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The Review: A Journal of Undergraduate Student Research

Volume 5 Article 9

2002

Allusions in 's Infemo

Sarah Landas St. College, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Landas, Sarah. "Allusions in Dante's Infemo." The Review: A Journal of Undergraduate Student Research 5 (2002): 91-112. Web. [date of access]. .

This document is posted at https://fisherpub.sjfc.edu/ur/vol5/iss1/9 and is brought to you for free and open access by Fisher Digital Publications at St. John Fisher College. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Allusions in Dante's Infemo

Abstract In lieu of an abstract, below is the essay's first paragraph.

"Vexilla regis produent inferni; the banners of the king go forth, the king of " (Vergani 74). In a place called , the resides. He has three hideous heads and spends his time crying from six eyes, while the tears mingle with the blood of three tortured sinners. These sinners, Brutus, Cassius, and , are ground to bits by 's gnashing teeth, while Judas alone receives the benefit of also having his back stripped of its skin as retribution for him being the greatest sinner to be found in all of Hell. This illustration is presented in a graphic and figurative manner, thus making it a example of the type of allusion that uses throughout the the first section of his literary classic, The .

This article is available in The Review: A Journal of Undergraduate Student Research: https://fisherpub.sjfc.edu/ur/ vol5/iss1/9 Landas: Allusions in Dante's Infemo

Allusions in Dante's Infemo by Sarah Landas

"Vexilla regis produent inferni; the these warnings applied primarily to educated banners of the king go forth, the king of individuals, only if the readers were Hell"(Vergani 74). In a place called Dis, the somewhat intellectually advanced would demon Satan resides. He has three hideous they be able to understand the combined heads and spends his time crying from six philosophical and religious depth of the text, eyes, while the tears mingle with the blood such as the meaning found in the inscription of three tortured sinners. These sinners, over the gate at the beginning of the work. Brutus, Cassius, and Judas Iscariot, are This inscription described as residing above ground to bits by Lucifer's gnashing teeth, the Gate to Hell in the Inferno reads: while Judas alone receives the benefit of also having his back stripped of its skin as Through me the way to the suffering city, retribution for him being the greatest sinner Through me the way to eternal pain, Through me the way that runs among the lost. to be found in all of Hell. This illustration is urged on my high artificer; presented in a graphic and figurative My maker was divine authority, manner, thus making it a prime example of The highest wisdom, and the primal love. the type of allusion that Dante Alighieri uses Before me nothing but eternal things Were made, and I endure eternally. throughout the Inferno the first section of his Abandon every , all who enter here. literary classic, The Divine Comedy. {Alighieri 68). Many instances of allusion can be found in the Inferno in order to create one large This inscription lays the foundation for allusion to the overall atmosphere and all of the following allusions used in the problems of Dante's time. Most of the Inferno as warnings to the world. It sets allusions in this work can be classified as forth the element of hopelessness that Dante either political, religious, or social morality was convinced would consume all people allusions. The allusions in Dante's Inferno who transgressed in various ways unless act as a means for the author's expression of they heeded the warnings that his book his own opinions and predictions about his presented. This warning was that unless life and times. The allusions also serve as a individuals right their wrongs while on mirror through which the present can be Earth, they would ultimately be denied viewed through the actions and occurrences passage out of Hell. of past history. Most of the allusions found Dante may have intended his poem to be in the Inferno were used to present a read by only the educated of his time, but representation of different stereotypes the impact which the piece actually had was associated with behaviors and attitudes that to reach a much larger audience than Dante Dante felt were injurious to Italian society, could possibly have anticipated. The reason as well as to the rest of the world. for the depth of this one piece of literature is Some of these allusions were meant to due to the fact that, taken as a modem be parables of warning for the ordinary interpretation, the Inferno can be seen as a reader. In this context, the term "ordinary" metaphoric counterpart of the present world. is meant to primarily encompass the A literary definition of allusion states that it educated of Dante's own time period and the is a causal or intentional reference to a educated in the years to come. Because specific person or event, often used as a

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parable ("Allusion"). Dante employs this Hell, Dante was presenting the readers with method of using allusion in order to achieve the opportunity to repent as individuals and certain literary, personal , and political as a society. Jn this regard, the book serves objecti ves. He wished to create a great as a lens through which individuals can view piece of literature because he considered their own lives through the mistakes and himself to be one of the greatest writers of transgressions of others in the past, and in his time. He also wished to express his doing so they may have the opportunity to personal opinions about certain events of his correct their misdeeds. time, and he wished to expose the political In order to understand the reasoning beliefs of his party without the risk of behind each sinner's specific placement in personal persecution that might have arisen Hell, Dante's rankings of the different types if he had used some other means of of and sinners found in Hell is expression. necessary. The structure of Hell consists of Some of Dante's primary ways of nine circles and one vestibule found directly achieving these objectives were by revealing outside the gate to Hell. The sinners within the misdeeds of religious leaders, Hell are placed according to one of three denouncing certain political actions by classifications: incontinence, violence, and individuals as well as countries, illustrating . The shape of Hell is a large funnel­ warnings against transgressions of social shaped pit located directly under . morality aimed at the of his time, As the circles of Hell progress, the and by depicting the physical and circumference of the entire funnel decreases mythological nature of Hell and the until it meets Satan at the center of the that befall its captives. Dante Earth's core (Vergani 12). also wished to communicate hi s message Each circle of Hell is reserved for a regarding the condition of the soul after particular , and these sins are designated death, as a result of the choices the to a particular region based on the level of individual made during life. In this way, their offensiveness to . The more Dante hoped to point out the error of the offensive the nature of the sin, the further ways of those who were still living in an away that sinner is cast from God. Dante effort to set them back on the path of considers incontinence, or weakness of will, salvation (Vergani 14). Dante used his own to be the least offensive sin so it is therefore personal standards of judgment, law, and the first category encountered when morality coupled with notorious individuals progressing through Hell. The next category in order to create these allusions and achieve is violence against neighbors, oneself, or his objectives. God. The third category is the fraudulent, Most of the allusions found in the which includes the worst sinners who Inferno are interrelated. The relationship betrayed their family, country, guests, or between the different instances of allusions masters (Vergani 13). Dante adheres to this help to create one large and coherent format of Hell based on his own judgments parable, message, and warning for the about how severe certain transgressions reader. The message itself may be different should be considered. These judgments are for each reader, because Dante meant the based on certain personally held classical, poem to present stereotypical characters Christian, and legal ideals of his time. from among which the reader could identify Dante uses allusions in the Inferno in with at least one person. By recognizing order to better illustrate this scheme of Hell, their similarities with individuals already in its punishments, and the sinners found

