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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA of SCIENCE

edited by

WARD CHESWORTH University of Guelph Canada ENCYCLOPEDIA of A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN: 978-1-4020-3994-2 Springer Dordrecht, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York This publication is available also as: Electronic publication under ISBN 978-1-4020-3995-9 and Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-1-4020-5127-2

Published by Springer PO Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands

Printed on acid-free paper

Cover photo: Mount Olga (Katatjula), 25 km west of Ayers Rock (reproduced courtesy of Getty Images, image 55862814, photographer: DAJ).

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions.

All Rights Reserved ã 2008 Springer Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOIL SCIENCE

Volume Editor Ward Chesworth is Professor Emeritus of Geochemistry at the University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. He co-edited Weathering, and Paleosols, and three volumes of the annual Hammond Lecture Series broadcast in part by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation: Malthus and the Third Millennium, Sustainable Development, and The Human Ecological Footprint. He co-wrote Perspectives on Canadian Geology. In 2003 he received the Halbouty Prize of the Geological Society of America, of which he is a Fellow.

Advisory Board Richard W. Arnold Johnson Semoka Natural Resources Conservation Service Sokoine University of Agriculture US Department of Agriculture Morogono, Tanzania Washington, DC, USA Arieh Singer Charles W. Finkl The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Coastal Planning & Engineering, Inc. Rehovot, Israel CPE Coastal Geology & Geomatics Yoong K. Soon Boca Raton, Florida, USA Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Antonio Martínez Cortizas Alberta, Canada Facultad de Biología Otto Spaargaren Universidade de Santiago de Compostela World Data Centre for Soils Spain Wageningen, The Netherlands Gary Parkin Felipe Macías Vázquez Department of Land Resource Science Facultad de Biología University of Guelph Universidade de Santiago de Compostela Ontario, Canada Spain

Aims of the Series The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists.

These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysi- cists, climatologists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” on-line.

About the Editors Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than 8 volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25 years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education & Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Principal Marine Geologist with Coastal Planning & Engineering, Inc. and Research Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of the University of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Caribbean; South America; SW Pacific islands; southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.

Professor Michael Rampino has published more than 100 papers in professional journals including Science, Nature,andScientific American.He has worked in such diverse fields as volcanology, planetary science, sedimentology, and climate studies, and has done field work on six con- tinents. He is currently Associate Professor of Earth and Environmental Sciences at New York University and a consultant at NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies.

Founding Series Editor Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge{ has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies. Contents

List of Contributors xvii Agroecology 33 Preface xxv Agroecosystem 33 A Horizon 1 Agrogeology 33 Nikola Kostic Abiotic 1 Agronomy 35 Abrasion 1 35 Abrupt Textural Change 1 Otto Spaargaren Absorption 1 35 Otto Spaargaren Acid Deposition Effects on Soils 2 Randy A. Dahlgren Alkali 37 Acid Soils 7 Alkaline Soils 37 Felipe Macías Vázquez, Marta Camps Arbestain, Ward Chesworth, Felipe Macías Vázquez, and Ward Chesworth and Marta Camps Arbestain Acid Sulfate Soils 10 Alkalization 39 Acidity 10 Allitization 39 Wayne P. Robarge Allogenic 39 Acids, Alkalis, Bases and pH 21 Alluvium 39 22 Felipe Macías Vázquez 39 Olafur Arnalds Activity Ratios 24 Bryon W. Bache Anthropogenic 46 Adobe 27 47 Otto Spaargaren Adsorption 27 Arenosols 48 Aggregate 28 Otto Spaargaren Aggregate Stability to Drying and Wetting 28 Argillaceous 49 W. W. Emerson Argillan 49 Aggregation 30 Roger Hartmann Arid 49 Agrichemical 33 Arrhenius' Equation 49

Entries without author names are glossary terms vi CONTENTS

Association 50 Blanket 69 Auger 50 Blowout 69 Authigenic 50 Bog 69 Azonal Soil 50 Boreal Forest 69 B Horizon 51 Boulder 69 Background 51 Brunification 69 Badlands 51 Buffers, Buffering 70 Carlo Gessa Barchan 51 Bulk Density 74 Barrens 51 David T. Lewis Base 51 Buried Soil 75 Base Level 51 C Horizon 77 Base Saturation 52 Calcareous Soils 77 Bryon W. Bache Ward Chesworth, Marta Camps Arbestain, and Felipe Macías Vázquez Basement 55 79 Basic 55 Otto Spaargaren Basin 55 80 Beach 55 Otto Spaargaren Bed 55 Capability 81 Bedrock 55 Capillary Pressure 81 Y. Mualem and H. J. Morel-Seytoux Bench 55 Carbon Cycling and Formation of Soil Organic 91 Berm 55 Matter William R. Horwath Biodegradation 55 Carbon Sequestration in Soil 97 Biodiversity 55 Gonzalo Almendros Biogeochemical Cycles 56 Carbonates 99 Ward Chesworth Ward Chesworth Biomass 60 Catchment 101 Biome 60 Catena 101 Biomes and their Soils 61 Cation Exchange 102 Ward Chesworth Cement 102 Bioremediation 68 Cheluviation 102 Biosequence 68 Chemical Analyses 102 Biospheric Role of Soil 68 Paul R. Grossl and Donald L. Sparks Biostasis 69 Chemical Composition 108 Biotic 69 Chemisorption 108 Bisiallitization 69 108 Otto Spaargaren Black Cotton Soil 69 Chronology of Soils 109 Black Earth 69 Rhodes W. Fairbridge CONTENTS vii

