Social Sciences in the Arab World Forms of Presence
First Report by the Arab Social Science Monitor Mohammed Bamyeh Social Sciences in the Arab World Forms of Presence
2015 Issued by the Arab Council for the Social Sciences Alamuddin Building, 2nd Floor John Kennedy Street, Ras Beirut Beirut, Lebanon
© December 2015
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The designations employed and the presentation of material in this report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Arab Council for the Social Sciences concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The views and opinions expressed in this report are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily state or reflect the official views of the Arab Council for the Social Sciences (ACSS).
Published in Lebanon. Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2 Preface 3 Introduction 6 Institutional Frameworks 17 Universities 17 Some Characteristics of the Social Scientists in the Arab World : A Sample Study 29 Research Centers 34 Professional Societies 42 Social Sciences in Scholarly Periodicals 50 The Content of Scholarly Periodicals: A Sample Study 53 Public Frameworks: Civil Society and the Public Sphere 77 Civil Society 80 Social Sciences in Cultural Periodicals t 84 Social Sciences in Newspapers 92 Social Sciences in Television 115 Social Sciences in Popular Magazines 121 Conclusion 127 Sources 132 Methods and Tools 134
Social Sciences in the Arab world: Forms of Presence 1 t
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
Aknowledgement
We would like to express our gratefulness to the following persons and organi- zations who shared their time, expertise, guidance, support, and inspiration for the realization of this report.
This report would not have been possible without the generous support of the Ford Foundation and Carnegie Corporation of New York.
To the Advisory Committee for its guidance on the process and the content of the report and the ASSM project overall: Abdelwahab Ben Hafaiedh, Azmi Bis- hara, Ahmad Dallal, Georges Corm, Haifa Jamal Al-Lail, Huda Zurayk, Khaled Louhichi, Khair El-Din Haseeb, Lina Khatib, Magued Osman, Mustapha Kamel Al-Sayyid, Nada Mourtada-Sabbah, Soukeina Bouraoui, Soraya Al Torki and Salim Tamari.
To the Technical Committee for sharing its extensive expertise in the develop- ment of the ASSM framework and the data collection instruments as well as for informing the substantive content of the biennial report: Ragui Assaad, Adnan El-Amine, Mokhtar El-Harras, Dina El-Khawaga, Hoda Elsadda, Khaled Fahmy, Bassam Haddad, Sari Hanafi, Mary Kawar, Eileen Kuttab and AbdelKader Latre- che.
To the implementing team Seteney Shami, Kassem Kaouk, Joelle Hatem, Mu- neira Hoballah, Farah Al Souri as well as to Khalil Al Asmar, Nada Chaya and Safwan El Solh.
To the reviewers of the report for their valuable reviews and comments on sev- eral drafts of the report: ACSS Board of Trustees members, ASSM Advisory and Technical Committees members, Charles Kurzman and Hassan Rachik.
2 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor t
Preface
It is with a considerable sense of the conventional wisdoms which has achievement that the Arab Council informed knowledge institutions and for the Social Sciences (ACSS) debuts programs, even in the recent past. The the first Arab Social Science Report waves of unrest, conflict and war that (ASSR). The series of Reports are characterize the region in the present planned as the major publication to moment makes this rethinking of be produced biennially by the ACSS trends, needs and priorities more, through its project entitled the Arab rather than less, important. Social Science Monitor (ASSM). The ASSM is a permanent observatory The idea of the Social Science Monitor dedicated to surveying the landscape arose out of the daily questions and assessing the trajectory of social facing the ACSS as it began to design science research in Arab countries. its first programs: What are the needs of different generations of social The ACSS is a young institution scientists across the region? Who which commenced operations out of are the target recipients for ACSS Beirut, Lebanon in August 2012 with programs and opportunities? Who are the aim of promoting and supporting the target audiences and consumers the social sciences throughout the of the knowledge that would be 22 countries of the Arab Region produced? How many applications by providing funding, training, should a competition ideally receive mentorship, publications and and from which disciplines and networking opportunities. The terrain locations to be assured that it has of higher education and research reached a broad spectrum of the has been changing rapidly across research community? What other the Arab region, especially since the sources of funding, training and 1990s and developing in different networking exist in the region? Where directions. The infrastructure as well and how should scarce resources be as the opportunity structure for the allocated most productively? social sciences may still leave a great deal to be desired in the region, but The programs and the activities of they are sufficiently complex and the ACSS began to supply some of varied so that neither the existing the answers to these questions or research capacity nor the major trends at least showed some recognizable and characteristics of the knowledge patterns in the applications for produced, nor societal needs for the funding, for membership, for social sciences can be captured by participation in the conferences and
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 3 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
so on. The need for a systematic and Report” that lays out the landscape rigorous documentation and analysis of inquiry for a broad understanding of the state of the social sciences still of the social sciences in the region. was apparent. Also clear was that The preliminary investigation of the such a project would have to extend various spheres in which the social into sister disciplines, look at a wide sciences in the Arab region present variety of institutions and understand themselves and are represented, for the state of higher education and different purposes and audiences, the university in the broadest sense. raises important and new research Discussion and consultations with questions. The author of the Report, partners and other institutions Dr. Mohammed Bamyeh, brings his showed that such information and considerable experience in the social analysis would be of interest to a sciences generally and in the Arab broad set of actors in the research Region particularly to frame a series and development fields. of arenas for future investigation concerning the infrastructure and It was with these ambitions that the fields of knowledge production and Arab Social Science Monitor project dissemination in the social sciences of the ACSS was launched, staff in the Arab Region. This ambitious assigned, committees formed and research agenda will inform the work consultants hired starting in Fall of the Arab Social Science Monitor 2013. The first 15 months (till March in the coming phases and hopefully 2015) were considered as the pilot will also inspire other researchers phase of the program, and focused and research institutions to become on developing the framework, interested in undertaking similar main concepts and tools for data research. We also hope that relevant gathering, documentation, analysis national and international policy and sharing/dissemination. As the and development organizations will methodology appendix of this Report find much in this report to inform details, the areas of investigation their work in knowledge production, were divided into five components higher education and research for and two main tools were developed development. and piloted in this phase – a Matrix for capturing information on the The pilot phase of the ASSM has institutional infrastructures and a sharpened our ideas while expanding Questionnaire designed for individual our ambitions and also brought us social scientists. face to face with the staggering scarcity of publically available data This first Report reflects and builds on the areas being investigated. upon the pilot phase of data While the data presented in this gathering, but also goes beyond Report has been checked against the it. It is presented as a “Framing available sources of information, yet
4 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor much work still has to be done to validate the information and to go beyond the surface of what has been gathered. We hope that the Monitor as a data depository that will be made publically available will grow to fill a significant gap in the region and we also hope that we will collaborate with similar efforts and also advocate for better structures and processes for data gathering and sharing in the various countries of the region.
The Report is the result of hard work and good ideas and inputs of a large number of people, whether ACSS staff, ACSS Board of Trustees, committee members, consultants, researchers, reviewers and editors. Dr. Mohammed Bamyeh deserves a special mention for having gone above and beyond the role of a “Lead Author” and for participating in every aspect of setting up the Monitor as well as producing the Report. We have an excellent structure in place, a realistic though ambitious six-year plan and look forward to the next phase of expanded data gathering and institutional collaborations as well as critical discussions of the first Arab Social Science Report.
I hope that you will enjoy reading this Report. Please visit our ASSM webpage www.theacss.org/pages/assm which we are developing as an important vehicle for sharing our experiences and data and for soliciting comments and feedback. Seteney Shami Director-General, ACSS Beirut
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Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
Introduction
The first report’s objective is to gender studies, urban studies, and monitor the presence of social cultural studies. Overall, we wanted sciences in the different academic to shed more light on knowledge and public spheres in the Arab world. production in the Arab region, This includes universities, research particularly by exploring the presence centers, scholarly and cultural of social sciences within various periodicals, civil society, and public domains, including the public sphere. media. Therefore, the report presents Our goal is to lay the foundation that a general survey of the presence of will facilitate the production of other social sciences and evaluates the future reports relating the various abilities and characteristics of their aspects of social sciences in the disciplines in the region, with an eye Arab world, their problems, and their to the significant transformations achievements. Arab societies have lately witnessed. The report aims to serve as both The importance of this survey springs a practical and theoretical tool for from the importance of the social parties interested in the support of sciences themselves for analyzing social sciences and their development and understanding the surrounding in the Arab world, including social reality, and connecting it to various science scholars, officials from local and global influences. A research centers, universities, non- scientific understanding of any governmental organizations (NGOs), reality seems to gain more urgency sponsors of social research and in periods witnessing changes great development, and all intellectual and enough to call for a more creative cultural actors interested in the role and comprehensive knowledge of the social sciences in the public and a deeper look than had been domain. necessary for a preceding era of apparent stability. The history of Consequently, we found it appropriate social sciences shows that their to focus on the traditional disciplines growth has been closely connected within social sciences, including to general and radical social change. political science, anthropology, Like all other modern disciplines, the sociology, economics, history, and social sciences began to take their psychology. We did also take into present shape in Western industrial account interdisciplinary fields that countries during the first phases employ social sciences, such as of the Industrial Revolution, and in
6 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor t
conjunction with urban growth, the or opinions of the victims of this emergence of new kinds of social change or the myriad social and problems, modern social formations, environmental problems associated and new patterns of thought. All these with this style of development. A developments also added momentum quantitative assessment reveals that to processes of contact and cultural the social sciences have witnessed exchange through various means, great growth in their number of including colonial expansion. It was students, researchers, published only natural for the social sciences studies, university faculties, research to eventually proliferate all over the institutions, and professional world, especially in countries that saw societies throughout the world. parallel or analogous transformations, A qualitative assessment reveals in spite of other differences. that the same period saw an ever- increasing depth in specialization, the Over time, the social sciences grew emergence of new research methods, steadily in both quality and quantity a broader range of theoretical in different parts of the world, diversity, and the application of some especially since the latter half of approaches and theories in some the 20th century. This growth was government policies and civil society commensurate with the requirements initiatives. At the same time, the of studying modern societies social sciences came to play a role that seemed to be constantly in public debates and discussions, transforming, sometimes in the constituting an attempt to introduce direction of emancipatory hopes a more scientific view into processes that included popular participation of public opinion formation. in determining collective futures, improving the conditions of society’s Social sciences are rooted in one most marginalized populations, fundamental assumption: that decreasing inequalities within and social reality can be understood between societies, and extending scientifically. Understanding a the scope of human and civil rights. reality “scientifically” usually But the modern transformations means observing it from enough also included disastrous tendencies, distance to permit the researcher to such as the increased destructive shed preconceived notions, study capacities of conflicts, especially hypotheses with greater objectivity, in the case of modern wars, and analyze reality with the aid of verifiable exacerbated social conflicts that data, and generally maintain a critical led to civil war in some societies or spirit. Some of these requirements to the paralysis of political life. The may not seem easily applicable to the disastrous tendencies of modernity social sciences. More often than not also included authoritarian attempts researchers study a society of which to engineer social change without they are personally a part of, or else taking into consideration the effects another society, whether historical or
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 7 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
contemporary, for reasons having to of Arab researchers, whether do with the biographical or intellectual in terms of research interests, formation of the researcher. approaches and methodologies, Nevertheless, despite the fact that a or Arab scholarly networks. This social science practitioner is a human is notable especially as compared studying other humans, the drive to the Western universities which towards a scientific understanding shape the Arab scholars in the first of reality reflects the fact that such place, where a collective academic a “reality” itself has increasingly memory makes each science appear become too complicated to fit into the as a culmination of cumulative past interpretative possibilities provided efforts. We can make a preliminary by preconceived knowledge. The proposition regarding a factor that most important achievements of may be responsible for the weakness the social sciences crystallized, of Arab academic memory: the poor out of observations of one reality networking capacity of Arab social or another, from a distance that sciences, which we take note of in this enabled the researcher to free report, and which is indicated by the themselves from preconceived absence of Arab scholarly societies opinions, simplistic ideologies and in some cases or the lack of their one-sidedness, thus paving the way regular activities and publications in for innovative discoveries through others. creative methodologies and a mind open to a broad range of interpretive We can also postulate an explanation possibilities. for weak Arab academic memory in the context of greater social The institutionalization of the phenomena within the Arab world. social sciences in the Arab world We refer to phenomena such as the can be traced to the first half of erosion of connections between the twentieth century, with the modern Arab societies as a whole founding of specialized academic and their formative heritage (or, departments in Egypt, the Arab at the very least, the replacement Maghreb, Lebanon, and Iraq at of the organic relationship to a the hands of researchers who had past heritage with a rhetorical received their doctoral training in one). Despite this proposition, it the West, particularly in French, is not difficult for us to find Arab American, and British universities. academic societies that were active Today, Western academic institutions if not prosperous in previous stages. continue to play a pivotal role in Keeping this perspective in mind, generating Arab researchers and the relative weakness we see today forming their scholarly perspective. in Arab academic memory and its We note, however, a discontinuity networking capacities, especially between different generations since the end of the 1980s, does
8 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor not seem to be a permanent The Universality of Social phenomenon. It may only be the Sciences and the Characteristics result of the political developments of Local Contexts that surround academic work, such as the wars and the long blockade in In our interviews with social science the case of Iraq; long periods of civil researchers in the Arab world, we unrest in the cases of Lebanon and encountered a common assumption Algeria; or the ever-increasing control that the quality of social sciences and censorship practiced by political anywhere is closely associated with authorities over all aspects of civic its links to global social sciences, life in the Arab world in the period whether in terms of location of preceding the “Arab Spring” (and study, possessing linguistic abilities, possibly following it). It is, however, attendance of international academic also possible that this discontinuity conferences and forums, sustained with the scholarly past is the result of exposure to significant results in other institutional developments, such as places, or other venues of scholarly the tremendous boom in the number communication. This point of view of Arab universities and research comes hand in hand with the firm centers over the last three decades belief that the quality of knowledge (which we will later document). plummets in tandem with its degree This may seem like a healthy of isolation from global social phenomenon, but in the absence of sciences. Nevertheless, it is also appropriate standards it may lead obvious that the local specificities to the fragmentation of knowledge of any location supply the research systems. This, in turn, either leads contexts and play a tremendously to the erosion of the standards of important role in determining evaluation, or to relying on imported research topics and approaches, and standards (such as the US News and this is particularly true in the case World Report hierarchical ranking of social sciences. It is well-known system) that may not be suitable that a deeper perspective on a local for the local context or adaptable to reality can at times lead to theoretical it. We can also postulate that great findings of great significance to institutional development in one area global social sciences (as in the case of the Arab world (such as the Gulf of the field work of Pierre Bourdieu states) may lead to the evacuation in Algeria). Other examples combine of the local academic cadres in precise observation of the dynamics other Arab states-- although as of change with flexible use of we will see shortly, institutional theories, as in Hanna Batatu’s classic development in the higher studies on Iraq and Syria, which have education sector encompasses become indispensable references all Arab states, including the ones for scholars of modern Arab social with modest financial means. history. In addition to the fact that the
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 9 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
local context influences the choice Arab world. For him, this term did not of research topics, that context apply to the practices of many Arab also has ramifications for research associations subsumed under it, and methods, despite postulates about especially those where the founder of their universal nature. For instance, an association remains its executive it became clear to the Iraqi pioneer director for life. Baalbaki also sociologist Ali Al-Wardi that some criticized the adoption of the widely formal research methods which used concept of “participation,” require, say, recording interviews since it does not actually describe or filling out questionnaires, are many of the cases to which it is highly unsuitable in a culture that is applied. This is particularly true in centered on direct relationships and development programs where a that views all things “impersonal” or bureaucratic system uses the rhetoric bureaucratic with suspicion. For this of “participation” without actually reason, Al-Wardi advocated adopting allowing the local communities to dialogue-centered methods, i.e. shape those programs or to make any methods closer to traditional Arab meaningful changes to them in a way social customs, when conducting that suits the local context according field research in Arab societies. to the local understanding of it. Attentiveness to social customs while choosing research methods gains a Furthermore, language of publication special importance in circumstances is a key concern in linking social when security considerations override sciences in the Arab world to global all others, as such circumstances social sciences. Arab academic may give rise to suspicion about the production is consolidated around goals of those seeking information, three main languages: Arabic, including social science researchers English, and French, in a way directly conducting fieldwork or adopting any tied to the colonial legacy of each methodology requiring direct inquiry. country, the modern academic formation of its researchers, the work The issue of the thematic and requirements in specific institutions, methodological specificities of Arab and the individual researcher’s social sciences was raised several personal preference. Sari Hanafi times over the past decades (see: discusses the issue of publication Hijazi et al, 1986), as was the issue of languages in one of his articles, where providing a local meaning for widely he proposes an equation: publication used concepts. An example of this in foreign languages in exchange for came up in our interview for this losing relevance at the local level, or report with Ahmad Baalbaki, a retired publication in Arabic in exchange rural sociology researcher, where he for losing relevance at a global level criticized the use of the concept of (Hanafi, 2011). This issue has several “civil society” in the context of the ramifications that require serious
10 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor discussion, especially as it could be and science as mere consumer a matter of not only the language in markets like any other market, and which research is written, but also views students as consumers and of producing forms of knowledge science as little more than a means either foreign to or estranged from for profit. In this connection it is no the society from which they emerge. longer unusual for universities to be In this connection, it would also viewed as corporations rather than be useful to make distinctions institutions with social, scientific, between works addressed to local and civic goals that transcend a scholarly communities, an Arab purely economic perspective. At this cultural community, or any other local point, science must defend itself audience, and works addressed to a against these ubiquitous market foreign audience or scholarly group trends by consolidating the concept within a particular Western context, or of knowledge as a value in itself and to a local context shaped by continuity a citizenship right, essential to the of colonial culture—or otherwise formation of a modern human who works such as policy studies that is present in their local and global advise governments whose policies realities with the greatest possible may flow out of the Western awareness. Knowledge, in this education of their managers. We also sense, would be a weapon against need to consider the extent to which extremism and ignorance of the research, regardless of its language, Other, as well as a tool for personal takes note of the local audience, that and societal liberation, and in ways is to say, whether research treats the that are not alien to the formative local audience as a mere recipient of features of the global era and the its recommendations or knowledge, local place of living. All this requires a or as a participant in producing broader understanding of knowledge them. Add to this list of issues that transcends market concepts the researcher’s personal hopes and consumerist culture, including and expectations about audience providing free or low-cost access to interaction. knowledge in all its forms, raising the standards of knowledge, deepening its Finally, regarding issues of context, contents, and diversifying its sources, we must consider the role of general from teaching to learned publications contemporary economic agendas to databases to encyclopedias and that we have come to know as other knowledge tools. “neoliberalism,” which surrounds social science work everywhere, The Social Sciences and Other including the Arab world, except in Knowledge Cultures institutions armed with the will or the ability to resist it. Here we find Although in this report we define trends that approach knowledge social sciences in a traditional manner
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 11 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
in order to facilitate monitoring them importance to the social sciences. In in a clear and comparative way, we fact, many renowned literary figures must not forget an important fact. either hold social science degrees Social sciences interact with other or have produced significant domains of knowledge, including outputs in these sciences. We may for example the natural sciences, cite the examples of Halim Barakat, literature, and cinematic production, Abd Al-Kabir Al-Khatibi, Turki Al- that is, with any fields that contribute Hamad, and many others. We also to a form of knowledge employable recall some Arab novelists’ pivotal in the social sciences. This point of social science achievements, such view does not of course mean that as Ghassan Kanafani’s sociological all those other domains consist study of Palestine’s 1936 Revolution. more or less of social sciences In this case, scientific knowledge under another denomination. It emerges as the product of a rather means that some knowledge- particular interest in the trajectories based projects originating from of modern Arab reality, and not outside the framework of traditional necessarily through the academic social sciences may be of great study of the social sciences. importance to understanding specific problems in the social Within the contemporary Arab sciences. For example, we see today literary scene, historical and in the West that a medical/biological realistic novels have increasingly discipline such as neurology taken up the task of presenting greatly depends on a social science apparently detailed knowledge of such as psychology, although we the dynamics of social and political see other methodologies within change in modern Arab realities, psychology, which still favor to despite the novel being in itself, study the environment surrounding and by definition, neither science the person and the use of classical nor “truth”. However, it presents a psychoanalysis. more comprehensive perspective, and often deeper knowledge, In the Arab context in particular than deliberate academic studies there are deeply rooted relationships that require, in contrast to literary between the social sciences and works, scientific methodology and intellectual culture. In this report, acceptable evidence, necessarily we document the presence of those limiting them to a much narrower relationships in cultural periodicals epistemic range than the one that as well as in the cultural sections a novel can digest. This approach of the media. It should also be clear does not, of course, mean that to anyone who is interested in Arab literature presents to us forms of novels that many contemporary knowledge superior to science or literary projects are of special vice versa. Each field possesses
12 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor its own techniques, histories, and Nakba) and Hammour Ziada’s rules, and as such possesses “Shawq Al-Darwish” [The Longing epistemic value that the other field of the Dervish] (about the Mahdiyya does not. But we may postulate Revolution in Sudan). The works of that the epistemic value of each Naguib Mahfouz and Hanna Mina field should only become greater (despite their great ideological when its practitioners recognize the divergence) exhibit a high sense of epistemic capabilities of another sensitivity to local popular culture. field, especially if both fields include The same sensitivity is encountered concerns with the same topics, in works that combine popular despite fundamental differences culture with theses on the nature of in methodology and ways of politics, perhaps most notably the approaching those topics. Egyptian writer Khairy Shalaby’s trilogy “al-Amali” [The Hopes]). We Obviously, in this study we do not can also cast light on several other approach the prosperous field of the literary endeavors, the worthiest realistic novel, and particularly the of which is probably Ghassan historical novel, as an alternative Kanafani’s “Umm Saad” which to the social sciences, but as a aimed at drawing the main features complementary form of knowledge. of the national personality, a matter For instance, Abdul-Rahman Munif’s ubiquitously present for a former pentalogy, Mudun al-Milh [Cities and perhaps future generation of of Salt] presents an exhaustive Arab social science researchers. At description unparalleled in any other times, as in Saud Alsan’ousi’s historical or sociological academic novel: “Saq al-Bambu” [The study of psychological changes and Bamboo Stalk], we see the novel patterns of social connection during as a framework for studying social a period of massive transformations issues ignored (as we will see later) in a specific Arab context. This by local social sciences—in this description was complemented case expatriate labor in the Gulf. by another historical novel about Finally, the notion of “alienation,” the same context, called “Sharq central to social sciences that study al-Wadi” [East of the Valley] modernity and its discontents, is by Turki al-Hamad. We find the also central to countless modern same literary attentiveness to literary endeavors. exhaustive minutiae of the modern transformation of a country in The remarks above suggest another pentalogy related to Libya, that there are potential or actual “Al-Khusuf” [The Eclipse] by Ibrahim relationships that promise al-Koni. The same goes for Elias significant rewards between modern Khoury’s “Bab Al-Shams” [Gate social sciences and other epistemic of the Sun] (about the Palestinian cultures, including the humanities,
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 13 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
natural sciences, and the arts, understanding the social sciences including modern Arab cinema. This as a method of studying reality perspective does not necessarily from a distance sufficient enough mean that social sciences have to for the formation of a scientific turn into a knowledge ensemble perspective on it, rather than a different in nature from the one perspective that merely reflects that we know today; it does however reality. Here, it is worth noting that compel a necessity to pay attention the notion of “sufficient distance” to that part of the output of other does encompass field studies that fields of knowledge that is already require immersion in a local context positioned to communicate to understand it accurately, but not with social science concerns. to the extent that the researcher This also requires encouraging is assimilated into this context in interdisciplinary exchange in a manner that nullifies the very a manner that maintains the purpose of research and transforms disciplines’ scientific integrity whilst the researcher into another product freeing them from the limitations of of that context. their own epistemic frameworks. This approach, naturally, does Social Sciences and Society not mean that there is no place for researchers and teachers The sessions we held with a number as individuals, or for the social of Arab researchers to prepare this sciences as an approach in change- report made it clear to us that there oriented social phenomena, such is general dissatisfaction with what as popular movements or civil is called a “general atmosphere” society, or in other areas of civic in society that pulls an instructor life or policy-making institutions. or researcher into its mainstream As the study of social sciences in current. This refers to prevalent civil society in this report will show, beliefs in society such as sectarian the social sciences play a crucial thought or narrow ways of thinking role, particularly in terms of adding about identity. Ultimately, this a scientific perspective to a social atmosphere may infect instruction cause that is urgent enough to or research so that these become drive a group to organize around it. merely other sources for the In this report we did not look into reproduction of preexistent social the relationship between the social thought, rather than as means to sciences and policies (due to the transcend or critique it. Although immense complications facing such we do not have sufficient indicators a study that in any case merits its to measure just how widespread own special report), but it is clear this phenomenon is (or is not), from other global experiences that we reiterate the importance of sound policies embrace scientific
14 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor analyses. This does not mean As the focus is on presence, this that policies are always built entails lack of focus on other issues “objectively”, in the narrow sense of relating to the nature of the social the word. For example, in Germany sciences, although this report does there is an established tradition provide basic references about this for each political party to have its point in several domains. own research institution supported by public funding. This institution By studying presence, we seek is tasked with studying policies to explore possible strategies of interest to the party from its for enhancing the role of social perspective and ideology, but in a sciences. Such strategies would manner that is freed from electoral ideally be produced by all those calculations and daily political concerned with establishing a conflicts. This allows the resulting greater role for scientific thought in research to appear serious enough the making of the Arab future. The and communicable to an educated recommendations derived from this audience that does not coincide with study contained in the conclusion of the party’s ordinary constituency. this report offer some suggestions In this case, despite the fact that the to that end. scientific production is organically This report registers the existence linked to an ideological perspective, of a significant untapped potential the research standards allow it to for the social sciences in the assume the appearance of “science” Arab world. It remains untapped instead of a mere “ideology”. due to a number of phenomena This Report monitored in this report, including institutional fragmentation, lack Since the role of the Monitor’s of encouragement for research first report is to serve as a general activities, political restrictions on framework for looking into the them, the weakness of the Arab social sciences, and particularly as a academic intellectual community, guide to the issues to be addressed the bureaucratic inflexibility of in later reports and activities, Arab universities, and other factors. the team working on this report Despite these factors, we find in maintained that it should focus on this report that we have witnessed monitoring “the presence” of the tremendous institutional growth social sciences in all the different in the sciences in general in the domains in which such a presence Arab world over the last three is possible. It should go without decades. This includes the number saying that this report serves as a of universities, faculties, research preliminary framework to ground centers, scholarly and intellectual further studies and discussions. periodicals, and other depositories
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 15 t
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
of knowledge. This growth may The report is divided into two main be linked to other phenomena parts. The first monitors the presence such as the quantitative growth of of social sciences in academic the youth population and of civil institutions including universities, society. Therefore, we may consider research centers, professional this report itself a part of the societies, and scholarly periodicals. phenomenon it studies, as we find The second part monitors the ourselves facing a new generation presence of the social sciences in of institutions still in the process of civil society and the public sphere, discovering each other. including intellectual and cultural magazines, newspapers, television, For the preparation of this and popular magazines. It is worth report, we relied on (1) number of mentioning that the addition of commissioned papers, each of the public sphere and civil society which examined one of the arenas to our monitoring endeavor aims of the public sphere and civil society, to determine the extent to which (2) data and indices collected by the scientific thought is present in report team on universities, research society as a whole, in addition to centers, professional societies, and its presence in the research and periodicals all over the Arab world, educational establishments that in addition to (3) a questionnaire specialize in it. sent to a sample of young Arab researchers. We also referred As a general conclusion, social to previous studies prepared by sciences have a presence in all the specialists with expertise in the various fields, but this presence general characteristics of the varies in its forms, approaches, foci, social sciences in the region. For and intensities. All these elements details, please refer to the Methods are covered in the subsequent and Tools chapter (page 134). chapters of this report.