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within its depths. The opening allusion himself, Dante appointed him as the most discussed in thi s paper portrays the three tortured soul to reside in Hell (Alighieri sinners Brutus, Cassius, and Judas Iscari ot 2 11 ). being tortured by the jaws of Lucifer's three This combined political and religious mouths. They reside in the fourth ring of the allusion serves several purposes. One is to ninth circle of Hell , which is the innermost make an impact through the visual effect it depth of Hell. The three sinners reside in creates on the reader who is able to picture this ring as a representation of all traitors the actual historical figures being tortured against their benefactors, for whom this for their notorious sins. Another purpose is sphere of Hell was designed (Alighieri 2 10). to illustrate the repercussions of other people Dante uses this allusion in order to committing similar crimes, and to warn present the reader with historical figures that against such behavior if the individual does people of his time were familiar with, due to not wish to end up the same way. The the infamy of each sinner's deeds. This allusion acts as a mirror that enables readers allusion is mostly of a political nature, to examine their own lives and refl ect on though it may also be classified as a any similarities that they would need to religious allusion as well. The two Roman concentrate on correcting so that they do not sinners mentioned, Marcus Junius Brutus end up being assigned a similar fate for all and Gaius Cassius, were involved in eternity. planning and carrying out the assassination The focus on political speech is plot against Gaius , the Roman epitomized through Dante's choice of a Dictator of their time, on March I 5, 44 B.C. guide to lead him, as the depiction of the ("Gaius"). Since the two committed the universal sinner, on his journey through crime against a political colleague, supposed Hell. Dante's choice of the poet as friend, and their benefactor, they were his guide was based on his belief that Virgil reserved special places in Hell after their was "the greatest ancient exponent of an own deaths. ideal " (Royal 29). The The other sinner, Judas Iscariot of allusion and placement of Virgil as the Kerioth, a town in Judea, serves not only as universal sinner's guide may seem a historically political allusion, but also as a incongruent when trying to establish a religious allusion. Judas is described as relationship between an ancient pagan having been motivated by to betray Roman and a poem that is devoted to Christ to the Sanhedrin. This betrayal Christian spirituality. Many people believed was accommodated for a mere thirty pieces Virgil to be less of a philosopher with of silver, which Judas received in return for insight to the spiritual world, as opposed to bringing the chief priest to Jesus in the his being a brilliant historical poet. Garden of Gethsemane (John 12:6). Judas However, Dante believed in the medieval had previously served as an Apostle and a tradition that suggested that classical poets steward to Jesus Christ and his other including Virgil were also sages, with disciples. Upon seeing the results of his supernatural powers that enabled them to betrayal, namely the crucified Jesus hanging have sufficient spiritual insight to serve as on a cross, Judas Iscariot is said to have run an appropriate guide in Dante's journey away and hung himself on what is known (Royal 29). today as the Judas tree ("Judas"). Because The figure of Virgil also serves as of the magnitude of hi s betrayal and the fact Dante's bridge between two institutions, the that his benefactor had been the Son of God church and the empire (Vergani 11 ). As a

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classical poet and a pagan, Virgil momen t in the poem where Dante appears to represented a link between the classical be extending the self-fulfilling of ideals that Dante believed in and the fame in centuries to come. Because of the medieval Christi anity that he practiced. fact that Dante has in fact been counted Through Virgil, Dante called for a closer among the great authors of his time, this marriage between the two institutions and comment in his poem has been argued by the ideas held by each side. Dante beli eved some to be justi tied (Reade 3 18). This that the beliefs of the classical poets could allusion to the !:,'Teat classical poets also be combined with the traditional teachings helps to illustrate Dante's desire to integrate of the Christian religions. By using Virgil to classical beliefs with his own Christian make the connection between the seemingly doctrines and teachings. opposite worlds, Dante hoped to illustrate While the purpose of thi s allusion may the possibility of a greater union that simply be an opportunity for Dante to balanced power between the two applaud himself fo r what he envisions as institutions. great personal success, this allusion also Further evidence of the connection that illustrates Dante's perception of what Virgil offered between the two worlds can happens to those souls who lived before be fo und in examining several similarities Christianity and led virtuous lives but lacked that can be drawn between Virgil's poems a vision of God by not having been baptized. and the Bible. One of these similarities is Dante makes further allusion to other the fact that both books have been used as individuals among this group, including types of called sortes. Sortes are , the son of Anchises and the subject books that are opened at random and a verse of Virgil 's own epic poem, the . This is then selected randomly as well in order to allusion can also be viewed as evidence that find an answer to a specific question or Dante may have borrowed certain problem. Another reason that Virgil may established ideas about the qualities of Hell serve as a religiously inspired allusion is the from the Aeneid in order to create the fact that in Virgi l's fourth eclogue, he writes atmosphere of the Inferno. Support for thi s in a symbolic form about the coming of a idea comes from the fact that in Virgil's Wonder Child that will bring the world into sixth book of the Aeneid, the hero Aeneas a Golden Age. In the Middle Ages, this takes a trip through the in order writing was considered to be a prophecy to speak with hi s father, Anchises (Forman regarding the coming of Jesus Christ 14). Dante's description of the souls found (Vergani 11 ). in the vestibule of Hell is similar to the state Dante alludes to Virgil in several other of Anchises and other souls that Aeneas ways in the poem as well. One of these encounters while visiting the underworld. ways is through an allusion that involves Other historical philosophers such as several other great classical poets, namely , , , Seneca, and , , , and . In the are also alluded to in the fourth fourth Canto of the Inferno Virgil proceeds Canto. This allusion to the great to talk to these four great masters of philosophers is used as a means for literature, who then turn and salute Dante. reassuring readers of the poem that it is not This gesture is interpreted by Dante to mean as a that these virtuous pagans that they consider him to be in the same have been placed in the first circle of Hell. league as themselves in terms of poetic Rather, this is merely a fulfillment of their prowess. This is a seemingly arrogant visions of what life after death would be like

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(Royal 54). The idea for this allusion can be in the Messiah; his Ii fc must have found in the writings of Socrates. In his exemplified the characteristics that bring apology, Socrates describes an afierlife in one closer to God (Ozanam 455). Dante which the soul migrates to a place where it presented this lesson based on his own is able to speak with the greatest thinkers personally held belief that good works, and people who have died in the past virtue, or morality count for nothing if a (Vergani 26). Because these people arc person has not acknowledged Jesus Christ as relatively content with this afterlife, their the ultimate redeemer. present state in Hell after death is not Dante uses allusions in order to illustrate portrayed as a cruel punishment. Instead, that Hell is the place where no one person is their only true fault was a lack of given the opportunity to choose salvation, imagination or understanding about the but rather the choice was made long ago, anticipated coming of Christ. Because of before the person died (Vergani 26). These this, they will be forever denied the combined historical and biblical allusions opportunity to know or see God, and will be therefore serve as a warning to readers to confined in for all eternity. repent before death for their sins. In this This allusion combines with another that sense, Dante considers sin to be the follows in the Canto in order to present a perversion of intellect, meaning "a lack of or lesson to the reader. Dante asks Virgil in the fault in an individual's belief system and poem if anyone has ever transcended this personal knowledge" (Vergani 19). place of Limbo. Virgil's response is to tell Dante hoped to warn people of creating him that shortly after his own death, Jesus too narrow of an acceptance of worldly and Christ (though He is not mentioned by biblical teachings, and instead was name), descended into Hell and brought out suggesting a more broad and accepting many of the residents of Limbo who were method that included both science and allowed to rise out of Hell with him (Royal theology. This idea arose from Dante's 54). Among those brought out of Hell were personal experience with various political , , , , , and religious controversies during his life. , and . Virgil explains the Many of these controversies became the process of the selection in the Inferno as subject matter of some of the allusions he being a result of these individuals' used in the Inferno and will be discussed reputations and names echoing up into throughout this paper. While he recognized . Through the grace of God they that it is ultimately the individual's choice, were recognized as ones who had believed Dante made it clear that the alternative he and anticipated the arrival of a messiah, but envisioned was not exactly the paradise that were not around to see the actual event could await the individual (Ozanam 220). (Alighieri 73). Dante's motives in writing the Inferno The lesson that can be found in this were not purely out of goodwill and out of allusion to the few redeemed souls from the spirit of concern for his fellow man. Limbo, and Virgil's explanation of the Dante had a personal stake in the matter. By event, is that an ordinary individual will not writing a book of such renowned literary be able to transcend from his or her position caliber, he was able to voice his own in Hell unless he or she has acknowledged personal opinions. Because of the political the existence of Jesus Christ before his or and social upheaval that occurred in his her own death. The individual will also hometown of , a town that he loved need something more than a singular belief as much as any man has ever loved his