Chronosequence 111 Conservation 168 Ward Chesworth and David M. Lavigne Classification of Soils: FAO 111 Arieh Singer Consistence 170 Classification of Soils: Soil Taxonomy 113 Consolidation 170 Hari Eswaran Contour 170 Classification of Soils: World Reference 120 Base (WRB) for Soil Resources Cordillera 171 Erika Micheli Corrasion 171 Classification of Soils: World Reference 122 Corrosion 171 Base (WRB) Soil Profiles Otto Spaargaren Craton 171 Clastic 122 Creep 171 Mineral Alteration in Soils 122 Critical Load 171 P. M. Huang Crotovina 171 Clay Mineral Formation 135 Arieh Singer Crusts, Crusting 171 Clay Mineral Structures 141 Marcello Pagliai Cryopedology 179 Clay Minerals: Silicates 141 Charles E. Weaver Cryosols 179 Clay-Organic Interactions 144 Otto Spaargaren B. K. G. Theng Cryoturbation 181 Climate 150 Cuesta 181 Climosequence 150 Cultivation 182 Coastal Soils 150 Cumulization 182 Colloid 151 Cutan 182 Colluvium 151 Datum Level 183 Comminution 151 Debris 183 Compaction 151 Iain M. Young Degradation 183 Complex Soil 153 Delta 183 Compost 153 Denitrification 183 Computer Modeling 153 Desalinization 184 Keith Paustian Desert 184 Computerized Tomography 159 Richard J. Heck Desertification 184 Concretion 160 Desiccation 184 Conductivity, Electrical 161 Desilication 184 Charles W. Finkl Detritus 185 Conductivity, Hydraulic 162 Herman Bouwer Diffusion 185 Conductivity, Thermal 165 Diffusion Processes 185 Amos Hadas Siobhán Staunton

Entries without author names are glossary terms viii CONTENTS

Dispersion 191 Epigenous 216 Dissection 191 Erosion 216 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Dissolved Material 191 Erratic 221 Divide 191 Escarpment 221 Doline 191 Esker 222 Drainage 192 Eutrophication 222 Drumlin 192 Dry Deposition 192 Evaporation 222 R. J. Hanks and G. E. Cardon Dune 192 Evapotranspiration 224 Duricrusts and Induration 192 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Evolution 224 198 Exchange Complex 224 Otto Spaargaren Exchange Phenomena 224 Dust 198 Robert G. Gast E Horizon 199 Exfoliation 227 Earth Cycles 199 Exogene 227 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Extract 227 Ecology 202 F Horizon 229 Edaphic 202 Fabric 229 Edaphic Constraints on Food Production 202 Factors of Soil Formation 229 Friedrich H. Beinroth, Hari Eswaran, and Paul F. Reich Carlota Garcia Paz and Teresa Taboada Rodríguez 207 Fallout 231 Effective 207 Fallow 231 Effluent 207 Family 231 Electrical Double Layer 207 Fan 231 Electrochemistry 207 Fauna 231 Electro-Osmosis 207 Valerie M. Behan-Pelletier and Stuart B. Hill Elutriation 207 Fen 237 Eluviation 207 Ferralitic 237 Endogenous 207 Ferralitization 237 Energy Balance 208 Ferralsols 237 Gaylon S. Campbell Pablo Vidal-Torrado and Miguel Cooper Envelope-Pressure Potential 210 Ferran 240 Pieter H. Groenevelt Ferri-Argillan 240 Environment 210 Ferrods 241 Enzyme Activity 210 Ferrolysis 241 Enzymes and Proteins, Interactions with 210 Soil-Constituent Surfaces Fersiallitization 241 Hervé Quiquampoix Fertilizer Raw Materials 241 Eolian 216 Peter van Straaten CONTENTS ix

Fertilizers, Inorganic 247 299 J. J. Oertli Otto Spaargaren Fertilizers, Organic 263 Gossan 300 C. Wesley Wood Groundwater 301 Fibric, Hemic and Sapric 270 Guano 301 Field Capacity 270 Gully 301 Field pH 271 L. R. Hossner Gypsan 301 Field Water Cycle 272 301 William O. Rasmussen Otto Spaargaren Flocculation 275 H Horizon 303 W. O. Williamson Halomorphic 303 Flood Plain 278 Hardening 303 Flow Theory 278 H. Magdi Selim Hardpan 303 Fluvial 280 Harrow 303 Fluviolacustrine 281 Health 303 281 Health Problems and Soil 304 Otto Spaargaren J. Lag Folic 282 Heat Capacity 305 Amos Hadas Fragipan 282 Heath 307 Frigid 282 History of Soil Science 307 Frost Action 282 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Fulvic Acid 282 312 J. C. Nóvoa Muñoz, X. Pontevedra Pombal, Furrow 282 and A. Martínez Cortizas Gabion 283 Hoodoo 314 Gelifluction 283 Horizon 314 Geochemistry in Soil Science 283 Horizon Designations in the Wrb 314 Garrison Sposito Humic Substances 315 Geography of Soils 289 Gonzalo M. Almendros Ward Chesworth and L. J. Evans Humid 323 Geology and Soils 292 Ward Chesworth Hummock 323 Gilgai 298 Hydric Soils 323 W. Chesworth, M. Camps Arbestain, F. Macías, Glacial 298 and A. Martínez Cortizas Glaciation 298 Hydrological Cycle 325 Ward Chesworth Glaciofluvial 299 Hydromorphic 328 Glaciolacustrine 299 Hydrophilicity, Hydrophobicity 328 Gley 299 William F. Jaynes