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Institutional Frameworks
Universities [1] Although the social sciences have a natural home in modern higher education institutions alongside the natural sciences and vocational faculties, their actual presence in their traditional form is still limited to 48% of the universities in the Arab world. This may be due to the relatively young age of most of universities in the Arab world, since interest in the social sciences generally increases in universities with long academic histories, including ones established initially as vocational institutes.
t t t t t
50 i i ie e 45 e i i ie e
40 36
33
29 30 28 28 27 26 25
22 21 21 21
Figure 1 20 20 18 18 1616 15 15 14 12 11 11 9 10 8 8 8 8 7 7 5 5 5 4 4 3 1 11 1 1 0 0 r ri i r e e r u g i u iKuwait r i u i i i geri r e i e e r uri i Arab Social Science onitor database * There is a total of 614 universities in the Arab region based on the definition below.
[1] Universities are defined as degree-granting institutions with ‘university’ in their name, and/or which offer at least a Bachelor’s degree in two or more distinct fields, and/or which offer at least a Bachelor’s degree in a social science field, and/or which offer a professional diploma in four years or more in two or more distinct fields, and/or which offer a professional diploma in four years or more in a social science field.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 17 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
In countries with a relatively long imitating prestigious universities history of university education such in the West, or introducing them as Egypt, Iraq, Sudan, and Tunisia— as modernist experiments subject but interestingly also Somalia—the to change. Generally speaking, proportion of universities offering considering the relatively young social sciences in their traditional age of most Arab universities (97% form exceeds 50%. There are many of the 597 universities we covered possible indicators for this level in this survey were established of social science presence, such after 1950, and 70% of them did as recognition of their role in the not exist in 1991) the level of scientific formation of society, or social science presence seems finding room for them as a way of acceptable to a certain extent.
t t t t t t
30 er 29 r
25 24
20 20 21
16 17 15 15 Figure 2
10 10 10 10 10
7 8 8 6 5 5 5 6 4 4 4 5 5 4 4 4 2 3 3 1 1 2 2 0 1 1
ri r r i u g r i r e e u i i geri i e i e r e uri i r i ie e i r e e u i er i ie gr i g egree i e e i ie e i i i e
18 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Figure 1 gives a basic idea of the direction towards enriching the presence of social sciences at the relationship between the research university level in general. Other aspect of social sciences and indicators provide us with a more university curricula, then Algeria is a significant look into the depth of frontrunner in adopting this direction interest in the social sciences in in the Arab world. universities. In looking for example at the presence of higher university In addition to Algeria, we note degrees (Master’s and PhDs) in a relatively significant presence the social sciences, it comes as of research institutions in the no surprise that Egypt, a country universities of Egypt, Lebanon, Saudi with a long university tradition, is Arabia, Jordan, and Iraq. These six a frontrunner, with 21 universities countries alone account for 89% of offering a PhD degree in at least the university research centers in the one social science. However, we Arab world, with Egypt and Algeria also notice strong representation together containing more than half of from countries whose universities these centers (57%). However, as we did not initially seem to give social shall see later, there needs to be a more sciences too much emphasis. For in-depth look into the phenomenon example, in Algeria the interest in of research centers, a great number of the social sciences is concentrated which operate outside the university at the level of higher degrees. The at rates that differ from one country same applies to Sudan, where there to another. However, if we limit our is long-standing graduate interest in focus for the moment to university anthropology in particular. Eighteen research centers, we can infer that Arab countries have at least one only a few countries, varied in terms university granting a PhD in at least of their wealth, have university- one social science, while nineteen based research centers that have offer a Master’s degree in at least one available to them the institutional as well. infrastructure for research in the same university that would allow In addition, university research them to develop their capacities in centers serve as another indicator of a certain manner. This observation the level of importance given by Arab reflects here a claim we shall later universities to the social sciences. discuss regarding the weakness of We find great variation by country a causal relationship between the in this regard, with prevalence of presence of social sciences and the these centers in a limited number overall wealth of a society. At any of countries and their absence or rate, we point out the total absence scarcity in most Arab countries. If we of university research centers in 6 assume that the presence of research countries, and the presence of only centers in universities reflects a one in 4 others.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 19 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
t t t
80 u er re e r e er i u i er i ie u er re e r e er u i e u i er i ie
70 67
60
50
40 39 Figure 3
31 30 27 26 25 24 22 20
16 15 14 12 12 13 10 10 10 9 7 7 6 6 5 4 4 4 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
r ri i r e e u r g i u i i u i r i geri u i i r e i e e r uri i r i ie e i r e ere i 3 i ie e re e r e er i e r regi
A look into the disciplinary This means that the Arab university composition of social sciences in Arab in general adhered to the belief that universities reveals that economics its main responsibility concerns is the frontrunner, comprising 26% matters considered to be at the heart of social science faculties, while of modernity and modernization. This anthropology does not exceed 2% of explains the powerful presence of these faculties. We also confront an economics, a promising discipline in unexpected puzzle: in societies where a socio-political system speaking the questions of heritage and historical language of growth and development. legacies—including the colonial era— On the other hand, the lack of interest are seen to have had deep impact in disciplines such as anthropology socially, politically, and culturally, carries great implications for the social science most relevant to understanding what is considered those topics, i.e. historical sciences, “traditional”, a theme that resonates only accounts for 16% of the total with significant social segments, faculties dedicated to social science. including the ones encountering
20 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor t
250
205 200
151 153 150 140
124
100 Figure 4
50
20
0 r g i r i i ie e g i g
r i ie e i r e e u ie i u i er i ie i i g i ie e
t t t t
t
t
Figure 5
t
r i ie e i r e
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 21 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
social change. The other surprise from social segments introduced that emerges in this connection is the to higher education fairly recently, relative weakness of political science and preserving previous research presence in a region consumed by achievements and traditions in political concerns at all levels, and where light of the assimilation of a great political issues have daily resonance. number of new instructors with One would then expect political varying academic formations into sciences to be more prominent, not just burgeoning universities. In various for providing standards for the analysis studies, we find scathing criticisms of of available options and for a scientific the competence of Arab universities appraisal of political reality, but also for in general. The Arab Knowledge understanding prevalent terms that are Report 2014 asserts that most usually treated as self-evident and are students in Arab universities across thus in need of no science to explain various disciplines suffer from them. Such terms include, for example, inadequate teaching methods, while “political Islamism”, “liberalism”, Arab universities in general exhibit “revolution”, and “nation”. Those extremely poor research policies, percentages of presence may indicate obsolete approaches to decision- a postulate: issues that are common in making, and a failure to keep up with ordinary social life—such as traditions, the requirements of contemporary political conversation, exemplary use knowledge society (Arab Knowledge of history, and so on—may seem under Report, 2014, p. 97). certain conditions to be unsuitable as the object of scientific study. This is Assessments differ here. A number of either because they are considered the retired professors we interviewed, self-evident and thus a property of a some of who have written on common public, or because certain the history of social sciences in restrictions restrain the university from the Arab world, pointed out that introducing sciences relating to widely there is a deterioration in quality circulated topics into its studies. across generations, if not complete discontinuity. In our interview with Continuity and Discontinuity the education expert Adnan Al-Amin, across Generations: Initial he concluded that wide swaths of Remarks the new generation of university instructors are weaker than the The quick growth of universities former generation in their grasp of anywhere in the world carries with it social science theories, which are a number of dilemmas. Most notably, replaced, and this is particularly true there are the issues of: maintaining of Lebanon, by identity issues. The acceptable standards of research latter seem increasingly to determine and instruction, the academic research trajectories. Political formation of new generations mostly sensitivities also act as a glass ceiling
22 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor above possibilities of research. Rural “founding generation”, authors of sociology expert Ahmad Baalbaki many pioneering research efforts, and showed a greater critical spirit in successive generations (particularly another interview where he observed the present one), which seem to the negative effect of the political be generations lacking scholarly environment on the academic quality memory and thus knowledge of universities. He discussed the case conducive to accumulative growth. A of Lebanon in particular, where he prospective study from Iraq involving asserted that there is a decline in the a sample of sociology and social quality of teaching that can be traced work PhD students revealed that the to national political divisions and a participants had little or no knowledge sectarian environment, which leaves of the historical achievements of it mark on the youth and generates sociology pioneers in Iraqi universities a general retrogressive atmosphere (we refer to figures such as Abdul- in universities, dragging instructors Jalil At-Tahir, Hatem Al-Kaabi, Shaker along with it. Baalbaki regards this Mustafa Salim, Qayss An-Nuri, Yunus reality to be different than that of Hammadi At-Takriti, and even Ali Al- Lebanon in the 1960s and 1970s, Wardi, who is considered one of the where the nature of the conflicts was most prominent Arab sociologists not the same, and when these were of the 20th century (Abdul-Hussein less related to issues of identity than 2014, 138-140)). is the case today. From a pragmatic perspective, There are those who believe that discontinuity between past the quality of the university as an and present traditions or weak institution actually declined as connections between them does not a direct result of its expansion. necessarily constitute a formative This proposition is adopted by the problem for any academic discipline. sociologist Ahmad Musa Badawi Any research tradition with clear (2014, 102) regarding sociology in achievements is conducive to Egyptian universities. Badawi sheds rediscovery and expansion at later light on a decline in the discipline’s stages, especially if related academic quality due to its great expansion thought remains too underdeveloped in the 1970s, which led to a certain to gain contemporary confidence in leniency in granting degrees in the itself. field, transforming it from a research- based science into an instructional Sometimes, academic memory one. alone seems capable of providing continuity to research traditions Many of those who have monitored despite weak resources. This is the the history of social sciences in case for anthropology in Sudan, universities witnessed a discontinuity where the discipline is said to be between what they described as the propelled by the sheer momentum
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 23 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
of its golden age (Badawi 2014, 128). significant, high-quality research But it is important to recognize the achievements framed in terms of true causes of the apparent lack of holistic visions concerning the nature historical continuity of social science of society, though the ideologies traditions in Arab universities. In fact, promoting holistic thought may differ. there is a wide range of explanations For instance, in previous periods we that can be proposed here. Some can find significant central interests examples include: university in “national character” and its nature, expansion and its postulated in a manner linked to national connection to decline in quality; the identity and using an approach role of great regional crises such as centered on social psychology. To the blockade on Iraq (1991-2003) in give only one example, we can refer deteriorating a country’s academic to Sayed Owais’s pioneering study structure; exacerbated sectarianism on people soliciting mediation of in Lebanon and its connection to Muslim saints, particularly Imam Al- university divisions along sectarian Shafi’i. Owais noted the presence lines; the abandonment of some of historical continuity for this form disciplines such as anthropology of supplication, extending back in Algeria post-independence to Ancient Egypt and expressing due to its connection with French common social traditions, although colonialism; and the suspicion with individual litanies were personal in which sociology was initially viewed content. in Saudi Arabia due to its assumed connection with socialism and The same interest in the issue of Marxism. Many of the above are national character emerges in some political circumstances rather than of Ali Al-Wardi’s most important problems of science, although they contributions in his studies of the do have an impact during certain Iraqi character. Al-Wardi divided periods on how science performs its this character into patterns, each work. of which was based on a local geographic environment. This It is also notable that the expansion of approach is somewhat similar to that the universities, particularly in light of used in another work combining the the weakness of a sense of academic concepts of national character and community, leads to fragmentation identity, namely Gamal Hamdan’s in research and its approaches, “Shakhsiyyat Misr” [The Character of making it difficult to determine the Egypt], which was influenced by the focal trajectories of Arab academic work of Hamdan’s mentor Hassan activity. The difference becomes clear Al-Sa’ati on the continuity of the if we look into the formative and early concept of “justice” as one of the periods for social sciences in the formative components of Egypt’s Arab world. Then we discover clearly historic character.
24 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Similarly, we observe the same universities (particularly sociology, interest in the issue of national history, and anthropology) saw the character in the first French rise of leftist, Marxist, feminist, and sociological studies on Morocco at other currents focusing on the study the beginning of the colonial era. of social conflict, in addition to other Those studies supplied an image currents that brought the perspectives of the Moroccan character typified of historically marginalized groups in by a dichotomy between economic society to the forefront. poverty and lavishness in public social relations, that is, a character These new currents clashed combining material shortage with with older, conservative research social pride and contentment with currents that favored the study of the status quo (Al-Zahi 2011, 13). social integration, social systems Likewise, the issue of character and that combined all social groups, personality forms the cornerstone of continuity factors in social systems, Hamed Ammar’s works, a pioneering and the role of elites in making sociologist of education in Egypt who history. In Arab universities, other portrayed society as an ensemble of ensembles of research currents certain character types such as “the arose during the same period, one of son of the village,” with his fierce which involved a critique of totalistic loyalty to the local environment, and development thought. Ayn Shams the “fahlawi” [literally: streetwise], the University in Cairo became one of skillful manipulator of opportunities. the most important centers housing Incidentally, it was precisely this this direction. Elsewhere, in the latter character that was sharply Algerian context, Hassan Remaoun criticized by Sadiq Jalal al-Azm in his identified four currents in the social famous book “Naqd Al-Fikr Ad-Dini” sciences. The first three, dating from [Critique of Religious Thought], which the period of independence, included depicted the fahlawi character as one first the technocratic current, which of the main cultural factors leading to was basically concerned with Arab defeat in the 1967 war. development issues and marked by an applied approach. There was also As for later stages, particularly in the the liberal current, then the populist 1960s and 1970s, interest in the issue current, which adopted the project of national character waned despite of modernity along with the other its sustained presence as a research two currents, but which feared the issue. It was replaced by a number unchecked proliferation of Western of conflicting research currents, values and opposed all apparent just as was happening in Western continuities with the colonial universities then, although the nature project. Later on, the Islamist current of the currents was not the same. appeared as a fourth direction in the In that period, we notice that the social sciences. It adopted some study of social sciences in Western populist principles but only after
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 25 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
imbuing them with an air of religious populist current” corresponded to sanctity (Remaoun 2014, 294-296). other trends elsewhere in the Arab In this context, it is important to note world calling for the Arabization of that what Remaoun termed “the social sciences (Hijazi et al, 1986).
t t t t t t
t t
t t t
Table 1 Table t t t t t
t
t t t
Source: Al-Khalifa, Abdullah Bin Hussein. 2014. “The Academic Formation of Sociology: The Case of Saudi Arabia”. In The Future of Social Sciences in the Arab world , editors Sari Hanafi, Nouria Benghabrit-Remaoun and Mujahidi Mustafa, 182-183. Beirut: Center for Arab Unity Studies.
26 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor There was also a current of limited as Abdullah Ibn Hussein Al-Khalifa impact in the 1980s that called for confirms via a study covering 1037 the Islamization of knowledge in the Saudi research productions over Maghrib (particularly in Morocco and from 1970 until 2013. The study Algeria) via Francophone graduates of crime, delinquency, and social (Arouss 2014, 274). A more sustained control comes in the lead at rates push had occurred in Saudi Arabia exceeding 19% of titles, followed by earlier, where the idea of Islamizing the family studies with rates approaching social sciences emerged particularly 12%. Only two titles out of 1037 dealt in sociology departments in Al-Imam with social conflict, and only one Muhammad Ibn Saud University in dealt with expatriate labor, despite the late 1970s and King Abdulaziz its tremendous importance not only University in the early 1980s. This gave in Saudi Arabia but also in the entire rise to academic materials such as Gulf region in general. Al-Khalifa “Islamic sociology”, “Sociology from notes that political decisions have an Islamic Perspective”, and “Islamic an impact on research trajectories. foundations for Sociology”. This According to his study, although trend occurred in conjunction with a the issues of poverty and housing trend towards an applied approach do appear in 4% of Saudi Arabia’s in sociology, to be accomplished research production, Al-Khalifa notes by divesting the discipline of that 95% of these studies appeared philosophical and theoretical content only in the 2000s, meaning directly that may entail criticism of the status after King Abdullah made the first quo, such as social theories, political official recognition of poverty as a sociology, and social philosophy, social problem in Saudi Arabia (Al- none of which found their way to Khalifa 2014, 180-185). university courses before the 1990s (Al-Khalifa 2014, 155-156). Based on the above, it is clear that research topics correspond to the In this context, it is worth noting the general trends followed by ruling continued marginalization of critical policies and ideologies, as well as trends within social sciences in Saudi to known restrictions on freedom Arabia, whether in university courses of research, or official preferences or research. At the doctorate level, for some research directions and we find that the issues receiving the abjuration of others (despite the most attention are those relating presence of exceptions, as is the case to social development and change, everywhere). There is, for instance, urban issues, and Saudi society, no good reason for such high rates in addition to issues of crime, of criminology research in a society delinquency, and social control. with such a relatively low crime rate. These systematic preferences clearly However, this interest becomes more reflect themselves in the research understandable if we approach the production of Saudi sociologists, study of crime as part of a knowledge
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 27 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
ensemble that holds social control testament to this, recent times have in as its first concern, which itself fact seen the emergence of important propagates feelings regarding the scholarly communities along these sustained vulnerability of this control lines, particularly the communities to be undermined or to collapse that formed around such pioneering altogether. While it is understandable academic figures as Muhammad Al- that there would be a relatively high Gohary in Egypt and Ali Al-Wardi in number of studies of religion and Iraq (Ibrahim 2014, 66-67). family issues in a society said to be “conservative”, the absence of almost Beyond quantitative criteria, we also any interest in studying expatriate come across promising experiments labor (which forms a significant social of exemplary nature, proving that sector of up to 30% of the population) Arab academic research is capable is strange, and may have to do with of overcoming many obstacles once lack of encouragement for this kind certain standards are met. These of research. standards include mature writing that clearly delineates the main Generally speaking, despite a epistemic and research questions, quantitatively acceptable presence of innovative methodological practices social sciences in Arab universities, employing several approaches these sciences still suffer from that support one another, and inadequate interconnection at the teamwork allowing collaborators to Arab level, a lack of interest in Arab gain field experience and analytic scientific collective memory, and capacities under controlled academic fragmentation of research efforts. supervision (Badawi 2014, 125-127). The combination of these factors Such standards transcend in their undermines the sense of confidence importance their immediate result, within the social sciences, either which is a competent academic directly or indirectly subjecting them production. They also generate new to operate within limits imposed by scholarly communities (although political positions and circumstances. they may be thus far limited) that Nevertheless, this does not mean adhere to model approaches and there is no hope for the emergence methodologies and put into use of Arab social science scholarly research experiences resulting from communities that may rediscover or academic collaboration in one form reassess their historical memory. In or the other.
28 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Some Characteristics of the Social Scientists in the Arab World[2]
To supplement this report, the team the following, we point out a number conducted an exploratory study of important characteristics that are through a questionnaire distributed to a certain extent generalizable, to a target sample of 531 Arab including the role of language in the scholars whose ages ranged from academic formation of the individual 29 to 67. The objective was to gather scholar, research activity, and funding preliminary notes on their academic sources. and intellectual backgrounds, their research activities, and the We observe that when it comes to environment of their work. Out of 531 the language of study, the role of scholars, only 87 responded to the Arabic recedes as the level of study survey. This low response rate (17%) advances. While 67% of scholars limited our conclusions such that they covered by the survey studied social are not applicable to all social science sciences in Arabic at the BA level, scholars in the Arab world, although only 32% of them did so at the PhD they still allow us to present a few level, that is to say, the population preliminary descriptive statistics. The using Arabic as a medium of learning first thing we notice is the relatively dropped from about two-thirds to one- young ages, which may be directly third at higher levels of learning. In related either to the newness of contrast, the English language plays universities and research centers, an increasingly crucial role in higher the increase in the number of social degrees. Despite the fact that those science specialists over the last few studying social sciences in English do years, or the greater openness of not exceed 15% of the sample at the BA younger researchers to answering level, 52% of social science scholars the questions and communicating at the PhD level saw their knowledge with our team. It is worth noting in formed through that language. The this initial overview that 57% of the presence of French at the BA level sample members were below the parallels that of English and is only age of 40 and 74% are below the age slightly reduced with higher degrees. of 45. We also find a clear gender Here we see the inversely proportional imbalance, as 74% of the scholars who correlation between the presence of responded to the survey were male. In Arabic and English in particular.
[2] The survey included sociologists with Master’s and PhD degrees in the social sciences (or their equivalent) from any university in the world and regardless of whether they work in research, teaching, or administration. The survey targeted a sample of social science researchers associated with the Arab Council for the Social Sciences (meaning scholarship recipients, Council members, and participants in conferences organized by the Council). See the section on methodology for further details.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 29 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
In the same context, studying scholars at roughly comparable rates, outside the Arab world becomes but the two countries combined more noticeable as degree of study produce about 44% of the Master’s advances, although to a lesser degree degrees and 39% of the PhDs. This than the role of foreign languages. comes as no surprise if we keep in The ratio of those who study outside mind that the two countries together the Arab world increases from 27% account for about 33% of the Arab at the Master’s level to 36% for the world’s total population. However, PhD. The target countries for PhD Algeria seems to be more productive scholars include Great Britain (14%), as its population is less than half of followed by the US and France (7% that of Egypt. Other countries also each). The rest are distributed over show a distinguished record in this Canada, Germany, Spain, and India. regard, such as Morocco (where 10% In the Arab world, we also note the of the Master’s degrees and 8% of the particular importance of Egypt and PhDs are produced) and Tunisia (6% Algeria in producing social science of the Master’s and 7% of the PhDs).
t
r i g i Fre 80 er gu ge
70 67%
60
52% 52% 50
40
32% 30 29% Figure 6
20 16% 15% 14% 13%
10 5% 3% %2 0 ergr u e er r
r i ie e i r e e re e e ur e
30 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Scientific Publications by Language*
Figure 7
Source: r i ie e i r e e 8 u i i 8 re e e ur e
t t
Figure 8
r i ie e i r e e 8 u i i 8 re e e ur e
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 31 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
t t t
30 29
u er re e r er 25
20
16 17 15 15 15 Figure 9
12
10
5
0 0 1-3 4-6 7-9 re 10
r i ie e i r e e re e e ur e u i i i u e er ur r i e re r r re ie
The relationship between the in the same sample. We should take language of study and the language into consideration the fact that we of academic publication differed from cannot view these languages as entirely our expectations. Arabic was the separate, in light of the academic leading language of 54% of the total formation of the researcher. We see, for publications even though only 32% of the instance, that as many as 40% of sample PhD scholars actually studied in Arabic, participants publish their research in based on the data we collected from more than one language. We can safely our sample of scholars. (But we should say that these researchers interact with keep in mind that this is also lower different knowledge environments, and than the percentage of PhD recipients that the language of their academic in the social sciences from universities formation does not act as an obstacle in the Arab world (64%)). English was preventing communication outside of the language of 37% of publications that language’s bounds. Even within although it was the language of study this segment, we see results more or for 52% of the sample. Similarly, French less similar to the ones we saw before, was the language of study for 13% of albeit with different percentages. Arabic the PhD holders and the publication is still the first publication language for language for 9% of academic production researchers who publish in more than
32 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor one language. It is notable, however, position of prominence in determining that publication in French has a greater the possibility of research that requires presence in this particular segment, funding, despite the existence of other such that its percentage is almost twice sources for funding. We note the dearth that of those who write exclusively in of direct national or government funding French. for research, which may be linked to the general absence of national strategies As expected, there were differences pertaining to the role of social sciences. in the number of publications per In fact, we observe that international researcher as a function of the age and funding plays a crucial role, which may position of the researcher. Despite the not be clearly apparent by the figures relatively young age of the participants in Table 2. The table seems to show in the sample, more than one-third of that as many as 16% of researchers the researchers have already produced who received funding at all received it ten or more publications, in contrast from international sources in one way to 17% with no research publications or another. But international funding is thus far (we must point out that under also present under other entries in the publications we included: books, table (that is, under every entry where articles published in books or scholarly we see “other sources”). If we add up periodicals, reports, and book reviews). all the figures we find that 40% of the Regarding sources of funding for researchers benefit from some level of research, 71% of Arab social scientists international funding. Nevertheless, we stated that they received some sort of cannot derive final conclusions about funding over the past five years, and the relationship between funding and these can be divided into two equal research agendas without an extensive groups: half received research funds study of the content of research funded from a single source while the other by all parties, including national and half received funding from multiple private establishments, research sources. The workplace holds a centers, and other sources.