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birthplace, Dante became very disheartened and if nothing else it was a place where and angry. The social situati on of his Dante could start from a distance, without homeland led to the sense of duty and the fear of possible public execution if he urgency Dante felt towards writing the was caught in Florence again. Inferno a poem he hoped would prove to be Political allusions play a signifi cant role a tool to help people repent and achieve in Dante's Inferno. The political situation salvation. His eventual banishment from and its subsequent effect on Dante opened Florence in 1302 led Dante to change his the door of opportunity for him to use his political perspective, and gave him the drive writings in order to denounce certain to write a poem expressing hi s feelings and politi cal act1v1ttcs. The majority of his desire for individuals as well as his characters alluded to in the Inferno were beloved homeland to reform their sinful inhabitants of Florence, , or were ways (Royal 29). involved in the politics there. These people Dante became a politician when he was were chosen to represent all people who arc around thirty years old, after he had served corrupt in politics, as well as to illustrate time in the military services of Italy. whom Dante held responsible for the Among other pos1t1ons, Dante was reprehensibl e political and therefore moral appointed as a papal ambassador in Rome. situation of the city he loved so greatly, but In Florence at this time, there was a division was ultimately exiled from. While only between two political parties, the Guelphs native Italians may have immediately who were the party of the , and the recognized many of these political allusions, Ghibellines who were the party of the throughout history some of these characters emperor. Dante was classified as a Guelph have become more notorious and therefore who in theory supported the pope over the serve as suitable allusions for Dante to use emperor (Royal 24). The Guclphs later to voice his political frustrations to the divided into two separate groups, the Whites world. and the Blacks. The Black Guelphs Two of these political allusions are made eventually gained control of Florence and it in reference to Mosca dei Lamberti, and the was during this time that Dante, a strong Amidei and Donati families, whose feuding voice for the White Guelphs, was brought up led to the split that resulted in the formation on fabricated charges. When Dante was of the Guelphs and the Ghibellines. Dante unable to appear at a trial to defend himself, himself was a member of the Donati family he was exiled from Florence forever (Royal through the marriage to one of the Donati 26). daughters, Gemma to whom he was This information helps illustrate the betrothed in 1277 and later had at least three personal motivation that drove Dante to children with (Forman 2). Dante alludes to write portions of the Inferno. Because he Mosca as a sinner confined in the circle of was denied the opportunity to defend Hell reserved for those who sowed discord himself and help try to rectify the political and scandal, and counseled evil (Alighieri situation in Florence, Dante chose to write a 182). poem that he hoped would have a better The story behind Mosca's placement in chance of achieving his objective of Hell begins in the early thirteenth century, unifying the Florentine people and ridding when a man named Buondelmonte the city of what he believed were social and de'Buondelmonti, a leader in Florence, was moral evils. The lnfemo presented the betrothed to a member of the Amidei family. perfect place to attempt to achieve this idea, He broke this engagement, which in those

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days was considered as binding as a creating an evil scandal that made the fami ly marriage, and became engaged to a member members enemies (Vergani 65). His of the Donati family (Vergani 65). Mosca punishment fits the alleged crime because counseled the Amidei family that "a thing his brain that conjured up the stories that done has an end," which the family took to caused the enmity between the father and mean it was necessary to have son is now kept pennancntly separated from Buondelmonte murdered. They followed his the rest of his body. advice, and on morning of 1215, they This allusion was motivated by a desire had him executed. However, this did not to reveal the dangers of involving oneself in bring an end to the matter because the political intrigue. Bertrand de Born was a Donati family, newly allied to French troubadour from Limousin. A Buondelmonte through the betrothal, were troubadour's profession was to record the outraged and began a bloody vendetta truthful and actual historical events and against the Amidei family and caused ideals of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries Florence to become embroiled in conflict for in lyric poems. Bertrand was viscount of many years to come ("Guelphs"). Hautefort in Perigord, and he later The impact of this one man's counsel accompanied Richard the Heart to directly led to much of the political strife Palestine. He also served as an attendant to that Florence faced during the thirteenth King Henry II of England. It was at this century. Dante was heavily involved in time that he began conjuring up the stories politics during his life, and the conflicts that were aimed at turning the father against between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines his sons ("Bertrand"). Dante includes this therefore had a great deal of impact on his allusion to the sins and horrible punishment political career. It also had an impact on his of Bertrand in order to illustrate his disgust personal life since his wife was a member of at such actions. He believed that Bertrand one of the warring families. These facts was given special talents by God, namely point to the reason why Dante felt the need the gift of writing poetry, and instead of to point out the error's in the ways of the using these talents for good, he used them to one man who started the entire conflict in spread evil in the world in order to try to Florence, and caused what Dante considered receive political favors. to be a tragedy to befall his beloved Because of his actions in dealing with homeland. The allusion also serves as a the King and his sons, and Dante's personal lesson and warning for people to be wary of distaste for such actions, Dante reserved a how they counsel others, because their special position as a sower of in actions may have much more of an impact Hell. In addition to using the allusion to then they may intend. warn against political intrigue and The allusions to Mosca and the Amidei manipulation, Dante used this allusion as a and Donati families are followed by an way to warn other authors and poets against allusion to an individual who suffers a using their literary talents to do evil. In this similar punishment in the same circle of way, Dante was illustrating two different Hell as Mosca. This individual is Bertrand messages targeted at separate audiences. de Born, who was forced to walk through Another political allusion Dante uses in eternity with his head separated from his the Inferno that is also a mythological body. The crime that Bertrand is said to allusion is that of and Diomede. have been condemned for is meddling These two together were responsible for between the affairs of a father and his sons, many acts of political intrigue involving the

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events of the . Both men arc example of an incongruence that is found in confined in the eighth chasm of Hell, the the J11femo. While Dante earlier states that realm of the evil counselors. Whi le the two each person is judged by the standards of men were not the cause of the Trojan War, their times, in this case Dante condemns the their actions concerning the war were two men for something that in our day considered acts of treachery by Dante. would have been considered an admirable The Trojan War started as a result of a strategy in war. I Iowever, Dante considers competition between three goddesses to these actions as acts of treachery based on decide which was the fairest. When a the ideals and morals prevalent in his day, named was asked to decide and based on his personal view of morality the matter, his reward was to be given the (Vergani 64). Dante manipulated this view fairest woman in the land as his wife. This of condemnation in order to expose political woman turned out to be Helen of , who problems associated with his time, and in an was already married to another man, effort to amplify the possible ramifications if Menelaus the King of Sparta (Fisher). the citizens of Florence refused to see the When Helen eloped with Paris, the Trojan errors of their political intrigue. War began. Several men had previously Soon after Dante meets the souls of pledged their allegiance to Helen, stating Ulysses and Diomede, he comes upon the that they would defend her honor at all soul of Guido da Montcfeltro. Guido is costs. These men were led by Ulysses and from the same region of Florence as Dante, included Diomede. When the Trojan War and caJls himself a Latian. Dante uses this began, Ulysses first tried to pass himself off allusion as an opportunity to present a as being mad so that he would not have to character representative of a particular sin, leave his wife and family over the matter, as a well as an opportunity to address the but when this act failed he consented to then current political situation of his gathering forces against Paris (Fisher 27). homeland. According to Dante, since dead Among the evils that Dante condemned souls arc unable to see the present even the two men for were planning the strategy though they have the ability to remember the and attack of the , and stealing past and even in some cases predict the the statue of Pallas, which guarded the gates future, Guido enquiries as to the present to the city of Troy. The two were also state of ltaly. Dante proceeds to tell him of responsible for separating the two lovers the political problems and mishandling of and Deidamia. As a result of the the provinces in question. He also expresses separation, Deidamia is said to have died of his dismay regarding the badly equipped a broken heart, leaving her death on the two rulers and the immorality that they have men's hands as well (Vergani 62). Dante often spread to the common people used this allusion because the characters {Alighieri 176). would have been well known representatives Guido da Montefeltro was a count and a of their crimes during his time. He wanted famous warrior, as well as one of the great to use an allusion that would have a great Ghibelline leaders. He later repented for his impact on the views of his readers in order sins as a soldier and became a Franciscan to cause them to be wary of acting in a . His goal was to get to Heaven similar manner when dealing with conflicts through a newly directed path of in the future. righteousness. However, along the way he Along with representing incorrect and was approached by Pope Boniface VIII, who sinful actions of war, this allusion is an was waging war against fellow Christians,