Entries without author names are glossary terms x CONTENTS

Hygroscopicity, Hygroscopic Constant 330 Krotovinas 423 Hans F. Winterkorn Kubiena Box 423 Hypogene 331 L Horizon 425 Ice Erosion 333 Ward Chesworth, Augusto Perez‐Alberti, and Labile Pool 425 Emmanuelle Arnaud S. A. Ebelhar Ice Wedge and Polygon 338 Lacustrine 426 Igneous 339 Lagoon 426 Illuviation 339 Land 427 Imbibition 339 Landfill 427 H. J. Morel‐Seytoux Landscape 427 Imogolite 350 Landscape and Soils 427 Impermeable 350 Ward Chesworth Impervious 350 431 Induration 350 Law of the Minimum 431 Quirino Paris Infiltration 350 H. J. Morel‐Seytoux 437 Inheritance 362 437 Otto Spaargaren Inorganic Fertilizers 362 Lessivage 438 Inorganic Soil 362 LFH Horizon 438 Insolation 362 Light Fraction 439 Intensive Agriculture 362 Lime 439 Interfluve 362 Liquefaction 439 Intergrade 362 Lithic 439 Ion 362 Lithosequence 439 Ion Exchange 363 Litter 439 Ionic Activities 363 439 Iron Oxides 363 Otto Spaargaren Udo Schwertmann Loading 440 Iron Pan 369 440 Irrigation 369 Ernest Rawitz 440 Journals 381 Luvisols 440 Charles W. Finkl Otto Spaargaren Kame 421 Macronutrients 443 L. R. Hossner Karst 421 Mangan 445 421 Otto Spaargaren Manure 445 Koppen 423 Marginal Land 445 CONTENTS xi

Marl 446 Mull 486 Marsh 446 Munsell Chart 486 Mass Movement 446 Muskeg 486 Matran 446 Near-Neutral Soils 487 Marta Camps Arbestain, Felipe Macías Vázquez, and Matric Potential 446 Ward Chesworth Matrix 447 Neoformation 488 Meadow 447 Neolithic Revolution 488 Ward Chesworth Mechanical Weathering 447 Eiju Yatsu Net Primary Productivity 489 Melanization 449 490 Otto Spaargaren Metal Complexing 449 Nitrification 491 Metamorphic 449 Nitrogen Cycle 491 Microbial Ecology and Clay Minerals 450 Johnson Semoka Microhabitats 450 Nitrogen Fixation 494 Iain M. Young Nodule 494 Micrometeorology 453 Jon S. Warland Nutrient 494 Micromorphology 457 Nutrient Cycling 494 Georges Stoops Nutrient Potentials 494 Micronutrients 466 Konrad Mengel Ward Chesworth O Horizon 501 Microstructure, Engineering Aspects 475 Order 501 Peter Smart Organan 501 Midden 481 Organic Fertilizers 501 Mineral Analysis 482 Organic Matter 501 Mineral Soil 482 Organic Soil 501 Mineralization 482 Organic Weathering 501 Minesoil 482 Ortstein 502 Mire 482 A. Martínez Cortizas, X. Pontevedra Pombal, Osmosis 502 and J. C. Nóvoa Muñoz Outwash 502 Moisture Regimes 485 Overburden 502 Monadnock 485 Paddy Soils 503 Mor 485 Paleosol 503 Moraine 485 Pallid Zone 503 Morphology 485 Paludification 503 Mottle 485 Pan 504 Muck 485 Paralithic 504 Mulch 486 Parent Material 504

Entries without author names are glossary terms xii CONTENTS

Parent Rock 504 Phreatic 555 Particle Density 504 Physical Chemistry 555 George R. Blake D. S. Orlov Particle-Size Distribution 505 Physical Properties 559 Gary C. Steinhardt Physical Weathering 559 Pasture 510 Phytolith 559 Peat 510 X. Pontevedra Pombal, J. C. Nóvoa Muñoz, Pingo 559 and A. Martínez Cortizas 559 Ped 512 Otto Spaargaren 512 Plant Nutrients 560 J. J. Oertli Pedocal 512 Plant Roots and Soil Physical Factors 571 Pedogenic Grid 512 Jan Gliński, Jerzy Lipiec, and Witold Stępniewski and 512 Plasma 578 Richard W. Arnold Plastic 578 Pedon 516 Playa 578 516 578 Pedoturbation 516 Randall J. Schaetzl 579 Otto Spaargaren Peneplain, Pediplain, Etchplain 522 Plow 580 Penetrability 522 Plow Layer 580 Peptization 522 580 Percolation 522 Otto Spaargaren F. Stagnitti, J.-Y. Parlange, and T. S. Steenhuis Point of Zero Net Charge 582 Periglacial 525 Pollution 582 Periodic Table in Soil Science 525 Ward Chesworth Polycyclic 582 Permafrost 530 Polygenetic 582 Permeability 531 Polygonal 582 Y. Mualem and H. J. Morel-Seytoux Polypedon 583 Permeameter 538 Pore 583 Petrocalcic 538 Pore Size Distribution 583 Petrogypsic 538 Pore Space, Drainable 583 pH 538 Porosity 583 538 Potassium Cycle 583 Otto Spaargaren Ward Chesworth Phase Rule and Phase Diagrams 539 Prairie 587 Ward Chesworth Primary Mineral 587 Phi Scale 547 Primary Productivity 588 Phosphorus Cycle 547 Yoong K. Soon Prismatic 588 CONTENTS xiii

