and former joint business, and instead of keeping the cooperation behind closed doors they decided to make it a highly public matter (Gould, 1985). Despite the heavy criticism by the press and President Carter´s opponents, she would attend Cabinet meetings. In her autobiography she (1994) explained:

I had already learned from more than a decade of political life that I was going to be criticized no matter what I did, so I might as well be criticized for something I wanted to do. […] I was there to be informed so that when I travelled around the country, which I did a great deal, and was questioned by the press and other individuals about all areas of government, I´d know what was going on (p. 185).

Furthermore, she read the same articles as her husband did, made notes during his meetings, arranged a weekly formal lunch with him, and served as his most trusted adviser (Eksterowicz & Paynter, 2000). The immense trust the President had in his wife was reflected especially by her trip to Latin America as the presidential representative just few months after his inauguration. Her diplomatic mission provoked contradictory reactions, as some criticized her for not having the authority to speak for the president and represent the whole nation. On the other hand, the participants and the vast majority of the press reacted positively and described her trip as a success. Nevertheless, despite the predominantly positive overall impression, the South American travel was her only trip as the President´s emissary (Smith, 1997).

The First Ladyship of Nancy Reagan (1981–1989) resembled the one of Florence Harding in the sense of focusing on her husband´s success and popularity. Most importantly, she took the role of his personal protector, which emerged after the assassination attempt on him in 1981. Her influence was present primarily in decisions on personnel which she believed had been using the President to enhance their own careers or harm him in any way. Such measure was most noticeable when she persuaded her husband to fire Chief of Staff Donald Regan, the aftermath of which was Regan´s heavy criticism towards the First Lady (Schneider & Schneider, 2005). Moreover, she advised her husband to reconsider some of his actions or rhetoric, e.g. his hostile attitude towards Soviet Union (ibid.). 24

A more traditional approach was adopted by both Barbara (1989–1993) and Laura (2001–2009) Bush who supported their husbands but decided not to openly share their own opinions and focused on their literacy causes instead. The time between their tenures, however, was filled with a political partnership exceeding that of Eleanor Roosevelt or Rosalynn Carter. Hillary Clinton´s (1993–2001) close cooperation with President Clinton, sometimes labelled as a “co-presidency” (Wekkin, 2000, p. 608), was a natural outcome of their lasting personal, professional, and political relationship. Her aspiration and predisposition to political leadership, together with the question of traditional gender roles, made her probably the most controversial First Lady. One of the first changes she made in the White House was moving her office to the West Wing to be at the source of policymaking and her husband´s agenda (Muir, 2016). Moreover, she travelled around the world as her husband´s ambassador and heavily supported children´s and women´s rights. Nevertheless, the most significant evidence of her political activism was her assignment of the chair of the President´s Task Force on National Health Care Reform which was one of President Clinton´s main initiatives; thus, the decision to have a First Lady lead the preparations of such substantial and extensive legislation fuelled many accusations of overstepping boundaries of her role (ibid.).

2.3. The Evolution of the Roles

Although the institution of the First Lady has been a part of the presidency from its very beginning, it has undergone tremendous changes since the earliest First Ladies in the office. Nowadays, the roles of Martha Washington are hardly comparable to those of Eleanor Roosevelt or Hillary Clinton. However, such fact does not mean that Mrs. Washington´s role was inferior or unimportant, since the roles and responsibilities of the First Lady has always reflected the time and social norms typical for their years in the White House.

2.3.1. The Early Years (1789–1817)

The earliest First Ladies marked the period of formation and shaping of the position. Without any model to follow, Martha Washington (1789–1797) engaged in the ceremonial and social role of a hostess, which allowed her to participate in official events and gave her special recognition from government officials and their spouses. Combining president´s office and his home in one place also positioned First Ladies in the middle of

25 political affairs and allowed them to develop the role of the presidential confidante. Such attitude was adopted by Abigail Adams (1797–1801) or Dolley Madison (1809–1817), both of whom were highly interested in politics and shared their opinions with their husbands (Watson, 1997).

Furthermore, the construction of the official presidential residence, today known as the White House, was finished in 1800, making President Adams and his family its first residents. Dolley Madison consulted architect Benjamin Latrobe, and together they furnished and decorated the mansion so that it would provide pleasant atmosphere and comfort when hosting social events (Caroli, 1995). However, the building was destroyed by fire in 1814 during the War of 1812 and must have been rebuilt again, leaving no original equipment but a portrait of George Washington, allegedly saved by Dolley Madison herself (ibid.).

In less than thirty years, First Ladies created a functional model of how their role should look like. They set the precedent of being the hostess and landlady of the White House, the role model for the capitol´s society, and to a lesser extent also presidential private advisor.

2.3.2. The Passive Years (1817–1869)

First Ladies of this period inherited a description of how their role should look like. Nevertheless, not only were their responsibilities not expanded at this time, but First Ladies were generally less active and visible than their predecessors. Watson (1997) explains that this institutional fade was caused mainly by the fact that either the First Lady suffered from poor health which prevented her from performing her role or the president was unmarried or widowed. Moreover, several First Ladies, namely Jane Pierce (1853– 1857) or Mary Todd Lincoln (1861–1865), were grieving the death of their relatives and sometimes felt too depressed to even make public appearances. Therefore, the responsibilities were often taken over by young female relatives (ibid.).

Despite the general passivity, some First Ladies followed the precedent and did exert their influence. Sarah Polk (1845–1849), for example, worked in private as her husband´s secretary and closest advisor, and was thus deeply involved in public affairs, which furthered the political aspect of the role. Harriet Lane (1857–1861) was also more

26 active than most First Ladies of the 19th century, but as President Buchanan´s niece, she primarily focused on hosting social events (Balcerski, 2016).

2.3.3. The Transitional Years (1869–1901)

The last third of the 19th century marked another milestone in recognition of First Ladies. While they had previously remained famous and prominent figures rather in the capitol´s society, the American Civil War (1861–1865) turned national attention to Washington, D.C., and put the First Lady in its centre. The press started to cover the First Family more, which was also supported by the 1869 completion of the railroad connecting east and west. The railroad allowed presidents to travel easily across the country and meet voters from both coasts, and, consequently, not only presidents but also First Ladies gained a national audience (Caroli, 1995). A good example is Lucy Hayes (1877–1881), who was the first presidential spouse to accompany her husband on a cross-country trip, a public exposure that provided her with instant popularity.

Nevertheless, such publicity did not automatically contribute to First Ladies´ autonomy, as the society still had been favouring sweet and gentle women to strong and outspoken ones (ibid.). Watson (1997) adds that:

The promise of a new age and of a new woman in the White House […] was not to be fulfilled in terms of asserting their own identities, forging new facets of the institution of first lady, and contributing to the presidency (p. 812).

That is to say, First Ladies of this period were well-educated and smart women who raised awareness of the institution of the First Lady but functioned primarily as the transition between First Ladies as local figures and international personalities of the following periods.

