State of Biodiversity in West

A. Background which are harvested without a true understanding of the value that they represent for ecosystem functioning, 1. West Asia benefits from a wealth of and yet biodiversity is one of the main biological diversity that harnesses a factors contributing to sustainable variety of terrestrial, freshwater and development in West Asia, in particular coastal ecosystems and associated by supporting agricultural ecosystems habitats. The West Asian ( and ). comprises the Mashriq (, , , the Occupied B. Status of biodiversity in Palestinian Territory and the Syrian Arab Republic), characterized by 2010 conditions ranging from Mediterranean 2. Three of the world’s 34 biodiversity humid to semi-arid, and the Arabian hot spots are located in West Asia peninsula (, , , (Environment Outlook for the Arab , , the United Arab Region – EOAR, 2010)1: the Irano- Emirates and ), dominated by Anatolian region, the Mediterranean conditions ranging from semi‑arid to forest region and the Horn of desert arid. West Asia is part of three region, including the eco- that incorporate a variety and the Socotra archipelago in Yemen of ecosystems, including Mediterranean (Conservation International, 2007).2 forests, deserts, plains, rangelands, The last mentioned is a World Heritage savannas, oases, mountains, rivers, Site known for its rich biodiversity lakes, springs, mudflats, swamps, with 850 , 254 (about 30 marshes, mangroves, seagrass beds per cent) of which are endemic. In and coral reefs, all of which provide a wide array of ecosystem services and ecological corridors for migratory 1 The Environment Outlook for the Arab Region (EOAR species through the region. Societies 2010). Environment Programme ( version). http://www.unep.org/dewa/westasia/eoar/ (Last in West Asia depend heavily on the accessed 25 March 2010). nutritional, industrial and health 2 Conservation International (2007). Biodiversity Hotspots. benefits of the region’s biodiversity, http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/hot- spots_by_region/Pages/default.aspx.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 1 Dendrosychos socotranum, along the Male dragonfly Crothemis erythraea – of Yemen, 2005 Bahrain

the , some 200–250 plant stands of Juniperus spp., Acacia spp., species are commercially used for Tamarix spp., and Prosopis spp. The medicinal purposes (EOAR, 2010).3 remainder of the forests are scattered Marine resources represent a major across the mountains and hills of source of protein for human beings northern Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, the and arid rangelands provide rich Occupied Palestinian Territory and sources of and plant protein, the Syrian Arab Republic. The best thus contributing extensively to stands of closed forests are found on meeting food requirements in the the uplands near the Mediterranean. region. Arid ecosystems also offer Mediterranean forests provide rich forage crops of nutritional and plant and animal habitats dominated medicinal value, with a production by Abies spp, Pinus spp, and Cedrus ranging from 50 to 1,600 kg/ha spp. (Arab Organization for Agricultural 4. Protected areas play a vital role in Development, 2005);4 examples protecting unique ecosystems and act include Periploca angustifolia, Dactylis as models for effective sustainable glomerata, barbatus and management, while offering Oryzopsis milacea. opportunities to promote awareness 3. The forests and woodlands of West and education. Protected areas have Asia occupy only 1.34 per cent of existed in the region throughout West Asia’s total land area (Global history, in accordance with the Environment Outlook – GEO-4, 2007)5 concept of hima, which enforced strict but this figure is steadily rising as customary regimes on conservation countries recognize the value of and ensured the appropriate use of forested areas. The majority of forest natural resources for long periods. cover (62 per cent) is in the Arabian After the second half of the twentieth peninsula, with tracts of mangrove century many protected areas were forests growing along the coasts and lost in the Arabian peninsula and the Mashriq, owing to the gradual abandonment of the hima regime 3 See footnote 1. 4 Annual book of statistics, 2005, vol. 25, Arab Organization (EOAR, 2010).6 The number of for Agricultural Development, Khartoum. 5 UNEP 2007. Global Environment Outlook (GEO-4). United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi. 6 See footnote 1.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 2 hima‑based enterprises in Saudi Arabia dropped from 3,000 in 1969 to 9 in 1997 (IUCN/WCPA, 2008).7 5. West Asia harbours wetlands and water bodies of international significance, a number of which are listed under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, Especially as Waterfowl Habitat. Important rivers in the Mashriq include the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Jordan and the Litani, which enjoy a wide range of aquatic plant, fish and bird diversity, providing significant ecosystem services to the communities that protect them. The Arabian peninsula is characterized by oases, Cedars of Lebanon, Cedrus libani springs, swamps, coastal sabkhas (salty mudflats) and human-made water bodies that act as important paths for migratory birds and sustain reed beds and rare endangered species of water birds of international importance.