Profile 588 Salt Leaching 611 Carmela Monterroso Martinez Raj K. Gupta and I. P. Abrol Profile, Physical Modification 589 Sand 613 Keith D. Cassel and David Hammer Sandur, Sandr 614 Pseudogley 593 Saprolite 614 Puddling 593 Pedro A. Sanchez Saprolite, Regolith and Soil 614 Charles W. Finkl Pugging 596 Saturation 622 Quality 597 Ward Chesworth Savanna 622 Radiocarbon Dating 599 Scalping 622 Radioisotopes 599 Scarify 622 Rangeland 599 Scrub 622 Reaction 599 Secondary Mineral 622 Redoximorphic Features 599 Sedimentary 622 Redox Reactions and Diagrams in Soil 600 Burl D. Meek and Ward Chesworth Seepage 622 Regolith 605 Self-Mulching 622 605 Semi-Arid 623 Otto Spaargaren Series 623 Relief 606 Sesquan 623 Rendzina 606 Sesquioxide 623 Residence Time 606 Shear 623 Residua System of Weathering 607 Shield 623 Residual Soil 607 Shrinkage 623 Reverse Weathering 607 Silicates 623 Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) 607 Rhizosphere 608 Silt 623 Michael Herlihy Simulation of Soil Systems 623 Ria 608 Skeletan 624 Ridge 609 Skeleton Grains 624 Rockland 609 Slickensides 624 Rolling 609 Slope Classes 624 Rotation 609 Sludge 624 Rubifaction or Rubefaction 609 Sludge Disposal 624 Runoff 609 M. B. Kirkham Sabkha 611 S-Matrix 629 Saline 611 Sod 629 Salt Affected Soils 611 Sodicity 629

Entries without author names are glossary terms xiv CONTENTS

Soil 629 705 Marta Camps Arbestain, Felipe Macías Vázquez, and Ward Chesworth Soil Variation 705 Inakwu O. A. Odeh 634 James J. Germida 707 637 Soil Water and its Management 707 Richard H. Loeppert Paul W. Unger 641 Soil-Root Interface 709 Maurice G. Cook Carlo Gessa Soil Components, Organic 643 Soils of the Coastal Zone 711 Charles W. Finkl Soil Conservation Service 643 Soils, Non-Agricultural Uses 734 Soil Drainage 643 Fred P. Miller G. O. Schwab Soil-Solvent Interactions 736 Soil Engineering 646 Solifluction 736 Krystyna Konstankiewicz and Jarosław Pytka 737 Soil Fertility 656 Otto Spaargaren J. J. Oertli 738 668 Otto Spaargaren Designations in the WRB Soil 668 Solum 739 classification system Arieh Singer Solute Sorption-Desorption Kinetics 739 H. Magdi Selim Soil Mapping and Survey 670 William J. Edmonds Sorption Phenomena 745 N. J. Barrow 673 Spheroidal 756 673 Yucheng Feng 756 Otto Spaargaren Soil Mineralogy 678 Steven B. Feldman, C. Shang, and Lucian W. Zelazny Stony 757 Stratification 757 686 Structure 757 686 P. W. Ford Subsoil 757 Soil Pores 693 Sulfur Transformations and Fluxes 757 Brent E. Clothier Myron J. Mitchell and Christine Alewell Soil Probe 699 Supergene 764 699 Surface Soil Water Content 764 Surficial 764 Soil Reaction 699 Sustainable Agriculture 764 and Salinization 699 M. A. Arshad Swamp 764 Soil Science 704 Tableland 765 Soil Seperates 704 Taiga 765 Soil Solution 704 Tailings 765 Bryon W. Bache 765 Soil Stabilization 705 Ward Chesworth and Otto Spaargaren CONTENTS xv

Temperature Regime 766 807 Otto Spaargaren Tensiometer 767 Void 809 Terrace 767 Terrain 767 Vugh 809 Terric 767 Wasteland 811 Texture 767 Water Budget in Soil 811 Gary W. Parkin Thermal Regime 767 Amos Hadas Water Content 813 Thermodynamics of Soil Water 772 Water Content and Retention 814 Pieter H. Groenevelt Walter H. Gardner Thermogenic 776 Water Erosion 817 K. Auerswald Thermosequence 777 Thionic or Sulfidic Soils 777 Water Fluxes 822 Xosé L. Otero, Tiago O. Ferreira, Pablo Vidal-Torrado, Water Holding Capacity 822 Felipe Macías Vázquez, and Ward Chesworth Water Movement 822 Thixotropy, Thixotropism 781 Johannes Bouma Charles W. Finkl, Jr. Water Potential 825 Till 782 Water Table 825 Tillage 782 John W. Doran and Lloyd N. Mielke Waterlogged 825 Topography 785 Watershed 825 Toposequence 785 Weathering Systems in Soil Science 825 Topsoil 785 Ward Chesworth Trace Elements 785 Wentworth Scale 830 M. B. Kirkham Wetland 830 Transport 790 Wettability 830 Transport Processes 791 Pieter H. Groenevelt Wetting Front 830 H. J. Morel-Seytoux Tropical Soils 793 Charles W. Finkl Wilting Point 835 Truncated Soil 803 Wind Erosion 835 Michael Brookfield Tundra 804 Wind Erosion Equation 838 Turf 804 Windthrow 838 Type 804 Woodland 838 805 Otto Spaargaren Yield 839 Undifferentiated Map Unit 806 Zeta Potential 841 R. J. Zasoski Universal Soil Loss Equation 806 Zonal Soil 845 Unsaturated Flow 806 Zone 845 Vadose 807 Author Index 847 Ventifacts 807 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Subject Index 849