2.3.4. The Expanding Years (1901–1945)

For the institution of the First Lady the new century brought many substantial changes which supported its growth from the White House hostess to an active partner inseparable from the presidency. Firstly, the position of women drastically improved with better education, job opportunities, and women´s suffrage granted by the 19th Amendment ratified in 1920. Secondly, the United States gained larger role in world affairs, which inevitably led to the growing importance of the president and the amount of attention focused on him and his family (Caroli, n.d.). 27

Edith Roosevelt (1901–1909) contributed to the First Ladyship by hiring a social secretary, the first staff of the First Lady to be funded by the government, who helped her with organizing social events, marking the beginning of the Office of the First Lady (Borrelli, Tenpas & Wright, 2017). Moreover, she supervised the extensive renovation of the White House that divided presidential offices from the family´s living quarters, creating what is known today as the West Wing (Caroli, 1995).

Despite this division, the origins of the open presidential partnership and the influence of the First Lady on the Administration can be traced back to this period. The majority of women in the White House were active in terms of campaigning and advising their husbands. During President Woodrow Wilson´s (1913–1921) tenure, his second wife Edith had exercised an immense amount of power due to her husband´s stroke that limited his performance, serving as his steward (Wasserman, 1995). Furthermore, at the end of World War I they also became the first presidential couple to travel to Europe while in office. As the National First Ladies´ Library (n.d.-b) explains, “her presence among the queens and other women royalty of Europe put the position of First Lady on an equivalent standing”, emphasizing the important role of America in the modern world.

The institution of the First Lady underwent the most significant changes during Eleanor Roosevelt´s (1933–1945) tenure, and she is still considered to be the standard by which other First Ladies has been evaluated. Since President Roosevelt had been diagnosed with polio, she travelled alone on his behalf and served as his “eyes and ears” (Caroli, 1995, p. 195). Her social and political activism was further supported by holding regular press conferences and writing articles. Moreover, Eleanor Roosevelt was known to often disagree with her husband, publicly defending her liberal views on topics such as the rights of African Americans, women and children, and supporting various projects. Her political activity and support of rights of minorities made her also the first presidential wife to testify before Congress (Watson, 2000, p. 96).

This period set many precedents and allowed future First Ladies to exercise their power openly while simultaneously giving them more independence on their husbands. Although few First Ladies have shared Eleanor Roosevelt´s ambitions and achieved the same level of recognition, she still continues to inspire and functions as an example of how important and useful the role of the First Lady can be.

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2.3.5. The Supportive Years (1945–1974)

Indeed, Eleanor Roosevelt presented how First Ladies can use their time in office and what possibilities the First Ladyship offers. Yet, the presidential spouses that directly followed her reflected rather the traditions and old conventions. Some of them attempted to guard their privacy and did not appreciate the publicity of the job, which, on the contrary, became increasingly difficult due to the technology development and the rapid increase of televisions in American households, the consequence of which was the inclusion of the presidency in the mass media culture. As Watson (1997) emphasizes, this era marked the beginning of modern and public presidency, allowing the presidential couple to become both national and international celebrities.

First Ladies of this period were generally less active than their predecessors. In sharp contrast to Eleanor Roosevelt, Elizabeth “Bess” Truman (1945–1953) distanced herself from expressing her opinion in public. She refused to answer questions regarding her husband´s policy, nor did she hold press conferences. Such restrained manners were also adopted by Mamie Eisenhower (1953–1961) who embodied the traditional role of women as homemakers and good wives (Ingram, 1999).

Although Jacqueline Kennedy (1961–1963) shared Mrs. Truman´s effort to maintain her privacy, she revolutionized the image of the First Lady in terms of becoming the celebrity and the “national sweetheart”. She was an ideal object of interest for the media, especially due to her cultivated manners, fashion style, youth and charisma. Despite the short time she spent in the White House, Mrs. Kennedy managed to transform the First Ladyship into an American symbol inseparable from the president. Her attempt to guard her privacy also resulted in hiring her own press secretary that helped her to communicate with the media and separated her media relations from those of her husband, expanding the Office of the First Lady (Borrelli, Tenpas & Wright, 2017). Moreover, her interest in arts and historical preservation of the White House marked the beginning of championing specific causes during the First Lady´s time in office, the feature that is nowadays inevitably bound with presidential spouses (National First Ladies´ Library, n.d.-a).

While other First Ladies of this period were not politically active in their husbands´ administrations, Claudia “Lady Bird” Johnson (1963–1969) was an exception

29 that closely cooperated with President Johnson and served as his trusted adviser and partner. She also fundamentally shifted the role of the candidate´s wife during the presidential campaign when she went on a whistle-stop tour through Southern states without her husband and managed to gain votes for him, instead of solely accompanying him during his campaign travels (Russell, 1999).

Although Eleanor Roosevelt´s immediate successors did not follow her path of the active and independent First Lady, her legacy was to a greater extent visible in the following era which was characterized by the deep involvement in the Administration and close partnership with the president. While First Ladies of this era mainly played the role of supportive wives, their impact on the institution could be seen in their relationship with the media and the extension of their role to famous public personas.

2.3.6. The Influential Years (1974–2001)

In contrast to previous periods, this era offered First Ladies who were modern, active, outspoken, and influential. Not only did they managed to have their authority expanded, but their activity and participation in the Administration were to some extent expected and approved. Consequently, their interest in politics was a logical necessity that furthered First Ladies´ involvement in campaigns and championing causes. Supported by the growth of the importance of mass media, First Ladies of this period “surpassed the vice president and even the most senior advisers and cabinet secretaries in terms of visibility and perhaps even power and influence” (Watson, 1997, p. 814).

Similarly to Eleanor Roosevelt, Elizabeth “Betty” Ford (1974–1977) was known to disagree with her husband on various and often conservative topics. Despite being a wife of a Republican, she would publicly approve of the legalization of abortions or premarital sex, for which she was criticized by conservative voters but admired by those who were more liberally-minded (Parry-Giles & Blair, 2002). Besides sharing her bold opinions on politics, she learned what possibilities and power the First Ladyship offers after she had suffered breast cancer and a mastectomy. Opposed to several former First Ladies who had hidden their health conditions, Mrs. Ford courageously decided to inform the public, inspiring and encouraging other women to visit their doctors for preventive health check-ups and thus reducing the risk of breast cancer (Tobin, 1990).

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While Mrs. Ford used the publicity of her First Ladyship to bring attention to the importance of prevention, a new level of political partnership and the First Lady´s involvement was reached during Rosalynn Carter's (1977–1981) time in office. She was the first First Lady to regularly attend cabinet meetings and work from her own office in the East Wing, and she also went in the footsteps of Eleanor Roosevelt in terms of testifying before Congress (Caroli, n.d.). However, she took her role even further by travelling as the President´s emissary to Latin America to discuss and strengthen mutual relationships. Although she was not the first presidential spouse to act on her husband´s behalf, she was the first to do so while the president was in good physical health and capable of travelling on his own.

Rosalynn Carter´s two successors, Nancy Reagan (1981–1989) and Barbara Bush (1989–1993), were very different from each other, but their higher age at the time they became First Ladies seemed to have influenced their approach to their roles, since both resembled rather First Ladies of the first half of the century. Nevertheless, despite Mrs. Reagan´s attempt to exercise her influence away from the public eye, she was still believed to have a considerable amount of power and be “in charge of the White House” (Caroli, 1995, p. 277). Barbara Bush, on the other hand, adopted even more traditional approach than her predecessor and refrained from interfering in politics, supporting her husband´s opinions and refusing to share her own.