Sources of Research Funding in the Past Five Years, 2010 - 2014*
Percent Researchers Benefiting
Table 2 Table t
National or governmental institutions
National or governmental institutions t Source: Arab International sources Social Science Monitor database International sources or other sources * Based on 87 Sources other than the above-mentioned researchers
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 33 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
Research Centers centers could be confirmed to exist, meaning that the number of research Besides universities, research centers increased tenfold in 35 years. centers in the Arab world have If we only consider the centers with enjoyed tremendous growth over confirmed dates of establishment the past few years. It is worth noting (as depicted in Figure 10), we have that this growth occasioned a period a definite 6-7 fold growth over of growing interest in the role of that period of time, with the pace civil society; the search for new, accelerating until today. The highest independent and dynamic research growth rates are recorded in Algeria, environments; and the emergence Palestine, Jordan, Iraq, and Lebanon, of a new generation of Arab social in addition to a noticeable increase science scholars in numbers beyond in Egypt and a number of Gulf States. universities’ ability to absorb them, The figures provided by 73 research or who preferred to work outside centers about the researchers the university. Generally, we found working with them indicate that there 436 research centers currently is a rough average of 21 researchers operating in the Arab world, while per center (the Arab Social Science prior to the 1980s no more than 43 Monitor database).
t t t t
200
155 150 Figure 10 100 77
48 50 43
0 Before 1981 1981-1990 1991-2000 2001+
r i ie e i r e e re e r e er r i e e r e i e i i e u re e r e er i e r regi
34 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Although these figures may actually rankings in advocacy research, be higher than the general reality, including two centers in Morocco it is clear that research institutions (Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches have become a major part of the en Sciences Sociales and Institut des Arab social science scholar’s job Etudes Africaines), one in Egypt (Arab market, alongside universities and Forum for Alternatives), and the Qatar civil society organizations. Arab Foundation. There are also four Arab research centers show up in ranked centers on the Best New Think Tanks international indices, albeit in a faint list, and three in the Best Think Tank way. The last Global Go To Think Network list, including a regional Tank Index Report (McGann, 2015) center (Regional Center for Strategic for ranking global research centers Studies in Egypt) and a transnational included two Arab world research network (The Palestinian Policy centers within the world’s 100 Network). It is clear that advocacy, most important think tanks. They networking, and unconventional foci are Al-Ahram Center for Political may indicate some of the important and Strategic Studies in Cairo and future trajectories for the work of Carnegie Middle East Center in Beirut Arab research centers. (an American organization with a predominantly Arab research staff). In delving into the fields of emphasis If we consider which research topics within research centers about which are the basis for research center we have sufficient information, we ranking, we find clear prevalence in conclude that they do not reflect the research on national security topics, same percentages as those fields such that there are four Arab centers we find in university disciplines, of this category among the most although there is a correlation important 100 think tanks in the between universities and research world that specialize in these issues. centers in certain fields. In research We also have 3 highly ranked Arab centers we see a distinguished centers specializing in international presence for specializations that are relations, and one Arab center at not consistently organized as such most for each of the other different in university faculties or colleges. domains of social research (such as These include development studies, public health, transparency studies, which comes fourth among the and development among others). fields comprising research centers’ Beyond these rather traditional interests. There is a notable presence research areas, we notice a relatively of cultural studies and a lesser one new phenomenon, namely the rise of of gender studies, although both are other unconventional Arab research present in one form or another under center categories to international other traditional specializations. recognition. There are, for example, The most obvious result here is the four Arab centers that occupy high contrast between the strong presence
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 35 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
of political science in research centers, role in hosting research centers in compared to their university presence, some countries than in others. For where they come only fourth among instance, Algeria leads with 88% of its traditional social sciences. research centers operating through a university, followed by Egypt (56%), While we notice a mismatch between Saudi Arabia (54%), Iraq (45%), and the presence of fields of research Lebanon (47%). in university faculties and their presence in research institutions, However, it is noticeable that universities still host the largest independent, non-university based number of research centers in the research centers have gained Arab world (slightly less than half of greater prominence and high them operate through a university). research productivity, especially in But universities play a more important the domain of scholarly periodicals.
t
120 120
100 92
80 68
60 52 Figure 11 43 38 40 31
20 12 10 4 4 5 6 1 0 Arts History Political Education Sociology Humanities Psychology Economics Science Anthropology Social Sciences Development Studies Social Sciences Gender Studies Cultural Studies & Humanities r i ie e i r e e re e r e er e u er re e r e er i i gr e ee e u er re e r e er i e r regi i e e re e r e er er re e i i i e
36 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor t
For-profit 4% Branch 5%
Governmental 12% Figure 12
Independent/Non profit University-based 45% 34%
Arab Social Science Monitor database
We shall see later that 52% of these and Jordan (50%). We see these high periodicals are currently produced by proportions in counties that are not these independent centers. These rich in resources, although they benefit independent centers, which are non- from significant international interest, a profit, non-government related, and growing presence of civil society, and a not affiliated with a global think relatively large, well-educated segment tank, currently comprise 34% of the of society. total Arab research centers. If we add to them the establishments that It is worth noting that despite the fact that act as branches for international many research centers in the Arab world organizations, then the percentage of have global and regional connections centers neither directly affiliated with (including funding relations), their governments or universities rises to interest in general remains focused 39% of all research centers. The highest on the local context. Thus a reading percentages, which can be taken as a of the geographic concentration of sign of relative independence (but not these centers’ research productions absolute independence as this does indicates that almost half of them focus not really exist anywhere), are recorded on national issues followed by 31% that in Palestine (83%), Morocco (65%), focus on the regional level (neighboring
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 37 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
countries). This means that 79% of 2% for African issues. However, these research interests are focused either on latter research interests may also be the country in which the research center present in the 2% of the centers that did is located or on its immediate neighbors. not specify any particular geographical In contrast, international issues account region of focus. Overall, Arab research for only 14% of research interests, after centers try to play a more practical which percentages become almost role by concentrating on immediate negligible, with 3% for Arab issues and contexts, although they are located in
t
ri egi e er i e r egi 3
er i 1 Figure 13
i egi 31
r i ie e i r e e 3 re e r e er e u er re e r e er i i gr e ee e u er re e r e er i e r regi i e e re e r e er er re e i i i e
countries that are constantly vulnerable as a whole have a widely favorable to the consistent onslaught of external reputation, relatively intensive research economic, security, political, and productivity, or a remarkable presence cultural influences. in international rankings. There are some prominent examples of certain However, we cannot consider these well-established centers that stand out quantitative data to be sufficient in this category, such as the Center for indicators of the quality of research Arab Unity Studies in Beirut, and other geography. They should not be looked at relatively newly established centers without considering that that minority of such as the Arab Forum for Alternatives research centers that openly define their in Cairo and the Arab Thought Forum in research geography in the Arab region Amman (McGann 2015, 86-87, 89, 111).
38 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor t t t t t
t t t t t t t t
47 10 4
t 29 6 9
41 6 3
t 4 4 6
6 4 5
t 9 4 1
76 1 9 t
t 5 1 5 t
16 1 5 t
1 1 4 t
7 1 1 t Table 3 Table 28 1 0 t
29 0 9 t
8 0 9 t
t 70 0 9 t
22 0 7
2 0 6
12 0 5
t 2 0 5
7 0 3 13 0 3 2 0 2 t 436 1 1 t t t 6681 0 9 t
Source: Source: Arab Social Science Monitor database * Population size based on World Bank statistics ** Source: McGann, James G. 2015. 2014 Global GoTo Think Tank Index Report. Philadelphia: The Lauder Institute, University of Pennsylvania (Page 53)
We also note that research center social sciences within the country, density varies from one country to the presence of civil society, and, to a the other in proportions that clearly certain extent, international interest. do not so much concern a country’s If we look at the absolute numbers of national wealth as much as they centers we find Algeria and Egypt at relate to the historic traditions of the forefront (76 in the former and 70
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 39 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
in the latter), followed by Lebanon Thus we conclude that the and Jordan (each hosting more phenomenon of the fast-growing than 40 centers), then followed by research centers in the Arab world as varying figures in other countries. a whole does not generate the same However, in looking at what can be research density in each country. termed “research density” in each As will be demonstrated, we have country (i.e. the number of research densities ranging from one research centers in a country relative to total center per 100,000 inhabitants as population), which provides us with is the case in Lebanon, to less than deeper insight into the relationship one center per 3 million inhabitants in between research activities and the Sudan, and to less the one center per general social atmosphere nurturing five million inhabitants in Somalia. them, we can begin to approach We also find that it is possible to this phenomenon in a different divide the Arab world into different way. In this regard, Lebanon is at categories according to the research the forefront with over 10 centers density in each country, especially in per million inhabitants, followed comparison with global ratios. There by Palestine and Jordan with 6-7 is a group of Arab countries where centers per million inhabitants. Other research density exceeds 4 centers differences surface that uncover per one million inhabitants, which the tenuous connection between a includes three countries adjacent country’s gross national wealth and to each other (Lebanon, Palestine, its research activities. Thus we can and Jordan), two Gulf states (Qatar only be surprised that a country like and Bahrain, also adjacent to each Djibouti has a proportion of research other), and Djibouti. These countries centers relative to population size are distinguished by their relatively that exceeds many times the same small size and their openness to the proportion for every Gulf state, with outside world, in addition to other the exception for Bahrain and Qatar, factors. Djibouti, however, constitutes which approach but still do not meet an exception to the general Arab Djibouti’s proportion. Moreover, if we trend in this regard, as the country’s look at Egypt from this perspective research density is directly related to we find that its research activity government initiatives (in contrast to is weaker than it initially seemed, other countries in this category where although it does match the general government-related centers are but a global average (our table here minority, 3 out of 4 Djibouti’s research includes all the research centers centers are government centers). in the world and not just those interested exclusively in the social Following the countries with high sciences. We do not have accurate research density are the countries global statistics on the latter). that can be categorized as having fair
40 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor research density. The highest of these that has proven difficult to overcome. countries contain approximately Nevertheless, Iraq did see other 2 centers per million people and types of institutional growth in the the lowest match the international social sciences over the last decade, average at 0.9 centers per 1 million particularly university growth. inhabitants. Algeria comes first in this category, followed successively by Generally speaking, the research center Kuwait, Tunisia, and Comoros. Then phenomenon has become an integral come Libya, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, part of the functioning of social sciences the United Arab Emirates, and Egypt. in all countries, in spite of differences in local circumstances, means, goals, It is also notable that these countries the nature of their work, research staff, vary on such factors as population knowledge production, and funding density and national wealth, although sources. On the one hand, they provide they may converge on other indicators a forum for the social sciences outside such as freedom of research in the the duties of university instruction. On social sciences and the levels of the other hand, they tend to produce official or social interest in it. Finally, a nature of knowledge that is deeper, we note a number of countries with more precise, and in some cases more research densities below the world comprehensive than we find in the average. In order, they are Iraq, Oman, public sphere. As such, these research Yemen, Mauritania, Syria, Sudan, centers pave the way for the social and Somalia. With the exception of sciences to focus on research activities Oman, we notice that these countries oriented towards different groups, suffer from political instability, low ranging from decision-makers, to civil human development indicators, or society, to the learned communities, and both. However, these factors do not to partisan and political structures, or constitute a decisive standard on which to base conclusions, as such other segments that have participatory problems also exist in other countries interests. This is regardless of whether with higher research density. the research product takes an applied, advocacy, networking (i.e. contributing Accordingly, it seems that the main to the formation of a scholarly group), common factors between those low- or documentary direction, or any other density countries are either a lack of direction for that matter. Likewise, target openness to global research activity groups provide research centers with the or a lack of solid connections to global distinctive ability to influence the local social sciences. This applies to Iraq context. They also provide frameworks as well: Despite the great historical for practicing a social science that is momentum of social sciences unrestrained by traditional university (especially sociology) in Iraq, wars disciplines, even though it may be and blockades have engendered a restrained by the context of the research discontinuity from that rich heritage center’s general goals.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 41 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
In some cases, we can consider this universities, research centers, and context to constitute some kind of scholarly periodicals. A high growth limitation. However, the quantitative rate can be observed in this case as density of research centers, and well, such that 78% of societies with how varied they are in terms of their confirmed dates of establishment purposes, reduces the risk of the have arisen since 1981, while one- hegemony of any specific context, third of them have arisen since paving the way for multiplicity in 2000. This means that we either methodologies, proposed topics, face a highly accelerating or highly and approaches for combining volatile phenomenon. disciplines in ways that may not be possible for traditional university It would be useful here to take a disciplines. All this depends to a large historical perspective that allows extent on a number of previously us to study the rate of extinction mentioned factors that aid in of professional societies, although increasing the efficiency of research the data currently available does centers. The most important of these not allow us to conclusively factors are freedom of research, determine the number of societies communication with global social that have disappeared in the sciences as well as local knowledge same time period (i.e. since 1941). traditions, contribution to forming Professional societies are civil and networking Arab scholarly society organizations that rely communities, and an ability to on built-in factors like participant communicate with all components of enthusiasm, the soundness of rules the local society. and procedures, and administrative efficiency. The fortunes of these Professional Societies societies may also rely on external factors such as financial support, In this part of the study, our team the legal framework structuring their monitored 68 currently active existence, or the political atmosphere professional societies in the Arab surrounding them. Thus it is easy to world, the membership of each see that there is a host of variable consisting of specialists from a factors that on an ongoing basis field within the social sciences. The affect any society’s ability to live following chart indicates the rate on or expand, or inversely, become of growth in the number of these extinct or contract. Therefore, societies (the chart includes only the phenomenon of institutional those societies with known dates extinction, especially in the case of of establishment). The growth professional societies, requires a rate of these societies parallel the special study that determines rates accelerated quantitative growth of extinction and delves deep into in other frameworks nurturing their contributing causes, including the social sciences, including internal and external factors.
42 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor t t t t
40 u u i e u er 36
35 33
30
24 25
20
Figure 14 15 15
10 8 6 5 5 2
0 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s r i ie e i r e e r e i ie ie r i e e r e i e i i e u r e i ie ie i e r regi
In any case, there seems to be clear gatherings, and publishing periodicals acceleration in the establishment regularly. However, we do note some rate of professional societies, which facts that reflect the continuing indicates that social sciences in the institutional weakness of Arab Arab world today are heading in professional societies, especially in the direction of forming their own terms of scholarly periodicals in the identities. However, the success of Arab world, of which only 14 (6% of a professional societies in this regard total of 217 periodicals) are issued by depends not only on reducing professional societies. extinction rates, but also relies on investing in factors that may increase Table 4 briefly highlights the few their academic acclaim and social periodicals issued by professional capital, like providing members with societies in the Arab world, services, defending their professional arranged in chronological order of rights and freedoms, holding periodic establishment. It seems that the
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 43 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
frequency of establishment has all published by the Center for Arab remained consistent for professional Unity Studies in collaboration with 3 societies’ periodicals since the Arab professional societies: The Arab 1990s. We notice the sustained Society for Economic Research (1992), significance of certain cities for the Arab Society for Political Science Arab scholarly publication, like (2003), and the Arab Sociological Beirut, which houses 3 periodicals, Association (2008). We also observe
t
t t t t
t t t t t
t t t t t
t t t t
t t t t t t
t t t t Table 4 Table t t t t t
t t
t t t
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Source: Arab Social Science Monitor database
44 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Rabat’s presence as a center for periodicals shows economics three periodicals, two of which are possessing the greatest institutional newly established. In Damascus, momentum among the social sciences a unique phenomenon can be in the Arab world, with 4 periodicals observed, where we find the only issued by economic societies. This Arab society that issues more than may to some extent account for one periodical, a phenomenon that the weak presence of economics in can be traced to the interdisciplinary interdisciplinary periodicals, which nature of that society (The Arab we will study in a later section Writers Union in Syria). In turn, we of this report. It seems that in this also note a presence of non-central regard economics has a more stable cities as homes of 3 periodicals: two institutional presence to an extent in Tunisia (in Monastir and Manouba) that allows Arab economists to and one in the United Arab Emirates maintain independence from the (in Sharjah, which hosts one of the other social sciences, and perhaps oldest Arab periodicals published fails to encourage communication by a professional society A look at with them. At the same time, we note the academic fields of the societies’ a prevalent linguistic foreignness
t
Source: Arab Social Science Monitor database Table 5 Table t
t
t
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 45 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
in the field of economics, such that evidenced by the fact that 59 out only one of its periodical is issued in of 68 operate within a single Arab Arabic (and it comes as no surprise country, in contrast to 8 societies that this periodical is published oriented towards the entire Arab through the Center for Arab Unity world. There is also a noticeably Studies), while two others are issued clear weakness in communication exclusively in French and the fourth efforts across the immediate is bilingual (Arabic and English). In regional environment, such that contrast, periodicals in the field of only one society is oriented history, which is the second most towards a larger Arab region (the institutionally stable social science, Gulf Cooperation Council’s Society are all issued in Arabic. Tunisia for History and Archeology). maintains the unique distinction This clear dominance of the of issuing the only periodical national domain as the most used specializing in anthropology from framework for the formation of an Arab professional society (but its professional societies may indicate language is exclusively English). that this is the easiest framework both logistically and legally for It is also clear that most establishing professional societies. professional societies are oriented However, this does not explain the towards a local audience, as almost total neglect of the regional
t
r regi 1
egi 1
i Figure 15
r i ie e i r e
46 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor domain and bypassing it in favor of and Damascus. National societies the wider Arab domain whenever the are mostly located in the countries’ opportunity arises for establishing capitals with some exceptions a society at a more encompassing such as Yemen, with 2 out of 4 scale than that of a single country. societies located in Aden. Add to this the few cases of other non- Professional societies oriented capital cities hosting professional towards the entire Arab world are societies, such as the League of concentrated in a limited number Young Moroccan Economists in of cities that likewise host other Agadir, The Tunisian Association general Arab institutions. Three of Anthropology in Monastir, the societies are located in Cairo and Jordanian Anthropologist Society in the same number in Beirut, in Irbid, and the Egyptian Association addition to one each in Tunisia for Psychological Studies in Hilwan.
t t
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Figure 16 3
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r r e i ie ie egi r e i ie ie r i ie e i r e
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 47 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
The concentration of professional Lebanon, Yemen, and Bahrain. associations in a certain country can Examining professional societies be seen as an indicator of the capacity by discipline brings up a number of that country’s scholarly community of crucial discrepancies, the most to organize independently, network obvious of which is the high number its members, and provide them with of psychology societies followed some sort of common identity. There by economics societies. These, as are clear differences between Arab we shall later see, are also the two countries in this regard. For instance, disciplines with the lowest presence because other indicators in Algeria in Arab scholarly periodicals. It is clear like the great number of faculties, that Arab scholarly communities are periodicals, and research centers not equally weak in all disciplines, but point to the fact that the country is one it also seems that the most organized of the most invested countries in the disciplines are the least influential social sciences in the Arab world, it outside their own specializations, that comes as a surprise that professional is, in interdisciplinary environments. societies in the social sciences are We may view this phenomenon in scarce. This discrepancy may mean either a positive or a negative light. that despite some creative initiatives, On the one hand, it may mean that the social sciences in Algeria still these disciplines are self-contained, largely depend on government or that their specialists are simply support more than on their own self- uninterested in benefitting from propulsion and the organizational the products of other disciplines, or skills of social science scholars. In that the discipline itself is stuck in general, the discrepancies between orbits of specialized jargon, making countries do not bring out the role it difficult for it to change trajectory. of national wealth as much as they On the other hand, we may also see the capacity to self-organize reflect the internal capacities of as a measure of the discipline’s the scholarly community. Morocco maturity and self-confidence, or of provides the greatest potential for its specialists’ attention to detail, the forming a scientific community as it depth of their knowledge of their field, hosts the largest number of social and their sense of the importance of science professional societies in their specializations. the Arab world, followed by Egypt, then Saudi Arabia, and then Iraq. Although we can call attention to There are also a number of countries this clear discrepancy, this report where professional societies are cannot determine which of the above being formed at a notable rate given possibilities best accounts for it, the relatively lower size of both as this would require an in-depth overall populations and scholarly study of the scientific content of the communities within the country. societies. We also note that fields of Examples include Tunisia, Jordan, specialization are clear in the case
48 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor t
20
18
15 14
12 11 11 10 10 Figure 17
5
2 1
0 i r g i g i r i i i g ie e ie e
r i ie e i r e of professional societies in contrast a pre-defined bureaucratic system, to research centers and scholarly as they would in Arab universities in periodicals. As such, professional general. societies are distinguished from other social science frameworks in terms of Finally, although we do not in greater clarity of their identity. They this framing report address the are also distinguished from university scientific content of the products of departments and faculties in terms of professional societies (this requires the importance of their self-propelling its own study), it is useful to note the factors. In contrast to universities, correlation between critical thought professional societies need creation (one of the sources of exploration initiatives and then other initiatives and discovery) and the momentum to guarantee their survival. For their of self-motivation that underlies the continuing viability, it is not sufficient establishment of societies, providing for its members to simply enroll in them with vitality and viability.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 49 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
The most prominent example of Social Sciences in Scholarly such a correlation is in the Center Periodicals (3) of Psychological Studies (http:// www.filnafs.com/fil14.html), which The research team monitored 217 is one of the professional societies scholarly periodicals related to the we monitor. The center played an social sciences currently issued in active role in critiquing the validity of the Arab world. As with all other certain aspects of global psychology phenomena of institutional growth in dealing with psychological crises nurturing the social sciences in the in the Arab world. The center strictly Arab world, most of these periodicals rejects a mechanical application of appear to be newly established. global psychology to the Arab context, They are growing in quantity at an and has repeatedly warned against accelerated pace, as indicated in the accepting foreign classifications (and chart of periodicals with confirmed particularly American ones, or DSM) dates of establishment. of psychological and psychiatric disorders as this would only serve to Following a careful examination create a distorted view of the Arab of the types of institutions issuing individual as psychologically disturbed periodicals, it is apparent that if not insane. According to the center, independent research centers these classifications even ignore play the greatest role in periodical American society’s own need for a growth. Independent centers therapy that is more understanding currently issue 52% of Arab scholarly of moral crises and their significance. periodicals compared to only 37% The center calls for treatments that issued by universities, either directly respect the Arab individual and direct or through a university research scrutiny of the role of pharmaceutical center. Despite this accumulating corporations in influencing the knowledge momentum, the figures trajectories of psychology. This reflect a different reality, one of example provides a model for creative weak professional societies in the approaches that may be found in Arab world. These do not issue more other professional societies with a than 6% of the scholarly periodicals more in-depth exploration. It is fair to (14 out 217). characterize as creative approaches those presenting a critical perspective The data reveal a clear imbalance to the application of a knowledge that in terms of country of issue. As is inconsistent with the particulars expected, there is a relatively large of a local context, while at the same number of respected and enduring time proposing approaches and periodicals in countries that have solutions capable of leaving a global historically enjoyed relative freedom scientific mark that transcends local of research such as Lebanon. There particularities. is also a significant number of
[3] Periodicals are defined as publications issued at regular intervals (monthly, every two months, quarterly, annually, etc.…), that are subject to review (for ex- ample by an expert in the field for academic periodicals or a professional editor or editing board), and that form a part of a series of core publications (such as academic journals, research journals, book series, magazines which specialize in commentary and op-eds, working papers, studies, etc.…). This is in contrast to news publications, whether or not they are self-contained, issued from Arab establishment, whether defunct or still in circulation.
50 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor periodicals issued in countries with momentum in civil society and are the recently developed interest in the focus of international interest such as social sciences, such as the Arab Palestine (which comes in the lead if Maghreb and Qatar, as well as from we take country population size into countries that display increasing account), Iraq, and Jordan.
t t t t t t t
150 Cumulative number of periodicals 125
120
90
65 Figure 18
60 Source: Arab Social Science 38 Monitor database
23 * Based on 125 scholarly period- 30 icals for which the first year of 11 publication is available out of a 8 total of 217 scholarly periodicals in the Arab region. e re 19 1 19 1 19 19 1 19 19 1 199 1991 1 1
r i ie e i r e * Based on 125 scientific periodicals for which the first year of publication is available out of a t t t total of 217 scientific t periodical in the Arab region. t t t
80
70
60 60
50
40 Figure 19
30 27 Source: Arab Social Science Monitor database 20 15 * Based on 125 scholarly period- 12 icals for which the first year of 10 8 publication is available out of a 3 total of 217 scholarly periodicals 0 in the Arab region. e re 19 1 19 1 19 19 1 19 19 1 199 1991 1 1 r i ie e i r e * Based on 125 scientific periodicals for which the first year of publication is availableSocial Sciencesout of a in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 51 total of 217 scientific periodical in the Arab region. Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
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Figure 21 15 14 13 13 12 11 10 9
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52 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor The Content of Scholarly Periodicals: A Sample Study
A background study conducted by Mustaqbal Al-Arabi” [the Arab Future] Dr. Mokhtar El-Harras on scholarly (Center for Arab Unity Studies, Beirut), periodicals tackled a sample of 8 “Al-Hayat Ath-Thaqafiyyah” [Cultural refereed periodicals published in Life] (Ministry of Culture, Tunisia), the field of general social sciences Hespéris Tamuda (Faculty of Letters without specializing in a particular and Human Sciences, Rabat), “Majallat subfield. A number of periodicals with Al-‘Ulum Al-Ijtima’iyyah” [Periodical of a specialized identity were included the Social Sciences] (The University of if that identity did not prevent them Kuwait), “Al-Majallah Al-Ijtima’iyyah from publishing articles rooted in Al-Qawmiyyah” [Pan-Arab Social other disciplines. The sample was Periodical] (National Center for Social selected according to standards that and Criminological Research, Egypt), take into account the variety of the Idafat [Additions] (Arab Sociological institutions that publish periodicals, Association, Lebanon), Insaniyyat including ministries, universities, civic [Humanities] (National Centre of institutions and research centers, Research in Social and Cultural as well as variance in publication Anthropology, Algeria), and Imran frequency (monthly, quarterly, and (The Arab Center for Research and annually). The survey covered all the Policy Studies (ACRPS), Qatar). articles and texts published in the last five years; when necessary, the survey We will now present the most method was modified in a way that important results of the survey, which did not significantly impact the results include the distribution of researcher of the study. Such adjustments were nationalities or national affiliation, the undertaken in instances where there relationship between nationality of the were issues with publishing dates and researcher and the community under logistics. In total, 732 contributions research, social science disciplines were monitored in this study. by proportion, research topics, techniques used, and the relationship The monitoring was based on between academic periodicals and the classifying the contributions by formation of scholarly communities. discipline, type, presentation style, methodological techniques, subject, Figure 22 reflects some preliminary the society under study, references data on authors by nationality. Authors used, researcher nationality, the from the Arab Maghreb constitute number of his/her contributions, and a notable presence with 41% of the collaborative research, if applicable. total contributors in Arab scholarly The selected periodicals include: “Al- periodicals. This phenomenon lends
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 53 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
more support to the conclusions of A preliminary confirmation of this other studies that have asserted the proposition is best represented by the qualitative superiority of the Arab relatively distinguished presence of Maghreb over the Arab Mashreq researchers from Lebanon, a country in the social sciences (Hanafi and that had experienced a stronger Arvanitis, 2015). This phenomenon continuity with the French educational is sometimes explained in terms of system than Syria, another Arab the clearer continuity of education Mashreq country subjected to French systems inherited from the French colonialism but with less long-term colonial era as compared to with those impact on the educational system inherited from the British colonial era. than its Lebanese counterpart. This
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Figure 22 11
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54 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor difference perhaps has something to Even though this distribution gives an do with variation in local circumstances. absolute number of researcher presence Lebanon, for example, had an influential in periodicals by country, it does not quite elite imbued with French culture, and in help us understand the educational the Arab Maghreb French colonialism capabilities of any given country. There was able to deeply root itself in the is a dire need for other data such as culture for a much longer time than in the relative presence of researchers, the Arab Mashreq. meaning the number of each nationality present in periodicals relative to the Generally speaking, there are four proportion of its population against the countries that each produce over 10% population of the Arab world as a whole. of the authors present in Arab scholarly Thus, if the percentage of researchers periodicals (Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, present from a certain country is higher and Algeria). Then come four other Arab than the ratio of the country’s population nations whose social science scholars to the population of the Arab world, we account for 4-10% of article authors can initially deduce that this country has (Lebanon, Kuwait, Palestine, and Iraq), above average productivity, and that the followed by the rest of the Arab nations. reverse is true.