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rather then the Saracen infidels he was and personal excess. He uses the image of a supposedly fi ghting. The Pope asked Guido well-liked man to demonstrate that even if to devise a plan that would help further the you are good at heart, you can still be Pope's own fi ght against the Guelphs condemned for your transgressions and (Vergani 63). Pope Boniface Vlll offered excesses. Guido in advance, and Guido's I Iistorically, little is known about Ciacco deceitful and evil plan devised to conquer as a man, except that he was a contemporary the Christians in Penestrino was a success, of Dante's and he was involved in politics. causing many people to suffer as a result. It was while involved in these political However, when Guido died hi s soul was activities that Ciacco exhibited an excess claimed by a demon before St. Francis could and abuse of power as a political figure. He receive him and bring hi s soul to Heaven, as entertained many guests and showered them was customary for all members of the order with extravagant surroundings and banquets, (Alighieri 178). resulting in his gaining political favors Dante uses the allusion of Guido in order through manipulation rather than hard work to represent the evils that a person entrusted and knowledge (Alighieri 84). Because of with political power can fall into, as well as this, Dante placed Ciacco in the company of provide a lesson of how not to act in other gluttons in Hell for eternity. positions of power, even if coerced by a Dante uses the allusion to Ciacco as an religious or political superior. In this case, additional means of political expression as the superior was Pope Boniface VIII, who well. When Dante meets Ciacco, he will be discussed further in an allusion later recognizes him as a citizen of Florence and in this paper. Dante wished to illustrate that asks him to tell him what the future state of even those who seem sincerely repentant of Florence will be. Ciacco tells him that the their sins may not be saved if the different political factions will each in turn consequences of their counsel have severe conquer and then submit to one another. He enough consequences on other Christians. states that one party will eventually be This is especially true when a religious overthrown and cast out after a future war leader who is entrusted with the powers and has been fought. Dante asks Ciacco where privi lege of granting absolution coerces other citizens of Florence can be found and advice out of an individual such as Guido. Ciacco tells him that they are in lower However, it is the souls who are coerced that circles of Hell for worse crimes (Yergani are left to pay the penalty when such trusted 30). He also adds that the number of good religious leaders are disloyal to their vows men still found in Florence number the same and offers absolution without any real amount that could be found in the book of intention of leading the soul to Genesis where Abraham asks God to save (Ozanarn 297). the just citizens of Sodom (Royal 63). Since Dante uses another aJJusion of a man the city of Sodom was completely from Florence named Ciacco, who is annihilated, this statement illustrates the confined to the third circle of Hell. This attitude of which Dante had towards circle holds the gluttons, who are forced to his beloved city during his exile and the lie in mud and eat the dirt and filth in which writing of the Inferno. they lie. Ciacco's own name means "the Another purpose of the allusion to hog," and he was notorious in his time for Ciacco is to illustrate a philosophical and his gluttonous behaviors in Florence. Dante religious concept. Gluttons are people who uses Ciacco to warn both against political have an insatiable hunger for worldly

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possessions, political power, or other they would also foci the pain of knowing excesses. When Dante alludes to Ciacco, a they would never achieve perfection. glutton of political power and the finer Dante includes this explanation of the things in life, he also takes the opportunity appropriate punishment that keeps the to include a philosophical notion held by gluttons always wanting more than what Aristotle and commented on by St. Thomas they have in order to reinforce the warning Aquinas. This notion involves the state of a found in the allusion to Ciacco. Dante soul's body after Judgment Day. St. wanted people to sec the faults of Ciacco, Thomas believed that salvation brought despite his good qualities, and through an about by the Judgment Day led to a reunion analysis of his characteristics and behaviors, of the dead souls' bodies and spirits. examine their own lives critically. He meant Through this union, achieved only through the allusion to serve as a means of the redemptive salvation of God, the soul comparison in order for readers to view the achieved ultimate perfection. Aristotle tragedy of an individual's faults and then believed that after death only the souls of reflect upon their own situations and actions. righteous men would be able to be perfectly Through this allusion, he was offering them united with their bodies. This perfection a way to repent of evil ways that they might was alleged to have been the ultimate desire not have otherwise recognized. among gluttons of all things (Yergani 32). Dante uses several additional allusions The similarity between the classical that deal with both political and social philosopher and the Christian theologian morality. One of these allusions is found in once again illustrates the connection Canto 33 of the h~(erno. This allusion between classical and Christian ideals. makes reference to Count Ugolino Della Aristotle established the doctrine that the Ghrardcsca and Archbishop Ruggieri degli closer a being became to perfection, the Ubaldino. Count Ugolino was involved in more pleasure as well as pain the individual political treachery with the Archbishop, who would actually feel. He believed that souls later betrayed him. When Ruggieri captured such as gluttons could never achieve Ugolino, he imprisoned him in the "Hunger perfection, meaning ultimate salvation, Tower," which is believed to be the same because of their various sins of excess. structure as the leaning Tower of Pisa. They could only be reunited with bodies that Ruggieri also imprisoned two of Ugolino's were closer to perfection, but would never sons and two of his grandsons in the tower. be able to achieve absolute perfection In this canto, Dante allows Ugolino to (Yergani 32). St. tell his own story of how he ended up in expanded upon the religious nature of this Hell. Ugolino tells him that while he was doctrine by stating that, "The soul without guilty of political intrigue and treacherous the body hath not the perfection of its scheming with the Archbishop, he did not nature" (Vergani 31 ). He believed that the deserve the cruel way in which he was gluttonous would be able to reclaim their tortured to death. When Ruggieri captured bodies, but because of their sins these bodies Ugolino and his family, they were initially would not have undergone the locked in a high tower and given food. transformation to perfection because they However, one day they heard the door being lacked ultimate salvation. Therefore, it nailed shut, and they were left in the Hunger would be their eternal punishment following Tower to starve to death one by one Judgment Day to feel endless pleasure from (Alighieri 205). the reunion of their bodies and souls, but