The roles of the First Lady once again extended during Hillary Clinton´s (1993– 2001) time in the White House. As President Clinton´s closest associate, she moved her office to the West Wing in order to facilitate their cooperation (Muir, 2016). Indeed, she was entrusted with leading the National Health Care Reform, being given extraordinary responsibility compared to causes championed by other presidential spouses. In contrast with the majority of First Ladies, her involvement in politics did neither start nor end with her tenure. In 2001 she became U.S. Senator, which made her the first of former First Ladies to be elected to public office (Hendricks, 2015, p. 354). Moreover, she served as Secretary of State during President Obama´s (2009–2017) first term and ran for president in 2008 as well as in 2016 when she won the Democratic nomination.

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2.3.7. The Recent Years (2001–current) and Future Development

To this day, Hillary Clinton´s activity and political involvement as both First Lady and an independent woman remain unsurpassed, as none of her successors has shown personal interest in pursuing a political career or interfering to such extent with their husbands´ presidencies. However, her presidential candidacy and the tight loss to President Trump (2017–current) have raised a crucial question regarding further development of the First Ladyship, namely how the roles will evolve when a female president is elected. That is to say, what role a potential First Gentleman will be expected to play in his wife´s Administration and how it will differ from the roles normally exercised by women.

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3. Office of the First Lady

Due to the great responsibilities of the Administration, the president is surrounded by a team of advisors and assistants who provide him with support and help him to govern effectively. Similarly, the expanding roles of the First Lady resulted at the beginning of the 20th century in hiring staff that would help her with performing her duties, today known as the Office of the First Lady. While some of the responsibilities had been already performed by someone from outside, Edith Roosevelt´s (1901–1909) tenure marked the first time they had been formally recognized and funded by the government. Nowadays, the Office of the First Lady consists of 16-25 people, and its funding is incorporated to the White House budget by the 1978 law (Borrelli, Tenpas & Wright, 2017).

The establishment of the Office of the First Lady was a reaction on the changing status of women in society and the growth of the First Lady´s role from the White House hostess to presidential advisor. The first staff member hired was a Social Secretary whose task was to help Edith Roosevelt organize social events. Although it had been common for First Ladies to have such aid even before, they used to be funded by the presidential family (ibid., p. 57). Since then, the Office has significantly changed and became more professional. Its professionalization was mainly the result of the active First Ladies of the second half of the 20th century, and their political partnerships with presidents contributed to its “integration with the White House Office” (Eksterowicz, 2005, p. 66); that is, it helped to establish the current close cooperation between the Office of the First Lady and the staff of the president.

Eleanor Roosevelt´s (1933–1945) social and political activism and the copious number of issues she focused on required that her office should be better organized. She hired a Social Secretary and a Personal Secretary who helped her to systematize her schedule and to efficiently carry out her duties. Despite the close cooperation with the press, Eleanor Roosevelt did not have a Press Secretary. Instead, she held regular press conferences herself and further expressed her opinions as a radio commentator and by writing newspaper articles (Gould, 1985).

The Office of the First Lady grew during Mamie Eisenhower´s (1953–1961) tenure when she hired a Staff Director that was responsible for all secretaries working for the First Lady. However, one of the biggest expansion could be seen during the First

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Ladyship of Jacqueline Kennedy (1961–1963) who created several committees that would be responsible for her causes, consisting of approximately forty people (Eksterowicz, 2005). Furthermore, she was the first presidential spouse to hire a Press Secretary responsible for the communication with the media. The relationship with the press was also crucial for the success of Claudia “Lady Bird” Johnson´s (1963–1969) championship of her beautification cause. Therefore, she hired a Press Secretary and used the service of staff from different departments of the White House Office to get the best results, the media coverage of which would provide public support (Eksterowicz & Paynter, 2000).

More professionalization and integration occurred during Rosalynn Carter´s (1977–1981) time in the White House. Although she had smaller number of assistants, she increased their salary and hired her own Chief of Staff. Moreover, in 1978 Congress passed a law that formally included the funding of the Office of the First Lady in the White House budget, acknowledging its important role (Eksterowicz, 2005).

Since Mrs. Carter tenure, each First Lady has had Chief of Staff, Social Secretary, Press Secretary, political experts, and personal staff dealing with tasks related to the presidential family and tasks directly performed by the First Lady. All these assistants help the First Lady to perform her role as a political actor and her husband´s advisor and surrogate (Borrelli, Tenpas & Wright, 2017). Furthermore, the close cooperation between the Office of the First Lady and the White House office ensures the efficiency of the presidential couple´s schedule and agenda.

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4. First Ladies of the 20th Century

The institution has undergone significant changes not only since the earliest First Ladies in the office but even during the last century which transformed the presidency into a world power, bringing attention to the president and consequently also to the First Lady. The 20th century broadened the First Ladyship from the White House hostess and supportive wife of the president to a political figure, reflecting the changing role of women in society, the roots of which can be traced to the period after the Civil War when the women´s role started to expand due to new opportunities in education and the increasing emphasis on women´s rights. Consequently, First Ladies were provided with new possibilities how to approach their role.

Similarly to the First Lady, the role of the President of the United States has changed throughout the time, from a rather symbolic leader of the country to one of the most influential political figures in the world. However, his duties are defined by U.S. Constitution, and his power is further limited by congressional reforms, which prevents him from acting entirely of his free will. The role of the First Lady, on the other hand, is not defined by any official document, giving her no specific assignments and responsibilities and leaving the role to her own interpretation. Nevertheless, this supposed institutional autonomy is still influenced by numerous factors, for example historical circumstances, changes in the society, the relationship of the presidential couple, or public expectations. One way to understand the developmental process and the impact of these variables is the comparison of the First Ladyships of Eleanor Roosevelt (1933–1945), Jacqueline Kennedy (1961–1963), Nancy Reagan (1981–1989), and Hillary Clinton (1993–2001), all of whom significantly contributed to the development of the First Ladyship, and since their tenures cover practically the entire 20th century, they function as ideal representatives of the evolution of the office. The factors taken into consideration are the time and main events of their tenures, the relationship with their husbands, and the influence of the media.

4.1. First Ladies within the Historical Context

Putting First Ladies into historical perspective is essential for the full understanding of their approaches and contributions. The time of their tenures had a tremendous impact on their performance, since they served as First Ladies through different time periods and

35 under different circumstances, influenced by historic events. Jacqueline Kennedy´s restoration of the White House, for example, would be unimaginable during Eleanor Roosevelt´s tenure which occurred during the Great Depression and World War II. Furthermore, as Krausert (1998) points out, the evolution of the office “parallels women´s general progress in society” (p. 243) and reacts on the changing expectations towards their role as women, which provide them with new possibilities and responsibilities. That is to say, First Ladies reflect the shifting views of American society and the social norms typical for the years they spend in the White House. Thus, studying the eras of their tenures serves as a tool for interpreting their individual approaches towards their role of the First Lady and their participation in the Administration.