6. Dryland agro-biodiversity in West Asia is adapted to the region’s harsh climatic conditions. Some of the countries of the region possess unique flora of their own. Among the estimated 350,000 species of plants only 200 species are domesticated food sources and only 15–20 species are of major economic importance, constituting 83 per cent of cultivated food crops worldwide (EOAR, 2010).8

Interestingly, most of these major food crops originate in the Mediterranean Date palm, Phoenix dactylifera, Darkulaib drylands of what is known as the village, Bahrain “” area, which contain 4 Note: there are more than 100 varieties of of the 18 endemic flora hot spots. The date palm in Bahrain is one of the three centres of origin of species used in agriculture defined by Hawkes (1983),9 serving as this area currently feed over 38 per the centre of origin for wheat, barley, cent of the world’s population. Wheat lentils, forage species and many fruit alone accounts for one third of global trees. Species which originated from food production (International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry 7 IUCN/WCPA (2008). WCPA and Middle East. Areas (ICARDA) – West Asia Global The World Conservation Union – IUCN / World Commis- Environment Facility (GEF) project).10 sion on Protected Areas. http://cms.iucn.org/about/union/ commissions/wcpa/wcpa_work/wcpa_regions/wcpa_naf- rica/index.cfm. 8 See footnote 1. 9 Hawkes (1983), The Diversity of Crop Plants. Harvard 10 ICARDA West Asia GEF Project (2010). Dryland Agrobio- University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London. diversity. http://www.icarda.org/gef/explain.html.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 3 7. The coastal ecology of West Asia is C. Key biodiversity challenges varied in nature and surrounded by major open, semi-closed and closed in the region oceanic water bodies and marine 8. West Asia has recently undergone habitats. All its water bodies except profound ecological changes. According the Dead enjoy an abundance of to fragmented assessments, the marine communities. The region has suffered a substantial loss includes a wide range of species of of biodiversity and a degradation of fish, seagrass, corals, invertebrates and habitats as a result of human activities. sea turtles. The is known The environment is dominated by for a variety of unique fishes, algae, limited water resources, a scarcity invertebrates, shrimps and molluscs. of arable land, fragile ecosystems The and the sea area and episodic droughts. The relatively of the Regional Organization for the narrow ecological corridors, and the Protection of the Marine Environment closed and semi‑closed areas (ROPME) are characterized by that surround the region’s territory, in important reef fishes and coral species addition to the limited connectivity with a unique tolerance to variations caused by fragmented habitats, render in water temperature and high salinity these ecosystems more sensitive to the rates. Lastly, the threats of climate change, thus limiting benefits from comparatively rich the opportunities for species to migrate marine resources, hosting 8–9 per cent or adapt to the changes to which of the world’s marine varieties, with they are subjected. National, regional 622 sponge species, 600 fish species, and international efforts to conserve 3 turtle species and 12 squid species biodiversity and combat desertification 11 (EOAR, 2010). notwithstanding, biodiversity in West Asia is being degraded by the direct pressures of modern development and correlated underlying indirect drivers of biodiversity loss, such as population

Table 1 Red Sea species that have migrated to the East Mediterranean over the past 25 years

Species Family

Apogon taeniatus – Apogon thrustoni Apogonidae

Callionymus filamentosus Callidnymidae

Cynoglossus sinus – arabici Cynoglossidae

Hemiramphus far Hemiramphidae

Silhouettea aegyptia – Oxyurichthys papuensis Gobiidae

Sargocentron rubrum Holocentridae

Leiognathus klunzingeri Leiognathidae

Stephanolepis diaspros Monacanthidae Source: Fourth national report of the Syrian Arab Republic12