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Jn his story, Ugolino expresses extreme Dante's allusion towards his cousin, Geri del anguish for the death of his innocent sons Bello, whom Dante meets in the eighth and grandsons whom he had to watch die of circle of Hell. Geri's death had not been starvation, as well as a burning hatred for avenged yet on Earth, and as a result he Ruggieri's betrayal and horrible crimes would not speak to Dante. The allusion to against Ugolino and his family. Ugolino Dante's own cousin, along with the himself eventually went blind from hunger reference to Ugolino's plight, illustrates the and died of starvation, a fact that Dante uses moral belief in retribution that was held by to conjure up fitting eternal punishments for Dante's society in his time. This reference both men. The fact that Ugolino went blind also served as Dante's way of trying to do during his torture illustrates the idea that justice to hi s murdered kinsman, si nce it when men are faced with betrayal and took nearly thirty years after Dante wrote punishment from others, they often lose the inferno for Geri's nephews to avenge his sight of their own guilt. Since both men death (Yergani 67). were initially partners in political crimes, The second allusion Dante uses for both they are damned to spend eternity together. political and social reasons is a reference to In addition, since Ruggieri caused Ugolino's the two condemned lovers, Francesca da starvation and death, Ugolino will spend Rimini and Paolo da Rimini. Francesca was eternity making a feast out of Ruggieri 's married to Paolo's older and severely skull (Alighieri 204). This punishment itself deformed brother, Gianciotto da Rimini, as a serves as a stark warning against involving result of a politically motivated alliance oneself in similar types of social or moral rather than out of love (Vergani 28). transgressions. Francesca is beckoned by Dante in the name Because of the political nature of of love to tell her story. She tells Dante that Ugolino's crimes, Dante uses him as another after Gianciotto and herself were married for stereotypical character that faces eternal ten years, Paolo and Francesca were reading as a result of evi l dealings in the story of Sir and , politics. However, because of the another famous ill-fated affair that horrendous nature of his death and the ultimately caused the ruin of the utopian betrayal associated with Ugolino and his kingdom of Camelot (Forman 33). At one family's torture and deaths, Dante moment during the afternoon, their eyes met transforms this allusion into an opportunity and Francesca tells Dante "they read no to denounce various instances where more that day" (Alighieri 81 ). innocent people are made to suffer at the While the two lovers were still caught in hands of the guilty. Dante considered this their first embrace, Gianciotto walked in and type of betrayal and murdering of family in a fit of rage, murdered them both. Since members to be a severe moral transgression the two lovers were killed at the moment of during his time because as a result of their their deceit, they were unable to repent for deaths, there were no other male members of their sins and therefore condemned to Hell Ugolino's family left to avenge their deaths, (Vergani 29). Their eternal punishment, as and very few others knew the horrible designed by Dante, is to spend eternity details of the crime (Forman 65). buffeted against each other in a raging In Dante's time, private revenge was , constantly being reminded of the love considered not only a duty of the surviving they shared, but at the same time the pain it family members, but also a protected legal had caused them both. right. This idea is later reinforced through

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Dante uses this allusion and the tragic rage control your future actions. Dante ending of the two lovers in order to incorporates his strong beliefs in Florentine condemn the social practice of his time that laws and social norms into the allusions of encouraged marriages and alliances to be Ugolino, Francesca, and Paolo's in formed solely for the purpose of furthering a order to illustrate the detriment that political cause. Dante himself was betrothed disobeying the law can cause. at the age of twelve to a member of the By examining both of these allusions, Donati family, which caused his later life to the reader is given a larger overall look at be filled with conflict due to the separation the warnings and implications to be found in of political parties known as the Guelphs each of the two situations. There are several and Ghibbelines (Royal 14). However, aspects between the two allusions that make Dante was in love with a girl named them very different, even though both pairs Beatrice, who became the topic of many experience damnation together. The literary debates concerning Dante. Dante allusion of Francesca and Paolo is found at was denied the opportunity of ever the beginning of the inferno while the professing his devotion to Beatrice, except allusion to Ugolino and Ruggieri is found at through his writings, because of both of their the end. Francesca and Paolo are bound political betrothals to different individuals. together because of the profound love that This allusion to Francesca and Paolo's plight they discovered in each other, while Ugolino helped to serve as a means for Dante to and Ruggieri are forever joined because of express his disagreement with the political the intense hatred that Ugolino fosters for traditions of arranged marriages such as the Ruggieri. The sins of Francesca and Paolo one he was involved in. were ones of omission in that they both In addition, Dante also uses this allusion knew it was wrong, but allowed their affair as a parable concerning social morality. to manifest itself out of a weakness of Dante placed the two lovers in the Second human wi ll. In contrast, Ugolino an

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look at their own Ii fe and change their beautiful, the falsifiers arc plagued with ugly problematic behaviors that may mirror those scabs that never heal. Dante uses these of the condemned in an effort to save allusions to the falsifiers in order to themselves from similar fates. denounce similar practices, which he stated There are other allusions in the Inferno were a result of vanity. Dante also claimed that are used as a way for Dante to express that there were no people more vain than the his distaste for other actions that went Sienese, which he supported by the fact that against acceptable social morals of his time. so many of their people were condemned for One such allusion is to a man known as similar sins, including Griffolino and Master Adam, who falsified the gold coin Cappoccio {Alighieri 187). Vanity often used as the primary currency of Florence represents a person who is so empty that during Dante's time. Master Adam falsified they seek to find ways of seeming fulfilled. so many coins that he jeopardized the entire This idea connects with the falsification of currency system in Tuscany, and was put to objects, which takes something devoid of death for his crime (Forman 67). Master value, and tries to pass it off as genuine. Adam points out several other individuals in Just as Dante uses other allusions to Hell that lead to other allusions regarding condemn certain social practices of his time, social morality. Two of these sinners were the allusion to the falsifiers serves the same the alchemists Griffolino of Arezzo and purpose. Dante believed that alchemists, Cappoccio of Siena. just like troubadours, too often strayed from Like Master Adam, Griffolino was a the true purposes of their profession. In this falsifier of metals. He was a wcJl-known case, the individuals tried to manipulate alchemist of his time, who was also known their craft for their own personal gain. for his brief relationship with Albert of Dante also takes the opportunity to condemn Siena. Historically, it is alleged that vanity in any group of civilized people. Griffolino told Albert that he could teach While Dante singles out the people of Siena, him how to fly. When Griffolino speaks a group of people whom he believed was with Dante in Canto 29, he says that it was particularly vain during his time, his meant as a joke, but as a result Albert had warning and condemnation of this type of him burned at the stake. However, it was behavior transfers to any group of people in not for his false pretenses that he was any time period. condemned to Hell, but rather for his Following the allusion to the alchemists, falsification of precious metals (Alighieri Dante uses another set of allusions to 187). The allusion to Cappoccio, an portray a similar moral transgression alchemist whose name means "blockhead," involving impersonation and exploitation. is another example of an individual who The first of these allusions is to the suffers as a result of their corrupt vocation. mythological figure , who developed These three sinners all face the same an incestuous fixation with her own father. punishment of having scabs all over their She later developed a plot with the help of bodies, and constantly scratching at them. her nurse to seduce him by disguising They are unable to transform their wounded, herself and waiting in his chambers. impure bodies back into their natural healed According to , Myrrha fled state. This fits their crime because in life from her father who threatened to kill her they all tried to tum base materials into when her scheme was discovered. She precious metals. Because they tried to tum transformed herself into a myrtle tree from something ugly into something rare and