4.1.1. Eleanor Roosevelt

Eleanor Roosevelt (1933–1945) served as the First Lady longer than any other presidential spouse. Moreover, the twelve years she spent in the White House also marked one of the most traumatic periods of American history, a situation to which it was necessary to respond in a revolutionary way. That is, such unique circumstances created ideal conditions not only for the birth of a new government but also for a new type of the First Lady. The Great Depression and World War II had a significant impact on the nation – the prosperous years of the post-war period ended suddenly with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 that initiated a devastating depression, leaving almost 25% of Americans unemployed and more than half of the households living in poverty (Margo, 1993). Although President Hoover (1929–1933) had repeatedly reassured his nation that the depression would end soon, the real change came with Franklin D. Roosevelt´s election and his New Deal programs. Built on the idea of the government having greater role in lives of its citizens, which, in fact, opposed the basic principles of American society, the New Deal established numerous organizations that used government money to reduce the impact of the depression, including employing thousands of people, helping homeless and unemployed, supporting farmers, repealing Prohibition or introducing insurance for socially disadvantaged groups of people (Rauchway, 2008). Although the New Deal was successful in reducing the most serious consequences of the Great Depression, it failed to end it completely. It was World War II and the military production that boosted American economy, turning the United States into a global superpower (Tassava, 2008).

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Eleanor Roosevelt both supported and criticised her husband´s reforms and helped to guide them in a direction so that they would be as effective as possible. She believed that the sole role of a government was to improve people´s lives and to promote social justice and welfare; nevertheless, she understood that people should “never depend on politicians to do anything about that” (Cook, 2001, p. xi) and advised them to play an active role both in their communities and on a national scale for politicians to notice and take action. She herself was an active member of several women´s political groups since the 1920´s and became a strong advocate for the rights of women, children and minorities who were particularly vulnerable to the impacts of the Great Depression. Since, as Caroli (1995) explains, men were favoured as workers during the economic crisis, she heavily promoted the employment of women – her conferences, for example, were open exclusively for women reporters as a gesture of supporting women´s rights and job opportunities. Moreover, it was Eleanor Roosevelt, not her husband, who persistently promoted civil rights for African Americans and publicly spoke out against lynching (ibid.). As Beasley (2016) states, her attitude towards racial justice was “extremely progressive for its time” (p. 451) and upset not only her opponents but also the President and his advisors.

Consequently, Eleanor Roosevelt is often described as an extraordinary and influential woman who forever changed the First Ladyship by exercising power separately from her husband, fighting hard for equal rights, and promoting democracy during the war. At the same time, however, she was criticised by political opponents for taking advantage of her position and using it beyond her rights, making her one of the most controversial First Ladies in history. Undoubtedly, it was the time of her tenure that provided her with the soil for her intense activism. Nevertheless, although her term was affected by the largest economic crisis and international conflict in American history, the national prosperity is not the only factor that has been affecting First Ladies´ activism. For example, Hillary Clinton (1993-2001), who was repeatedly compared to Eleanor Roosevelt in terms of her active approach towards her First Ladyship, served during one of the biggest economic growths in the history of the United States (The White House, 2001). That is, the developmental process is a result of a combination of factors which influence First Ladies and their contributions.

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4.1.2. Jacqueline Kennedy

The First Ladyships of Eleanor Roosevelt and Jacqueline Kennedy´ (1961–1963) could not have been more different. While the former has been holding the record for the longest time in office, the tenure of the latter lasted less than three years. Moreover, while Mrs. Roosevelt felt the need to use her newly gained voice to bring attention to social issues, Jacqueline Kennedy had no interest to be associated with politics and rather took the views of her husband, believing that politics was too inappropriate an area for women. Indeed, her generation was, as Beschloss (2011) explains, still conservative regarding the women´s role in society and considered them as primarily wives and mothers. For Mrs. Kennedy, the main duty was to take care of her family and make their home a sanctuary for her husband. She herself acknowledged the difference between her and the former First Lady, stating that she would not “go down in the coal mines like Mrs. Roosevelt” (Marton, 2002, p. 114).

Nevertheless, the White House restoration and the historic preservation Jacqueline Kennedy adopted as her main cause was not merely her caprice or desire to live in a pompous house. During her previous visits to the White House, she had been disappointed with the lack of antique furnishing and almost no information available about the history of the presidential mansion. To her, the White House was a museum that should be “furnished with antiques in the style of past presidents […] and reflect the artistic history of the United States” (John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, n.d.-a); however, the interiors did not mirror the magnificence of the building and visitors could not see anything that would date “back before 1948” (ibid.). Consequently, her deep interest in art and history initiated a search for the original furnishing of previous presidents which had been either kept by former First Families, sold or placed in government storehouses, or furniture typical for those eras. Furthermore, she established The White House Fine Arts Committee and The White House Historical Foundation, through which she could accept donations, both financial and material. After having the furniture located and restored, she completely changed the interior of the White House and turned it into “a place of national pride” (ibid.).

The White House restoration was not the only contribution of Mrs. Kennedy to the preservation of American history. As Beschloss (2011) points out, the time of her tenure was also a period of rapid urbanization and, therefore, of demolishing monuments

38 and historic houses, or even whole neighbourhoods, in order to replace them with modern buildings and highways. She managed to prevent several places in the capital from being razed, for example Lafayette Square with the house of the former First Lady Dolley Madison (1809–1817). Moreover, she and President Kennedy championed the preservation of Egyptian historical monuments, namely the ancient temples at Abu Simbel and Philae, which resulted in the United States offering significant financial aid in exchange for antiquities for American museums (ibid.).

Jacqueline Kennedy´s appreciation and promotion of arts and history were indeed her most visible contributions to the office of the First Lady, and her deep involvement in historical preservation lead to the formalization of the First Lady´s advocacy of a particular cause. However, in private she was also a great political asset to her husband and his emotional support during a period of extremely sharpened international relations, as John F. Kennedy took office when the Cold War was about to reach its peak.

The rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union known as the Cold War began with the end of World War II and lasted for over four decades. The core of the problem, as Reeves (2000, p. 141) explains, was the post-war power of both countries and their opposing ideologies – while the Soviet Union wanted Europe to fall under communist regime, the United States was determined to prevent communism from spreading. Their relationship further worsened with the introduction of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, both of which functioned as prevention against Soviet influence in Western Europe. With the communist triumph in China in 1949, however, the Soviet Union gained a strong ally against the United States, spreading the threat of communism also to Southeast Asia. Moreover, the Soviet influence expanded even more with the Cuban revolution and Fidel Castro as its leader.

By 1961, the Cold War had grown from the initial conflict of ideologies into a real race for world dominance. After Kennedy´s unsuccessful Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba the aim of which was to overthrow Castro, Nikita Khrushchev took advantage of having an ally just beyond the U.S. borders and ordered to send nuclear missiles there, as a vengeance for American missiles in Turkey and Italy (Selverstone, n.d.). The imminent danger of nuclear war resulted in the Cuban Missile Crisis during which Kennedy negotiated with Khrushchev about removing missiles from all three countries and thus

39 preventing a global catastrophe. However, although they reached a peace agreement in Cuba, the Cold War continued.