11 See footnote 1. 12 SCBD (2010) Secretariat for the Convention of Biological Diversity: Fourth national Reports. http://www.cbd.int/ secretariat/.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 4 growth and inadequate economic region’s drylands are fragile and the subsidies. degradation of habitats and the loss of related biodiversity are already leading 9. Moreover, West Asia has witnessed an to irreversible situations, provoking abrupt surge in coastal development in the migration of local communities, most of its main cities, owing to a rapid desertification and the spread of mass increase in population growth over the poverty. Severe water scarcity has been past 30 years. The region’s population worsened by heavy water demand is continuing to increase at more than in recent years from urbanization 3 per cent a year – by about 3.6 per and industrialization. One of the cent a year in the Arabian peninsular main biodiversity challenges is subregion and by about 2.7 per cent posed by the management of water a year in the Mashriq subregion (GEO resources and the maintenance Data Portal, 2005).13 West Asia’s total of inland water biodiversity. The population grew from 36 million in absence of effective regulatory 1970 to 118 million in 2005. In the mechanisms, the overexploitation Arabian peninsula, urban growth of groundwater and widespread patterns were much more rapid and pollution are all contributing to are among the highest worldwide. This further water scarcity in the region. urbanization was accompanied by a Pressures from agriculture are causing change in consumption patterns and the salination of groundwater, the lifestyles, triggered by financial wealth depletion of fresh water resources, from oil resources in the Arab region the deterioration of soil biota and a and the rise in oil prices during the decrease in land productivity. The 1970s and 1980s. degradation of dryland soils could also 10. In general, the increase in demand be a potentially significant source of for food, coupled with the economic carbon emissions. Limited ecosystem policies of the region, has led to the productivity in all sectors is likely spread of intensive agriculture systems to facilitate a shift to alternative and the cultivation of marginal land technologies in agriculture and to meet population needs. This has fisheries management, which may resulted in an overexploitation of in turn lead to the further loss of natural resources and the misuse of biodiversity from systems that pursue land, freshwater and marine resources. uniform monoculture production at In addition, threats to biodiversity the expense of other important genetic components have been exacerbated resources. by the consequential reduced range of the species’ natural distribution. As a result, land degradation and the fragmentation of unique terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and loss of habitats have become the main biodiversity issue in West Asia. Unless rigorous measures are taken at the highest levels to halt the loss in biodiversity, the imbalance between development and conservation is likely to intensify in the future and be further compounded by the impacts of climate change. 11. West Asia is also considered to be one of the most arid regions of the world. The ecosystems in the

13 GEO Data Portal, (2005). http://geodata.grid.unep.ch/.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 5 Source: Fourth national report of Lebanon14

12. The depletion of groundwater 13. Forest cover has recently undergone resources by unsustainable pumping significant losses and dieback has major effects on ecosystems in the primarily as a result of climate drought‑dominated conditions of the change, diseases and insect pests, region. Wetlands in Iraq and Jordan forest fires, illegal and excessive have been dramatically degraded. The fuelwood collection and charcoal drawing of groundwater for urban production, the conversion of forests and agricultural needs in Jordan and rangelands to croplands and the has resulted in the deterioration clearing of forests for unplanned urban of the Azraq wetlands and related expansion. Destructive quarrying in ecosystems and a drop in tourism mountain habitats takes place in some (EOAR, 2010).15 Water extraction in countries for development purposes, eastern Saudi Arabia and Bahrain thus exerting major stresses on the over the past few decades has led resilience of forest ecosystems. In to the degradation of many of the response to these problems, most region’s date‑palm oases and natural countries have developed national water springs. Serious wetlands action plans to combat desertification, degradation has been observed in and have mounted reforestation and southern Iraq, with the loss of 90 per afforestation efforts with indigenous cent of lakes and marshlands due to species in an endeavour to restore land reclamation, the construction forest ecosystems. Reforestation of dams and drainage activities. efforts, however, are more likely to The international community and result in less diverse and more uniform the United Nations system have ecosystems, an outcome which pulled together to respond to this validates the argument that prevention loss, rehabilitating Mesopotamian through conservation is always marshlands and working with preferable to restoration. marshland communities on various sustainable development initiatives.

14 See footnote 12. 15 See footnote 1.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 6 Source: UNEP report on support for the environmental management of the Iraqi marshlands, 2004–2009.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 7 Azraq Wetland Reserve in Jordan