t t t
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Figure 23 6
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Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 55 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
Consequently, reflecting upon these population size, if in smaller ratios, proportions leads to a different include Jordan, Morocco, and Algeria. perspective. We see a number of The rest of the countries produce relatively small countries with a at rates lower in proportion to their profusion of productivity exceeding sizes, although the differences their size, many times over, most between them do have implications. notably Kuwait, Lebanon, Tunisia, Egypt, which is at the fore in absolute Qatar, and Palestine. Other countries number of its citizens publishing that produce Arab academics in Arab scholarly periodicals, in numbers disproportionate to actually produces at a lower rate in
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i u r i Al-Thakafiyyah i i u e re u i i i
rr u r 2 u i i ie e eri i u r gr u er r e r i ie e i r e 2 r i e
56 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor proportion to its population size, nationalities). Another notable healthy though not by much. At the bottom phenomenon there is the absence of of the scale, we find countries where hegemony by any nationality, such that production volume is meager relative that no single nationality is represented to population, such as Saudi Arabia, by more than 30% of the authors. There Syria, Yemen, and Sudan. We can also is also a high level of plurality in the add those countries with no presence most recently established periodical in at all in this sample, including Bahrain, our sample, “Imran”, which publishes Oman, the United Arab Emirates, four times as many nationalities as Djibouti, Somalia, and Comoros. It far older periodicals (15 nationalities), is notable that these latter countries also without any of them dominating, vary greatly in national wealth. This although Qatari researchers have the confirms our earlier proposition: most distinguished presence at 25% the social sciences in their research of this periodical’s authors. It is worth form—and particularly those directed noting that the first two periodicals in at an Arab audience—do not flourish our index of plurality (“Al-Mustaqbal simply due to national wealth, but Al-Arabi” and “Idafat”) are issued from rather due to interest in them and Lebanon. This demonstrates that there relative freedom of research. The latter is indeed a close relationship not only factors are present in the countries at between a relatively long history of the forefront in this figure, although freedom of research and quality, but they vary in national wealth and the also between freedom and pluralism. nature of local issues faced. However, This relatively free space bore the fruit there is no doubt that the latter are of two of the most open periodicals all more concerned with the social in the Arab world as a whole, that sciences than other countries, and is, periodicals capable of attracting that they do allow for more breathing contributions from all over the Arab room in that regard. world. It is well known that scholarly It is not difficult to observe a major periodicals anywhere will differ in terms difference in plurality levels in the of how well they represent researchers same region that has little to do with in their respective regions. This the age of the periodicals, but rather necessitates a careful examination of relates to their policies and their the content of each individual periodical understanding of their audience. to get a sense of its impact on the Arab If we consider the two periodicals world as a whole, and consequently from our sample that are issued in the extent to which it is geographically Gulf States (“Imran” from Qatar and limited. We note here that there is “Majallat Al-Ulum Al-Ijtima’iyyah” no clear relationship between the from Kuwait), it is clear that although periodical’s age and its influence. An the latter periodical published old and respected periodical such articles by authors from ten different as “Al-Mustaqbal Al-Arabi” is at the nationalities, it is still marked by two forefront with the highest numerical particularly dominant nationalities; presence of researcher nationalities (22 most of the researchers writing in it
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 57 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
are either from Kuwait or Egypt. The of the three Maghreb periodicals in Egyptian “Al-Majallah Al-Ijtima’iyyah our sample, despite their academic Al-Qawmiyyah” comes in last in importance and long, respectable terms of plurality, as only Egyptian history. Only 4-5 nationalities are researchers wrote in it during the represented in each, and in each we period of our monitoring. Furthermore, see that researchers from the country we note the limited pan-Arab influence of issue dominate the pages.
t t t t t
25 er e u e r i e
21% 20
16% 15 14% 14% 14% Figure 25
10
6% 5 4%
3% 3% 2% 2% 1% 0
r g e e u r u i u i i geri e e i e r r regi
rr u r 2 5 u i i ie e eri i u r gr u er r e r i ie e i r e 5 r i e
58 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor In the same context, the majority of we omitted regions to which less the texts and articles (504 out of 732) than 0.5% of the total contributions focused on a specific geographic area were devoted. It is worth mentioning of study, discussing and analyzing that the “Muslim World” was one a certain country or region. This of the regions omitted due to its suggests that the theory or concept miniscule presence as an analytic presented springs from a location- category (with only two articles out dependent context (even though it of a total of 504). This may seem may be generalizable). In Figure 25 strange based on the prevalent
t t t t
t t t t t t t Thakafiyyah t
t
t t
t
t Table 6 Table t
t
t
Source: Al-Harras, Al-Mukhtar. 2015. “Evaluation of Social Science Periodicals”. January. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor)
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 59 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
usage of the “Muslim World” as a others. Mokhtar El-Harras pointed concept, but here we realize that Arab out that most of the articles relating scholarly periodicals do not seem to to a certain country were written by pay much attention to it. Although researchers from that country albeit this phenomenon may well be linked in varying proportions. He concluded to our sample selection, there are no that two-thirds of the articles about other indicators from other sources Algeria and Morocco were written by that affirm that the “Muslim World” researchers from these two countries, (as an analytical concept and not while Tunisian authors dedicated half as a handy expression) appears of their articles to topics about Tunisia, more prominently in any other and 45% of the articles written by sample. The reason may well be that Arab researchers do not view the Egyptian authors were about Egypt. concept of the “Muslim World” as These ratios recede in the Gulf States, sufficiently coherent socially–or at where 40% of the articles written least as possessing enough common by Kuwaiti researchers were about characteristics to warrant its analysis Kuwait (keeping in mind the small size as a single entity. of the country and the grave issues plaguing the surrounding geographic In contrast, the concept of the “Arab area may make this percentage world” has predominant presence as appear to be actually high). The an analytic geographic focus despite highest level of interest in the general the fact that this concept entails Arab surroundings is recorded in great differences if not conflicts. Qatar, where only one article out of Nevertheless, the concept of the 22 written by Qatari authors was “Arab world” generally appears in about Qatar. The same applies to the common Arab domain more Lebanon, where only 12 articles out frequently than does the “Muslim of a total of 71 written by Lebanese World”. The “Arab world’s” recent authors were about Lebanese affairs. history makes it appear that it faces It is also notable that regions currently common challenges, or at the very in crisis fully occupy the concerns of least challenges that travel across the researchers hailing from those the borders of the region’s countries regions. For instance, we find that all in one form or the other. The concept the articles written about Sudan and also has a more interconnected Yemen were written by researchers institutional presence than can be from these two countries, while 30 claimed of the “Muslim World.” out of 38 articles about Palestine were written by Palestinian authors. Table 6 shows that countries that produce the greatest number of However, such postulates linking published researchers, including the role of chronic national crisis Egypt and the Arab Maghreb countries with interest from local researches except Mauritania, are also the object do not explain the tendency to focus of study to a larger extent than on studying the homeland found
60 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor in researchers from other countries giving researchers access to official such as Morocco and Algeria. Dr. statistics and documents, which in El-Harras presents some of his turn encourages the study of subjects own propositions to explain this that can be better documented. phenomenon. One concerns the weight of social science knowledge Periodicals differ in levels of accumulated since the colonial era in geographic openness. This is clearly the Maghreb countries, incentivizing demonstrated by the two periodicals continuity of research traditions. Add issued from Lebanon, “Al-Mustaqbal to this openness to researching social Al-Arabi” and “Idafat”, containing issues from political authorities for the greatest number of articles various reasons, which contributes to about other countries. Each of them
t t
12 12 12
10 10
8
7 Figure 26
6
4
2 2 2
1 1
0
r
i r i i i u e re u Al-Thakafiyyah u i i i rr u r 2 u i i ie e eri i u r gr u er r e r i ie e i r e r i e
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 61 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
contains articles about 12 out of 22 discipline and specialization, we Arab countries, that is, a little more find that despite certain numerical than half. They are followed by the differences, the ratios of presence newly-established “Imran”, then for each discipline are consistent «Majallat Al-‘Ulum Al-Ijtima’iyyah”. with the corresponding ratios in This order is perfectly consistent with Arab universities. The exception is Figure 26 since these periodicals economics, which is at the forefront retain the greatest level of plurality in in universities but which has a weak terms of researcher nationality. The presence in the sample periodicals. rest of the figures are also consistent This is likely due to our focus on with Figure 26, demonstrating that periodicals that are open to the multiplicity in researchers’ national social sciences generally. This leads affiliations has a strong correlation to to poor representation of disciplines geographical multiplicity in research whose researchers prefer to publish topics. We find that focus on the in periodicals with exclusive periodical’s country of issue is a specializations. There are several prevalent phenomenon in Maghreb possible reasons for such specialized periodicals, which mostly draw choices. One may be the existence Maghrebi researchers. The same of an academic community within applies to Egypt’s “Al-Majallah Al- the discipline itself that incentivizes Ijtima’iyyah Al-Qawmiyyah” in Egypt researchers to intensify their which—notwithstanding its pan-Arab connectedness with one another at title—did not publish any articles the expense of their presence in the about countries other than Egypt shared social science domains. There during the survey period (keeping are, however, other possible factors in mind that during the same period for such closed specialized choices, Egyptian researchers did write about such as a researcher’s preference other Arab countries, but in other for complex, advanced techniques periodicals). and methodologies, which does not enable communication with those This may mean that the issue has outside the discipline. Another factor to do with orientations and policies might be a preference for directing followed by the periodical or the research towards decision-makers authorities responsible for it, and not rather than a general scholarly necessarily with the local researchers’ domain shared with other disciplines. interests or capabilities. The relatively large presence of Specializations and Topics certain marginalized disciplines such as anthropology may be In our analysis of the presence of linked to the lack of specialized social science disciplines in Arab periodicals for that discipline scholarly academic periodicals, in the Arab world, compelling in which we classified articles by many specialists in this field
62 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Percent Distribution of Articles in 8 Arab scientific Peer-reviewed Periodicals by Discipline, 2010 - 2014*
35
32
30
25 23
20 Figure 27 18
15
10
5 5 5 5 5 3 3
0
i r i g g i r g e e e u ie e er u ie i i ie e u ur u ie
rr u r 2 u i i ie e eri i u r gr u er r e r i ie e i r e 7 2 r i e to publish their research in the In this context, three disciplines take available periodicals. We cannot up the most space by far in shared ascertain which of the presented social science periodicals: sociology, possibilities is most likely as political science, and history. this requires a separate study, Together they account for almost perhaps a matter for later reports. three-quarters of the total articles, This is especially the case since while psychology, economics, and for this section we selected a anthropology do not account for sample with the unique capacity to more than 5% each. We also note inform about interactive fields for that the presence of these disciplines different social science disciplines. is quantitatively comparable to
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 63 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
the presence of interdisciplinary limiting them to the six traditional studies (gender, development and disciplines available as university cultural studies) which constitute departments, it becomes possible 11% of the articles. If we exclude to compare the proportions in which interdisciplinary studies and those disciplines are present in recalculate the percentages, periodicals and in the universities.
t t t t t
er e i eri i 40 er e i u i er i u ie 36% 35
30
26% 26% 25
Figure 28 20% 20 19% 19% 18% 16% 15
10
6% 6% 6% 5 2%
0 i i ie e i g r g i r g i
rr u r 2 u i i ie e eri i u r gr u er r e r i ie e i r
Table 7 shows that the three presence in all domains enjoys a disciplines that have the most periodical presence that exceeds commanding rates of presence in its university presence threefold. periodicals (history, sociology, and History has the nearest proportion political science), exceed here their of periodical presence in rate of presence in universities. comparison to university presence, This also applies to anthropology, while sociology has the strongest which despite having very meager relative periodical presence
64 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor t t t t
t t t
t t t t Table 7 Table
t
Source: Al-Harras, Al-Mukhtar. 2015. “Evaluation of Social Science Periodicals”. January. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor)
with double the percentage of its Monitoring the most frequent university presence. Economics research topics in scholarly definitely comes in last, with periodicals, after excluding those periodical presence under one- scarcely addressed, yields the same fourth the rate of its university results that will be tabulated later presence. Similarly, psychology has for newspapers and other types of periodical presence under one-third periodicals during the survey period. the rate of its university presence. The “Arab Spring” comes in the lead If these metrics indicate anything, even before we add a group of related it definitely involves the degree issues such as “reform” and “justice”. to which there are opportunities These three topics combined account for social science scholars to for 13% of the articles. If we add to them acquaint themselves with academic other closely related issues such as contributions in their shared “democracy”, “citizenship”, and “civil domains—that is, in this sample. society”, the total percentage would jump to 20% of total articles handling That said, the above results lead to the issue of political and social the conclusion that two disciplines change at the macro level. (psychology and economics) are not present in sufficient density Moreover, there is considerable to provide specialists from other presence for women’s issues, as in disciplines with the opportunity the case of newspapers that will be to regularly become familiar with discussed later. The same applies to their contributions. In contrast, youth issues, which account for 8% of we find four disciplines (political the articles. Also similarly to the case science, sociology, anthropology, of newspapers, cultural periodicals, and history) that reveal their nature and others outlets, we note a weak much more to those outside the field. presence of “globalization” as a topic.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 65 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
However, we find topics that we do not This issue is linked, in our time, to see in other outlets, such as “the elite”, other social and economic problems even though it is a minor presence. including development, displacement, and poverty, which—once added to the We also notice the relative interest topic of urbanization—suggest that in the subject of “urbanization”. nearly 18% of articles are dedicated
t t
t t t t t t t t t t t t t t
t t
t
t
t t Table 8 Table
t t t t t
t t t
t
t
t
t
t
t
Source: Al-Harras, Al-Mukhtar. 2015. “Evaluation of Social Science Periodicals”. January. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor) * Based on 732 articles
66 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor to addressing greater issues of Types of Research development. In contrast, we must pause to take note of the relative lack Figure 29 classifies the articles in our of interest in communities classified sample according to type, including as “traditional” or at least incompatible the presentation techniques used with urbanization, like rural and by Arab social science scholars in Bedouin communities. Although Arab academic periodicals. Each it is possible to address these type of article has its own merits in communities from the point of view of raising a topic or an issue, although developmental ambition, focus on non- the notion of “science” generally urban communities still accounts for entails that one scholar will find some less than 2% of the total articles. presentation techniques to be more scientific than others, while another In parallel, there is an interest in might find that the same presentation family issues that we do not see in technique cannot be assessed other types of outlets. This interest without also assessing the merit of does not always appear directly, but the objective for which it is being emerges through adjacent interests used. Classification by type is divided such as adolescence, childcare, and into four fundamental categories. education issues. It is also worth First, there is the field-theoretical noting the presence of biographies study, where the research hinges as a vehicle for presenting ideas upon a field study that includes an in approximately 11% of articles. introduction or theoretical discussion This includes 60 articles about introducing the reader to the study’s specific figures such as intellectuals, scientific context as well as former scientists, and historical characters, academic contributions relevant almost evenly distributed with 22 to the topic. Second, in a pure field figures known at the Arab level, 21 study, the researcher will immediately known primarily at the local level, launch into the field study without and 17 foreign figures. We should providing theoretical input. The however point out that this interest in third type is the theoretical article, biographies is not consistent across which focuses on a theoretical angle periodicals. We observe great interest although it may analyze secondary in this approach to presenting statistics or data, that is, information ideas in 3 out of 8 periodicals, little not produced by the research itself interest in 2 periodicals, and no but obtained from already existing interest at all in 3 other periodicals. sources. Finally, the reflective article, These differences do not seem to be that possesses a review character, related to the periodical’s academic takes into consideration a social specialization, but it is clear in our phenomenon in its general features survey sample that Gulf periodicals or presents some of the research are not interested in biographies. trends relating to it.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 67 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
Percent Distribution of Articles in 8 Arab scientific Peer-reviewed Periodicals by Type of Research, 2010 - 2014*
Reflective 9% Theoretical/Field 16%
Figure 29 Field 6%
Theoretical 69%
rr u r 2 u i i ie e eri i u r gr u er r e r i ie e i r e 2 r i e
There is a clear prevalence of variance between them. Three theoretical articles, exceeding two- quarters of our sample periodicals thirds of the total. This high proportion tend to publish theoretical articles may be attributed to the difficulties in proportions exceeding half of the facing fieldwork in the Arab world, total articles and, in the majority of which encompass security obstacles periodicals, the rate of theoretical as well as political, logistic, and financial articles exceeds two-thirds of the difficulties, although field work is one total. Despite the overwhelming of the most significant sources of fresh prevalence of theoretical articles, information and innovative analysis in we see that reflective articles (which the social sciences. Despite this, we are the most similar to theoretical note that field studies, including both ones, except for not incorporating pure field studies and those framed original research) have absolutely no theoretically, do not exceed 22% of the presence in half of the periodicals, total articles. and a modest presence in the other half, such that at their highest, A close look at the periodicals in “Al-Mustaqbal Al-Arabi”, they individually reveals the extent of do not exceed 20% of articles.
68 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Proportion of Articles in 8 Arab scientific Peer-reviewed Periodicals by Type of Research, 2010 - 2014*
e re i Fie 120 Fie e re i Reflective
100 2 7
17 20 27 80 58 41 Figure 30 7
60 95 73 93 73
34 40 76 9 67
20 10 33 25 1
1 9 11 5 5 3
r i u r i Al-Thakafiyyah u e re u i i i i i rr u r 0 u i i ie e eri i u r gr u er r e r i ie e i r e 3 r i e
However, there are some significant “Al-Majallah Al-Ijtima’iyyah Al- exceptions to this trend, as in Qawmiyyah” where field-theoretical the case of “Majallat Al-Ulum Al- articles do not exceed 25%. After Ijtima’iyyah,” which displays an these, field-theoretical work inverse phenomenon such that retreats into meager rates in the field-theoretical work prevails in remaining periodicals. Here we must over two-thirds of the articles. It is note that pure fieldwork is in fact followed by “Insaniyyat”, although to conducive to being transformed a significantly lower extent, with the into field-theoretical work with a field-theoretical category comprising little effort, overall improving its only one-third of its content, then academic quality. In this connection,
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 69 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
t t t
t t t t t t t Thakafiyyah t
Table 9 Table t
t
Source: Al-Harras, Al-Mukhtar. 2015. “Evaluation of Social Science Periodicals”. January. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor) * Based on 732 articles
periodicals editorial boards and study of the entire region of the Arab referees are crucial to elevating the world and to receiving contributions scientific standard of the research from Arab social science scholars from being published; they encourage all countries. These two periodicals researchers that have conducted stand out in their relative interest in valuable fieldwork to develop their interviews and debates, due to their work to further benefit knowledge. greater ability to form scholarly groups This is a crucial issue for periodicals on the level of the Arab world such that where field articles prevail over the capacity for dialogue becomes a field-theoretical studies such as major source of their viability. “Al-Majallah Al-Ijtima’iyyah Al- Qawmiyyah”, where the pure field The vast majority of short texts are category is present in more than one- dedicated to book reviews while a few third of the articles. In this case the others are summaries of university raw material for innovative science dissertations. Most of the latter can be is present, but has not yet been found in Al-Majallah Al-Ijtima’iyyah Al- transformed into mature scientific Qawmiyyah, where they exceed the material. number of book reviews. The number of these texts provides us with an idea Periodicals also vary in their about the periodical’s role in drawing employment of not only articles, but also attention to new publications, a role short texts such as dialogues, reviews, most clearly assumed by “Al-Mustaqbal and reports of academic conferences Al-Arabi”, “Idafat”, and “Majallat Al- to complement their goals. We see, for Ulum Al-Ijtima’iyyah”. We can also instance, that interviews and debates easily observe the scant coverage of are almost absent from all periodicals academic conferences, perhaps due except “Al-Mustaqbal Al-Arabi” and to how few there may be in the Arab “Idafat”, which as previously mentioned world, or to mutual inattention between are the periodicals most open to the conferences organizers and the
70 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor editors of periodicals, or to disparities a larger number (21%) disregards in priorities and policies. All these Arabic altogether. It seems there is possibilities require verification before a linguistic disconnect between two any conclusions about them are drawn segments of researchers who together and assessed. account for more than one-third of scholarly periodicals’ articles. It is safe The language of references and to say that the researchers who use the issue of research fields exclusively Arabic references (except for the ones that are translated) may In addition to the above factors, the be disconnected from the global language of the references used in scholarly field, while those who do the articles provides a glimpse of the not employ Arabic references at all breadth of the academic field in which may be disconnected from the Arab the researcher is involved. We find that field and are exclusively concerned the majority of the articles in the sample with research questions arising from (57%) use Arabic references in addition theoretical or methodological priorities to references in at least one foreign outside the Arab world. However, language. Only 13% of the articles use the proportions of these divisions exclusively Arabic references while vary from one periodical to another.
Percent Distribution of Articles in 8 Arab scientific Peer-reviewed Periodicals by Language of References, 2010 - 2014*
re ere e 20
r i r i re ere e r i re ere e 95 1 Figure 31
1
r i re ere e 9 13
rr u r 1 u i i ie e eri i u r gr u er r e r i ie e i r e 3 r i e
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 71 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
Proportion of Articles in 8 Arab scientific Peer-reviewed Periodicals by Language of References, 2010 - 2014*
100
r i r i re ere e
r i re ere e
80 r i re ere e
re ere e Figure 32
60
40
20
5
0
Idafat Al-Hayat Al-Majallah Insaniyyat (Lebanon) (Algeria) Imran (Qatar) (Tunisia) Al-MustaqbalAl-Arabi Al-Thakafiyyah Al-Ijtima’iyyah (Morocco) (Egypt) Majallat A-Ulum(Kuwait) Hespres Tamuda Al-Qawmiyyah Al-Ijtima’iyyah (Lebanon) rr u r 2 u i i ie e eri i u r gr u er r e r i ie e i r e 32 r i e
A careful examination of these sam- references language is consistent ple study summaries reveals signifi- with that of Arab Mashreq periodicals. cant differences between periodicals, If we concede that linguistic plurality which indicates that the language in references is an indicator of broad- problem and all its related issues are er scholarly capacity, it is fair to say not omnipresent. Three quarters of the that this is more exhibited in the Gulf articles from the two Algerian and Mo- periodicals, with 93% of the articles in roccan periodicals do not employ any “Majallat Al-Ulum Al-Ijtima’iyyah” and Arabic references at all, in contrast 80% of the articles in “Imran” employ- with the Tunisian periodical, whose ing multilingual references.
72 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Research Techniques of an academic perspective increases to a certain extent as a function of plu- Given the large proportion of theoret- rality in research methodologies, es- ical articles in Arab academic period- pecially when each methodology fills icals, we find that many do not indi- the gaps left by others, we conclude cate a specific research technique or that the most scientific methodolo- methodology. Out of 732 articles only gies constitute a minority of period- 366 (50%) explained the techniques ical articles, while the least scientific and methodologies therein. These methodologies constitute the majori- can be divided further into two types: ty. We also note clear differences be- articles that employ a single specified tween the periodicals in the number technique (37% of the total articles) of techniques employed, with 40% of and those which employ more than the articles published in 3 periodicals one technique (13% of the total arti- employing more than one technique, cles). If we concede that the credibility in comparison with 30% in 3 others.