Jacqueline Kennedy´s role in the war might not have been big, but she indeed was her husband´s asset. Her charm, manners, and cultural knowledge made her popular among world leaders including Khrushchev, with whom she established good relations. In Vienna summit in 1961, for example, they would discuss books and the dogs the Soviet Union had sent to space, and two months later Khrushchev sent her one of Strelka´s puppies as a gift (Onassis, 1964). Mrs. Kennedy was also popular due to her knowledge of foreign languages. During international trips she was able to address whole nations in their native language. After the unsuccessful Bay of Pigs invasion on Cuba, for example, she greeted and honoured the Cuban Exile Brigade in Spanish after they had been held captive by Fidel Castro for over a year (Onassis, 1962). Moreover, she also expressed subtle support for the Civil Rights Movement by establishing a racially integrated preschool class for her daughter, visiting areas affected by poverty, and promoting African American artists (Miller Center, n.d.-b).

4.1.3. Nancy Reagan

Eleanor Roosevelt and Jacqueline Kennedy portrayed two opposing approaches of First Ladies, yet they both have served as role models and basis for other First Ladyships. They set precedents and have influenced all subsequent First Ladies in terms of supporting their husband´s administrations while simultaneously furthering their individual causes. Among those highly influenced by both of their legacies was Nancy Reagan (1981–1989), who was probably more than any other First Lady confronted with the ambiguity of the position and put in a no-win situation. Despite adopting completely different approaches in her two terms, she was criticized during both for being either too elitist and passive in advocacy of a social cause or too involved in the presidency, respectively. Prior to her husband´s inauguration in 1981, Mrs. Reagan was repeatedly compared to Jacqueline Kennedy due to their shared traditional views and similar taste of style which Mrs. Reagan was supposed to bring “back to the White House” (Benze, 1990, p. 780). She indeed followed Mrs. Kennedy´s footsteps – she played the role of a supportive wife as well as national celebrity and fashion icon, and during her tenure the White House underwent another renovation.

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However, while Mrs. Kennedy restored the White House during a period of economic growth, the beginning of Nancy Reagan´s tenure marked the period of the deepest economic recession since the Great Depression. Although the renovation of private quarters was necessary, Nancy Reagan significantly exceeded the half-million budget and further raised almost a double amount from private donations, which presumably came indirectly from public funds (Loizeau, 2004, p. 93). Moreover, controversy surrounded a new set of china worth more than $200,000 and Mrs. Reagan´s clothes – she repeatedly accepted gowns as gifts from her favourite designers and thereby violated the Ethics in Government Act of 1978 (Roberts, 1988). Her lavish lifestyle was in sharp contrast with the rest of the nation. In 1981, the recession forced the government to introduce major budget cuts and raise taxes while the unemployment reached 7,5% (Sablik, 2013). The public criticized her for spending money on luxurious clothes and furniture, home decorations, and vacations, and considered her behaviour highly inappropriate, considering the adverse economic situation. Moreover, little did it help that Mrs. Reagan had not chosen any social cause to advocate, giving the impression of not caring about ordinary people. Similarly to Eleanor Roosevelt, she was accused of taking advantage of her position; however, in her case it was to “improve the quality of life for those in the White House” (Reagan & Novak, 1989, p. 27), not for those outside as Mrs. Roosevelt had done. Consequently, her approval ratings dropped significantly, and she began to constitute a threat for Ronald Reagan´s future re-election. To enhance her public image, it was necessary to find a cause that she could promote.

Nancy Reagan launched an anti-drug campaign known as “Just Say No” which was closely connected to the War on Drugs advocated by her husband. The War on Drugs had been officially declared during President Nixon´s (1969–1974) tenure as a response to the rise of substance abuse, especially heroin, and drug-related criminality in the 1960´s. Nixon´s strategy was to focus on increasing penalties for drug users but also giving them possibilities of treatment (Barber, 2016). Soon after taking office, Ronald Reagan decided to follow his footsteps and end the epidemic. In fact, the War reached another level, since the legislation toughened and introduced mandatory imprisonment for drug-related crimes as well as much bigger involvement of US military (Bagley, 1988). The role of Nancy Reagan in the continuous war with substance abuse was to discourage children and teenagers from experimenting with drugs and teach them how to resist peer pressure. The campaign, which consisted mainly of television commercials 41 and visiting schools, had the desired effect, as it showed that the First Lady cared about social problems. As for the campaign itself, Roberts (2016) argues that although it was successful and the drug use among students reduced by 14% during her time in office, it did not have a long-term effect, as in 2013 “more than 60 percent of twelfth graders thought that pot was not dangerous” (p. 597).

While Nancy Reagan´s first term resembled the First Ladyship of Jacqueline Kennedy more than that of Eleanor Roosevelt, considering her attempt to distance herself from politics and to be foremost a good wife and mother, in her second term she started to play more active role as her husband´s advisor and helped to direct some of his actions and rhetoric, presumably saving his public image and presidency. Still, however, unlike Mrs. Roosevelt and later Hillary Clinton she did not become politically independent and focused only on pursuing President Reagan´s agenda, not her own.

The change in her approach was a result of two events starting in 1985. Firstly, Ronald Reagan became involved in one of the biggest scandals of modern American politics, known as the Iran-Contra Affair, which seriously threatened his presidency. The affair consisted of two parts: selling weapons to Iran which was known to sponsor terrorism in exchange for seven American hostages held by terrorists, and then using the money to illegally fund the Contras, a rebel group fighting against the communist government in Nicaragua (Roberts, 2016, p. 597). Ronald Reagan denied all accusations but later listened to his wife´s advice and admitted that the government had sold arms to Iran. Nevertheless, he insisted that he had not been aware of the funding of the rebels and no evidence proved otherwise (ibid., p. 598).

However, Nancy Reagan´s most significant contribution was urging her husband to negotiate with Mikhail Gorbachev, the new leader of the Soviet Union, and advocating the improvement of the relationship between their countries. Due to the continuous Cold War, Ronald Reagan initially adopted a hostile attitude towards the Soviet Union; nevertheless, his wife made him reconsider his rhetoric and change his approach which resulted in the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, and thus contributed to better relations between both nations (ibid., p. 599).

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4.1.4. Hillary Clinton

Hillary Clinton´s (1993–2001) role in her husband´s Administration significantly varied from that of other First Ladies. Although Eleanor Roosevelt and Nancy Reagan were also criticized for being too influential during their tenures, Hillary and Bill Clinton´s model of “co-presidency” (Wekkin, 2000, p. 608) and their close cooperation made her the most controversial First Lady America has ever had. Her unprecedented involvement in the Administration was, in fact, a result of the changing role of women in society. As Markos (2016) points out, Mrs. Clinton is “a product of ‘Second Wave’ feminism”, which had a significant impact on her relationship with her husband, her approach towards the roles of the First Lady, and her own agenda.

Second-wave feminism emerged in the 1960´s as the result of women´s active role in the New Deal and World War II, and as one of the contemporary movements seeking social justice, inspired by Civil Rights Movement (Baxandall & Gordon, 2005). In contrast with first-wave feminism of the late 19th and early 20th century which had focused primarily on women´s suffrage, second-wave feminism fought against male dominance in both private and professional spheres. As Burkett (n.d.) explains, women aimed for equal pay, job opportunities, and education, and opposed the sexual objectification of women and forced gender roles. Consequently, coming from an era of proving women´s worth and capabilities, Mrs. Clinton was destined to have considerably larger role as the First Lady than any of her predecessors.

