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Assessment of Childhood Racial-Ethnic Identity

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Assessment of Childhood Racial-Ethnic Identity ASSESSMENT OF CHILDHOOD RACIAL-ETHNIC IDENTITY Thesis Submitted to The College of Arts and Sciences of the UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for The Degree of Master of Arts in Clinical Psychology By Tierra Nicole Blackwell Dayton, Ohio August, 2012 ASSESSMENT OF CHILDHOOD RACIAL-ETHNIC IDENTITY Name: Blackwell, Tierra Nicole APPROVED BY: ___________________________________ Ronald M. Katsuyama, Ph.D. Committee Chair ___________________________________ Melissa Layman-Guadalupe, Ph.D. Committee Member ___________________________________ Jack T. F. Ling, Ph.D. Committee Member ___________________________________ Roger Reeb, Ph.D. Program Director ii © Copyright by Tierra Nicole Blackwell All rights reserved 2012 iii ABSTRACT ASSESSMENT OF CHILDHOOD RACIAL-ETHNIC IDENTITY Name: Blackwell, Tierra Nicole University of Dayton Advisor: Dr. Ronald Katsuyama Research shows that there is a lack of documentation and understanding in the area of racial-ethnic identity (REI) development. One of the main concerns is that there is no widely accepted or used measurement for this developing construct in children. The purposes of this study were to examine (1) if the assessment of activity preferences and racial model influence can represent REI in elementary and middle school children; (2) if participation in cultural programming (CP) is associated with children’s REI and their feelings toward member of their racial-ethnic group; and (3) if REI score relate to cross- racial acceptance. To accomplish this, three measures (the Activity Preference, Racial Model Influence, and Cross-Racial Acceptance Tasks) were developed and presented, via PowerPoint presentation, to two treatment and four comparison groups comprised of 144 Black second-, third-, sixth-, and seventh-grade students who attended two neighboring predominately Black Dayton public elementary schools. The treatment groups participated in African dance and drumming workshops. Pre- and post-test data were obtained and comparisons between participating and non-participating students were iv made. Results support the notions that (1) REI in younger children may be absent or in an early developmental stage; and (2) overall, there is no relationship between REI scores and cross-race inclusion. Limitations of the study are discussed and future directions suggest that future studies include more sensitive measures and a stronger CP variable. Further, If REI develops in children, then the present approach to measuring REI could be useful in exploring an important component of children’s social and emotional development. Keywords: Racial Ethnic Identity; Childhood Identity Development; Cultural Programming; Activity Preference; Racial Model Influence; Cross-Racial Acceptance v Dedicated to God, who makes all things possible, and to my family and friends who have truly supported and prayed for me throughout this experience vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………...…iv DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………vi LIST OF FIGURES …..………………………………………………………………...viii LIST OF TABLES ….……………………………………………………………………ix INTRODUCTION……..……………………………………………………..…………...1 CURRENT STUDY……………...…………………………………………….………..14 METHOD……...…………………………………………………………….…………..18 RESULTS……...…………………………………………………………….…………..28 DISCUSSION…………...………………………………………………….……………38 REFERENCES……………….……………………...…………………………………..45 APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………...51 A. PARENTAL CONSENT/PERMISSION FORM………………..…………..51 B. INSTRUCTIONS FOR STUDY TASKS…………...………………………53 C. PRETEST/POSTTEST RESPONSE SHEETS…………………..………….55 D. ANOVA SUMMARY TABLES..…………………………………………...58 vii LIST OF FIGURES 1. Activity Preference Task Photos………………………………………………………22 2. Racial Model Influence Task Flowchart………………………………………………25 3. Cross-Racial Acceptance Task Photos for Younger Female Participants…………….26 viii LIST OF TABLES 1. Participant Demographic Information…………………………………………..…...19 2. School (S1 and S2), Grade of Participants, and the Date of Pretest (T1, if any), Treatment (X, if any), and Posttest (T2)……………………………………….…….20 3. Summary of Quasi-Experimental Design………………………………………..…..21 4. Summary of Racial Model Influence Task Options……………………………..…..24 5. Activity Preference Task Pre- and Posttest Scores at S1………………………….....31 6. Activity Preference Task Scores for All Respondents (S1 and S2)……………...….32 7. Racial Model Influence Task Pre- and Posttest Scores at S1…………………..……34 8. Number of Racial Model Influence Scores for All Respondents (S1 and S2)…...….35 9. Cross-Racial Acceptance Task Pre- and Posttest Scores at S1………………….…..36 10. Cross-Racial Acceptance Task Scores for All Respondents (S1 and S2)………...…37 11. 