Percent Distribution of Articles in 8 Arab scientific Peer-reviewed Periodicals by Research Methods, 2010 - 2014*
re e e 3 Figure 33
٩٣ e r e
e e 3
٥
rr u r u i i ie e eri i u r gr u er r e r i ie e i r e 3 r i e
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 73 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
t t
t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t t
t t t t t
Table 10.a Table Table 10.b Table t t
t t
t
t Al-Thakafiyyah t t t t t Here we note the importance of secondary statistical analysis (of numerical data not produced by the t researcher but available from other sources). Arab researchers also give t special attention to questionnaires or surveys, while we note a relative dearth of t other methodologies relevant to fieldwork such as observation and interviews, and even more so of methodologies of crucial importance to the social sciences such as comparisons and case studies. This leads us to the conclusion that the t issue of research methodologies and how to combine them poses one of the t most important challenges facing social science research in the Arab world. Source: Al-Harras, Al-Mukhtar. 2015. “Evaluation of Social Science Periodicals”. January. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor) * Based on 732 articles
74 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Joint Research cyberspace and present themselves as pioneering examples in using this In conclusion, according to the above space for academic purposes. In some data, social sciences in the Arab cases, e-publishing has additional world suffer from the weakness of scientific objectives, the most scholarly communities, not only as real important of which is modernizing entities but also as aspirations. This higher education in the Arab world and weakness is reflected in the scarcity making it more accessible, enabling of the scholarly periodicals issued students to easily access books, by organized scholarly associations, articles, and other resources relevant the dearth in organized meetings to their field of study, in addition to between social science scholars in the providing explanations about social Arab world, and their fragmentation science concepts, history, and schools over various global and local currents of thought. We do however sense a without any solid research relationships weakness in creative investment in this between them. One indicator of this domain. For example: although widely weakness of community is the paucity accessible databases are one of the of joint research endeavors in the Arab most significant innovations with the world. No more than 6% of our sample capacity to democratize, modernize, articles were based on joint research and expand academic domains, we efforts, whereas if we look at the tables find that they still have limited impact of contents of significant international in the Arab world. Many of the existing academic periodicals in the social databases are merely tables of titles sciences, we find that approximately that do not provide the reader with the half the articles are published jointly. opportunity to become acquainted It is worth mentioning that the Kuwaiti with the texts, their summaries, or their “Majallat Al-Ulum Al-Ijtima’iyyah” explanations. Otherwise, access fees stands out in this respect, having far exceed the capacities of most Arab published 18 joint research articles, 41% libraries, much less individuals. of the total joint research articles of our sample, although individual research In return, we do observe the beginnings still dominates. of some promising models for such websites, even though they are not yet Social Sciences and in the form of databases. An example is Cyberspace: The Model of Aranthropos (www.aranthropos.com), an Algerian website established in 2010 Aranthropos as the first Arab site specializing in Arab academic periodicals, including anthropology and social anthropology. the ones surveyed, do not seem to be It has become well known among particularly interested in electronic anthropology university students presence. Nevertheless, we do throughout the Arab world. When we find some independent academic asked 10 PhD anthropology students initiatives that limit their presence to at the Lebanese University how
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 75 t
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
familiar they were with this website, A careful observation of this website all of them replied that they follow yields another rare phenomenon, al- the website regularly and consider it though it is part of the encyclopedic an auxiliary knowledge platform of in self-understanding of the site: the pre- their field of specialization, providing sentation of content from periodicals them with the latest references and (26% of what we classified as book specialized periodicals, connecting reviews were in fact reviews of periodi- them to similar sites, and providing cals), particularly specialized or cultural access to significant if not essential Arabic periodicals, approached as parts methodology. of a cohesive knowledge system. Thus we see here that cyberspace can con- The Aranthropos website, being atypi- tribute to the formation of a nucleus of cal, provides a significant complement a scholarly community enriched by an to the offerings of academic period- interconnected epistemic background, icals. This is due to the site being not even if this community does not exist only distinguished by its academic in a formal institutional form. The web- character but also by its encyclope- site does not offer research as much as dic perspective, even though it is lim- it offers an “epistemic universe” easily ited to one social science discipline. connectible to other epistemic univers- We observe a significant presence for es. Once we complement this connect- academic book reviews unavailable edness with the useful services offered on any other website, and this is con- by the site, such as free downloads of sistent with the encyclopedic under- books and articles and explanations of standing of the website initially created specific anthropological concepts (at by researcher Mabrouk Boutagouga, the rate of one concept every couple who aimed at placing an entire aca- of months), the result is a rich experi- demic discipline within the grasp of the ence utilizing the various potentials of readers, rather than limiting them to cyberspace, and certainly beyond mere analyses of particular social dilemmas. reproduction of print material.
t t
er ie i gr 4
Source: Kasr, Ubadah. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in E-magazines in the Arab Region”. (Back- Figure 34 ground paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor)
e re ie 4
re ie 4
r re e e i ie e i g i e i e r egi gr u er r e 76 The r First i Report ie e i r of the Arab Social Science Monitor t
Public Frameworks: Civil Society and the Public Sphere
Introduction public sphere as being limited to the European experience. They noted that The public sphere holds a special it failed to account for other historical importance in social science contexts, where other types of social analyses. That importance has only experience had a purpose or result increased with the surge of modern that were similar to what the public communication technologies that have sphere is thought to achieve, i.e. intensified the use of social networking fostering a sense of “public opinion” websites and made it possible for through free dialogue premised on users to become acquainted with the assumption of a human capacity new realms of knowledge and social to persuade and willingness to be circles which only a generation ago persuaded. would have been virtually inaccessible and completely undiscoverable. An examination of the social Traditionally considered the foundation history of Muslim societies should of liberty in social life (Habermas, 1991), set the stage for a discussion of the public sphere is what lies beyond the preponderant role played by the bounds of the family, and allows religious scholars who maintained the individual to communicate with an organic relationship to society (as others outside private contexts such as opposed to Caliphs or rulers whose the home, and outside the domain of relationship with it was purely that of official institutions. Jürgen Habermas, in political authority) in acquainting the his classic study of the public sphere’s community in which they lived with emergence in Europe, considered their own understanding of Islam. In cafés, clubs, and the free press the best the centuries following the “Islamic examples of the public sphere in the golden age”, as it is typically called, age of modernity. But he also linked different Sufi traditions prevailed their existence to the growth of the until they became an integral part of bourgeoisie as a class in society, and the “natural” religion of the masses. this class’ need for more open social The same applies to independent communication than was needed by trade guilds. In all of these cases the old self-segregating aristocracy. we see epistemic activity and social movements not ruled by a centralized Many commentators such as Craig political authority, and which did not Calhoun and Armando Salvatore require unanimous agreement as to have criticized this notion of the creed or scriptural interpretation.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 77 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
Although these phenomena all had a possibility of, and the incentives toward, religious character, they also connected government hegemony. Furthermore, a with social needs such as education strong civil society helps provide more and healthcare. The considerable guidance for the behavior of political presence of the system of Awqāf parties, as the rationalism of civil (Islamic endowments) was one of the society checks or exposes the parties’ most important non-governmental otherwise demagogic tendencies ways of catering to social needs. Indeed, or pursuit of narrow interests. It also this remained the state of affairs until stands as axiomatic that a democracy the Awqāf were either appropriated or would be no more than form without scaled back by modern governments. substance if not coupled with a free It is in these relationships between press in particular and a vibrant public social formations on the one hand and sphere in general. the society’s institutional structure on the other (such as in the historical Second, with the end of the Cold system of the Awqāf), that it is possible War and the beginning of what has to explore one of the most important come to be known as the “age of aspects of the relationship between globalization”, many nations saw a what contemporary social sciences regress in the central state’s ability capture in the two interconnected to deal with the various economic, modern terms: “public sphere” and cultural, and political trends overtaking “civil society”. them from abroad. The state moreover has in many instances admitted its The modern era has seen increasing inability to solve social problems by interest in these terms due to the centralized means, especially when presumed relationship between them the state relied on foreign loans or aid. and various vital issues, of which As this crisis dragged on, the state three stand out in particular: 1- the increasingly came to depend on the requirements of a democratic system. private sector to indirectly manage all 2- The build-up of political, social, matters through its presumed ability and economic problems intractable to increase general social wealth. to any single central solution. 3- The It is this thesis that has come to be increasing momentum of demands known as neoliberalism. Parallel to for participation, which have recently this theory, other suggestions have taken the form of revolution and all-out arisen regarding the role of civil society uprisings. (as a non-government framework) to propose or implement creative, non- First, on the issue of democracy: a regulatory solutions to social problems. common view in political science This trend may be consistent with asserts that a democracy’s durability increasing criticism of the disastrous or fragility is closely linked to that of results of certain central development its civil society, the assumption being projects that have not solicited the that a strong civil society reduces the participation of presumably affected
78 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor communities, let alone allowing feeling at this period and a comparable them to express their opinions on the one that predominated in the days matter. It is also consistent with the when “Sawt Al-Arab” [Voice of the criticism of the bureaucratic nature of Arabs] radio station dominated the central planning that does not interact Arab public sphere during Nasser’s with society, and concomitantly the rule in Egypt. It lies in the large number increased sense that central planning of social communication technologies lacks transparency and is linked with and platforms in the current era, so corruption, which was one of the chief that it is no longer possible for a single grievances raised in the slogans of the radio station to dominate the entire Arab Spring. scene, despite the varying levels of influence exercised by the different Third, based on the above, the communication platforms today. emergence of demands for wider participation can be understood as This tripartite set of contemporary an expression of mounting suspicion issues facing the general socio- of great numbers as to the ability political atmosphere (the demands of of authoritarian states to deal with democracy, the decline of the state’s intractable chronic problems. That ability to be responsive to society was especially the case wherever while simultaneously increasing its the government itself, through its investment in means of coercion, as ever-increasing corruption and well as the growth of participatory irresponsibility, was transformed into demands), reveals particular facets of an ever-increasing burden on society. civil society and the public sphere in the modern era, and suggests certain Throughout the period preceding the roles for the social sciences in it. It Arab Spring, participatory demands is clear that all the aforementioned were pressed through both civil problems pertain in one way or the society organizations and the public other to the dilemmas of change in all sphere (which had been continuously dimensions: political, cultural, social expanding since the 1990s) via far- and economic. reaching new means such as satellite channels and, later, cyberspace. These All the multifaceted avenues of modern technologies enhanced the grand change known to history have sense among many segments of been connected to an epistemic society, in the youth in particular, that change, specifically the spread of the ordinary person belonged to the new ways of perceiving reality. What world as an interactive and influencing is today called “scientific thought” is entity within it. The ordinary person one of these aspects of knowledge was not merely a passive witness linked, in one way or another, to the awaiting salvation at the hands of requisites of change, even though detached higher powers. There is one such thought is by no means the only fundamental difference between this form of change-oriented knowledge.
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Looking outside the usual institutional of the notion of “civil society” to Arab contexts of science and research as we reality. He held that many of the so- currently understand it, that is, outside called civil society organizations in the universities and research institutions, Arab world are in fact manifestations of we may propose that modern (or at least non-governmental society, especially in non-traditional) social frameworks cases where there is a lack of turnover that offer the individual new modes of in the organization’s administration communication at will (in the manner or where clear-cut standards or of civil society and the public sphere), regulations for membership are absent. are able to assimilate scientific thought as a means to achieve their ends. However, the reality of the Arab world This in spite of the fact that scientific is much like that of anywhere else: the thought in such frameworks may come term “civil society” usually embraces in a rather different guise than the one great differences in management it dons in purely academic or scientific systems and in the degree of institutions. openness to society as a whole. We found moreover that in many cases Civil Society the boundary between “civil” and “non-governmental” society is by Some Arab researchers distinguish no means clear, nor do we see any between “civil society” (al-mujtamaa impossibility in transforming a non- al-madanī) and “non-governmental governmental society into a civil one, society” (al-mujtamaa al-ahlī), or the reverse. The possibility of an viewing the latter as an expression of institution’s transformation from one traditional social institutions such as type to the other depends on factors religious establishments and charity that are both specific to the local organizations and other institutions reality and constantly susceptible to which in reality are built on familial, change. These factors may include the tribal, sectarian, or local lines, whereas emergence of modernizing personages civil society per se is usually viewed within a traditional context that compel as a product of modernity. The traditional organizations to adopt assumption here is that civil society is the general precepts of modernity; composed of institutions that are open a popular movement that generates to all who believe in their principles, novel ideas and practices; a common and that do not base themselves on threat that leads to coalescence (or at traditional social relationships so much the very least coordination) between as give priority to general principles different social ensembles resulting that enjoin democracy and free choice in new common practices; or the and are concerned with human rights degeneration of the ruling political and individual liberties (Karajah, 2007). regime (as happens in cases of war However, the sociologist Ahmad and revolutions) that compels various Ba’albaki during our interview with him social ensembles to adopt new social expressed doubt about the applicability roles; or the proliferation of new
80 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor ideas and ideologies (or old ones for whose activities are directed at more that matter) via the public sphere. than one country. Accordingly, we Other factors may also come to play. solicited a detailed study of a sample Therefore, we can broadly define civil of five organizations: 1) The Arab NGO society as the totality of independent Network for Development; 2) Al-Qaws social institutions that are based on (based in Palestine, concerned with voluntary association and organize issues of sexual and gender diversity); themselves outside the purview of the 3) KAFA (based in Lebanon, and state and of political parties. concerned with combating violence against, and exploitation of, women); Methodology of Research 4) Al-Nahda (based Saudi Arabia, a women’s charity organization); 5) The What is the role of the social sciences Arab Forum For Alternatives (based in a civil society? This question in Egypt, concerned with scientific aspires to ascertain to what, if any, research related to issues of change). extent scientific thought influences The study of these organizations aimed social activities organized outside the to explore three things: the degree to framework of the state and political which civil society organizations rely parties. The social activities we have on social sciences to achieve their in mind are those that aim for a clear ends; these organizations’ relationship change pertaining to a specific issue. with social science institutions, most This vision means that civil society is especially in universities; and their composed of institutions that differ in ability to influence the society to which size, influence and capability, as well as they orient themselves. the types of issues they focus on and the nature of the political atmosphere The overall conclusions of the in which they operate. Therefore, we study showed that all civil society deemed it appropriate to sample five organizations, not only employ but, organizations whose characteristics actually produce social science in one differ in terms of the issues they are way or the other, albeit in various forms concerned with, as well as the context of calibrated to their objectives. One such their existence, in order to understand form is contracting local specialists the role of the social sciences in their in the social sciences to conduct work. Due consideration was given to studies of specific issues relevant to such crucial issues as development, the organization’s work. Furthermore, social change, and gender in our the personnel working in civil society choice of organizations. We also organizations is comprised of a high decided that the organizations should proportion of graduates from social be geographically diversified. They science departments, including those were selected them from four Arab with bachelors’ degrees, meaning that countries with distinct characteristics civil society has become an important (Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, and Saudi part of the job market for Arab social Arabia) as well as one organization science specialists. In addition, although
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some organizations have considerable through the publication of their studies international connections, seldom do either in print or electronic form, Arab civil society organizations consult especially in countries that maintain a foreign experts, with the exception of certain margin for freedom of research. cases requiring comparative studies. However, despite civil society’s obvious interest in the social sciences, we It seems to us that there are three found no robust relationship between types of general purposes underlying civil society organizations and local civil society organizations’ use of the universities. social sciences: In general, these relationships take 1. Practical: that is, helping the the form of a personal connection organization program or run its (often a temporary one) with a member activities, determine its priorities, or of a university’s teaching faculty. augment the competence with which Such relationships seldom take a it offers services to a certain segment programmatic institutional form, of the public. however. This is due to the difference in the nature of work in the two fields 2. Documentary: that is, documenting in question and a lack of the time the social problems that the available to faculty members, as well organization deals with, thereby as the universities’ lack of interest reinforcing its raison d’être. in, or lack of means for, providing incentives for the teaching staff to 3. Epistemic: that is, exploring employ their knowledge or expertise the relationship between the in civic projects outside the university. organization’s core issues and other That said, university students in the social issues. This may help shed social sciences appear to have a light on different ways to present much stronger relationship with civil the organization’s message to the society. The students deal with civil public, or to decision makers, or in society organizations directly in order other contexts, thus boosting the to conduct field studies, which are organization’s ability to influence the often beneficial to the students, and local status quo. sometimes to the organization as well. Generally speaking, and in most There is therefore, and in general, a cases, social sciences in civil society relationship between the ways civil follow an applied trajectory, though society employs social sciences, and there is some interest in theory, its local influence (although there are intellectual issues, and conceptual other factors related to such influence). definition. Some organizations do not The fields within which this influence publish their studies, but use them is exercised differ from case to case internally for programmatic purposes. and according to the nature of the However, most are in fact interested social and political context in which in communicating with a wider public
82 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor the civil society functions. However, the organization’s work transforms in our analysis we can distinguish six its audience, or at least part of it, different types of influence, though into critical activists who understand they overlap: “citizenship” as a call for participation.
1- General influence, which we This ensemble of influences leads particularly notice in discussions us to conclude that civil society in in the public sphere in which there fact generates what we may call is a role for evidence-based views, “quasi-scientific communities”. The particularly where the evidence importance of this observation requires some type of research. becomes clear in light of what has been said in another context within this 2- Scientific influence, which is to say report about the general weakness of the acquisition through research of the Arab scientific community, and its more scientific material, previously absence in coherent academic forms. unavailable to the organization, But in this case we notice that the regarding one of its key issues. ways in which civil society actors tend 3- Policy-making influence, though to employ science, encourages the limited to cases where public policies generation of communities centered are to some degree open, and under around issue-specific knowledge. specific circumstances that allow civil Such communities remain intact and society to exercise that influence, they have the opportunity to draw as was the case recently with the in larger audiences, by continually issue of violence against women in investing in this knowledge. We must Lebanon. point out here that the concept of a “quasi-scientific” community does 4- Practical influence, making the not undermine their seriousness, organization’s projects more effective, the legitimacy of the knowledge the clearest example of which is they produce, or their right to exist found in charity organizations. and propagate; quite the opposite, in fact. Rather, the label’s purpose is 5- Socially formative influence, when the knowledge provided by to highlight and acknowledge their the organization instills in a number social importance, and therefore of disparate individuals a sense propose approaches appropriate of belonging to a new and original for their study and the evaluation group. A prime example of this is of their role in society. To avoid the issue of sexual orientation in excessive generalizations and the current Arab moment, alongside misunderstandings, the concept of other issues of general concern. the “quasi-scientific” community must be distinguished at the 6- Civic influence, rooted in how the outset from that of the “scientific” knowledge accumulated through community in its specialized form.
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Indeed, we find that in the Arab reality of social sciences in the cultural “quasi-scientific” communities are domain gives us an idea about their more coherent, influential, and widely nature and proliferation in circles that present than scientific ones. play a major role in defining society’s culture, in setting the standards of Social Sciences in Cultural cultural debates within it, in defining Periodicals the make-up of the educated person, and in connecting that person to an Cultural periodicals play an important intellectual network that affords him a role in the public cultural and intellectual firm identity: as part of a social stratum domains. They tend to house at the nourished by depth exposure, across same time specialized academic disciplines, into the study of events thought and cross-disciplinary and concepts. Therefore, we limited contributions. Therefore, the intended our definition of cultural periodicals audience of such periodicals is an to those that published content that educated one, including academic could be described as intellectual, circles but is not necessarily limited but not academically specialized. to them. Such an audience is usually Our definition also indicated that the characterized by its comprehensive content should be geared towards interest in philosophical ideas, current audiences interested in intellectual scholarly concepts, literary innovations, matters and capable of reading at and generally all that which is novel in a deeper level of analysis than that intellectual life. afforded by more widely circulated magazines. Based on this, a study of cultural periodicals gives us an idea as to the The study included a sample of nature of the social sciences’ traction five regularly published periodicals among the cultured intellectual public, characterized by a relatively wide in a field where social sciences are presence in intellectual circles in the Arab present side by side with contributions world, though we did take into account in literature, literary and academic differences in the periodicals’ ages, sizes, criticism, and philosophy. These frequencies, intellectual orientations, contributions address intellectual ideologies, and form of publication. interests varying in space and time Below, we present the general result of from the global to the local, from our survey (Ali, 2015) encompassing heritage to contemporaneity. These five years from the beginning of 2010 to may be compared to widely circulating the end of 2014. The periodicals sample magazines and newspapers, where the included the following: “Ibdāa‘” from study of the presence of social sciences Egypt, “Afkār” from Jordan, “Kitābāt gives us an idea about the nature Muaāsira” from Lebanon, “Al-Thaqāfa and size of the social sciences’ in the Al-Jadīda” from Iraq, and “Al-Kalima” public sphere in its broadest scope. issued in London and distributed In contrast, the study of the presence electronically. For the purposes of this
84 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor survey, we adopt a definition of social reflecting different levels of interest science material generally similar to the in the social sciences at different one we used in the public sphere and times. It is, however, necessary to which is summarized in the Methods broaden the scope of the sample if and Tools chapter. we were to verify what we consider for the time being to be preliminary Percentage of Presence observations. These observations indicate that the highest proportions The first fact we may observe is of interest in the social sciences are the persistence in the presence to be found in cultural periodicals of the social sciences in cultural with leftist and liberal inclinations, periodicals in general, at an average as well as those interested in of about 20% of the periodicals’ total Western thought. We documented pages over the years surveyed. There lower proportions in periodicals of is, however, a sizeable variation a predominantly literary nature, as in this average both between was the case with those published different individual periodicals and by government institutions such as over time within each periodical, the Ministry of Culture.
t
25
21 20
Figure 35 18 18 18
17
15
10
5
0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
i 5 re e e i ie e i r u ur g i e gr u er r e r i ie e i r e e er ge u er ge er i ue i e e r
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 85 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
t
40 i u ir 39.7 Afkar 35.7 35 ee 33.5 i
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20.4 20 20 20 18.1 18.2 17.5 15 15.2 12.9
10 9.6 9 6.7 5 5 6.9 3.4 4.4 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
i re e e i ie e i r u ur g i e gr u er r e r i ie e i r e e er ge u er ge er i ue i e e r
We may also observe that the Arab typically connected with the belief Spring did not actually lead to a clear that reliable data can only emerge increase in the cultural presence of fully at the final stage of a phenom- the social sciences, even though one enon’s course, not at its beginning might assume that a popular upris- or middle where surprises and un- ing, whatever be the time or clime, foreseeable developments of an would usually lead to an increased in- as yet indeterminate character still terest in the study of social phenom- lie ahead. Serious studies of Irani- ena, particularly those not known an Revolution, for example, did not previously. This may only be a matter begin appearing until a full decade of time, as social research, not only after the phenomenon in question in matters of culture but concern- had transpired. Likewise, we saw ing any social phenomenon, usually no in-depth studies of the dynamics waits for phenomena to take their full of the American Civil Rights Move- course before attempting to deter- ment until two full decades after its mine their nature. This approach is emergence, despite the strength of
86 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor social sciences in the United States. t t On the other hand, we shall subse- t t t quently see that revolutions had a clear effect on changing the relative presence of different topics in cul- t t t t tural periodicals, including “revolu- tion” itself as a topic, even if these contributions were not based on t field studies and have yet to actu- ally lead to increased interest in the role played by the social sciences t in producing cultural knowledge. t
It is worth mentioning that Arab t intellectuals are interested in the t t issue of revolution in general, but only through epistemic frameworks and approaches they had known t in pre-revolutionary times, rath- er than through new knowledge or t approaches that they have become t familiar with in the course of the up- t risings themselves. t
t Social Science Topics in Cultural 11 Table Periodicals t t t
Generally speaking, cultural t periodicals are cross-disciplinary in nature, and one may say the same of t t t the social science present in them. t t Usually the articles focus on a research t topic in its various contexts, not the application of one of the disciplines’ theories and methodologies to the topic as would be expected in t academic periodicals. Therefore t there are no clear inferences from categorizing social sciences by their Source: Hajjaj, Ali. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in Arab Cultural Magazines”. (Background paper for the usual disciplines in this case, though Arab Social Science Monitor) there are meaningful inferences if we * Universal: Present in all magazines (100%), General: categorize them according to article Present in 80% of magazines, Prevalent: Present in 60% topic as the following table makes of magazines; Significant: Present in 40% of magazines, clear: Rare: Present in 20% of magazines.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 87 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
The table shows the degree of number of contributions on the topic presence of different topics in of “revolution” appeared during the descending order, arranged according period surveyed. They were however to three measures: 1) The ratio of the relatively brief, and were less in the number of articles on the topic to manner of thorough studies than the total number of social science of commentaries, speculations and articles in cultural periodicals. 2) The preliminary observations. In some ratio of the number of pages on the periodicals the presence of the topic topic to the total number of pages of “revolution” was clearly connected of these articles. 3) The ratio of the to local political circumstances. number of periodicals in which the In the Egyptian periodical “Ibdāˁ” topic was present to the total number for instance, we find no palpable of sampled periodicals. Each of these presence of the concept of revolution measures gives a preliminary idea as earlier than 2011, when the periodical to the nature of the topic’s presence. began to show some interest in it, If we noticed, for example, that the before the topic vanished completely total proportion of pages dedicated from its pages in 2014. In “Afkār”, to any particular topic exceeds that published by the Jordanian Ministry of the total articles devoted to it, we of Culture, we find less extensive may deduce that the topic is being discussion of revolutions, whose presented in a more thorough way. treatment occupies no more than 4% This thoroughness in turn suggests of the total pages of the periodical that the topic may be treated in greater displaying social sciences content, depth than usual. The opposite is even though the proportion of also true: if we observe that the articles dedicated to that topic (11%) proportion of pages dedicated to a approaches the general average for defined topic is lower than that of the all cultural periodicals during the articles devoted to it, it would be safe period surveyed. to assume that the topic is not being treated thoroughly enough, or that Nevertheless, the topic of revolution, the treatment is of a shallow nature. particularly as concerns the problems of the Arab Spring, retains a powerful These postulates seem correlated presence in the general aggregate to a degree with the longevity of of publications. No topic takes the topic in question. Topics such priority over it except those closely as “modernity” or “Islamic studies”, connected to it in one way or another, whose tenure in culture debates has although somewhat older than it, been particularly long, are subjects notably the category we classified of longer articles than topics such as above as “emancipatory concepts”. “revolution”, which are relatively new We include in this category a number (revolution is an old topic to be sure, of organically interconnected but it vanished before reemerging concepts usually discussed in a anew during the Arab Spring.) A context that leads them to converge
88 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor to one and the same end. Among In general, we find an ensemble of these are “freedom” and “democracy” interconnected concepts among along with such issues pertaining those that are densely present in to them as “pluralism”, “tolerance”, cultural periodicals, all pertaining to “transparency”, “human rights”, the problems of change. They include “freedom of innovation”, “justice”, “emancipation”, “revolution” and and “utopian ideals”. There is a “modernity”. We also notice a tangible clear relationship between all these interest in some other issues relevant concepts and that of “authority”. in one way or another to the notion of The latter is also present as an modernity, such as the role of women independent issue in a proportion no and communication, as well as some greater than 4% of the articles and relatively extensive discussions of a pages sampled. Actual discussions cluster designated above as “concepts of “authority”, however, exceed this of knowledge”, including such terms percentage, for we here restrict as “ideology”, “deconstruction”, ourselves to articles discussing the “rationalism”, “the subconscious”, nature of authority. Articles that and “phenomenology”. We were discussed the concept of authority surprised, however, by the relative in a way that was critical and in the dearth of issues that have been of service of an emancipatory project extreme importance in modern Arab were classified as part of an overall history, the most prominent being cluster of emancipatory concepts. those of “colonialism”, “nationalism”, and “Israel”. We must point out here The same approach applies to the that the highest level of interest in topic of “cultural life”, which is one the Palestinian issue was generally of four major topics present in all found in “Al-Kalima”, the only periodicals. The proportion both of periodical in our sample published pages and of articles dedicated to it outside the Arab world. This may is 8%, this being the percentage that not actually reflect a lack of interest discusses the nature of “culture” at in Palestine or national causes a fundamental level, although there among Arab intellectuals so much are more contributions touching as indicate the profound interest on the topic in more generic ways. they take in more all-encompassing These, however, either elaborate issues of emancipation, especially on the relationship between culture in their own sociopolitical environs. and authority in a way that makes We also notice that contemporary the article appear more of a study Islamist movements (including the of “authority” than of culture, or lines of thought which motivate such they foreground the relationship movements) do not draw a level of between culture and “emancipation” intellectual interest proportional to in such a way that they primarily their role at the time of our survey. serve as studies of emancipation. Indeed, much of what was written
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about them in cultural outlets during may seem rarely present but which the period, particularly in Egypt, are intensely dealt with where they begins and ends with preconceived do appear. One such topic is “the criticisms in the manner of political Left” which is discussed in cultural quarrel, and in a manner that does periodicals almost twice as much not present new knowledge so much as “globalization”, although it only as reproduce previously known appears in 20% of the periodicals, positions. whereas globalization is present in 80% of the magazines despite However, despite clear general the paucity of space dedicated to it. interest in the issues of freedom What this state of affairs tells us is and modernity, the dearth of cultural that some topics may not penetrate interest in contemporary problems the cultural and intellectual domains that have specific participatory very widely, but instead come into implications is quite conspicuous. view through platforms dedicated The best evidence of this is that we to these topics. This provides them rarely find articles on topics such with an epistemic depth over the as “social responsibility” and “the course of time and therefore a level knowledge society”. There is likewise of viability that may not be available little intellectual interest in defining, to topics that are at certain stages explaining, or critiquing the normal more widely circulated, but deprived rhetoric that surrounds most such of a dedicated platform. This may contemporary social problems as cause them to persist without “violence”, “prostitution”, or other accumulating epistemic momentum, issues. leading eventually to their death and In addition to topics characterized by substitution by other topics, as is the wide presence and intense treatment case with any topic that does not have such as modernity, liberty, revolution the epistemic provisions needed to and culture, we observe another ensure its viability and continuity in stratum of subjects frequently the intellectual sphere. present but not dealt with in great intensity, the most prominent being Cultural Capital and Social “globalization”, which is to be found Sciences: The Model of “Al- in most magazines but only in sparse Ādāb” proportions. This kind of treatment may be inherent to relatively Although we did not include “Al- new topics, particularly those not Ādāb” [Literatures], an old periodical exclusively affecting the Arab world, which recently ceased publication, or whose study is not yet surrounded in our sample of cultural periodicals, by globally accepted approaches. we did accord it an exploratory study, The opposite can also be found, prepared for this report, about social namely in the form of subjects that sciences in cyberspace. That was
90 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor because the reason why it ceased what motivated Al-Ādāb to leave print publication after 60 years was the print domain in a final attempt associated with a project to resume to preserve what remained of its its publication in purely electronic rich heritage as one of the most form. This affords us insight into the important cultural periodicals in characteristics distinguishing those modern Arab history. Despite what outlets newly created to inhabit cy- the name might appear to indicate berspace from older ones presently regarding its content, Al-Ādāb has in the process of being transformed been committed from the very be- into digital outlets. ginning to the presentation of po- litical and social issues side by Although the periodical’s e-pub- side with literature. This was due lishing project was not complet- to a particular perspective that re- ed before the time of this report’s garded as organic the relationship completion, we saw it fit to present between literary and cultural inno- some additional observations that vation on the one hand, and major may serve to clarify the relationship social and political affairs on the between cultural capital accumu- other. An opposition to knowledge lated over a long publication peri- that was uncommitted to any par- od in recent Arab history, and the ticular position accompanied this employment of the social sciences perspective. Its editor-in-chief in the cultural domain. In this case, therefore did not see it as an ac- Al-Ādāb’s editor Samah Idriss ex- ademic publication but rather pre- plained in an interview some of the ferred the appellation of “commit- incentives that can be generalized ted publication”. It seems that the to all domains. One of them was difference between the two cate- that restricting publication to the gories has little to do with elitism electronic medium saves the peri- so much as a belief in the impor- odical from having to rely on large tance of taking a stand. The edi- sources of funding that may threat- tor-in-chief is of the view that there en its independence. The editor also is no such thing as a text without a mentioned some of the dynamics of position, this being a view that aca- the Arab Spring as culprits: the pe- demic publications do not as a rule riodical lost the Syrian market that encourage. He added that he did contained the largest number of its not have much stock in the concept readers, due to the periodical’s own of peer-review, since many periodi- independent decision to ensure cals claim to be peer-reviewed only that its contributors remained free as a form of duplicity. to express their opinions. This stance is actually consistent We observe in this case a dispo- with widespread and undeniable sition to preserve a cultural capi- tendencies in cultural as well ac- tal sixty years in the making. It is ademic domains. Such tendencies
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 91 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
give priority, or at least high impor- analysts. Here we can identify an tance, to commitment to a princi- approach to presentation of ideas ple. We find in “Al-Ādāb” a text- where positions take precedence book example of this point of view, or are at the focus, although the which has followed the journal positions taken and opinions ex- since its launch with the outbreak pressed depend, with some excep- of the 1952 Egyptian Free Officers tions, on documentation and evi- Movement. Since then, the period- dence from sources, and present ical has seen itself as a part of a various opinions before gradually progressive, emancipatory, com- reaching conclusions. prehensive Arab project. In a sur- vey of 124 pieces published during Social Sciences in Newspapers the final five years of the print ex- istence of the journal (2008-2012), We surveyed the presence of social which has today been transformed scientific thought in the Arab press into a digital archive, we found that using a sample of five newspapers the presence of social sciences distinguished by their historical roots took up a great amount of space and the geographic variety of their alongside literary issues, fiction readers. In order to guarantee the and poetry. This mixed presence of consistency of the sample in this pre- genres was based on the belief that liminary study, we decided to focus on it was impossible to treat any issue newspapers that are in wide circula- in a manner decontextualized from tion across the Arab world. We there- other phenomena. For example, fore employed a number of standards, “Al-Ādāb” treated political reform one of which was that the proportion in connection with religious re- of readers in any given country should form, and religious reform in con- not exceed 50% of the newspaper’s nection with educational reform total readership or, in other words, and women’s liberation, which in that at least half of the newspaper’s turn could not be treated separate- readers should be from outside the ly from the liberation of society as country of publication, allowing us to a whole. In the materials that took safely say that the newspaper is read social sciences into consideration, in more than one Arab country to an we found an approach to topics acceptable degree. Despite this con- that takes the approaches of the dition, we added Al-Ahram newspa- social sciences as guidelines and per (Egypt) to our sample although adheres to scientific principles, but it does not satisfy this standard, but is not actually research-based in has a large number of readers in a many cases, even though most of crucial country with a large popula- the authors are university profes- tion. The other newspapers were: sors, social science PhDs, or other- “Al-Sharq Al-Awsat”, “Al-Quds”, wise experienced researchers and “Al-Hayāt”, and “An-Nahār”(4).