Indeed, from the nature of her beliefs and her strong professional bond with her husband, she played a central role in his Administration; however, her deep involvement in the presidency was seen as inappropriate for a presidential spouse and was heavily criticized (Muir, 2016). Since Hillary Clinton did not fit the traditional notions of a woman as, for example, Jacqueline Kennedy had, her liberal views and non-feminine attitude became a subject of criticism immediately after her husband´s entrance into the political sphere and continued throughout the whole presidency. Among the biggest controversies was her work on the National Health Care Reform which was supposed to provide citizens with universal health care (ibid.). President Clinton assigned his wife the chair of the task force, but despite her legal profession, the public did not consider her eligible to be deciding on such important legislation. As Troy (2000) explains, although Hillary Clinton was her husband´s equal partner in private life, in her role as the First

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Lady she was being repeatedly reminded that she had “a mandate for joint image-making but not power-sharing” (p. 599). Consequently, when the health care reform was defeated, she adopted her own agenda, following the example of Eleanor Roosevelt to use her influence to advocate women´s and children´s rights, a cause she had championed even before her time in office. Nevertheless, although her involvement in the presidency was controversial, Hillary Clinton significantly influenced the institution of the First Lady and prepared a soil for potential future co-presidencies.

4.2. Relationship of the Presidential Couple

As presidential spouses, First Ladies are associated with a certain amount of political power which their position allows them to exercise. Their approach towards this power is influenced not only by the historical context but also by their relationship with the President. According to Marton (2002), the institution itself has “never been the primary source of the First Lady´s power” (p. 5), in contrast with the private relationship of the presidential couple which is, in fact, the “key factor in determining the extent of her influence” (ibid.). As the First Ladyship has been represented exclusively by a presidential spouse since the beginning of the 20th century, the presidential couple is first and foremost a husband and wife and their private relationship thus influences the type and degree of partnership formed as the First Couple.

4.2.1. Presidential Wife

The most traditional relationship can be considered that of Jacqueline and John F. Kennedy (1961–1963) where Mrs. Kennedy played the role of an ideal wife who supports her husband´s career in politics but focuses primarily on being a devoted mother. Although their relationship was marked by President´s infidelities, they continued their marriage and presented themselves as an exemplary family, enhancing President´s public image. Her marital role mirrored in her approach towards the First Ladyship, as she did not interfere in the presidency, did not publicly share her personal opinions, and engaged herself in non-controversial projects (Jellison, 2016). Nevertheless, through this apolitical relationship with her husband she was still able to demonstrate how involved the First Lady could be in the presidency, influencing subsequent First Ladies in adopting a feminine cause to advocate.

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Similarly to Jacqueline and John F. Kennedy, Nancy and Ronald Reagan (1981– 1989) represented a traditional marriage in which Mrs. Reagan´s main concern was the well-being of her husband and pursuing his career. In fact, as Woodard (2012) states, their relationship was among presidential couples “one of the great romances” (p. 39), which significantly affected Mrs. Reagan´s role in the presidency, since her husband was open to her suggestions and would even follow her advices. Those were most visibly present in decisions on personnel and in President´s changed attitude towards the Soviet Union, marking the first time the First Lady had openly exercised such influence over her husband (Roberts, 2016).

4.2.2. Presidential Partner

In contrast with Jacqueline Kennedy and Nancy Reagan, Eleanor Roosevelt (1933–1945) was primarily her husband´s partner rather than wife, and although they have been considered one of the greatest presidential couples in American history, it was their problematic marriage from which Mrs. Roosevelt´ political influence originated. Having been affected by Franklin D. Roosevelt´s affair during World War I, Eleanor Roosevelt was determined to find a purpose outside her family and gain more independence. Consequently, her effort to separate herself from her husband resulted in her strong activism, political prominence, and courage to publicly oppose him even during his presidency (The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers Project, n.d.). At the same time, his polio diagnosis and his lack of mobility allowed them to form a professional partnership where Mrs. Roosevelt played the role of her husband´s surrogate and became “his eyes and ears” (Ingram, 1999, p. 503). Under these unique circumstances, Eleanor Roosevelt could exercise more power than former First Ladies and inspired her successors to have a larger role during their husbands´ presidencies.

Indeed, Hillary Clinton (1993–2001) had a key role in President Clinton´s Administration. Their close cooperation was an outcome of their personal, professional, and political relationship in which she “never felt like anything but an equal” (Clinton, 2017, p. 160). Sharing the same education, views, and interest in law and politics, she had been expected to be actively involved in her husband´s presidency, which proved to be true when he entrusted her with the National Health Care Reform. Her active role in the Administration was often criticized for overstepping her boundaries; nevertheless,

45 according to Muir (2016), for Hillary and Bill Clinton it was a natural continuation of their business partnership.

Similarly to Jacqueline Kennedy, Hillary Clinton´s marriage was marked by her husband´s infidelities. However, not only did President Clinton´s affair with a White House intern Monica Lewinsky become public knowledge but his denial of their relationship initiated the impeachment process for the obstruction of justice and perjury (ibid.). Mrs. Clinton, despite describing this period as “the worst moments in [their] relationship” (Clinton, 2017, p. 161), decided to stand by his side and defend him, which, for the first time in her tenure, significantly improved her approval ratings (Muir, 2016, p. 648). Thus, although President Clinton´s affair had a negative impact on his presidency, his strong partnership with his wife and her support influenced the public opinion towards the First Lady.

4.3. Influence of the Media

Since the president is the head of state and the representative of the nation, he has always been in the centre of attention of the public and media, and as Burns (2004) suggests, the same applies to the First Lady. In contrast with the political coverage of the presidents, the press of the 18th and 19th century focused mainly on First Ladies´ appearance and social activities, treating them as royalty within a gendered frame and disregarding the political nature of their position (ibid.). When the completion of the railroad in 1869 allowed the presidential couple to travel across the country, First Ladies gained a national audience and, consequently, their popularity started to increase. Thanks to the press, by the beginning of the 20th century they had already functioned as “highly visible public figures and role models for American women” (ibid., p. 72). Nevertheless, their direct communication with the media was yet to come.

4.3.1. Advocacy Tool

The changing role of women in society at the turn of the century and the presence of the press provided First Ladies with new possibilities how to approach their role and allowed the transformation from the White House hostess to a political figure. Although it was Florence Harding (1921–1923) who initiated the changes of the First Ladyship in terms of political activism by public campaigning for her husband and who became the first First Lady to speak to the press, Eleanor Roosevelt (1933–1945) managed to take 46 advantage of this new relationship with the media and directed the attention to social issues (Sibley, 2009). Moreover, her political activism was supported not only by her press relations but mainly by her own career as a journalist and, most importantly, the advent of radio, both of which unprecedently allowed her to communicate directly with the public. As Cook (1999) suggests, “through her public activities, writings, and broadcasts, Eleanor Roosevelt set a new pace, new goals, a new understanding of what was possible and acceptable for women to achieve” (p. 67).