2 (Grade) X 2 (Participation) X 2 (Test, pre- and post-) ANOVA of Activity Preference Task scores: S1 respondents only…………………………………..……58 12. 2 (Grade) X 2 (Participation) ANOVA of Activity Preference Task scores for all respondents (S1 and S2)…………………………………………………….…….…60 13. 2 (Grade) X 2 (Participation) X 2 (Test, pre- and post-) ANOVA Racial Model Influence scores: S1 respondents only…………………………………………….....61 14. 2 (Grade) X 2 (Participation) ANOVA of Racial Model Influence scores for all respondents (S1 and S2)…………………………………………………………..…62 15. 2 (Grade) X 2 (Participation) ANOVA of Cross-Racial Acceptance Task scores: S1 respondents only………………………………………………………………...…...63 16. 2 (Grade) X 2 (Participation) ANOVA of Cross-Racial Acceptance Task scores for all respondents (S1 and S2)………………………………………….........................64 ix INTRODUCTION The current study focused on a number of major issues involving racial-ethnic identity (REI) as it relates to children. The intent of this thesis was to examine whether REI is measurable in middle- and late-childhood. In addition to reviewing relevant definitions of race and ethnicity, this thesis addressed the lack of support for and information concerning REI in children. One issue, examined was how REI theoretical foundations seemed to contradict or discourage the study of REI in children, as the majority of theories and studies focused on adolescence and young adulthood. Additionally, the history of REI in studies was reviewed. Further, there was a general consensus and documented evidence of how negative feelings towards membership to a racial-ethnic group could have a negative impact on the development of REI. This thesis also looked at some of the benefits of having strong REI along with potential positive consequences and effects of membership. Finally, this thesis reviewed the most utilized models and measures of REI, argued the value of including children in the studies of the REI developmental process, and introduced three original tests, along with the current study, designed for the assessment of childhood REI. Definition of Terms General personal identity refers to “an inner sense of self that reflects a stable perception of who a person is individually and socially” (Diller, 2007, p 311). REI is one 1 aspect of an individual’s personal identity as it relates to one’s membership in a racial or ethnic group—“any distinguishable group of people whose members share a common culture and see themselves as separate and different from the majority culture” (Diller, 2007, p 310). Specifically, REI is defined as the degree to which a person feels connected to or shares commonalities with a racial-ethnic group (Helms, 1990). Even though race (based on physiological and biological characteristics) and ethnicity (based on cultural characteristics) are theoretically different, these terms are often used interchangeably when individuals refer to their own “race” and also in research (Worrell & Gardner-Kitt, 2006). Therefore, the term REI was used in this thesis in a manner described by Smith and colleagues (2009): “to acknowledge that one’s sense of belonging to a group of people may be based on race—that is, perceived shared physiology (although wide within-group variation exists)—as well as one’s ethnicity—that is, common values, beliefs, and practices” (p. 146). Theoretical Foundations The majority of REI theories and models focused mainly on adolescence and young adulthood, having theoretical underpinnings in the popularized frameworks of Tajfel & Turner (1986) and Erikson (1968). Although REI theoretical foundations did not support the notion that REI begins in childhood, it was important to review these frameworks that have impacted this field of study. Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) considered an individual’s sense of group identity to be of great importance to the concept of self. This theory focused on the feelings and attitudes intertwined with one’s sense of belonging and posited that people tended to value their membership with their group(s) and gained a sense of self- 2 esteem and pride from their association with others who have similar backgrounds. Further, for racial-ethnic minorities, Social Identity Theory posited that possessing a strong sense of belonging in their racial-ethnic group was central to their self-identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1986). Another major theoretical foundation of REI was Erikson’s (1968) Theory of Identity Development. This framework described a personal process of identity formation in which the individual, through exploration of one’s ethnicity, comes to a committed and secure sense of group membership. According to Erikson, this process takes place during adolescence and begins with a lack of awareness or understanding of one’s [racial-ethnic] background (Erikson, 1968). Over time, and through various personal experiences,
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