Entries without author names are glossary terms Contributors

I. P. Abrol K. Auerswald Centre for the Advancement of Sustainable Agriculture Lehrstuhl für Grünlandlehre, TU München National Agricultural Science Centre (NASC) Complex Am Hochanger 1 DPS Marg, Pusa 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany New Delhi 110 012, India email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Bryon W. Bache Christine Alewell The Chestnuts Environmental Geosciences The Green University of Basel Lolworth Bernoullistr. 32 Cambridge, CB3 8HF, UK CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland email: [email protected] N. J. Barrow 22 Townsend Dale Gonzalo Almendros Martín Mt. Claremont Center of Environmental Sciences Western Australia 6010, Australia Soils Dept./Soil Biochemistry Lab. email: [email protected] c/ Serrano 115 dpdo 28006 Madrid, Spain Valerie M. Behan-Pelletier email: [email protected] Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada K.W. Neatby Bldg. Olafur Arnalds 960 Carling Avenue Keldnaholt Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada Reykjavik 112, Iceland email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Friedrich H. Beinroth Emmanuelle Arnaud Departamento de Agronomia y Suelos (no address) Universidad de Puerto Rico P.O. Box 9030 Richard W. Arnold Mayaguez, PR 00681-9030, Puerto Rico 1145 Glenway email: [email protected] West Lafayette, IN 47906-2203, USA email: [email protected] George R. Blake 2215 N 1400 E St M. A. Arshad Provo, UT 84604, USA Agriculture Canada Research Station email: [email protected] Box 29 Beaverlodge, AB T0H 0C0, Canada Johannes Bouma email: [email protected] (no address) xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Herman Bouwer Randy A. Dahlgren (no address) Land, Air and Water Resources, University of California One Shields Avenue Michael Brookfield Davis, CA 95616-8627, USA Department of Land Resource Science email: [email protected] University of Guelph Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada John W. Doran email: [email protected] School of Natural Resouces University of Nebraska Gaylon S. Campbell 119 Keim Hall Decagon Devices, Inc. Lincoln, NE 68583-0934, USA 2365 NE Hopkins Court email: [email protected] Pullman, WA 99163, USA email: [email protected] S. A. Ebelhar University of Illinois Marta Camps Arbestain Dixon Springs Agricultural Center NEIKER Crop Sciences Division c/ Berreaga, 1 RR1, Box 256, Simpson, IL 62985, USA 48160 Derio (Bizkaia), Spain email: [email protected] email: [email protected] William Joseph Edmonds G. E. Cardon 1610 Kennedy Avenue Department of Plants, Soils & Biometeorology Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA Utah State University, Ag. Science Building 4820 Old Main Hall W. W. Emerson Logan, UT 84322-4820, USA (no address) email: [email protected] Hari Eswaran Keith D. Cassel USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Department of Soil Science 1400 Independence Avenue (Room S-4836) North Carolina State University Washington, DC 20250, USA 100 Derieux Street, Williams Hall email: [email protected] Raleigh, NC 27695-7619, USA email: [email protected] L. J. Evans Department of Land Resource Science Ward Chesworth University of Guelph Department of Land Resource Science Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada University of Guelph email: [email protected] Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada email: [email protected] Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) Brent E. Clothier HortResearch Palmerston North Steven B. Feldman Private Bag 11030, Manawatu Mail Centre Consulting Mineralogist Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand 238 West Main St. email: [email protected] Millbury, MA 01527, USA email: [email protected] Maurice G. Cook Ecologistics Limited Yucheng Feng Consultants in Environmental Management Department of Agronomy and Soils 3458 Leonard Street University of Alabama Raleigh, NC 27607, USA 202 Funchess Hall email: [email protected] Auburn, AL 36849, USA email: [email protected] Miguel Cooper Depto de Solos e Nutrição de Plantas, University of São Paulo Tiago O. Ferreira Avenida Pádua Dias, 11 Dep. de Ciências do Solo 13418-900 Piracicaba, Brazil CCA/UFC email: [email protected] Fortaleza, Brazil CONTRIBUTORS xix

Charles W. Finkl Raj K. Gupta Coastal Planning & Engineering, Inc. ICARDA – CAC Regional Office CPE Coastal Geology & Geomatics P.O. Box 4564, Tashkent 2481 Boca Raton Boulevard Uzbekistan Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA email: [email protected] Amos Hadas Institute of Soils, Water and Environmental Sciences P. W. Ford The Volcani Center, A.R.O. CSIRO Land & Water P.O. Box 6 GPO Box 1666 Bet Dagan 50250, Israel Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia email: [email protected] email: [email protected] R. David Hammer Carlota Garcia Paz National Leader, Soil Survey Investigations Departamento de Edafologia y Quimica Agricola USDA-NRCS-NSSC Facultad de Biologia Federal Building, Room 152 Universidade de Santiago de Compostela 100 Centennial Mall North Campus Universitario Sur s/n Lincoln, NE 68508-3866, USA 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain phone: 402-437-5321 email: [email protected] email: [email protected]