[4] As-Safir newspaper was left out of the public sphere as its archives were not accessible at the time of the study.
92 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor We confined our survey to the last news-reporting material, including five years (from the beginning of cultural news and news about ac- 2010 to the end of 2014)(5) , setting ademic conferences or meetings. our starting point in the year pre- That was because the scientific ceding the Arab Spring to see if this content of a newspaper is material phenomenon had any effect on so- that goes beyond news reporting: it cial science presence and its nature should at least include analysis of in Arab newspapers. It is possible to social phenomena or present a con- say that setting different standards cept relevant to the social sciences, for selecting our sample—such for example “autonomy”, “sustain- as selecting the most widely read able development”, “inequality”, newspaper in each Arab country— “civil society” or any number of sim- may yield different results from the ilar others. ones we see here, but this cannot The standards we set for consid- be ascertained at this point. It was ering newspaper material to be however clear to us that a different relevant for the social sciences in- sample composition selection might cluded learned presentation that require its own report. Therefore we transcends generalizations about preferred in this initial report to al- widely referenced topics such as lude to the most general features “democracy”, “revolution”, “liberal- related to social science presence ism”, “the state”, “the clan”, “capital- in a sample of newspapers that are ism”, or “urbanization”, and similar widely distributed across the Arab others. We also included materials world. of an expository nature, such as re- It goes without saying that we views of social science publications should not expect to find scientif- and biographies of social science ic thought in its academic form in scholars. “Social science” fields newspapers. Newspapers, by na- were defined in a way that was con- ture, are mostly directed at the gen- sistent with the rest of the report, as eral public, not to a group of special- containing learned material about ized researchers. For this reason we political science, anthropology, so- adopted classification standards re- ciology, economics, history, or psy- garding general rather than detailed chology, as well as interdisciplinary or specialized social science forms. material that includes any of these Based on such principles, we limit- social sciences, such as gender ed our survey to articles that display studies or urban studies. Based on a serious interest in an in-depth dis- these standards and definitions we cussion of social phenomena and in were able to include 1214 articles in presenting social science concepts this sample of newspapers over the and experiences to the general pub- five years covered, as summarized lic. We have naturally excluded all in the following table:
[5] The survey of An-Nahar newspaper was limited to two years (2013-2014) due to logistical reasons.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 93 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
t t
t t t
Table 12 Table
Source: Badawi, Ahmad Musa, Mahmud Adullah and Hani Suleiman. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in Arabic Newspapers”. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor) * An-Nahar newspaper was monitored for two years only (2013-2014) for logistical reasons.
In what follows we present the re- sions. Finally, we notice a distin- sults of this survey from five different guished presence in the Arab press aspects. The first looks into the pro- of a number of scholars who have portions of social science presence developed an ability to communicate in newspapers in general. The with the wider public over the years. second classifies this presence into different types. The third reviews The Proportion of Learned Presence the scientific concepts employed by in Newspapers newspapers and their arrangement Figure 37 conveys a preliminary by order of the frequency of their glimpse into the presence of scien- presence. The fourth sheds light on tific thought in the press, showing the quantity and quality of scholarly the proportion of issues that contain books covered or summarized in the newspapers. And finally, the last item learned materials (at least one arti- in this context presents the personal cle with learned content) out of the presence of scholars in newspapers total number of each newspaper’s to assess what type of academic ap- issues per year. We see here that 77% proach is capable of communicating is the general average over all years in the public sphere. In this last as- and for all newspapers, but as one pect of the study we notice two phe- would expect, there are differences nomena of personal presence: schol- when we look at each newspaper ars present in the form of biographies separately. For instance, Al-Hayat written about them, and prominent newspaper seems to be in the lead writers of learned material in the Arab with topics that include social sci- press. Generally speaking, we notice ences being present in almost 90% the presence of social sciences in of the total issues over the five years. Arab newspapers to be numerically In one year, 2012, all of this news- weak, though it does have qualitative paper’s issues contained at least significance. The contributions tend one article with learned content. It to focus on issues of social change, is followed by Al-Quds newspaper, despite absence of detailed discus- which has annual averages indicating
94 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor continuity in the newspaper’s social which Al-Ahram newspaper showed science interest. We can, however, the least interest in social scientific contrast this relatively high interest thought was 2011 (during the year of with a relative and continuous lack the revolution in Egypt) with social of interest in Ash-Sharq Al-Awsat. science being present in only 61% Elsewhere, we detect a more incon- of its issues then. It is possible that sistent pattern in newspapers that subsequent changes in the news- have a long history but live amidst paper’s administration led to it later volatile political conditions that may increasing its interest in publishing affect their direction. We may find it learned material, leading to a pro- strange, for instance, that the year in portion of 93% of the issues in 2014.
t t
Average Al-Quds Al-Hayat An-Nahar AL-Sharq Al-Awsat Al-Ahram 100 100 97 93 94 94
Figure 37 86 83
80 80 77 81 81 78 78 75
69 69 72 69 63 64 61 67 60 61 58
44 40 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
i u u u i u ei re e e i ie e i r i e er gr u er r e r i ie e i r
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 95 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
If we take a deeper look into the do however have to ask ourselves newspapers’ issues that include so- whether it is possible for a newspaper cial science (according to the crite- to hold more learned information, say ria mentioned above and in the ap- 10% of its size, without jeopardizing pendix), we find the proportion of its basic nature as a daily news out- such learned material to range from let. In any case, the results do seem 2.3% to 4.5% (averaging 3.3%) of the consistent across newspapers, al- newspapers’ total space. Such small though Al-Quds is clearly in the fore- proportions may appear inherent to front in terms of relative page space the nature of the printed press. We dedicated to social science material.
t t t ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺔ اﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﻌﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﺤﺠﻢ اﻟﺼﺤﻴﻔﺔ
5 An-Nahar AL-Sharq Al-Awsat Average Al-Ahram Al-Hayat Al-Quds 4.5
4.3
4.1
3.9
Figure 38 3.8
3.7 3.8 3.6 3.6 3.6
3.3
3.2 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.1 3.1
2.9 3
2.6
2.5 2.5 2.4
2.3
2 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
i u u u i u ei re e e i ie e i r i e er gr u er r e r i ie e i r
96 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Once we begin to delve deeper into This standard leads to the conclusion these numerical results in order to that the prominent form of learned understand something about the composition in newspapers is a large content, we find that classifying learned or medium sized article, and rarely is articles by size gives us an elementary it presented through small articles. indicator of how much significance However, proportions vary between is given to the presentation of social newspapers in a manner that might science material or concepts (and not indicate the extent of interest in the necessarily to the quality thereof). social sciences.
Number of Social Science Articles by Size in 5 Arabic Newspapers, 2014 -2010*
t
Figure 39 Figure 40 1 rge rge 4
er ge
er ge
t
11 1 Figure 41 Figure 42 rge 1 rge 41
er ge er ge 4
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 97 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
rge rge 4 Figure 43 Figure 44
er ge er ge
Source: Badawi, Ahmad Musa, Mahmud Adullah and Hani Suleiman. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in Arabic Newspapers”. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor) * Small: 500 words, Medium: 1000 words, Large: 1500 words
The medium-sized compositions may of a social, political, or any other be suitable in many cases due to their relevant problem through inferences presumed ability to draw readers, and approaches borrowed from the as long as they also satisfy the social sciences); 2) Presentation of requirements of learned presentation. a social science concept; 3) Book As we will later come to appreciate, review; 4) Biographical sketch; and presentation size is an indicator of 5) A report about a conference. The another phenomenon: the presence scientific classification treats the of senior authors who usually handle division of material by social science the larger sized articles. disciplines in their current form: economics, politics, sociology and anthropology(6), psychology, political Classification of Presence history, social history, religious The team classified the appearance history, women’s studies, and urban of social sciences in the press studies. according to two principles: first, the It was clear that scientific analysis is type of treatment, divided into five by far the favored format to address categories. Second, the academic the social sciences in newspapers, classification of the treatment, followed in much lesser degrees divided into nine categories. The by book reviews and concept types of treatment included: 1) presentations, both of which were Scientific analysis (the dissection relatively rare(7).
(6) Due to the natural intertwining between anthropology and sociology in the press, they were combined into one category as no meaningful separation between them was possible. (7) An-Nahar newspaper was excluded from this comparison as it was not possible to obtain rates which can be compared over a five years period.
98 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Number of Articles Containing Scientific Analysis in 4 Arabic Newspapers, 2010 - 2014
Al-Ahram AL-Sharq Al-Awsat
Al-Quds 100 97 Al-Hayat
Average 86
80
65 60 61 Figure 45 60 58 58
49 49 45 42 4444 43 42 40 40 38 40 36 34 35 35
28 29 24 20
0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
i u u u i u ei 5 re e e i ie e i r i e er gr u er r e r i ie e i r
In some years the other types of align more easily with the nature social science treatment (such as of journalism. This may be due to biographies and conference reports) newspapers usually delegating social disappear in newspapers altogether science scholars to write about these despite the fact that they are clearly topics rather than their own reporters related to the informative mission or freelance writers. This imbues the of newspapers. Here emerges an articles with an academic character unexpected phenomenon: social that social science scholars are used sciences in newspapers are indeed to or prefer. presented in an academic, albeit simplified, form despite the presence Figure 45 shows some phenomena of other forms of presentation that that cannot be understood without
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 99 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
understanding the background in the first two years of the Arab behind them: for instance in Al-Ahram Spring (2011-2012) before receding there is a significant increase in social thereafter. These results lead us to science presence in 2012, followed by postulate that the presence of social a large decline in 2013. This may have science in the public sphere is often more to do with laying off a large related to other social phenomena, number of writers within this period such as a dynamic condition of a rather than any strategic decision popular upheaval, which may have a in this direction, as is evidenced by causal relationship to or at least be the clear increase in social science correlated with a general epistemic presence in 2014. Generally speaking, transformation affecting society as a learned analysis reached its peak whole, including its academic fields.
t t t
Al-Ahram 15 15 AL-Sharq Al-Awsat Al-Quds Al-Hayat 12 Average
10 Figure 46 9 8
7 6.5 6 6 6
3.5 3 3 3 3 2.75 2 2 1.5 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
i u u u i u ei re e e i ie e i r i e er gr u er r e r i ie e i r
100 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Apart from scientific analyses, other see later, there are a great number forms of social science treatment of concepts relating to the social decline greatly as indicated in Figure sciences handled by the press, Arab 46 on concept presentations. This newspapers make little to no effort to despite the fact that the explanation present the content and definitions of of concepts is crucial not only for a these concepts. There are, however, learned understanding of reality, but some significant exceptions, as is the moreover for establishing common case with Al-Quds newspaper, the reference points for dialogues, and only newspaper in our sample that especially during a stage witnessing showed inclusiveness in its handling actual or potential transformations of the different styles of presenting in social, political and epistemic social sciences, closely followed by realities. Although, as we shall Al-Hayat. Classifying social sciences in
t t t
80 e r 76 Year 2011 71 70 Year 2012 Year 2013 63 62 60 Year 2014
50
Figure 47 47
40
30 28
21 19 20 17
12 11 10 1110 10 9 8 4 5 4 4 3 2 2 1 0 0 ere e re r i gr re ie e re ie i
i u u u i u ei re e e i ie e i r i e er gr u er r e r i ie e i r
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 101 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
newspapers by their usual disciplines anthropology presence, in addition shows that some disciplines prevail to a distinguished presence for while others are nearly absent. In psychology, which is almost absent this context, we notice the weak from other newspapers. Ahmad Musa presence of economics as a science Badawi (Badawi, 2015) postulates that (although not as news), with the this phenomenon may be connected exception of Al-Ahram. Political to the fragile political balance in science is clearly present in all Lebanon, the newspaper’s country newspapers for obvious reasons of issue and home to its largest directly related to the general topics audience, a condition that encourages handled by the press, although we do the newspaper to avoid sensitive know that the presence of any social political topics and put forward other science in a newspaper is an editorial research topics that could serve as choice rather than an inevitability. uniting factors in a divided society. An-Nahar, for instance, does not (We should remind our readers here contain a strong political science that social science postulates are presence, although it does contain a explanatory proposals awaiting much more powerful sociology and evidence, not incontrovertible facts).
Presence of Social Science Articles in 5 Arabic Newspapers, 2010-2014
Economics r Economics r Political Sciences Political Sciences Sociology & Anthropology Sociology & Anthropology 2% 3% History 3% 15% History Other social sciences Other social sciences Psychology 19% Psychology 35%
41%
39% Figure 49 Figure 48
24% 18%
Economics u Economics Political Sciences Political Sciences
Sociology & Anthropology Sociology & Anthropology 7% 5% 2% 5% 5% History 2% History Other social sciences 9% 10% Other social sciences Psychology Psychology
46% 37% Figure 51 Figure 50 30% 41%
102 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor Economics a a Economics Political Sciences Political Sciences Average إﻗﺘﺼﺎد ١٢ ﻋﻠﻮم ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ٢٠ Sociology & Anthropology 5% Sociology & Anthropology إﺟﺘﻤﺎع وأﻧﺜﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ ٤١ 8% 4% 12% ﻋﻠﻮم ﺗﺎرﻳﺨﻴﺔ ١١ History History 3% ﻋﻠﻢ ﻧﻔﺲ ١١ 11% ﻋﻠﻮم إﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ أﺧﺮى ٥ Other social sciences Other social sciences Psychology Psychology 18% 11% 20% 35%
41% 31% Figure 53 Figure 52
Source: Badawi, Ahmad Musa, Mahmud Adullah and Hani Suleiman. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in Arabic Newspapers”. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor)
t
t t t t t
t t t
t t 19
t t t t
t t t 41
t t t
Table 13 Table t t
t t t t
t t t 9
t t t
t t 11
t t t
t t 18
Source: Badawi, Ahmad Musa, Mahmud Adullah and Hani Suleiman. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in Arabic Newspapers”. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor)
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 103 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
We notice the sustained presence general in subjecting the different of historical topics in some outlets, topics that appear between the years such as Ash-Sharq Al-Awsat, which 2010-2014 to learned treatment. represent the largest share of The table is arranged in descending topics in the social sciences. Of the order, beginning with the issues most different types of history, we see that subject to learned analysis down political history is at the forefront in to the least. Each row in the table all newspapers, followed by social includes the main concept along with history and finally religious history. a cluster of concepts connected to it, The weak presence of religious as classified by our working team. history at times distinguished by the strong presence of large Islamic social Table 14 is a direct reflection of the movements may seem strange, but it state of the press during 2010-2014 may indicate that these movements in terms of the learned treatment were understood (or even defined of various topics. The event most themselves) as essentially political prominent in the media in general movements despite being based during that period was without doubt on religious discourse. It may also the Arab Spring, and it came in the lead evidence the fact that religion is not of the issues studied by newspapers. treated as a historical issue, but rather It is followed by the issue of political as an issue of current affairs, meaning Islam, which relates to the Arab that religious history is often asked to Spring in one way or another despite fulfill an exhortative role rather than being older. Other topics closely assume a scientific form. related to these first two follow, such as democracy, which comes Topics Subject to Learned in third, and societal participation, Treatment in Newspapers which comes fifth. All of the topics occupying the top positions in the We move here to the content of above table are distinguished first and learned thought as it appears foremost by their close connection through the utilized concepts in with the problem of change, but in newspapers. It should be evident a general way. It is also clear here that most topics subject to learned that we face societies aspiring to analysis in newspapers would also total and comprehensive change, be topics present in daily news. but with different visions about the But their learned presence or lack nature of these heralded changes thereof in newspapers gives us an and its priorities. For instance, indication as to whether or not there issues that provide a more exact is a relationship between daily events dimension regarding the problems and scientific thought. and courses of action relating to the issue change, such as youth (12th Table 14 presents the extent of position), education (18th position), interest in Arab newspapers in development (20th issue), and even
104 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor
t t t t t t
t
t Political Islam, Islamic Fundamentalism, Salafism, Islamic Brotherhood, t t
t t t
t t t t
t t t t t t t t t
t t
t t t t
t t t t t t t t
t t t t t
t t t t t t
t t t t t
t t t t t t t t Table 14 Table t t
t t
t t t t t t
t t t t t t t t t
t t t
t t t t t t t t
t t t t tt t
t t t t t t
t t t t
t t t t t
Source: Badawi, Ahmad Musa, Mahmud Adullah and Hani Suleiman. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in Arabic Newspapers”. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor)
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 105 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
social justice (11th position) are not World, namely the Palestinian cause. within the top ten subjects that have Palestine occupies a late position the greatest learned presence in in our list today (19th, and would newspapers. even be later if we exclude Al-Quds newspaper). We may suggest two Nevertheless, the Arab Spring is possible reasons for this: the first is strongly present in the background the particularity of the period of our of many of the issues in this table, survey (2010-2014), which witnessed including the abovementioned other priorities that stole urgency, topics directly related to the problem notably the Arab Spring and all issues of change (youth, social justice, related to it, such as democracy, social education, and development). It is participation, justice, corruption, and also present in many other issues, others issues directly related to the especially authoritarianism (8th call for comprehensive social change. position) and corruption (16th The second possibility, which may position). Among notable phenomena be more decisive, is the presumption is the powerful presence of women’s that the Palestinian cause is self- issues in ways that link them to rights evident. Scientific analysis usually and participation (4th position), now handles issues that need explanation totally separate from family issues or clarification, and tends to stay (which used to be the traditional away from those that seem to be background for discussing women’s clearly understood—unless of course roles, but which now retreats to the the scholar writing sees that the bottom of our table). This does not necessarily mean the liberation of apparently obvious issue may entail the concept “woman” from that of hidden aspects that need excavation “family”, but more likely that the family and presentation. However, we find as such does not appear to pose a nothing in the historical discussion of major social problem and therefore Palestine in the Arab world to indicate requires no extensive discussion. The that this issue has lost its clarity, which irony of the situation is that the private means that Palestine mainly appears sphere, represented here in the family, in newspapers in the form of news is not scrutinized by the public sphere, events rather than as social science. even if for the sake of understanding In any case, the clarity of any issue its nature. does not necessarily mean it cannot benefit from scholarly analysis; the We also notice the continuing clarity of the Palestinian cause does presence of the issue of collective or not necessarily mean that the social national identity among the top ten sciences should be absent from it, or most studied topics by newspapers. that there is no reason for intensifying Yet also noticeable is the relatively the application of social science to weak presence of another concept it. Political science and history play historically linked to it in the Arab a natural role in this affair, and even
106 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor social sciences that may not seem too in interest in the topic of civilization, relevant to this issue at the surface, which was particularly connected to such as psychology, may play a role in discussions of globalization in the addressing the psychological traumas 1990s, the reason perhaps is that it resulting from the occupation. As does not seem particularly beneficial such we can always derive a role for today due to the emergence of global any social science, even if the subject social networking, in addition to the of analysis seems clear. rise of other terms of discussion. These include Islam and the issues of Finally, there is an evidently weak national identity and heritage, which presence of issues with a global yet seem more capable of fleshing out ambiguous character. Such issues the sought-after content behind the include civilization (21st position) and concept of civilization. globalization (22nd position, and this late position is notable for a topic so The Presence of Books continuously present in all the other frameworks of the public sphere It is safe to say that newspaper as well as scholarly periodicals, exposition of social science books indicating that this topic enjoys an provides the closest channel of interest that has the character of great communication between the breadth and little depth). Each of these newspaper’s readers and the products two topics has its own long journey of these sciences. Such books usually and there is little space here for find their way into the cultural pages of discussing them in detail, but the lack newspapers, where they coexist side by of interest in the issue of globalization side with poems, literary reviews, arts, may seem strange, especially with and other cultural genres, although we its great impact on contemporary may find this material in other parts of history. Perhaps one of the causes of the newspaper. Generally speaking, this lack of interest is the prevailing the presence of social science books feeling that the Arab world did not is not very frequent, and we can even play a very effective role in giving say that there is a decline in book rise to contemporary globalization, presence during the period of our although it is exposed to it. There are survey. The newspapers with high also other potential reasons, the most indicators of interest in the social important of which may be the lack sciences (the most important of which of common clarity on how to study are Al-Quds followed by Al-Hayat) this phenomenon, even in the West. were more interested in presenting Studies focusing on the topic are still books. In a sample of 4 newspapers scattered or confined each to a certain (we excluded An-Nahar here so as school, approach, and discipline. to arrive at meaningful averages over There are of course exceptions to the whole period) we found 110 book this, but they remain difficult to reviews over five years, which gives summarize usefully. As for the retreat us an average of 5-6 book reviews per
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 107 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
newspaper per year. This represents Arabic books, which increasingly seem a relatively humble presence even less important than foreign books in though its significance in terms of 2011-2012, before recovering some of knowledge exceeds its size, especially their importance. If we survey book if we view the book as a vessel of a far titles, we find that the newspapers with more dense form of knowledge than the greatest interest in books (such as a newspaper article equal in size to Al-Quds) also feature book reviews the book’s summary. There is no clear with a wider range of social science reason for the decline of this type of topics. Most newspapers focus on learned presentation during the survey book reviews that relate to the topics period, and perhaps it only seems like most present in the list above, but in a a decline due to the exceptional rise manner that allows the newspaper to in book reviews in the first year of the take a step back from daily events in survey. But the decline continues later order to explore their broader scientific if not at drastic rates. We notice that the background and their historical and largest decline was in the reviews of cultural ramifications.