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which , the lover of , was allegedl y born (Forman 67). Fraud causes the disintegration of every The allusion to Myrrha's sins helps to kind of human relationships, both il lustrate sociall y accepted moral view of personal and private. When sexual love th at Dante and hi s society adhered to. favors, political offices, religious offices, In Greek mythology, three forms of love are authori ty, money, and the very language personified in the goddess Aphrodite, the itself are fraudulent, the order and trust lover of Adonis. These three types of love that allowed men to li ve and work are Urania, symbolizing a pure love free together is gone (Fonnan 5 1). from bodily , Pandemos, symbolizing simple sexual urges, and Apostrophia, As evident in the Inferno Dante believed and symbolizing a rejection of unnatural attempted to illustrate this idea of the passions. Aphrodite's lover Adonis possible detriments to society and the social represents the product of the Apostrophia order of men that can occur if fraud is love that the two shared. Myrrha's sin Jed to allowed to become widespread and left an acceptance of an unlawful love when she unchecked. should have rejected any incestuous passion Dante uses an additional mythological towards a blood relative. allusion in order to condemn the whole The second allusion was made in nature of social and moral evil. This reference to Vencdico Caccianimico. allusion is made in refe rcnce to fo ur Venedico was condemned for his part in the confined to the Ninth Circle of Hell , and arranged of his own sister, serves to illustrate the magnitude of the Ghisola. Yenedico was a Guelph from repercussions of spreading evil. The giants Bologna, who promised his sister to a lustful found in Hell are combinations of the beings member of his political party (Forman 51 ). described in Scripture, such as Goliath, and For his sins, Venedico is confined to the the classical giants that tri ed to overpower circle of Hell devoted to simple fraud, in this the Roman and were thus destroyed by case pandering, since he "sold" hi s own Zeus (Royal 94). family member who had trusted him. The first Dante comes across Dante considered rraud to be the most during his journey is , the legendary harmful of all sins. Dante believed this was builder of what is known in scripture as the true because it illustrated the perversion of , who is unable to understand human intellect, the one aspect that truly or be understood by anyone. When he tried separates men from other animals (Forman to reach the through the union of 51). Fraud causes the individual to think many peoples' efforts, he caused the great through his malicious act before he commits separation that occurred when God struck it, and is therefore a premeditated and down the tower and caused each person to willing corruption of natural intelligence. speak a different language. The next giant is Dante uses the allusion to Yenedico in order Ephialtes, who is held by a large chain that to illustrate the danger in sinning through holds one arm in front of him and the other the misuse of the natural intelligence human behind him. This chain will hold for beings possess. He also uses it to show how eternity as punishment for his part in waging this type of leads to the ultimate a war against the gods. This punishment is corruption and downfall of the social morals appropriate because it causes someone of valued by many societies. As Carol Forman great strength and an evil mind to have his states, source of strength forever held at bay by

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heavy chains. The war that Ephialtcs started condemned to the circle of Hell reserved for only ended up bringing about hi s own traitors. personal war of rage against the chains that Branco d'Oria was responsible for the hold him for eternity. The third giant is death of his father-in-law, Michel Zanche. mentioned, but not seen by Dante. This For thi s crime, his soul was immediately giant is Briareus, a Titan who is confined in condemned to Ptolomea, a part of Hell a similar manner as Ephialtcs. The last giant reserved for the treacherous to guests and is , a vain giant who is said lo have hosts. Ptolomea was named after killed over a thousand while on Earth. Ptolomeus, who murdered his father-in-law He is not restricted like the others because at a banquet (Fonnan 75). Friar Alberigo he did not join them in their fight against the was also confined in Ptolomea for the gods, but his indecision kept the giants from murder of his younger brother and his being successful (Vergani 68-69). nephew while they dined at his house. The allusion to the giants was made in Both men were condemned for the order to illustrate a creature that possessed socially and morally reprehensible sin of all the essential elements of evil. Since in murder. Dante believed that the stability essence giants were human creatures, they and order of society were based on each possessed the powers of intellect and reason. person maintaining their proper place and However, because of their enormous size performing the proscribed duties and and strength, combined with their natural responsibilities that accompany these propensity towards evil deed and schemes, positions (Fonnan 75). Since the murder these giants were much more dangerous than ultimately disrupts the natural order, Dante any man (Royal 94). Upon meeting the considered it one of the most serious of all giants in the Inferno Dante states that sins and placed those guilty of murder in one "Surely when she gave up the art of making of the deepest pits of Hell. Dante's society such creatures, Nature acted well indeed" had a very hierarchical structure to it, and (Alighieri 195). Dante uses this allusion as because of this structure Dante believed that an opportunity to illustrate Nature's own laws were necessary to keep order and system of keeping evil in check, as well as peace. Dante believed that if people did not to illustrate that Nature is not perfect, a follow these laws against certain behaviors, characteristic reserved only for God. Dante such as murder, then society would be uses the giants as a message of warning that plagued with problems. Dante was all evil will fail and all evil persons or concerned with how real this prospect had beings will be condemned by the power of become in Florence, so he used the God. punishments associated with them in order Another social evil that Dante wished to to try to point out the destruction that results expose was murder, and he attempted to aid if such behaviors are left unchecked by a this cause through an allusion to Branco society. d'Oria. Dante uses a similar allusion to a Another interesting aspect of these two religious figure in order to emphasize that allusions is found in a comment Dante murder is in itself bad, but is made worse makes in the Inferno. When he meets Friar when committed by someone who is Alberigo, he expresses surprise because he supposed to be dedicated to serving God. had thought that Alberigo was still alive and This allusion is made regarding Friar living in Italy. He later sees Branco d'Oria Alberigo, a Jovial Friar. Both allusions take whom he knows for a fact is still alive, since place in Canto 33, and both individuals are Dante himself had spoken with him on Earth

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just prior to his journey (Alighieri 207). and objects were considered not only to be This incongruity puzzles Dante, who is told under the ownership o f the individual, but that when the two shades, or spirits, chose to they were actually viewed as extensions of murder their kinsmen, their souls were the owner's own self (Forman 61). immediately cast down to Hell, though their Therefore, this punishment fits the crime bodies remained in a seemingly life-like because the serpents in essence "steal" the state. However, their bodies were only thieves' bodies and violate each individual living, eating, and breathing shells of human sinner's body. beings, and were now possessed by Yanni Fucci's crime was robbing a holy (Vergani 71 ). place of sacred objects, a symbol of great This discussion accompanied these irreverence towards God. When Dante allusions in order to serve as yet another meets Vanni, he encounters the same warning for readers. Dante wished to warn attitude of irreverence when the tortured individuals who may be tempted to get soul makes an obscene gesture and involved with murderous schemes out of blasphemes God. Immediately after this political, personal, or religious motivation. outburst, serpents surround Vanni and attack He warned them that should they betray him. This immediate response of pain those who place trust in them and disrupt the inflicted upon an individual who blasphemes natural order that keeps society stable and or is disrespectful of God helps to illustrate moral, they would pay a heavy price for it. Dante's feelings towards appropriate They would be forced to forfeit their souls behavior. He feels that these actions will and allow demons to rule their bodies for the not be tolerated anywhere, even in the pits remainder of their natural lives on Earth of Hell where evil has manifested itself. (Royal 99). Dante uses this as a warning to readers to Dante uses an allusion to the thief Yanni always be careful what they say, for if it is Fucci in order to create another illustration not of a true, reverent manner, they will be of a moral and religious transgression. punished. Vanni was a thief from who stole One allusion that helps to explain certain valuable objects from the sacristy of San attitudes that Dante holds towards the roles Zeno's Church. When Vanni's crime was of religious figures and the appropriate discovered, an innocent man was captured behaviors they should exhibit is found in the and put in jail for over a year. Only after reference to Cardinal Ottaviano degli Vanni's accomplices had been captured and Ubaldini. Ottaviano was a cardinal of the hung for their part in the crime was the truth Church, and therefore was supposed to be discovered and the innocent man allowed to allied with the Guelphs, the party of the go free (Forman 59). Even though he was pope. Instead, during his life Ottaviano is not punished for his crime while on Earth, said to have commented that, "If there is any Vanni found his punishment waiting for him soul, I have lost mine to the Ghibellines" in the circle of Hell reserved for thieves. (Vergani 40). Instead of being loyal to the The punishment that Dante pope's party which Dante himself was a part designates for Vanni and other thieves is of, Ottaviano allied himself with the constant torment by serpents. The serpents Ghibellines, the party of the emperor. When twist and warp the thieves' bodies the Ghibellines defeated the Guelphs for the constantly, distorting them so much that it is second time at Montaperti under the difficult to tell where the serpent ends and command of , the man begins. Jn Dante's time, property Ottaviano was overjoyed.