Walter H. Gardner R. J. Hanks 1160 Telegraph Road #10 1305 E. 2050 N. Washington, UT 84780, USA Logan, UT 84341, USA email: [email protected] Robert G. Gast Roger Hartmann (no address) Agr Sci, Coupre Links 65 James J. Germida State University of Ghent Department of Soil Science, University Saskatchewan Ghent 9000, Belgium 51 Campus Drive email: [email protected] Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada Richard J. Heck email: [email protected] Department of Land Resource Science Carlo Gessa University of Guelph Dipartimento di Scienze e Technologie Agroambientali Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada Universita di Bologna email: [email protected] Via Fanin, 40 Michael Herlihy 40100 Bologna, Italy (no address) email: [email protected] Stuart B. Hill Jan Gliński School of Education, University of Western Sydney Institute of Agrophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences Locked Bag 1797 Doświadczalna 4 Penrith South DC 20290 Lublin 27, Poland NSW 1797, Australia email: [email protected] email: [email protected]

Pieter H. Groenevelt William R. Horwath Department of Land Resource Science 3226 Plant and Environmental Science Building University of Guelph University of California Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada One Shields Avenue email: [email protected] Davis, CA 95616-8627, USA email: [email protected] Paul R. Grossl Department of Plants, Soils, and Biometeorology L. R. Hossner Utah State University Department of Soils & Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University 4820 Old Main Hill, AGS 348 370 Olsen Blvd Logan, UT 84322-4820, USA College Station, TX 7784-2474, USA email: [email protected] email: [email protected] xx CONTRIBUTORS

P. M. Huang Campus Universitario Sur s/n Department of Soil Science, University Saskatchewan 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain 51 Campus Drive email: [email protected] Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada email: [email protected] Antonio Martínez Cortizas Departamento de Edafologia y Quimica Agricola William F. Jaynes Facultad de Biologia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela Plant and Soil Science, MS 2122 Campus Universiatario Sur s/n Texas Tech University 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Lubbock, TX 79409, USA email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Burl D. Meek M. B. Kirkham (no address) Department of Agronomy Kansas State University Konrad Mengel 2004 Throckmorton Hall Institut für Pflanzenernährung, IFZ, Justus Liebig Universität Manhattan, KS 66506, USA Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32 email: [email protected] 35392 Gießen, Germany Krystyna Konstankiewicz email: [email protected] Institute of Agrophysics Erika Micheli Polish Academy of Science Soil Science and Agrochemistry Department ul. Doświadczalna 4 Szent Istvan University 20-290 Lublin 27, Poland Páter Károly u. 1 email: [email protected] 2100 Godollo, Hungary Nikola Kostic email: [email protected] Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade Nemanjina 6 Lloyd N. Mielke 11080 Belgrade, Yugoslavia P.O. Box 98 email: [email protected] Gallatin Gateway, MT 59730, USA email: [email protected] J. Lag (deceased) Fred P. Miller (deceased) David M. Lavigne International Fund for Animal Welfare Myron J. Mitchell 40 Norwich Street East Environmental Sciences and Forest Biology Guelph, ON N1H 2G6, Canada SUNY, 210 Illick Hall email: [email protected] 1 Forestry Drive Syracuse, NY 13210-2788, USA David T. Lewis email: [email protected] 2520 Penny Lane Rogers, AR 72758, USA Carmela Monterroso Martinez Departamento de Edafologia y Quimica Agricola Jerzy Lipiec Facultad de Biologia, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela Institute of Agrophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences Campus Sur, 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain ul. Doświadczalna 4 email: [email protected] 20-290 Lublin 27, Poland email: [email protected] H. J. Morel-Seytoux Richard H. Loeppert 57 Selby Lane Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A&M University Atherton, CA 94027-3926, USA 370 Olsen Bldv email: [email protected] College Station, TX 77843-2474, USA email: [email protected] Y. Mualem Hebrew University of Jerusalem Felipe Macías Vázquez Department of Soil and Water Sciences Departamento de Edafologia y Quimica Agricola P.O. Box 12 Facultad de Biologia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela Rehovot 76100, Israel CONTRIBUTORS xxi

J. C. Nóvoa Muñoz Augusto Perez-Alberti Departamento Bioloxía Vexetal e Ciencias do Solo Departamento de Geografia Facultade de Ciencias, Universidade de Vigo Universidad de Santiago As Lagoas s/n Plaza de la Universidad 32004 Ourense, Spain 15703 Santiago de Compostela, Spain email: [email protected] email: [email protected]

Jnakwa O. A. Odeh X. Pontevedra Pombal Faculty of Agriculture Departamento Edafologia y Quimica Agricola A05-JRA McMillan, The University of Sydney Facultad de Biologia, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela NSW 2006, Australia Campus Universitario Sur s/n email: [email protected] 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain email: [email protected] J. J. Oertli Schaienweg 25 Jarosław Pytka 4107 Ettingen, Switzerland Institute of Agrophysics PAS email: [email protected] ul. Doświadczalna 4, P.O. Box 201 20-290 Lublin 27, Poland D. S. Orlov email: [email protected] (no address)

Xose L. Otero Hervé Quiquampoix Departamento de Edafologia y Quimica Agricola UMR Rhizosphère et Symbiose, INRA-ENSAM Facultad de Biologia, Campus Sur s/n 2 Place Pierre Viala 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain 34060 Montpellier Cedex 1, France email: [email protected] email: [email protected]

Marcello Pagliai William O. Rasmussen Istituto Sperimentale per lo Studio e la Difesa del Suolo Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering CRA-ISSDS The University of Arizona Piazza D’Azeglio, 30 Tucson, AZ 85721, USA 50121 Firenze, Italy email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Ernest Rawitz Quirino Paris (deceased) Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics 3105 Social Science and Humanities Bldg. Paul F. Reich University of California Soil Survey Division One Shields Avenue USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service Davis, CA 95616, USA Room 4250 South Building, 14th & Independence Ave, SW email: [email protected] Washington, DC 20250, USA email: [email protected] Gary W. Parkin Department of Land Resource Science, University of Guelph Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada Wayne P. Robarge email: [email protected] Department of Soil Science, North Carolina State University P.O. Box 7619 J.-Y. Parlange Raleigh, NC 27695-7619, USA Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering email: [email protected] Cornell University Ithaca, NY 14853-5701, USA Pedro A. Sanchez email: [email protected] (no address)