إﻗﺘﺼﺎد 12 ﻋﻠﻮم ﺳﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ 20 إﺟﺘﻤﺎع وأﻧﺜﺮوﺑﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ 41 ﻋﻠﻮم ﺗﺎرﻳﺨﻴﺔ 11 ﻋﻠﻢ ﻧﻔﺲ 11 ﻋﻠﻮم إﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ أﺧﺮى 5
r e r i 40 r i
35 3
30 10
Figure 54 25
20 3 6 24 15 2 11 1 9 5 10 5
9 5 7 7 8
0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
i u u u i u ei 5 re e e i ie e i r i e er gr u er r e r i ie e i r
108 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor The Presence of Social Science title of someone’s life. We may not Scholars: Biographies and Article have plenty of biographies for social Writers science scholars in the public sphere, especially if their careers do not Alongside book reviews and learned include prominent responsibilities in analyses, two types of personal political life or government, or if their presence for social science scholars achievements remain confined to in newspapers emerge: as subjects their academic role. But the presence of biographies and as article authors. of a social science scholar as a subject The biographies of Arab and foreign of a biography in the public domain social science scholars constitute should indicate some sort of organic forms of presence for the social relationship between this scholar and sciences as a whole, even if it is society, and provide us with some personal presence. A biography may basic indicators about the extent of be one means of arriving at knowledge the mutual influence between them. content, or are at least a way signaling Here we observe a relatively small, the significance of a particular type yet meaningful, presence for social of thought, encapsulated as the science scholars in all newspapers.
t t
10 10
8
6 Figure 55
4 3
2 2 2
0
r r u
i u u u i u ei 5 re e e i ie e i r i e er gr u er r e r i ie e i r
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 109 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
The size of this presence differs role of external factors, and the role between newspapers. It is relatively of history in making the future. large in Al-Quds (a newspaper which is deeply interested in social In this connection we can infer a sciences and which provided 10 out modest presence for biographies of of the 17 biographies we found in foreign thinkers who played different the sample during the observation roles such as Hannah Arendt, Jean- period) while being rare if not absent Louis Fabiani, Eric Hobsbawm, John in other newspapers. Most of those Locke and Maxime Rodinson. Despite biographies relate to scholars who their relatively small number, we are renowned in general intellectual notice more variety in their epistemic reference points in comparison with circles, such as Muhammad Abed their Arab counterparts. With the Al-Jabiri, Abdel-Wahab El-Messiri, possible exception of Rodinson, Mohammed Arkoun, Hussein Mroueh, who among those biographed in and Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd. There is newspapers is closest to the interests also some interest in researchers who of the biographed Arab thinkers deserve wider recognition, such as in issues of heritage, we find the Hussam Tammam and Ahmed Jdey. achievements of non-Arab scholars It is noticeable that most of these to span establishing the principles of scholars are engaged in epistemic classical liberal thought, developing projects rotating around issues of methods for writing local and heritage and enlightenment. They global social history, analyzing the also tend to work across several bureaucratic character of modernity fields of knowledge, which gives and the modern state, and engaging their contributions a comprehensive in sociology of knowledge. Although character consistent with what we these achievements have their own previously noted regarding broad totalistic derivations, they operate in interest in totalistic views at the different circles and mostly rely on expense of concepts requiring precise observations of knowledge greater accuracy and attention attendant to contemporary daily to detail, such as education or dynamics in the society in which the sustainable development. We do not researcher lives. see biographies for social science scholars with precise academic But the personal presence, which achievements, including applied ones. holds a higher quantitative and This, however, should not necessarily qualitative importance, is the seem strange, as totalistic ideas tend presence of authors themselves. to be most consistent with a social During the survey period, we located condition typified by a continuing, 1214 articles in social sciences written decades-long conflict over issues by 680 authors in our sample. As of strategic orientation, including would be expected, the abundance collective identity, the permissible of scientific productivity varied in
110 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor
t t t
Table 15 Table t t t t
Source: Badawi, Ahmad Musa, Mahmud Adullah and Hani Suleiman. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in Arabic Newspapers”. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor)
newspapers, but 90% of the authors authors over the social sciences in wrote less than 3 articles, while 9% press form. However, hegemony is a were responsible for 35% of social relative issue, not an absolute one. science presence in newspapers. Its actual role cannot be assessed This phenomenon can be evaluated without qualitative evaluation based in different ways. We may adopt it on criteria that would allow us to as an indicator of the hegemony determine how hegemony impacts of a relatively limited number of any social condition.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 111 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
t t t t t t t
100 90 r r i ri er r r i r i e
Figure 56 80
65 60
40
20 17
10 8 6 2 0 1 r i e 6 r i e r i e r re r i e
i u u u i u ei 5 re e e i ie e i r i e er gr u er r e r i ie e i r
The fact that 90% of authors account presence in Al-Ahram. There are better only for 65% of learned material ratios of plurality in other newspapers, in newspapers is not necessarily as greater interest in the social sciences inconsistent with the general nature seems to correlate with a greater effort of academic production. It should not to diversify the sources of knowledge be surprising that senior authors with presented to the reader. long research résumés enjoy greater presence than junior writers who are Table 16 contains a descending ar- still at the beginning of their careers. rangement of writers with newspa- Nevertheless, there are differences per presence based on the number of between newspapers in this respect. each author’s articles during the period Only Al-Ahram and Al-Sharq Al-Awsat of our survey. We included 32 figures host authors who wrote more than 10 who wrote 6 or more articles. It seems articles, and the latter did so at a higher clear from this arrangement that sea- rate, as 5 authors (from a total of 73) soned authors with a long history of account for 34% of the social science research output such as As-Sayyid presence in the newspaper, while two Yassin and Ridwan As-Sayyid are at authors produced 8% of academic the forefront of the list. This indicates
112 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor that the standards followed by newspapers in t t t assessing quality are consistent with those of the scientific community in its academic form, t notwithstanding of course differences in the t styles of handling topics. This observation may also carry another meaning: the researchers themselves acquire a greater ability to address a wider audience the greater their accumulated practical experience is. Such ability does not re- ceive the recognition it deserves in the academic tt community, despite some contemporary trends encouraging its recognition (Burawoy 2005, Brewer 2013). It is worth mentioning here that the t selection of seasoned newspapers has provided
us with indicators of the general choices either Bashir Musa Nafi’ 16 Table of elites or of traditional audience of the Arab Shafiq Nathim Al-Ghabra press. It is possible that choosing the sample in Iyad Abu Shaqra this way may have unintentionally excluded the new generation of younger authors. But in general, the survey results indicate that social sciences in newspapers are still male dominated. We only find 3 women out of 32 pro- ductive authors in this part of the public sphere. This may be an indicator of the actual gender distribution of academic and research disci- Georges Goha plines, or of newspapers’ preference for more Dima Tariq Tahboub totalistic themes, which would increase the tt presence of the authors who are interested in discussing issues in this way. However, we must also not forget the generational differences that Mustafa Al-Fiqqi also play a role, as newspapers’ preference for senior authors means a greater representa- tion for age groups among academics distin- Khalid Ghazal guished by an overwhelming male presence. Source: Same as Figure 56 The final observation of note in Table 16 concerns the distinctive character of the social science scholar in the public sphere: it is a person who combines the aptitudes of the academic and intellectual, that is, a person armed with a totalistic point of view and in- terested in the general dialogues and debates permeating the public sphere, someone capable of adding material that transcends the usual offerings, but in a comprehensible format that employs relative exactness in expression, and is presented as an indepen- dent view. Ideologically, social science scholars in this part of the public sphere prefer a combination of liberalism, leftism, and traditionalism in their presentations, the relative weight of each component varying from one case to the other.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 113 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
A Perspective on Electronic mentioned by Al-Mudun is a social Presence: Al-Mudun current, even though no particular party or organization represents Al-Mudun is the relatively recent it as whole. Accordingly, current website of a newspaper with an events become opportunities to exclusively cyberspace presence, in highlight positions, as the website which we find an attempt to employ assumes that an understanding the possibilities particular to this of events cannot otherwise be domain. In contrast to print journals, reached. Therefore, the position Al-Mudun does not present events of the author as an opinion or a as “news”, because it views itself judgment takes the first priority in as an electronic analytic newspaper all articles, directly or by implication. rather than a news website. Any In this way, this e-journal is similar event is immediately presented to a seasoned cultural periodical, in an analytical way that links namely Al-Adab discussed earlier. together the two phases before Al-Adab also stressed the author’s and after the event. Here we find a position in understanding reality, phenomenon that is more common including his choice in method of today in e-journals than in older analysis and its application. But we print journals: presenting social also observe that this has an effect sciences in a form connected to a on both the quantity and quality of clear political position. Although presence of social science scholars both electronic and print journals in the medium. Out of 55 articles are similar in that strict academic we monitored in Al-Mudun related standards do not apply to them, it to social sciences, the authors seems that cyberspace provides the who work in the academic sphere journals that use it exclusively with as social science researchers and greater space to adopt the positions scholars only form a small minority, of groups that are probably larger or 8%, of all authors, but they than would be visible if we only see produced 22% of the total number them through print journals that of articles. We can then safely need to cross borders within the conclude that their quantitative Arab world. For instance, according presence far exceeds their actual to an interview with its editor, Al- number. Obviously, articles written Mudun e-journal represents the by professional social science “Lebanese and Arab civil democratic scholars (such as Ahmad Baydoun) movement, the moderate line, and had a more academic character than constitutes one of the platforms those written by others. According combatting tyranny”. Here we see to Al-Mudun’s editor, the problem a phenomenon quite different facing the journal is that some of from that of the academic website the academic authors are unable to Aranthropos, as the community continue writing in a popular press
114 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor format. This problem is similar to had to adjust our sample selection the one we saw in the relationship plan. After a comprehensive survey between civil society organizations of 30 satellite channels directed and social science scholars. There at the Arab world, we selected 10 are no permanent or institutionally programs that satisfied our criteria programmed relationships, only from six different channels. The individual efforts that bear fruit channels we selected include four when exerted. Arab channels that broadcast both locally and regionally: Al-Mayadeen, Social Sciences in Television Al-Jazeera, Al-Arabiya, and Al- Manar. Two Arabic-speaking foreign Beginning in the 1990s, Arab satellite channels began occupying channels were also selected: BBC ever-increasing space in the Arabic and Sky News Arabic. After common Arab public sphere. For another comprehensive survey, we this reason, it was necessary for us excluded political programs about to include in this survey a sample current events, news broadcasts, of the channels that enjoy a wide and everything with no connection presence in the common Arab to social sciences. In the end, we public sphere, notably those that selected the following interview, have appeal beyond the confines of documentary, and social programs: any single country. The survey aims from Al-Mayadeen we selected to determine the nature of social “Kharej Al-Qayd” and “Watha’iqi Al- sciences (if any) in documentary Mayadeen”; from Al-Jazeera, “Taht and interview programs, which Al-Mijhar” and “Alam Al-Jazeera” have a wider margin of possibility ; from Al-Arabiya, “Rawafid” and than other program types for “Watha’iqi Al-Arabiya”; from BBC employing more learned forms in Arabic, “Dunyana” and Al-Mashhad; presenting issues. Due to the large from Al-Manar, “Habbat Misk” ; and number of programs, we limited our finally, from Sky News Arabic, “An observation period for this study Qurb”. to six months, from the beginning of September 2014 to the end of We selected a random sample of February 2015. episodes from each program to analyze content. The study took Initially, the plan for our survey was into account the necessity for to select 10 programs broadcast compatibility between observation by 5 satellite channels. But due to standards utilized here and those the logistical problems posed by used to identify social science some channels ceasing production presence in all other frameworks of their programs as of 2015 and of the public sphere. This meant the difficulty of finding programs the exclusion of material of a daily that satisfy our requirements, we news character, including cultural
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 115 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
news and news about scientific but according to standards better meetings. Monitoring was confined suited to the nature of television as to material that included the non-specialized media directed at analysis or presentation of a social a public audience, despite the fact science concept (such “autonomy”, that television does occasionally “sustainable development”, employ methods suited to its “inequality”, “civil society”, and nature so as to provide some sort of so on); or a learned presentation learned vision in selected programs. of the material that transcends Viewed from this angle, it seemed the generalities associated with appropriate for us to consider an widespread concepts (such episode to be employing in-depth as “democracy”, “revolution”, knowledge if it contained at least “liberalism”, “the state”, “the clan”, three of the following forms of “capitalism”, “urbanization”, and so treatment: on); or expository material (such as social science book presentation, or - Hosting specialists and experts the biography of a social scientist); and providing them with the or the treatment of a certain social opportunity to pass on their issue or phenomenon in a way expertise and some of their that clearly employs social science research findings related to the expertise or research. subject of the episode.
We tried through this survey to - Referring to specialized reports arrive at an initial perspective on that employ evidence, or relying two questions relating to social on scientific studies and reports. science presence in satellite channels: 1) What is the level of - A basic overview of the literature depth of learned analysis directed concerning the concept or at an Arab audience? 2) What are phenomenon discussed in the the most prominent topics treated episode. by social science means, whether - Adopting diversity, through in-depth or common form? intersectionality, or cross- references in introducing analytic approaches. Level of Depth - Using scientific concepts, It was necessary for this monitoring explaining them, and connecting to separate the common employment them with the components of the of the social sciences from a deeper phenomenon discussed in the one in Arab television. Obviously, episode. this separation could not be devised according to academic standards, - Connecting the phenomenon
116 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor discussed in the episode for being generalized or compared. structurally to its components. - Falling into narrative contexts - Adopting methodologies and instead of analytic ones, including steps during the course of the in cases that seek to provide depth episode that emulate scientific in presentation. research methods. - Confining analysis to the surface - Gradually presenting ideas from of issues, such as identity or social micro-units to macro-entities (or practices or habits. the opposite) during the analysis of phenomena. - Directing analysis to the popularization of a specific idea or - Supporting the analysis from political group, or presenting facts surveys to target groups, or for explicit or implicit commercial inversely basing the analysis on promotion. such surveys. - The dominance of descriptive, - The guest’s usage of self- emotional, or impressionist dialogue or self-critique when characters in presentation. presenting an approach to arrive at results that are more learned. Table 17 shows that less than 25% of the episodes of documentary - Building the episode on an and interview programs invoke unsettled question as a means to social sciences in a way that launch a dialogue or scrutiny and make these sciences useful to the to allude to the subject’s need for public sphere. In more than 75% of deep analysis. the episodes, social sciences are In contrast to an in-depth treatment present only in common forms, that of topics, treatment was classified is, without adding anything useful as common when it ignored the to the issue at hand, whether in above standards and replaced them terms of quality of or approach with others distinguished by the to analysis. It also worth noting following features: the variation between not only programs, but also channels. For - Presenting concepts and instance, the highest percentages phenomena in a shallow manner of in-depth treatment are observed without seeking a deeper or in the two programs from Al- evidence-based insight into them. Arabiya (40% and 33% of episodes), while the lowest were found in BBC - Depending on personal Arabic and Al-Manar. We must add experiences and testimonies here that our observations in this without any proof of their capacity regard are preliminary, requiring
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 117 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
Satellite Channels
Frequency Broadcast Time (Beirut Targeted In-depth the Week (Percentage) (Percentage)
Watha’iqi Documentary Different
Taht Table 17 Table Documentary
Documentary
Rawafid
Watha’iqi Documentary
Habbat
’An Documentary Kathab Afternoon
Total
Source: Kasr, Ubadah. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in E-magazines in the Arab Region”. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor)
118 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor further and more comprehensive importantly, we do need a longer study to confirm (or disprove) observation period to monitor them. We also need to study the potential patterns or causes decision-making backgrounds in that may lead to improvement television channels, and how they or decline in quality of learned lead to different results. Most exposition in a program.
Relationship Between Scientific Quality and Broadcast Frequency
t Table 18 Table
t t
Source: Kasr, Ubadah. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in E-magazines in the Arab Region”. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor) * Based on 10 programs broadcasted by 6 Arabic satellite televisions
The survey’s results suggest some audiences with an in-depth treatment relationship between the scientific of a topic in 25% of its total episodes, quality of a program and how often and common treatment in the other its episodes are re-aired during the 75%. But as all the programs in our week. The programs with the best sample did include high quality quality receive a moderate level of episodes (in various proportions), repeated broadcast in comparison this in itself shows some great latent with others, while the programs with potential for various documentary a reduced quality receive the highest and dialogue programs in Arab and number of repeated broadcasts. Arab-speaking satellite channels to However, the most consistently enhance the learned content directed recurring pattern is a low level of at the Arab viewer. This can be done repeated broadcast for programs through the greater employment with a medium level of scientific of the methods used in the high quality. Half of the programs in our quality episodes, summarized sample broadcast their episodes above in the list of criteria for in- only once a week, providing their depth forms of topic treatment.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 119 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
t Topics Present in Documentary t t and Dialogue Programs
Our survey of the sample of Arab programs in satellite channels extracted 281 topics that have the capacity to be transformed into learned concepts based on the t t manner of treatment. These include
72 central topics and 209 peripheral t t t ones connected to the central topics. t t t Quantitative analysis revealed that t
the Arab Spring took the lead during 19 Table the time of our survey, just as was t the case with all the frameworks of the public sphere. The difference is that in the case of television this t interest is matched by an interest in t t terrorism, which we do not see much t of in other frameworks. We must point here to the particularity of our t t survey period, which coincided with the rise of ISIL. We must also point Source: Kasr, Ubadah. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in E-magazines in the Arab Region”. out that this category encompasses (Background paper for the Arab Social Science all concepts relating to extremism, Monitor) * Monitoring was limited to the first 9 ranks due to for which the concept of “terrorism” the large number of topics that have equal pres- was maintained as a unifying term. ence starting the 10th rank. This was not due to any analytic indications of the concept of It is clear from the survey that other “terrorism”, which may be worthless major topics relevant to the “Arab Spring” (despite the difference in as a scientific or epistemic concept, the contexts of their presentation) but because Arab television are present, such as “protest channels adopt it more than other movements” in general, which concepts to refer to a contemporary occupied the fourth position, and social phenomenon. We also affirm the concepts of “human rights” and the necessity of separating such “citizenship rights”, which occupied discussions analytically from the second place, and which include a topic of political Islam, which is full package of relevant topics such an older topic and which comes as “equality”, “discrimination”, fifth on the list of the topics “racism”, and “justice” in all of its of interest for Arab television. forms. Here emerge a number of
120 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor effects or implications relevant to in modernist and emancipatory this issue in topics such as “the discussions of women’s issues. state” and “social groups”, which These, in turn, seem connected to share third place on the list. The a broad package of comprehensive concept of “the state” included emancipatory and civil concepts everything relevant to the nature in television, just as is the case of the modern state and its future, elsewhere across the Arab public especially its relationship with sphere. its citizens, while the concept of “social groups” included the Social Sciences in Popular patterns in which citizens organized Magazines themselves outside the framework of the state, such as parties, trade In this report, we address social unions, sects, clans, professional science presence in popular associations or any other group magazines in an exploratory manner structure. Related to the latter is that does not claim comprehensive the concept of “civil society”–which coverage inasmuch as it aims to maintained 7th place on our list--as make initial assessments of the it belongs to interests in organizing nature of social sciences in this society outside the state. domain. Accordingly, we limited our evaluation to four magazines Finally, we must highlight the distinguished by a long history significant presence of women’s and wide circulation: two monthly issues at a rank similar to magazines (“Al-Arabi” from that present in other public Kuwait, and “Al-Majallah” from sphere frameworks, especially London) and two weekly magazines newspapers. This may mean from Egypt (“Hawwa’”, a veteran that we are facing a major social women’s magazine, and “Rose El- transformation, especially since the Youssef,” an opinions magazines women’s issues with the greatest with a long history in the world presence in this case relate to of journalism). For the purposes questions of rights, participation, of identifying and classifying and citizenship, discussions that social sciences in this domain, we far exceed in number traditional discussions of women’s roles in used the same standard used for the orbit of the family (7th position) newspapers and other frameworks and marriage (9th position). in the public sphere.
Despite the continued presence of We first notice that popular these traditional concerns in the magazines dedicate greater space to top nine ranks of social subjects social sciences than newspapers do, which interest Arab television, the at a rate generally exceeding 10% of interest in them remain below that the pages in the magazines despite
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 121 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
t t t
t
Table 20 Table
Source: Hajjaj, Ali. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in Arab Cultural Magazines”. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor)
some exceptions. But we needed Egyptian anthropologist, Ahmad Abu only a little scrutiny of article content Zayd, and “Al-Arabi” editor-in-chief, to find great qualitative differences Sulayman Ibrahim Al-Askari. We also between them that far exceed find in these articles deliberateness quantitative ones in their significance in presentation, consideration of here. It is clear that the Kuwaiti the historicity of social phenomena, magazine “Al-Arabi” comes in the solemnity in the treatment of ideas, lead without parallel in employing and lack of rashness in employing social sciences, as the number of political positions. Another pages dedicated to a single article permanently visible crucial element in it significantly exceeds those for is the wide diversity of topics, in a articles in the other magazines in manner redolent of the less popular this category. Furthermore, most cultural periodicals, reflecting this of the authors of these articles are longstanding magazine’s direction specialized researchers holding to the Arab world as a whole. This important university positions in the is evident in the prominence of four social sciences, most prominently the clusters that appear at almost equal
122 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor rates, all of them bearing a distinctly The final cluster includes topics pan-Arab character. The first cluster related to comprehensive political includes topics such as Palestine, change such as revolution, democracy, Zionism, the Arab-Israeli conflict, freedom, pluralism, authority, and Israeli colonial settlements. government, popular control, and The second includes cultural issues the civic state. These main issues such as those of identity, civilization, are followed by a great number of heritage, and Orientalism. The third diverse themes, chief among them includes concepts of modernity being those of a primarily modern such as enlightenment, renaissance, character, such as globalization, development, progress, and so forth. consumerism, markets, and the like.
Most Present Concept Groups in Al-Arabi Magazine (in Descending Order)
Palestine: Zionism, Arab-Israeli Conflict, Jewish Settlement, Resistance
Culture: Identity, Culture, Heritage, Orientalism, the Intellectual Table 21 Table
Modernity: Enlightenment, Renaissance, Development, Progress
Civil Issues: Revolution, Democracy, Freedom, Plurality, Authority, Government, Popular Control, Civil State, Civil Society
Source: Hajjaj, Ali. 2015. “Presence of Social Sciences in Arab Cultural Magazines”. (Background paper for the Arab Social Science Monitor)
The monthly “Al-Majallah” and does not display much effort to weekly “Hawwa’” do not deviate learn from revolutions. Quite the from what is expected, such that we opposite: the magazines assume find increased interest in the Arab the role of instructing revolutions Spring during the survey period. on how they should behave, that This interest does take forms is, according to each magazine’s consistent with the general direction old epistemic perspective. In the of both magazines, approaching case of “Al-Majallah”, dominated revolutionary phenomena from the by a journalistic, quasi-scientific old vantage point of each magazine character, interest in revolutions rather than employing an innovative is largely confined to articles analysis of the nature of revolutions. about political Islam, in a manner In such cases the published material reflective of the magazine’s
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 123 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
apprehensiveness about these calls for its preservation, and that currents. This can be gleaned from whenever possible necessitates the fact that all the articles fail to avoiding ventures whose results mention a single positive thing may not be certain. Here it becomes about any of these currents and clear to us that “Al-Majallah”, which movements in any country, and was launched in London in 1980 as even disregard all the other aspects one of the publications of the Saudi of the revolutionary phenomenon. Research and Publishing Company, The level of analysis in this case is seeks to maintain its position as at least clearly superior to that of an outlet for studying “the ideas other magazines such as “Rose El- that hide behind the news”, as per Youssef” that hit the rock bottom the magazine’s description of its of subjectivity. It seems that the mission. It endeavors to propose authors of “Al-Majallah”, most of deep analysis, providing policy whom are PhD bearers, university makers in the region with its professors, researchers, and experts, recommendations. This, however, maintain interest and adherence does not negate “Al-Majallah”’s to analytic methodology which to innovative use of cyberspace, such a certain extent rely on employing as its connection with the website of concepts, analyzing social the journal Foreign Affairs, through phenomena, finding connections which “Al-Majallah” selects articles between given facts, utilizing and translates them into Arabic. references, and gradually arriving at conclusions before settling Generally speaking, the articles in on a position perhaps known in “Al-Majallah” attempt to distinguish advance. This methodology at least themselves by addressing provides the position with a greater phenomena and concepts in a measure of credibility and satisfies different, sober, quasi-scientific way the demand for a quasi-scientific as compared to similar publications, format. Although not void of errors, even though it does not rise to the this style at least accustoms the level of serious scientific websites reader to expect some level of such as Aranthropos, which we professionalism in analysis. pointed to earlier. Nevertheless, and generally speaking, “Al-Majallah” We also find in this case some does maintain the continuity of attempts to benefit from “Al- identity it formed for itself during Majallah”’s cyberspace presence to the era of print publication. Articles add new types of knowledge that go in it still to a certain extent employ beyond those provided in the print concepts, analyze social phenomena, magazine. Despite the newness connect data, utilize references, of this form, these attempts aim and gradually draw conclusions. to reproduce the pattern that gave Moreover, the academic identity of this publication cultural capital that its authors reflects the distinguished
124 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor presence of social sciences in a the centrality of women’s issues, journal that is neither academic nor especially as approached from specialized. the particular point of view of a segment of middle class women. “Hawwa’” differs from the rest by We cannot generally speaking say not being a general magazine, but that we witness a learned thought one that focuses on women’s issues in this magazine at the level that and their daily lives, including issues we see in “Al-Arabi” or even “Al- such as rights and participation in Majallah”. “Hawwa”’s contributions addition to matters of traditional daily take the form of quick glances that life such as the family, childhood, provide the reader with a taste of beauty, homes, fashion, marriage, what science is, even if it is only a and so forth. Before the Arab Spring, faint taste if compared with other these topics took up the entire journals. space dedicated to quasi-scientific thought in “Hawwa’”. We notice then It is clear from this exposition that a dearth of issues relating to social popular magazines vary greatly change (such as poverty, the culture in terms of the learned quality of of difference, or civil society). These their content. It should also be together occupied no more than clear by now that we presented 1% of the total number of articles, them in a manner that reflects in comparison to the 33% that was qualitative arrangement, beginning dedicated to family issues, followed with higher quality employment by children’s health, education, and of social sciences in “Al-Arabi”, exams. followed by “al-Majallah”, then “Hawwa’”. “Rose El-Youssef” takes However, with the beginning of the the bottom position of our sample Arab Spring we notice increased in this respect, especially during interest in revolution that we did the deathly struggle over power in not at all find during the previous Egypt that took place immediately period. During 2011-2013, the topic after the revolution, and more of “revolution” occupied nearly particularly in the period beginning as many articles as family issues. in 2012 onwards. In that period we Women’s political participation witness the total disappearance of also emerged more prominently what can be called social sciences, during that period. Generally, the after a period of humble presence fact that this magazine’s has a not exceeding 6% of the total specific rather than general target articles. The topics directly reflect audience defines to a certain extent the political struggle prevailing the role and form of social sciences in Egypt during the period of our therein. Here general phenomena survey. Issues such as “political such as “revolution” take a practical Islam”, “sectarianism”, “secularity”, direction, which is deduced from “takfir” [rendering other people as
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 125 t
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
infidels], and the future of liberalism These are the characteristics of in Egypt, take the lead in the revolutionary circumstances, where magazine’s scope of interests. In we witness a collapse of previous looking into the actual content, we assumptions about society’s do not find any in-depth discussion essence and capacities, and where of any of these issues. Rather, we learned thought present in the confront a style that can be called public sphere gains exceptional a “quick glance” approach that significance due to an unusually aims to reach a definite political broad interest in listening to position as quickly as possible, that which is new and promising. without the least concern for a However, taking advantage of this learned understanding of any of condition requires that scholars these issues. It is clear in this case and intellectuals fulfill tasks and that the priority given to political roles that only they can play. This stances at the expense of learned entails assessing reality from a understanding of phenomena, is certain distance that allows for linked to a preparedness to give up analysis and exploration of the science altogether. This becomes nature of phenomena, rather than most clear in this case, one year into sinking into the vagaries of daily the revolution and the beginning of struggles and merely reproducing Egypt’s political polarization. political stances that give us nothing that is not already known. This case poses many questions Such stances do not provide the about the import of social sciences new reality with serious, creative in the public sphere, and especially forms of knowledge capable of in conditions where great changes transcending the usual political take place in the general political quagmire that does not suit scene, and new possibilities for revolutionary conditions in any participation emerge, as seemed case. But the quagmire will drag to be the case at the beginning of the revolutionary energy into it, in the Arab Spring. It is easy to say the absence of innovative choices that social sciences play a guiding that can only be provided by those role whose importance increases capable of employing a deeper and during times that require innovative more comprehensive perspective rather than prefixed knowledge. than is the norm.