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Because of Ottaviano's reaction to this (Vergani 23). llis resignation made it major defeat of his own pope's forces, Dante possible for Pope Boni face VIII, a bitter condemns him for heresy. Dante defines enemy of Dante, to come to power in his heresy as intellectual stubbornness. In the place. In Dante's eyes, "Celestine preferred words of Carol Forman, Cardinal Ottaviano to return to the obscurity of non­ " knew what the Church taught, but prefe rred commitment rather than face the problems (his) own interpretation. (He) did not trust of the papacy" (Vcrgani 23). what should or could be trusted" (Forman Dante employs the allusion to Celestine 41 ). By following his opinions rather than in two ways. First, he uses it to lead into a the teachings of the Church, Ottaviano reference to one of his most bitterly condemned himself to spend eternity locked regarded enemies, Pope Boniface VIII. in a confining steel sepulcher from which he Second, he uses it in order lo illustrate the would never be able to break free to magnitude of the problem of not being experience true enlightenment (Vergani 39). committed to righteousness or to any path at Dante uses this allusion to a religious all. Dante reinforces his view on the law of figure in order to illustrate that even men of restitution in order to make this point. God can become entangled in following According to this view the punishment their own paths rather than the path should fit the supposed crime, and therefore proscribed by God through His Church. Dante designed the punishment he envisions Dante wished readers to examine their own as fitting the crime o f being uncommitted. paths and be very leery of getting too Hornets are constantly stinging the sinners opinionated in case they allow themselves lo found in the vestibule as they blindly chase a become trapped into committing heresy. By blank banner (Royal 50). These banners illustrating the sad condition of a cardinal represent the emptiness inside of the who should have been a man of unshakeable individuals who are unable to decide what it faith, Dante is reassuring the reader that is that they stand for or believe in. there will be times when they themselves Dante warns readers in order to keep will lack faith, but the key to salvation is to them from making the same mistakes of never give up sight of the true path to being indecisive and not choosing a path in enlightened spirituality. Through this life. To make this warning effective, Dante allusion to Cardinal Ottaviano's plight, includes the threatening description o f how Dante makes it clear that this path can only they would be destined to spend eternity if be found by following the teachings of the they did make the same mistakes. Dante Church. makes a comment at the end of the allusion Dante uses two additional and connected to Celestine and the other indecisive souls, religious allusions in order to expose several expressing his disbelief of how it could be more abuses and inappropriate behaviors on possible that so many people had lived and the part of religious leaders. These allusions died without ever choosing any path at all. are made in reference to This comment represents the severity with and Pope Boniface VIII. Pope Celestine V which Dante views the problem. It also was condemned to the vestibule of Hell reveals Dante's ultimate purpose in reserved for the indecisive and including this allusion, which is to warn uncommitted. Celestine is known readers that even if they make a bad choice, historically for making the "great refusal" by it is better than making no choice at all giving up the "chair of Peter," namely his because at least then they will have the position as pope after only five months opportunity to redeem themselves.

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The allusion to Celestine's had been one of six elected officials from condemnation also gives Dante the the White Guelph party who had been sent opportunity to refer to his own personal to meet with Boni face in an effort to demand enemy and the representation of the many that he stop exerting such tyrannical powers problems that Dante believed were over the Italian provinces. While Dante and associated with the office of the pope duri ng the rest of the group were gone on their his ti me. This representation takes the fo rm mission, the Bl ack Guelphs regained control of the allusion to Pope Boniface Vlll. Dante of Florence, and Dante and several of his assigned Boni face to the Eighth Circle of political coll eagues were accused of crimes Hell , along with other counselors of fraud. they did not commit. Dante himself was Dante beli eved that Boni face had abused the later exi led with the threat of death if he gifts he had been given by God, incl uding returned to his beloved home in Florence. his position of pope, the gift of genius, and Dante blamed these events on Boni face, the gift of speech (Forman 62). Boni face's and believed that he was the individual who punishment for these abuses is designated to actually planned to have the most influential be that he will eternally be preserved as a members of the White Guelphs called away fla me of light, hi s true form being invisible from Florence so that the Black Guelphs to others just as hi s personal motives behind could more easily take over the city hi s behavior had been masked during his (Ferrante 31). Dante maintained that li fe. The fl ame has also been considered to Boni face had a strong motivation to do such be symbolic of the destruction that hi s a thing because he bel ieved that the office of motives and actions had the potential to the pope gave an individual such divine cause and in many cases did cause (Forman infa llibility that if anyone went against the 63). will of the pope, they went against the will The allusion to Boni face is not as of God ("Boniface"). This idea had caused detail ed as some of the other allusion Dante many problems between Boniface and King used in the Inferno. Dante mentions Philip TV of France, who wanted to have Boni face by name only in regards to the part more contro l of the clergy in France. he played in the condemnation of Guido da As a result of his personal beliefs about Montefeltro, who was discussed in a the papacy, Boni face felt that by gaining previous allusion. However, Dante heavily control over most of Italy, he would have a implies that Boniface has a position reserved sound basis for establishing similar practices for him in Hell among the counselors of and controls in France. King Philip IV was fraud. The reason for the mere mentioning in direct opposition with Boniface's wishes, of Boniface's name without a detailed and despite an attempt at a compromise, explanation is the fact that Boniface was the Boni face threatened to excommunicate him. reigning pope during the time that the However, before Boniface could officially Inferno took place and was written. If Dante declare King Philip's excommunication, the had been more specific with his allegations, King's army captured him. Since there were he could have faced even more serious many doubts about how the army's actions threats to his life than the exile he was would be perceived by the majori ty of the fo rced into. common people who supported Boniface, he Dante blamed Boniface for his exile and was released only to die a few months later held a very bitter attitude towards him as a result of mistreatment during his because he felt Boniface was seriously captivity ("Boniface"). abusing the powers of the papacy. Dante