The personal relationship between the presidential couple and the nation that emerged through the medium of radio had a significant impact on the success of the New Deal. The Bank Holiday, for example, owed its success mainly to one of Franklin D. Roosevelt´s “Fireside Chats” where he addressed people in an intimate and friendly way and assured them that it was safe to return their money to banks (Silber, 2009). Eleanor Roosevelt helped to promote her husband´s New Deal; however, she offered her personal views and opinions and focused on her own agenda as the First Lady. Despite remaining in the “feminine sphere by addressing the nation´s women and young people” (Smith, 2014, p. 3), she championed civil rights, women´s emancipation, and informed the nation about domestic and world events. Perhaps the most iconic speech she delivered to the country was on December 7, 1941, the day Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, initiating U.S. involvement in the World War II. The speech was unprecedented not only because of the medium of radio, but, as Smith (2014) points out, “the public heard first not from their president but from his wife” (p. 3), making her a symbol of strength and comfort throughout the whole war period.

During her time in office, Eleanor Roosevelt made as many radio appearances as her husband. Unlike his shows, however, hers were sponsored, and she was heavily criticized for receiving an unreasonable amount of money for broadcasting while the rest of the nation suffered during the Great Depression. According to Smith (2014, p. 6), for one radio appearance, she received more than annual earnings of an average American. Despite all the criticism, she refused to give up her income from the advertisement, as it provided her with money that she could use to fund charities and support people in need. Thus, not only did radio allow her to inform the public and bring attention to social issues but it also became a source of funds for her advocacy.

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Nevertheless, the radio broadcast was just one part of her communication with the public. First and foremost, Eleanor Roosevelt focused on the press as a medium for delivering her message and promoting her causes. She was the first First Lady to hold regular press conferences, which could be attended exclusively by women reporters (Caroli, 1995). These conferences dealt mainly with topics related to women and their position in society, as well as explaining and reflecting on President Roosevelt´s policies and commenting on life in the White House. As a result, the conferences enabled Eleanor Roosevelt to promote her husband´s New Deal and support women´s rights and employment (Beasley, 1983). Moreover, through the whole First Ladyship, she continued to write her own articles and columns, most importantly “I Want You to Write to Me” and “My Day”. While the former functioned as a correspondence between the First Lady and the public who could ask her questions or react on her or her husband´s agenda, the latter provided her opinion on various, often controversial, subjects and gave the nation a glimpse at the life in the White House. Eleanor Roosevelt´s columns became extremely popular among readers, both men and women, and thus played the role of a useful tool to gather support for her causes (National First Ladies´ Library, n.d.-c).

4.3.2. Celebrity Status

Jacqueline Kennedy´s (1961–1963) lack of interest in politics and her effort to maintain her privacy affected her relationship with the media, making it hardly comparable to that of Eleanor Roosevelt. During the presidential campaign, however, she had adopted similar approach, giving numerous interviews and writing a weekly column “Campaign Wife” where she combined personal stories from her daily life as a young wife and mother with her perspective on her husband´s agenda. Similarly to Roosevelt´s “My Day”, her column was extremely popular, especially among women who admired her for her youthful charm and fashion style; nevertheless, the column was published only for two months and did not continue throughout her time in the White House (Richardson, 2016).

Although she also used radio to campaign for her husband, the medium that allowed Jacqueline and John F. Kennedy to gain such popularity and to become both national and international celebrities was television. They were ideal objects of interest for the public and media, since, as Ingram (1999) explains, they symbolized “a contrast to the much older Trumans and Eisenhowers in almost every way. They were the “beautiful people,” none more so than Jackie: beautiful, aristocratic, fashionable and

48 conspicuously expensive” (p. 513). Mrs. Kennedy´s clothing and hairstyle were largely copied by American women, supported by a heavy coverage by popular magazines. It was, however, not only her youthful beauty and vitality that fascinated others – she portrayed traditional femininity, and was also intelligent, well-educated and travelled, “a combination of qualities that Americans have long admired in young stage and screen stars but have seldom hoped to find in the wives of famous men” (Mead, 1962, p. 9). She further used her media-made image in interviews and in radio and TV commercials where her knowledge of foreign languages also proved to be a great asset, since she could record them in other languages and thus aim at minorities, e.g. Hispanic and Latino Americans. The heavy coverage and the public obsession with the presidential couple created a new role for all their successors as national celebrities and made them a part of mass media culture. Consequently, Mrs. Kennedy was also the first First Lady to hire her own Press Secretary responsible for the communication with the media (Borrelli, Tenpas & Wright, 2017).

Similarly to Eleanor Roosevelt who had taken advantage of the radio to find support for her advocacy of social justice, Jacqueline Kennedy used the television to promote her historical preservation. After the White House restoration, for example, she agreed to film “A Tour of the White House with Mrs. John F. Kennedy”, making it one of the most memorable moments in TV history. In the 1962 television special that was seen by more than 80 million viewers, she guided the audience through the White House and described its history while presenting the results of the restoration and its newly redecorated interiors (John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, n.d.-b). The tour became an immediate success and influenced not only the portrayal of the First Lady as a symbol of America, but it also created the expectation for her successors to champion a particular cause.

4.3.3. Source of Criticism

While both Eleanor Roosevelt and Jacqueline Kennedy had the advantage of being the White House media pioneers, the role of the media had significantly changed by the tenures of Nancy Reagan (1981–1989) and Hillary Clinton (1993–2001). The celebrity status of the presidential couple had reached another level – they were suddenly in the public eye for twenty-four hours a day, and every step they made became a topic for national news (Benze, 2005).

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As former Hollywood actors, both Nancy and Ronald Reagan understood the importance of public image, and for the First Lady the good presentation of her husband became her major cause. After the attempted assassination of President Reagan in 1981, for example, she carefully monitored his image in the media and refused to allow journalists to take pictures so as not to make him look weak (Loizeau, 2004). However, it was her who became most criticized during his presidency. Mrs. Reagan´s White House renovation and her spending on luxurious clothes and new china immediately met with disapproval in the press, portraying her as “Queen Nancy the Extravagant, an aloof former debutante and movie star whose main concerns are fashion, decorating and lunching with rich girlfriends” (Reagan & Novak, 1989, p. 36). Her public image suffered from negative coverage, and it was not until she introduced her anti-drug “Just Say No” campaign that she started to get a positive response from the media. According to Beasley (2005), some journalists argued that the campaign was not sincere and that she introduced it solely for the positive feedback. Nevertheless, it was mass media that enabled her advocacy built primarily on the advertisement. Nancy Reagan promoted her campaign on several talk shows and news, and it also became a part of popular culture due to her appearance as a special guest in TV shows such as “Diff'rent Strokes” or “Dynasty” (ibid.).

Nancy Reagan was a subject to criticism more than any former First Lady. She was confronted with the power of mass media, being forced to change her approach in order not to harm her husband´s approval ratings. During her tenure, the media fully demonstrated that the First Lady was considered an inseparable part of the presidency and that good public image of both the President and the First Lady had become crucial for the Administration. Moreover, the need of introducing her anti-drug campaign signifies that contemporary media considered the championship of a cause the First Lady´s duty rather than a choice.