126 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor t
Conclusion
The surveys conducted in this report were taken from specific countries, were not expected to yield such encompassing universities, research surprising results as to disclose centers, professional societies, unprecedented growth in the social scholarly periodicals, civil society, sciences in the Arab world across the cultural periodicals, and television various platforms under study. channels.
An initial conclusion lies in the Second: the circumstances inevitable recognition of accelerated surrounding the growth of these growth in social science presence sciences in the region, which are across various scientific frameworks. more or less the same circumstances This growth, however, cannot be that accompanied the completion compared to the growth in other of this study throughout its stages, sciences necessitated by the from methodological application technological advances of the 21st to arrival at precise, factual results century, which motivate younger commensurate with the nature of generations and researchers alike any scientific research. If there is one to keep pace in advancing their concept that can be considered a various research approaches. shorthand for these circumstances, Likewise, these advances require it is that of the Arab Spring and the universities, research centers, totality of its consequences and its professional societies, civil society, aftermath at all levels. and the media to provide researchers with considerable space and time Third: the obstacles that prevented commensurate to their needs. the completion of some samples without however preventing the Before delving into the detailed completion of a reliable form of the conclusions arrived at from the entire study or detracting from the study of social science presence in significance of the studied samples various frameworks, it behooves us and the conclusions derived to mention several elements that therefrom. played a prominent role in paving the way for these conclusions and Taking the above factors into recommendations. consideration, and based on the results supported by original data, First: the frameworks to which the we can draw a general conclusion study was confined. Specific samples suitable to the overall framework of
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 127 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
the study while maintaining some confined to no more than 48% of reservations regarding its specific Arab universities. It is possible that frameworks. The takeaway is this: the young age of most of these the social sciences have witnessed universities mainly accounts for both quantitative and qualitative this low percentage, although we development in knowledge find the highest rates of social production across various fields in science presence exhibited in the the Arab region. By delving deeper Arab Maghreb (particularly Algeria into the particulars of the knowledge and Morocco). An examination of frameworks encompassed by the university offerings reveals that study, we arrive at conclusions that economics easily prevails over detail the nature of the presence of all other disciplines, especially the social sciences in each individual anthropology, which is at the tail end framework. of the overall ranks of social science presence in Arab universities. Universities Research Centers Universities may appear to be the self-evident place to seek powerful In our approach, we cannot separate social science presence. However, the role of universities in proliferating it is clear that social sciences in social sciences from that of research Arab universities have massive centers, almost half of which operate room for growth before they can from within universities, providing attain globally recognized ranks and an environment rich in research participate effectively in shaping tools and content to facilitate the Arab future. It is unmistakably the researcher’s work. This does apparent that, wherever social not undermine the significance sciences appear in Arab universities, of independent research centers, they are dominated by the rhetoric which are distinguished by high of modernity, manifest in disciplines productivity of an interdisciplinary that are self-consciously connected nature. This report reveals that the to the projects of modernity and increased growth of independent modernization—at the expense of research centers may be traced back disciplines that address the culture, to two factors: First, the rise of a new tradition, and historical heritage of society, like anthropology and social generation of Arab social science history. scholars whose accommodation is beyond university capacities. Approaching the state of social Second, the new circumstances sciences in both long-established and the prominent changes in the and newly-founded Arab universities Arab region granting civil society reveals that social science presence a greater role, greater space, in its traditional forms is still and a greater margin for action.
128 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor We view the relatively significant levels in researcher nationality and increase in the number of research countries under study. Lebanon centers in the Arab world as a comes at the forefront here. Other positive phenomenon that provides indicators of scientific quality vary an independent framework for social between periodicals, although science work outside universities. we note a significant number of Although research center density theoretical articles in general as well across various Arab countries as paucity in joint research. Among generates uneven research density periodicals with shared social between them, research centers science disciplines, the figures in nonetheless remain indispensable our sample show three disciplines for knowledge production. The best occupying the most space: sociology, proof of this lies in the fact that political science, and history, which these centers produce the majority together account for almost three- of scholarly periodicals in the Arab quarters of the articles. With no more world. than 5% of articles each, psychology, economics, and anthropology exhibit Scholarly Periodicals comparable levels of presence.
In line with proposing that the It is perhaps noteworthy and useful relationship between universities and to indicate that the presence of the research centers should be viewed three most prominent disciplines as organic, it would be misleading in periodicals (history, sociology, to separate research centers from and political science) exceeds scholarly periodicals when our the relative presence of the same survey shows that independent disciplines in universities. Despite research centers play the greatest its meager presence in all domains, role in periodical growth. anthropology is the real surprise appearing in periodicals at three times The growth in the number of the rate exhibited in universities. periodicals occurs concurrently This points to the importance of with marked quantitative growth scholarly periodicals in highlighting in a significant portion of the social some of the disciplines buried sciences. However, the survey here beneath the hegemony of other also highlighted a weakness in knowledge frameworks, especially in periodicals’ utilization of cyberspace, universities. as evidenced by the fact that most of them do not issue an electronic Professional Societies version of the publication. Clear acceleration in the pace at The results of the study reveal links which professional societies are between a periodical’s country of established demonstrates that issue and the highest diversity social sciences in the Arab world are
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 129 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
moving in the direction of creating Despite the clear dominance of their own identities. The report objectives particular to its work, civil studies the periodicals issued by society still gains its strength from professional societies and the level its emerging role as a significant of social science presence therein, part of the job market for Arab social concluding here that economics has science scholars. This is especially the greatest institutional momentum true given that most of these among the social sciences in the organizations aim to communicate Arab world. Studying the data with a wider audience. The takeaway reveals a point of weakness wherein in this context is that civil society most professional societies address utilizes social sciences to diverse a local audience, as evidenced by 59 effects, generating what can be called out of 68 of them working within the “quasi-scientific” communities framework of only one Arab country. capable of producing innovative, if non-academic, knowledge. Although in-depth examination of the content produced by Cultural Periodicals professional societies requires a separate study, we nonetheless Survey results of five periodicals provided a preliminary framing with large-scale Arab presence of that content here due to the indicate that social sciences exhibit importance of these associations presence at a near-constant rate as fundamental knowledge cradles approaching 20% of the pages for the social sciences, even though of the studied periodicals. This their scholarly productivity remains proportion demonstrates the strong meager to this day. connection between social sciences and prevailing cultural environments Civil Society in the Arab world, although there is ample room to clarify and develop We adopted a definition of the relationship between knowledge civil society as consisting of and culture in the Arab context. independent institutions that allow voluntary affiliation and organize Newspapers themselves outside the framework of the state and political parties. A Those studying social science study of a sample of civil society presence might predict very high organizations clearly reveals that rates of presence in daily newspapers, they all not only utilize but also which contain such high editorial often produce social sciences in density that surely some part must one form or the other, although be allocated to the social sciences. they do so under the umbrella of However, the results of our survey their own goals, and not necessarily of five newspapers from different in pursuit of academic purposes. countries indicate blatant weakness
130 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor in learned thought, even after the conclusion that in the surveyed accounting for the unspecialized episodes, there is only modest journalistic context. presence of an in-depth approach that may of use to the public sphere The report’s focus here was on topics while the episodes mainly employ discussing social issues. The results forms of pop social science. The were discouraging when calculated Arab Spring is at the forefront of according to the adopted standards the topics discussed in the selected for classifying “scholarly presence”. sample episodes. The presence The figures on proper scientific of the Arab Spring was matched material reflect an average not by that of “terrorism”, which was exceeding 3.3% of the total printed a peak topic of interest during the area in newspapers, although survey period. we can safely postulate that any newspaper can afford to allocate up In drawing conclusions, it is to 10% of its page space to learned worth mentioning the high levels material without encroaching upon of presence of women’s issues its status as journalism. Al-Quds and related discussions of rights, newspaper takes the lead among participation and citizenship. the newspapers included in our Even though these issues are not study. By including plenty of material overwhelmingly present in Arab that falls under the social sciences television, the very fact that they umbrella, it provides a model for are on the table indicates a certain handling various types of learned development and openness to presentation in the Arab press. The approaching issues characterized survey results find Al-Quds to be as “traditional” and “private” by a remarkable in providing diverse wide audience. forms of learned exposition, divided between scientific analyses, concept In summary, social sciences presentations, book reviews, continue to grow both quantitatively biographies, and conference reports. and qualitatively around the world, especially since the second half Television of the 20th century, keeping pace with the requirements of studying Monitoring social science presence modern societies. However, it seems in Arab satellite channels was an that Arab societies require greater, interesting experience, especially more concentrated experience when the study encompassed before the time comes in which five prominent satellite channels we can proclaim that they have and a survey of programs whose securely housed social sciences content promised to transcend and utilized them in all their diverse daily news reporting. Observations appearances across their diverse of social science presence led to frameworks.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 131 t
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
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Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
Methods and Tools
The Arab Social Science Monitor every two years, (2) a Matrix to es- (ASSM) is a major project of the Arab tablish a database of institutions Council for the Social Sciences (ACSS) working on social sciences and (3) and aims at establishing a permanent background/commissioned papers observatory dedicated to surveying for topical issues (see ASSM data the landscape and assessing the tra- collection and compilation tools jectories of social science research in section below for more details). Arab countries. To that end, quantita- tive and qualitative methods are used Data compiled and analyzed will be for collecting and analyzing data on made available through two mech- the state of Higher Education gen- anisms: Data resources and Publi- erally and the Social Sciences par- cations. An important resource in ticularly and a resource website has the first category is a searchable da- been launched for the posting and tabase that will be made available dissemination of data and analysis. on the project website and that will include the data collected and com- The ASSM includes three main areas piled through the Questionnaire and of research: the Matrix and other data gathering tools currently under development. -The infrastructures of knowledge In terms of publications, a key tool of production in terms of institutions the ASSM is the Arab Social Science and resources; Report (ASSR). Other publications -The capacities and characteristics of that will be produced by the ASSM social science communities across include data reports, policy briefs the region; and and analytical papers on particular is- sues arising from the data. The ASSM -The ability of Arab social sciences to will seek to fully utilize and share impact global social science on the the data collected and compiled. one hand and public debate and pol- icy on the other. The ASSM project is developed over two-year phases leading to Data for the ASSM is collected and the establishment of a permanent compiled through various tools, the observatory by end of 2019. The pi- major ones being (1) a Question- lot phase, which ended in the first naire for an online survey of individ- quarter of 2015, focused on devel- ual social scientists to be conducted oping a framework that guides all
134 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor t
ASSM research and activities (see 1. Institutions: Universities, Research ASSM framework below), construct- Centers and Professional Societies ing and testing the data gathering tools (Questionnaire for individual 2. Individuals: Individual researchers social scientists and Matrix on in- working in the Arab countries or Arab stitutions of social sciences) as well researchers living in the diaspora, as on producing the first “Framing” those who hold a Master’s or Doctor- ASSR (see ASSM Implementation al degree in social science from any section below for more details). university in the world, and/or are in- volved in social science research. The Arab Social Science Report (ASSR) is a biennial publication on 3. Products: Libraries, Archives, Pub- the state of social science research lishing houses, Ph.D. directories and in the Arab Region and includes sys- depositories, Scientific journals, Cur- tematic and quantifiable analysis of ricula data collected through the Ques- tionnaire and the Matrix in addition 4. Practices: Selection committees, to background papers written for Peer review committees, governance each Report. Each Report will focus and resource allocation in universi- on a different aspect of the develop- ties and research institutions, pro- ment of social science research in motion, tenure, scholarships, fellow- the region and will aim to reflect and ships, academic conferences. showcase the work and voices of the region’s social science commu- 5. Uses: Policy making, development nity. The ASSR will focus on broad planning, public discourses, confer- themes of relevance to social scien- ences and dissemination including tists, research administrators, uni- traditional and new/social media. versities, research NGOs as well as ASSM Data Collection And Com- to organizations and donors work- ing in the field of social research pilation Tools and development. Following this Tools for data collection and compi- framing ASSR, the first and second lation for the various components of ASSRs will be released in March the ASSM constitute the following. 2017 and March 2019 respectively. 1. Matrix ASSM Framework A Matrix has been developed to com- The framework that guides all ASSM pile the following information on the research and activities consists of National context, Institutions and five components: Individuals, In- Products. stitutions, Products, Practices and Uses. Each component focuses on - National Context: Information on na- different units of study as follows: tional context includes the following:
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 135 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
Population size, Youth population (17- ties, Budget, Admissions and diplo- 30 yrs old), Annual national budget of mas, Academic staff, Non-academic the public higher education system, staff, Students, Tuition, and Schol- Public expenditure on tertiary educa- arships. For social science depart- tion as % of total government expen- ments and faculties in these univer- diture, Public expenditure on tertiary sities, the following information is to education as % of GDP, Number of be compiled: Budget by department undergraduate students by gender, within each faculty, Social science Number of graduate students by gen- faculties list, Diplomas and Admis- der, Gross enrollment in tertiary edu- sion requirements per faculty, Aca- cation, Percent of individuals using demic staff, Students, Scholarships, internet, and Total national research Collaboration, and Curriculum. budget. - Research Centers: Research Cen- - Universities: Universities includ- ters included in the ASSM are those ed in the ASSM are defined as - de that are university-based, non-uni- gree-granting institutions with ‘uni- versity based, governmental, for-prof- versity’ in their name, and/or which it, non-profit and branch centers of offer at least a Bachelor’s degree in international think tanks and that two or more distinct fields, and/or conduct research (scholarly and which offer at least a Bachelor’s de- non-scholarly) on disciplines consid- gree in a social science field, and/or ered social sciences for the ASSM. which offer a professional diploma Multilateral development organiza- in four years or more in two or more tions and non-governmental orga- distinct fields, and/or which offer a nizations (NGOs) are not included. professional diploma in four years or Research centers located outside the more in a social science field. region were excluded. In addition, re- search centers that have been closed Universities include public, private, or were suspended and for which clo- for-profit, non-profit, and online in- sure date is available are included in stitutions that are officially regis- the Matrix. tered in the country of their location, some of which may also be accredit- Information on research centers to ed in another country, or represent a be compiled include: Contact infor- branch or satellite campus. Colleges mation, Space and facilities, Focus, and tertiary sector specialized insti- Funding, Budget, Director and Board, tutes, technical and vocational train- Researchers, Administrative staff, ing institutions are not included in Publications, Events, and Grants and the Monitor. Fellowships.
Information on universities to be - Professional Societies: Profession- compiled in the Matrix include: Con- al Societies include in the ASSM are tact information, Campus and facili- those related to the disciplines con-
136 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor sidered social sciences for the ASSM. subsequent phases of the ASSM.
Information on professional societ- 2. Questionnaire ies to be compiled include: Contact information, Focus, President and A questionnaire is used to collect Board, Staff, Funding, Budget, Mem- data on Individuals through an on- bership, and Events. line survey that is conducted bien- nially. The Questionnaire consists - Scholarly Periodicals: Periodicals in- of five sections: (1) personal data cluded in the ASSM are publications (e.g. name, nationality), (2) academ- that are issued regularly by an insti- ic education background (e.g. uni- tution in the Arab region (eg month- versities attended), (3) career path ly, bi-monthly, quarterly, annual), re- (e.g. job positions held), (4) research viewed by a reviewer (eg expert in the topics, methodology (e.g. publica- subject matter/professional editor/ tions), and (5) research funding. editorial board), part of a series of publications of substantive nature A short and a long version of the (eg scholarly and research journals/ questionnaire were developed. The book series/journals of commen- short version of the questionnaire tary and opinion/working papers/ (consisting of 29 questions) was used studies), peer-reviewed or non-peer during the pilot phase of the ASSM. reviewed, and current or have been The long version (consisting of 80 discontinued. questions) will be used in subsequent phases (see ASSM implementation Information on Scholarly Periodicals section below for more information include: Contact information, Focus, on each phase). Both questionnaires Frequency, Format, Circulation, Size, are available in three languages: Ara- Access, and Funding. bic, English and French.
Of note is that data collected thus far - Target Population and Coverage: through the Matrix includes what is The survey aims to cover social sci- publically available through the web ence researchers working in the and in existing publically available Arab region or living in the diaspora, databases. These data have not yet those who hold a Master’s or Doc- been validated at the country-level. toral degree or equivalent in the so- Validation is underway and the up- cial sciences from any university in dated version of the Matrix will be the world, and/or are involved in so- posted on the project website once cial science research - whether they validation is complete. are engaged in research, teaching or administration. Data collection methodology for the Products, Practices and Uses The initial target population of components will be developed in the survey consisted of all social
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 137 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
scientists (with at least a grad- applicants, membership applicants uate degree in a social science and conference applicants) and discipline) who are affiliated at members of the ACSS. the time of the survey with an ac- ademic institution in four focus - Sampling method: The sampling countries (Algeria, Egypt, Saudi strategy was a hybrid one. In the first Arabia and Lebanon). However phase for the first sampling frame, a given challenges encountered in random sample of universities in the reaching this target population four focus countries was selected within the allotted timeframe the from the list compiled by the ACSS. target population was subse- In addition to random sampling, uni- quently restricted to ACSS affili- versities that are a hub of social sci- ates. entists in their respective countries were forced into the sample in order - Sampling Frame: Two sampling to enhance the representativeness frames were used for this survey. of the sample. The selected univer- The first sampling frame was- de sities were contacted by the ACSS veloped in an attempt to capture through email and were briefed on the initial target population. How- the purpose and scope of the survey ever, due to the poor response rate and a copy of the questionnaire was received through the first sampling shared with them. They were re- frame within the allotted timeframe, quested to provide their list of social a second sampling frame was devel- scientists to whom the question- oped. naire will be sent.
Sampling Frame 1: The first sam- When it was decided to use the sec- pling frame of the pilot phase re- ond sampling frame, the second lied on secondary data as well as phase used the ACSS list of affili- on ACSS’s internal database; this is ates. All individuals identified in the due the lack of a reliable source or second sampling frame were target- database for social scientists in any ed and asked to participate in the of the selected countries. For this survey. Based on this list, the short purpose, the ASSM implementing questionnaire was sent to 531 indi- team performed an internet search viduals (ACSS grantees, applicants of all academic institutions in the and members). The response rate four focus countries in an attempt to was about 17%. construct the sampling frame. - Data collection: A consent form Sampling Frame 2: The second was developed to inform and get the sampling frame consisted of social consent of the survey respondents scientists who are ACSS affiliates. of the confidential and voluntary More specifically, it consisted of nature of the survey. Respondents grantees of, applicants to (grants had to electronically sign this con-
138 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor sent form prior to participating in the magazines and Ezines). The papers survey. The survey was dispatched also conducted a qualitative assess- electronically and the data collected ment of case studies for each medi- was captured in an electronic data- um. One more paper presented case base. Data collection took place be- studies on the use of social science tween mid-December 2014 and end research by non-governmental orga- of January 2015. nizations (NGOs)
3. Background Papers Following are the highlights of the methodology the background papers. As mentioned above, each issue of the ASSR will focus on a broad theme - Television, Newspapers and Mag- and the theme of this “Framing” ASSR azines: A sample of 10 programs is the “forms of presence” of social in 6 television stations that broad- science research in the Arab World. cast regionally in Arabic language The “forms of presence” of social was selected and the proportion of sciences were examined in scholar- programming time devoted to so- ly institutions (universities, research cial sciences was calculated. For centers, scientific journals, and - pro newspapers, a sample of 5 Arabic fessional societies) as well as in civil language newspapers distribut- society and the public sphere (includ- ed regionally was selected and the ing newspapers, cultural periodicals, proportion of pages in the selected mass-circulating periodicals, TV) newspapers containing social sci- ences was calculated. The selection Information on the “form of presence” of the 5 newspapers was based on of social sciences in institutions – the most widely circulated pan-Arab universities, research centers and newspapers according to Alexa.com professional societies - was collected (data as of Sept. 10, 2014). and compiled in the Matrix. To as- sess the regional presence of social Likewise for magazines, a sample of science research in the public sphere 4 Arabic language wide-circulating and its use by civil society/develop- magazines distributed regionally, ment organizations, the ACSS com- another 5 Arabic language intellec- missioned six research papers that tual magazines (other than academ- served as background papers for the ic periodicals) distributed regionally, ASSR. as well as 4 Arabic language Ezines that are exclusively electronic were Five research papers assessed the selected and the proportion of pages proportion of time and of space de- in thee selected magazines with so- voted to social science in each of cial sciences content was estimated. three media: Television, Newspapers, Magazines (popular/wide circula- The period covered in the back- tion magazines, intellectual/cultural ground paper was January 2010 to
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 139 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
December 2014. For newspapers, and dissemination to different au- the random sample consisted diences whether national or re- of 3 days per month (eg day 10, gional. The case studies included day 20, and day 30) for each of what the social science component the past 5 years, with the excep- consisted of, details of the person- tion of one newspaper for which nel involved and whether nation- the period covered extended from al or regional expertise was used. August 2013 to September 2014. For civil society, the case studies The background papers on the were for one regional NGO and 4 presence of social science re- country-level NGOs. search in television, newspapers and magazines included analysis ASSM Implementation or presentation of a social science concept such as self-governance, The ASSM will be implemented in sustainable development, inequal- phases leading to the establishment ity and civil society. They also in- of a permanent observatory of Arab cluded scientific assessments of social science as follows: a popular/common concept such 1. Pilot Phase of the ASSM as democracy, revolution, liber- alism, government/the state, the The pilot data collection phase ex- tribe, capitalism and urbanization. tended from January 2014 through The assessments did not include the first quarter of 2015 and focused material of daily nature such daily on Institutions and Individuals and news including cultural news and to a lesser extent on the Products. It news about scientific meetings. also included data on the National The background papers on news- Context. papers and magazines included review material such as social sci- Data collection on Institutions and ence book reviews or the biog- Products in the pilot phase was re- raphy of a social scientist. The stricted to fields for which informa- assessment also included mate- tion was publicly available through rial containing a scientific over- web searches and document re- view of a social science concept. views/directory reviews (please see the Data Sources section for a list of - Civil society organizations: For civ- the documents and directories). il society organizations, case stud- ies were presented on how the use In addition, for Products, one paper of social science research impact- was commissioned to conduct a ed social development programs, content analysis of the type of ar- policy dialogue, public debates ticles published in scholarly social and whether there was outreach science periodicals published by
140 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor various types of institutions in the 4. Permanent Observatory Arab world and to conduct a critical analysis of the topics, methods and The permanent observatory will be quality of published material. established by the end of the second phase when all the tools would have The pilot phase served as a test run been developed and all the fields of for the tools that have been devel- all the components of the ASSM cov- oped, the ASSR as well as the pro- ered. cess involved. A major focus of the pilot phase was the production of Disciplines Covered the first “Framing” ASSR to lay the The following core disciplines and groundwork for the methodology as multi-disciplinary studies were con- well as the thematic agenda of fu- sidered social sciences for the pilot ture reports. phase of the ASSM: Anthropology, 2. First Phase of the ASSM Economics, History, Political Science, Psychology, Sociology, Cultural Stud- The first phase started in the second ies, Development Studies and Gender quarter of 2015 and extends through Studies. Other disciplines, such as the first quarter of 2017 and will ben- humanities, may be included in sub- efit from the lessons learned during sequent phases of the ASSM the pilot phase. It will phase in some components and fields of the ASSM Geographic Coverage that were not covered during the pi- The ASSM covers the 22 Arab coun- lot phase. More specifically, it will (1) tries that are member states in the collect information on Individuals us- League of Arab States: Algeria, Bah- ing the long questionnaire, (2) expand rain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Emir- data collection on Institutions and ates, Iraq, Jordan, KSA, Kuwait, Lib- Products to include fields for which ya, Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, data are not publicly available, part- Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Somalia, Su- ly through targeted outreach and (3) dan, Syria, Tunisia, and Yemen. begin collecting data on the Practices and Uses components of the ASSM. Data Sources 3. Second Phase of the ASSM In the pilot phase, data sources in- cluded searches of publicly available The second phase of the ASSM ex- information in addition to the follow- tends from the second quarter of 2017 ing documents and directories: through the first quarter of 2019 and will phase in the final components - Marseille Center for Mediterranean and fields of the ASSM. For example, Integration (CMI). 2010. Strategic it will expand data collection on disci- Mapping of Think Tanks, Mediterranean plines to include the humanities. Countries and Beyond.
Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence 141 Social Sciences in the Arab World: Forms of Presence
- Foundation for the Future. 2013. Arab - Lebanese Association of Educational Think Tanks Directory: Policy-Oriented Studies. 2013. Directory of Universities Research Centers amid Transitions. in the Arab Countries. Version 1, January 2014. - American University of Beirut, Issam Fares Institute for Public Policy and - International Association of Universities International Affairs, Research and Policy http://www.iau-aiu.net/content/ database www.arabpolicyresearch.com/ international-handbook-universities
- UPenn Global Think Tank Directory - Center for Arab Unity Studies (CAUS) www.gotothinktank.com/ www.caus.org.lb/
- Association of Arab Universities - E-Marefa http://www.e-marefa.net/ database www.university-directory.eu/ Jordan/Association-of-Arab-Universities. - Dar Al Mandumah www.mandumah. html#.VCq5-2eSx4J com/
142 The First Report of the Arab Social Science Monitor “Any contemporary society must embrace a high quality presence for the social sciences in one form or another in every context, including technical institutes and schools. The social sciences are one of the most important means for forming the modern citizen: a person who questions received wisdom and through this questioning acquires a better ability to innovate and discover; a person who views her reality from a distance that permits her to gain a broader perspective than would be possible by being immersed in it; an informed person, not because she has memorized facts, but because she deploys science in her daily life as easily as she eats, drinks, and socializes. In other words, a person who is on such intimate terms with science that she makes her life suitable to science and science relevant to her life.”
Mohammed Bamyeh
About the author:
Dr. Mohammed Bamyeh is Professor of Sociology at the University of Pittsburgh and the editor of International Sociology Reviews. He received his PhD in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1990. He previously held the Hubert Humphrey chair in International Studies at Macalester College in Saint Paul, Minnesota, and the SSRC-MacArthur Fellowship in International Peace and Security. He taught at Georgetown University, New York University, and the University of Massachusetts. His areas of interest include Islamic studies, sociology of religion, political and cultural globalization, civil society and social movements, and comparative social and political theory. His books include Intellectuals and Civil Society in the Middle East (2012); Anarchy as Order: The History and Future of Civic Humanity (2009); Of Death and Dominion (2007); The Ends of Globalization (2000); and The Social Origins of Islam: Mind, Economy, Discourse (1999), winner of the Albert Hourani Honorable Mention from the Middle East Studies Association.
FIRST REPORT 2015