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Boniface was accused of other abuses of Sanhedrin, the council that condemned Jesus the papacy, including hi s public practi ce of to die under Jewish law. Annas, ' , in which he gave prominent offices father-in-law, was also a member of the of he church to his fiiends and fam ily counci l and allowed Caiaphas to convince ("Boniface"). Boni face also claimed that as the rest of the Sanhedrin that it would be pope he held the "keys to the Kingdom," better for Jesus to be crucified than to and could therefore offer any man sacrifice the whole nation (Vergani 58). absolution, even before the sin was Caiaphas' arguments proved to be committed and even if the sinner was not persuasive, and met with no obj ections, so truly repentant of their sins (Royal 91 ). This Jesus was therefore arrested, tried, and concept was evident in the case of Guido da sentenced to death. However, because of Montefeltro, who was discussed earlier in the laws of that time, the Jewish counci l was the paper. Dante felt particularly strong not allowed to carry out Jesus' death about this case because Boniface used his sentence, so they turned him over to the religious powers to become involved in Roman authorities for crucifixion. In this political schemes that Dante felt "wage(d) way, they tried to remove the responsibility war, not against the Saracens, but against the and guilt from their own . The Christians themselves" (Vergani 64). Dante same punishment assigned to these religious felt that these practices led to Boniface fi gures was also assigned to many of the becoming 'an instrument of . .. spiritual religious clergy of Dante's own time, damnation of the sons of the Church," and although no names were explicitly he therefore deserved to be condemned to mentioned in the "Inferno." Despite the lack Hell himself for hi s actions (Vergani 64). of actual names, the fact that Dante made it Dante uses the allusion to Boniface in clear that contemporary clergy could be order to point out the principle problems found with the historical hypocrites with the papacy during hi s time. This was illustrates the idea that the same problems important to him in order to illustrate his existed in Dante's own time, and needed to idea that the church and the empire could be pointed out so that the same abuses of coexist as peaceful and equally powerful and religious power would come to an end. important forces in the peoples' lives. This Caiaphas' punishment for the role he concept was the single most important played in the death of the Son of God was to principle that drove Dante to reveal what he be crucified to the ground of the narrow saw as barriers to this coexistence. This chasm found in the Sixth Circle of Hell. allusion also served as a means of personal This enabled other hypocrites in the same retaliation for Boniface's perceived role in circle to walk over him with their heavy Dante's exile. Dante wanted readers to wooden cloaks, symbolizing the weights of understand that the papacy was not what it their hypocrisy that they tried to hide during should have been, and to drive them to push their lives. This punishment is fitting for more reforms that would lead to greater because it "forc(es) him, as chief hypocrite, peace and prosperity in their own lives and to bear the weight of the hypocrisy of the homelands. world" (Forman 58). Annas, along with the One other religious allusion that Dante other members of the Sanhedrin share a employs in order to make a statement similar fate as Caiaphas as punishment for regarding the condition of religious affairs their own roles in Jesus' death. was the allusion to Caiaphas and Annas. Dante has several reasons for including Caiaphas was the high priest of the this allusion. One reason is to allow readers

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to view the situation in tenns of their own the mi stakes and conditions of past sinners lifestyles, causing them to judge their own who were unaware of the evil nature of their actions and to change them if they discover ways. Dante is calling the reader to use his that they are participating in hypocritical book, and the characters in it, as a lens behavior. Another reason is to illustrate the through which they can critically examine magnitude of the sins of the members of the their own lives and mistakes. He then uses Council, particularly those of Caiaphas. the punishments and horrible description of This illustration provides readers with a Hell as an added incentive for the reader to warning not to act in a similar manner if change his ways, repent, and live a better faced with large political or religious issues. life. Through the almost allegorical manner of All of the different types of allusions the allusion to Caiaphas and Annas, readers Dante used in the Inferno contribute to are advised to be cautious when speaking in achieving hi s goals of warning readers and terms of who is actually a hypocrite; the one exposing the evils in his day and in the past. who proves he is a prophet or an instrument Each different allusion represents some of God, or those who deny all the evidence aspect of political, social, or religious life and claim their own holiness as a reason for that badly needed reform in Dante's time. their infallibility. Dante wi shes to illustrate Dante loved his homeland intensely and that no man is above God, and therefore not desired to see it live up to its potential, but all of His ways are revealed to men. he instead was forced to watch as its The final purpose of this allusion is citizens, political leaders, and religious primarily symbolic in that it deals with the leaders sent Florence into a downward spiral actual time frame and setting of the of immorality and social conflict. However, 'Inferno." This allusion to the men who since these problems tend to be timeless, a were responsible for the death of Jesus modem application of the lessons found creates a reference to the actual passion of within the allusions in the Inferno will Jesus during Holy Week, ending in Hi s always be possible for any society. The resurrection on Easter Sunday. This event greatest gift to be taken away from reading becomes important because it is on one of the interpretations of these allusions is the the anniversaries of this Holy Week that opportunity for self-reflection of one's own becomes the setting for The Divine Comedy. life in respect to the view the reader receives In this work of literature, Dante, from looking through the lens that is found representative of the universal sinner, sets in Dante Alighieri's Inferno. out on a journey through Hell, , and Heaven, which he reaches on Easter Sunday of the year 1300. Dante sets up a parallel of the Savior's own death and Works Cited rebirth to that of the universal sinner's own view of what might await him upon an Alighieri, Dante. The Divine Comedy. unrepentant death, and the new life that Trans. Allen Mandelbaum. New York: awaits him if he chooses to be reborn with a Alfred A. Knopf, 1995. faith in God. This element of the allusion ultimately "Allusion." In/op/ease Learning Network. illustrates the most important lesson of the lnfop/ease Dictionary. Online. 10 Inferno which is that the reader must March 2000. recognize and view their own sins through

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Barolini, Teodolinda. Danie's Poets: Textuality and 7i11t'1 in the Comedy. "Guelphs and Ghibellines." New New Jersey: Princeton University Press, . Online. I 0 1984. March 2000.

"Bertrand de Born." Encyclopedia.com - Hollander, Robert. Allegory in Dante's elibra/y. Online. I 0 March 2000. Commedia. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1969. Bloom, Harold. Danie's Inferno. Bloom's Notes. Broomall, PA: Chelsea House John 12 :6. The New American Bible. St. Publishers, 1996. Edition. New York : Catholic Book Publishing Co., 1970. "Boniface YUL" Th e Papal Library. Yahoo. Online. 10 March 2000. " Judas Iscariot." New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia. Online. 10 March 2000. Boyd, Patrick. Perception and Passion in Dante's Comedy. New York: Kay, Richard. Dante's Swift and Strong: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Essays on Inferno XV. Kansas: Regents Press, 1978. Dronke, Peter. Dante and Medieval Traditions. New York: Cambridge Morgan, Allison. Dante and the Medieval University Press, 1986. Other World. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Ferrante, Joan M., and Economou, George D. In Pursuit of Perfection: Courtly Ozanam, Frederic. Dante and Catholic l ove in Medieval Literature. Port in the Thirteenth Century. 11 Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1975. 2 d ed. New York: The Cathedral Library Association, 1913. Fisher, Lizette Andrews. The Mystic Vision in the Grail Legend and in the Divine Reade, W.H.V. The Moral System of Comedy. New York: AMS, 1966. Dante's Inferno. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1969. Franke, William. Dante's Interpretive Journey. Chicago, IL: University of Rolbiecki, John J. The Political Philosophy Chicago Press, 1996. ofDante Alighieri. Washington, D.C.: Salve Regina Press, 1921. Forman, Carol. Dante Alighieri's The Divine Comedy. Barron's Booknotes. Royal, Robert. Dante Alighieri: Divine New York: Barron Educational Series, Comedy, Divine Spirituality. New York: Inc., 1984. The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1990. "Gaius Julius Caesar." Yahoo. Online. lO March 2000. Sedgwick, Henry Dwight. Dante. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1918. Gilson, Etienne. Dante the Philosopher. London: Sheed and Ward, 1948.

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Took, J.F. Dante: Lyric Poet and Philosopher. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1990.

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