Keith Paustian Randall J. Schaetzl Natural Resources Ecology Lab Department of Geography, Michigan State University Colorado State University 128 Geography Building Ft. Collins, CO 80523, USA East Lansing, MI 48824-1117, USA email: [email protected] email: [email protected] xxii CONTRIBUTORS

G. O. Schwab Garrison Sposito (deceased) Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management College of Natural Resources, University of California Udo Schwertmann Berkeley, CA 94720-3114, USA Institut für Bodenkunde, TU München email: [email protected] Am Hochanger 2 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany F. Stagnitti email: [email protected] School of Life and Environmental Sciences and Centre for Applied Dynamical Systems & Environmental Modelling H. Magdi Selim Deakin University Department of Agronomy and Environmental Management P.O. Box 423 Louisiana State University Warrnambool 3280, Australia Sturgis Hall email: [email protected] Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA Siobhán Staunton email: [email protected] UMR Rhizosphère & Symbiose INRA, place Viala Johnson Semoka 34060 Montpellier Cedex, France Sokoine University of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science email: [email protected] P.O. Box 3008 Morogoro, Tanzania T. S. Steenhuis email: [email protected] Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering Cornell University C. Shang Ithaca, NY 14853-5701, USA Department of Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences email: [email protected] Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Gary G. Steinhardt Blacksburg, VA 24061-0404, USA Department of Agronomy email: [email protected] Lilly Hall of Life Sciences Purdue University Arieh Singer 915 W. State Street Seagram Centre for Soil and Water Sciences West Lafayette, IN 47907-2054, USA Hebrew University of Jerusalem email: [email protected] P.O. Box 12 Rehovot 76100, Israel Witold Stępniewski email: [email protected] Wydział Inżynierii Środowiska Politechniki Lubelskiej ul. Nadbystrzycka 40B Peter Smart 20-618 Lublin, Poland Department of Civil Engineering, University of Glasgow email: [email protected] Glascow, G12 8LT, UK email: [email protected] Georges Stoops Laboratorium voor Mineralogie, Petrologie en Micropedologie Yoong K. Soon Universiteit Gent Beaverlodge Research Farm Krijgslaan 281, S8 P.O. Box 29 Gent 9000, Belgium Beaverlodge, AB T0H 0C0, Canada email: [email protected] email: [email protected] Peter van Straaten Department of Land Resource Science Otto Spaargaren University of Guelph World Data Centre for Soils Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada P.O. Box 353 email: [email protected] 6700 AJ Wageningen, The Netherlands email: [email protected] Teresa Taboada Rodríguez Departamento Edafologia y Quimica Agricola Donald L. Sparks Facultad de Biologia Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Delaware Universidade de Santiago de Compostela 152 Townsend Hall Campus Universitario Sur s/n Newark, DE 19716, USA 15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain email: [email protected] email: [email protected] CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

B. K. G. Theng Hans F. Winterkorn Landcare Research (no address) Private Bag 11052 Manawatu Mail Centre C. Wesley Wood Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand Department of Agronomy and Soils email: [email protected] 234 Funchess Hall, Auburn University Auburn, AL 36849-5412, USA Paul W. Unger email: [email protected] 3603 Thurman St. Amarillo, TX 79109, USA Eiju Yatsu email: [email protected] 91 Iwase Matsudo-shi 271-0076, Japan Pablo Vidal-Torrado Depto de Ciencia do Solo, ESALQ/USP Iain M. Young University of São Paulo Scottish Informatics, Mathematics, Biology, and Statistics Avenida Pádua Dias, 11 (SIMBIOS) Centre, University of Abertay 13418-900 Piracicaba, Brazil Bell Street email: [email protected] Dundee, DD1 1HG, UK email: [email protected] Jon S. Warland Department of Land Resource Science R. J. Zasoski University of Guelph Soils and Biochemistry Program Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada University of California email: [email protected] One Shields Avenue Davis, CA 95616-8627, USA Charles E. Weaver email: [email protected] Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Georgia Institute of Technology Lucian W. Zelazny 311 Ferst Drive Department of Crop and Soil Environmental Sciences Atlanta, GA 30332-0340, USA Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University email: [email protected] Blacksburg, VA 24061-0404, USA email: [email protected] W. O. Williamson College of Earth and Mineral Sciences University of Pennsylvania 0216 Steidle Building University Park, PA 16802, USA Preface

“It is interesting to contemplate a tangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent upon each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us.” Charles Darwin1

