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Racial Identity Development, Racial Discrimination RACIAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT, RACIAL DISCRIMINATION, AND OTHER PSYCHOSOCIAL OUTCOMES OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS IN RURAL, RACIALLY SEGREGATED HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE 21ST CENTURY. Cherish Rashae Williams A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in School Psychology within the School of Education. Chapel Hill 2018 Approved by: Dana Thompson Dorsey Rune Simeonsson Sandra Evarrs Steven Knotek Marsha Richardson © 2018 Cherish Rashae Williams ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Cherish Williams: Racial Identity Development, Racial Discrimination, and Other Psychosocial Outcomes of African American Students in Rural, Racially Segregated High Schools in the 21st Century (Under the direction of Dr. Dana Thompson Dorsey) After more than 50 years since the Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ruling to desegregate public schools, racially isolated schools continue to exist. Previous research has shown that students attending racially segregated schools are subjected to larger class sizes, fewer teachers, fewer and lower-quality course offerings (Darling-Hammond, 2004), lower achievement scores (Rossell, Armor, & Walberg, 2002; Bankston & Caldas, 1996, 1997), higher dropout rates (Mickelson, 2003), and lower graduation rates (Orfield, Frankenberg, & Garces, 2008). The current secondary analysis, explored and examined the racial identities and rural experiences of the students attending three racially segregated and geographically isolated high schools within in a county of a Southeastern state. Student participants (n = 373) completed the Diversity Assessment Questionnaire, which was also accompanied by focus group interviews from teachers and administrators from each respective school. Descriptive statistics were run to examine the demographics of the participants, including gender, grade level, and parent’s highest level of education. Regression models were conducted to determine the significance of the relationships between the independent and dependent variables. Overall results indicated that African American students in these schools reported a iii moderately positive racial identity, and their educational aspirations were significantly related to their experiences of racial discrimination and perceptions of institutional support within their school climate. The study results provide support for the existing literature on racial identity development for Black youth and implications for policy changes on the local and state level to provide an equal education to students in geographically-isolated areas attending predominantly one-race schools. iv DEDICATIONS This body of work is dedicated to the beautiful souls striving to make a difference in their community, culture, and the world. Continue to exude your greatness Kings and Queens, and never stop. Someone after you will push harder and strive for greater because you did not quit; because of you, they can. I would also like to dedicate this work to my late great-grandfather, William Foggie Sr., and my grandmother, Trutelia Williams; because of them, I can. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you God for entrusting me to with the passion to complete this journey. I would like to thank my mother and best friend, Sherrie Williams, for your unwavering support at every milestone I have accomplished thus far. You have been my listening ear, my shoulder to cry on, my prayer warrior, and you have encouraged me when I questioned my purpose and journey. Thank you to my sister and brother, Shanna and Dereck Williams, especially for blessing me with my niece and nephews (Sheniah, A’mari, and Ayden). In the eleventh hour I always thought of their faces to provide me with the motivation to finish. Special thanks to my life partner, Jonathan Smith, I remain grateful for your support and your mother’s support throughout the years. To Dr. Dana Thompson Dorsey, thank you for your mentorship and adopting me as a part of your research team. As promised, I will provide mentorship to the next Queen in need of support to finish this journey. Thank you to my linesisters, The VindiKatiOn, for always accomplishing great feats and reminding me that success is not an option, but a requirement. I would also like to thank my best friends, godsons, family members, and village of supporters. For everyone who has encouraged me, prayed for me, supervised me, served as an editor to my work, I cannot say thank you enough for being a part of my support team. I would also like to thank the Gates Millennium Scholars program for ten years of financial support throughout my education. Bill and Melinda Gates have funded my education and I would not be here without their investment in my education. Lastly, to my future children, thank you for serving as an inspiration. I already love and dearly cherish your lives, education, and future. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... iiix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................ xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 Racial Socialization as a Theoretical Lens ......................................................................... 3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 4 Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 5 Independent Variables ............................................................................................ 5 Dependent Variables ............................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................ 7 Racial Socialization ............................................................................................................ 7 Racially Segregated Schools ............................................................................................. 11 Racial Identity and Ideology ............................................................................................. 13 Racial Identity and Rurality .............................................................................................. 16 Racial Discrimination ....................................................................................................... 18 Academic Achievement .................................................................................................... 20 Synthesis ........................................................................................................................... 23 Rationale For Study .......................................................................................................... 25 CHAPTER 3: METHODS ............................................................................................................ 28 Data Collection Site .......................................................................................................... 28 Participants ........................................................................................................................ 30 vii Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 31 Measures ........................................................................................................................... 31 Statistical Analyses ........................................................................................................... 33 Ethical Considerations ...................................................................................................... 34 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND RESULTS…………………………………………………… 34 Research Question 1…………………………………………………………………..36 Research Question 2……………………………………………………………………. 41 Research Question 3……………………………………………………………………. 42 Research Question 4……………………………………………………………………. 44 Research Question 5……………………………………………………………………. 45 Research Question 6……………………………………………………………………. 46 Results Summary……………………………………………………………………….. 53 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................ 55 Review of Findings and Implications…………………………………………………... 58 Limitations and Future Research……………………………………………………….. 62 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………... 65 APPENDIX: Diversity Assessment Questionnaire (DAQ) .......................................................... 69 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 78 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Southeastern County Demographics Characteristics…………..................................... 29 Table 2. Demographics by High Schools with the County……………………………………... 29 Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of All Students…………………………………………………. 37 Table 4. Descriptive Statistics by High School………………………………………………… 38 Table 5. Summary of Correlations……………………………………………………………… 42 Table 6. Summary of Regression Analysis for Racial
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