4.3.4. Setting Boundaries

During her second tenure, the media accused Nancy Reagan of being too influential in her role of presidential advisor and in personnel decisions, but later appreciated her contribution to better relations with the Soviet Union (Roberts, 2016). The different rhetoric towards Mrs. Reagan and Hillary Clinton might have been caused by the fact that Mrs. Reagan was first and foremost her husband´s support and she had never showed any

50 interest in being involved in politics. Hillary Clinton, on the other hand, was her husband´s equal partner and she jeopardized the traditional image of the First Lady.

Hillary Clinton has been criticized for her lack of femininity from the beginning of her career, and once her husband became active in politics as the Attorney General of Arkansas in 1977 and then the Governor of Arkansas in 1979, the media started to make sexist remarks about her ambitions and independence. In a 1979 local program “In Focus”, for example, the host stated that she did not “fit the image we [had] created for the governor´s wife in Arkansas” (Castillo, 2015), pointing out her education, youth, and legal profession. When Bill Clinton announced his presidential candidacy in 1992, the amount of attention drawn to the candidate´s wife reached a new level. Vigil (2016) states that “right out of the gate she was getting slammed for the pantsuits, the hair, the headbands, her appearance, her life choices, and everything she said was so heavily scrutinized.” Indeed, all her words and actions were analysed in the media, trying to find evidence of her intention to influence her husband and co-govern during his time in office.

To help her husband win the elections, Hillary Clinton was forced to adopt more traditional image and approach, such as “kinder, gentler hairdo, more mother-child photo ops, and lower-profile appearances, often standing by her man but not opening her mouth” (Rhode, 1997, p. 89), so as to appeal to a larger range of voters, already highly influenced by the tone of her coverage. Nevertheless, the criticism towards her image of a professional woman and her alleged ambitions to seize power that started during the campaign continued throughout the whole presidency. In fact, her relationship with the media worsened even more after her failed attempt to push National Health Care Reform and the heavy coverage of Clinton–Lewinsky scandal, both of which led to her public humiliation (Jamieson & Gabbatt, 2016).

While the media during the tenures of Mrs. Roosevelt and Mrs. Kennedy had functioned rather as an asset and allowed them to find support for their advocacy, Hillary Clinton experienced media bias and the gendered frame of the First Ladyship. As some of her predecessors, she was criticized for her activism; for the first time in history, however, the activities of the presidential spouse have overshadowed those of her husband. During Hillary Clinton´s time in office, mass media played the role of the guardians of deep-rooted traditions and set boundaries for future First Ladies which will probably be hard to overcome.

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Conclusion

The thesis introduced the institution of the First Lady of the United States, described the diverse roles of the First Lady and demonstrated the main changes that the institution has undergone throughout the history. Although the institution has been a part of the presidency from its very beginning, the thesis showed that the role of the First Lady is not defined by U.S. Constitution, and thus leaves the First Lady without any specific assignments and responsibilities. Nevertheless, it also demonstrated that there are some assumed roles that First Ladies are expected to perform, for example the White House hostess or the champion of causes.

The first chapter provided a closer look at the history of the title “First Lady”, showing that as late as the first half of the 20th century, the prevailing title was “Mrs. President”, and it was not until Lou Hoover´s tenure (1929–1933) that the title “First Lady” started to be used. It also demonstrated that although the position is nowadays associated with the presidential spouse, in several cases the role had to be filled by other female relatives, as some presidents were bachelors or widowed.

The second chapter focused on the various roles of the First Lady and their evolution. The primarily and traditional role is considered to be the White House hostess, which was originally performed by Martha Washington (1789–1797) and then adopted by all subsequent First Ladies. Since Jacqueline Kennedy´s (1961–1963) tenure, First Ladies are also expected to champion a cause which usually reflects on contemporary social issue. These causes have varied from advocating historical preservation or literacy programs to supporting women´s rights and attempts to reform American health care system. The thesis also demonstrated that First Ladies have always been a part of the political environment and played the role of their husband´s confidants or advisers; however, their influence on the president usually took place in private. Nevertheless, the beginning of the 20th century marked the shift into their more public role as their husband´s advisers and political partners, most visible in Eleanor Roosevelt´s (1933– 1945) tenure during which she established a new model of political and social activism.

Having examined the developmental process of the First Lady´s institution, the thesis proposed that the roles of the First Lady indeed mirror the time of her tenure and the role of women in society. The end of the Civil War marked the beginning of the shift

52 from rather feminine roles of the First Lady to more political ones, as the role of women in society started to expand due to new opportunities in education and the increasing emphasis on women´s right and suffrage. First Ladies started to accompany their husbands during presidential campaigns, make solo appearances, and, most importantly, function as presidential partners. The expanding roles of the First Lady and her closer cooperation with the President then contributed to the gradual professionalization of the institution.

The third chapter focused on the establishment and evolution of the Office of the First Lady, resulting from the growing responsibilities of the First Lady, and presented the current state of the First Lady´s staff, which now consists of Chief of Staff, Social Secretary, Press Secretary and other assistants

Finally, the last chapter was dedicated to the evolution of the First Lady´s institution in the 20th century. It compared the tenures of Eleanor Roosevelt, Jacqueline Kennedy, Nancy Reagan and Hillary Clinton and examined what role did the time of their tenures, the relationship with their husbands and the media play in the development of the institution during their tenures. Putting First Ladies into historical perspective proved that the time of their tenures was an essential factor in adopting their approach towards the role. Eleanor Roosevelt, for example, served as the First Lady during the Great Depression and World War II, which allowed her to transform the First Ladyship into a more active institution and become involved in the presidency more than any former First Lady. Jacqueline Kennedy´s tenure, on the other hand, was influenced by the prevailing view of women as primarily wives and mothers, and she therefore focused on apolitical projects and adopted more feminine approach. Nancy Reagan´s changed approach from a rather passive First Lady to her husband´s adviser was also a result of her time in the office, being given the possibility to improve the relationship with the Soviet Union. The tenure of Hillary Clinton is then explained to have been influenced by second-wave feminism.

The thesis showed that the relationship with their husbands is also a key factor in adopting their approach, since their private relationship determines the extent of their political partnership. The thesis concludes that Jacqueline Kennedy and Nancy Reagan functioned more as presidential wives, whereas Eleanor Roosevelt and Hillary Clinton were most and foremost presidential partners.

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The influence of the media proved to be essential in the development of the roles, especially in Eleanor Roosevelt´s and Jacqueline Kennedy´s tenures during which they could use the new medium of radio and television, respectively, to promote their causes. By the tenures of Nancy Reagan and Jacqueline Kennedy, the role of media had significantly changed, and started to function as the guardian of traditional roles, limiting further development.

In conclusion, the thesis showed that although First Ladies vary considerably in their approach towards their role, they all helped to form the office and supported its growth from the White House hostess to a political partner. The last presidential elections have raised a crucial question regarding further development of the First Ladyship, namely how the roles will evolve when a female president is elected. Since the United States seems to get closer to having a female president, it will be interesting to see what role a potential First Gentleman will play and how it will differ from the roles normally exercised by women.

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