Darwin’s tangled bank is the biosphere in poetic microcosm, very technology we depend upon to maintain our complex and the “damp earth” he refers to is soil. Soil is arguably the societies, is strategically situated to threaten the biosphere at a most complex of all geological materials, a combination of vulnerable bottleneck, the soil. Soil occupies a kind of choke mineral and organic constituents in solid, aqueous and gaseous point through which virtually all of the fluxes of energy and forms, organized into a loose, porous, horizonated, plant-bearing matter that keep the terrestrial biosphere functioning, are material, that is constantly changing. It forms as a result of a com- squeezed between different compartments of the landscape, plex series of interactions and feedbacks between lithosphere, and for about ten millennia we have been commandeering an hydrosphere, atmosphere and, biosphere. As the natural geologi- ever growing area of the soil for human use. cal cover of most of the land surface of the earth, it is the focus of Our ecological footprint has expanded to modify, more or this encyclopedia. less completely, about a third of the earth’s soils, while threa- Alfred North Whitehead2 once wrote that the European phi- tening a second third. Most of the expansion has happened losophical tradition “consists of a series of footnotes to Plato”. since the steam locomotive opened up the grassland biomes It might similarly be said that human history is little more than of the western hemisphere to the markets and bellies of the a footnote to the exploitation of soil that started with the Agri- Old World. Cheap energy from fossil fuel made the expansion cultural, or Neolithic, Revolution, 10 000 years ago. All the possible, driving the human population, the ultimate crop of the magnificent cultural artifacts of civilization, from cathedrals soil from the point of view of Homo sapiens, to an exuberant to efficient plumbing systems, are the direct heritage of this burst of exponential growth. The pressure of our numbers exploitation, and the big question today concerns what human- requires that the soil provide us with ever more food, fibre ity must do to sustain the heritage. At the most fundamental and energy, as well as living space. As a consequence we have level this is equivalent to asking what we must do to sustain become a potent geological force, unique to the Holocene, and our food-production system. our activities in manipulating the soil, constitute a massive By way of answer, consider Felipe Fernández-Armesto’s3 intervention into the external geological cycle. All the natural definition of civilization: “a relationship to the natural environ- tendencies for soil to erode, to acidify, to salinize, or to become ment, recrafted by the civilizing impulse, to meet human hydromorphic, depending on factors such as climate, texture demands”. To sustain the food-production system, we need to and drainage, have been magnified and exaggerated at certain avoid making our demands so great, and our recrafting so times and in certain places, into pathological states. Now we extreme, that the biosphere in which we are embedded breaks are a threat not only to terrestrial biomes, but also to the ecol- down as a life-support system. Unfortunately, agriculture, the ogy of freshwater biomes, and even the sea as sediment loaded with agrichemicals contributes to hypoxia along coastal regions. The fact that we have not yet invented an agricultural system 1Darwin, Charles. 1859. On the Origin of Species by means of that is truly sustainable means that we cannot say with any cer- Natural Selection, or the Preservation of favoured races in the struggle tainty that our civilization is sustainable. Disasters such as the for life. London: John Murray. 502 p. dustbowl in the Midwestern USA, and extensive salinization in 2Whitehead, A. N. 1929. Process and reality, an essay in cosmology. the region of the Aral Sea, have seen systems fail within two or Gifford lectures delivered in the University of Edinburgh during the three generations, and even where agriculture has persisted session 1927–1928. Cambridge University Press, 1929. 509 p. for five thousand years or more, Egypt and Northern China 3Ferna´ndez-Armesto, Felipe. 2001. Civilizations: culture, ambition, being the prime examples, it has been because of fortunate geolo- and the transformation of nature. New York: Free Press. 545 p. gical circumstances rather than human ingenuity. Hence the xxvi PREFACE pessimism of Angus Martin4, who, writing as an ecologist, asks: biosphere. The basic facts, concepts and uses of the soil are “How many millennia of deforestation, dust storms and soil ero- presented alphabetically in the volume, which combines fea- sion has it taken for us to realize that our agricultural methodol- tures of both encyclopedia and glossary. The longer articles ogy has had serious flaws in it from the start?” characteristic of the former are combined with shorter, diction- Yet, history shows that we have the intelligence, imagina- ary-style definitions of frequently used terms, commonly found tion and courage to tackle large issues such as the problem of in the latter. The intended readership is the scientist, engineer, sustainability, and compilations such as this encyclopedia are technologist, environmentalist and planner, with an interest in proof that our knowledge of soils, incomplete and provisional soils and a concern for planet Earth. The Soil Science volume, as all science is, has grown comprehensive enough to solve In combination with other volumes in Springer’s Encyclopedia the technical problems involved. If we could figure out how of Earth Sciences6, this volume on Soil Science, contributes to to solve the socio-political ones, humanity might yet achieve a comprehensive and rigorous view of the environment in which a sustainable civilization. Without doubt it will demand a we live. monumental effort of cooperation on a global scale. Bill Rees5, The original Encyclopedia of Soil Science was compiled by inventor of the concept of the ecological footprint, puts it this Rhodes W. Fairbridge and Charles W. Finkl, Jnr., and first pub- way: “Sustainability is the greatest collective exercise the lished as long ago as 1979. This second edition builds on their human race will ever have to undertake”. work, and I was fortunate enough to be able to call upon those The objective of this second edition of the Encyclopedia two very experienced editors for advice. of Soil Science is, in a single volume, to provide an entry I am sorry that Rhodes did not live to see this volume point into the study of that part of the solid earth that is abso- in print. lutely necessary, not only to the sustainability of civilization, but more fundamentally to the sustainability of a flourishing Ward Chesworth

4Martin, Angus. 1975. The Last Generation: the End of Survival. 6In particular the volumes covering Environmental Science, Geo- Glasgow: Fontana. 188 p. morphology, Geochemistry, Sedimentology, Field Geology, Applied 5Rees, William E. 2007. Human eco-footprints: straying off the Geology, Hydrology and Water Resources, Remote Sensing, World sustainability trail. The Kenneth R. Farrell Distinguished Public Policy Climatology, and Coastal Science. Lectureship, delivered at the University of Guelph, May 16, 2007.