• In 1978, the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature established the Azraq Wetland Reserve to conserve the invaluable oasis located in the heart of Jordan’s , which lies between a limestone desert in the west and a basalt desert in the east. It is distinguished by lush marshland and natural water collections that form glittering pools and streams, giving Azraq its name, which is the Arabic word for “blue”. • In 1977, the Ramsar Convention identified the Azraq wetland and the adjacent Qa mudflat as a major station for migratory birds on the African-Eurasian flyway. A variety of birds flock to the reserve each year, stopping for a short rest along their migration routes, staying for the winter, or breeding within the wetland. The Azraq wetland is the only oasis in the with a self‑replenishing system that has enabled it to sustain itself throughout the years. • Unfortunately, the wetland has suffered an environmental disaster because of the misuse and overuse of water from the Azraq basin. Owing to excessive pumping of water from the oasis to large urban areas and the illegal drilling of artesian wells for agricultural purposes, water levels have steadily dropped over the last 50 years, starting to decrease significantly in 1981 and reaching alarming rates in 1993. These high levels of water extraction have led to the extreme depletion of this natural oasis, drying up massive areas of invaluable wetland measuring in excess of 25 square kilometres. • With international support, the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature began a rescue effort in 1994, managing to restore a significant portion of the wetland, and aims to restore depleted water levels by 10 per cent. So far, this target has not been achieved because of continued water pumping, lack of manpower, and insufficient experience in wetland management. Thanks, however, to efforts by RSCN, many bird species for which Azraq was once renowned are now returning and special boardwalks and bird hides have been constructed to enable visitors to observe and enjoy them.Actatum. Lessic re enatque rtanuliciae ia multum deatra? Sendam erces!

Source: Fourth national report of Jordan, 2010

14. Terrestrial species and indigenous extinct in Saudi Arabia; and the plants are lost through houbara bustard, which has lost most in marginal lands. Tree species have of its population (GEO‑3, 2002).16 been lost as a result of deforestation in Jordan, Lebanon, Oman, and Yemen. Bahrain and Saudi Arabia have lost a variety of animal and plants species that used to thrive naturally. The over-hunting of large mammals and birds is another practice that has adversely affected biodiversity in the region. In most West Asian countries the regulations governing hunting are ineffective and legislation in this area is not enforced. Examples of species depleted by overhunting include the gazelle, which has been reduced both in number and Al-Shahaniya Oryx Centre in Qatar range; the Arabian oryx, Oryx leucoryx, which was driven to extinction in the wild but has been successfully reintroduced through captive breeding; the Arabian bustard, which is now 16 UNEP 2002. Global Environment Outlook GEO 3. United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 8 deterioration in water quality from the discharge of sewage, wastewater and sedimentation. Resulting eutrophication events are believed to constitute the main cause of the recurrent red tides in recent years on the east coast of Oman and in the ROPME sea area. Some coastal areas in Lebanon were found to be heavily polluted by discharged wastewater, leading to the destruction of existing marine life. 16. Although fisheries management is practised to some extent in some countries in West Asia, unsustainable fishing by communities afflicted by extreme poverty continues to destroy fish in massive numbers, often at a rate that prevents fish populations from replenishing themselves; 1.5 million tons of fish are exploited in the Mediterranean Sea (EOAR, 2010),19 using illegal methods such as dynamite, poison bait and electrical devices. The Red Sea has suffered the loss of major marine vertebrates and benthic invertebrate species and the Fragmented forest cover – Lebanon (Source: fishing communities dependent on this 17 Fourth national report of Lebanon ) sector are faced with extreme financial losses and poverty, further encouraging the illegal overexploitation of marine 15. There is considerable marine pollution natural resources. from a range of agricultural and 17. The spread of invasive alien species industrial sources. Heavy navigation has become another increasingly by oil tankers has also been causing serious problem in the region. substantial marine pollution in the Globalization and world trade region. Oil and gas extraction and have contributed indirectly to the recurrent oil spills, in addition to the introduction of foreign animal and discharge into the sea of industrial plant species across terrestrial borders effluents from land‑based sources, and via ballast water, with resulting are the main drivers of biodiversity ecological, economic and health loss. Examples of contamination have problems. West Asia is part of the Arab been found to the north of the Sitra region and the International Union for industrial zone in Bahrain (ROPME 18 Conservation of Nature and Natural 2004), affecting major shrimp farming Resources (IUCN) has classified 551 grounds and thus threatening a major species of in the source of income to the country’s Arab region as a whole. For example, economy. In the Mashriq subregion in the Syrian Arab Republic Ziziphus many marine species such as turtles mauritania is considered invasive; and sponges are threatened by a the red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrungiensis, has become one of the 17 See footnote 12. principal pests of date palms in the 18 ROPME (2004) State of the Marine Environment Report: ROPME Sea Area. Regional Organization for the Protec- tion of the Marine Environment, Kuwait City. 19 See footnote 1.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 9 Arabian peninsula (EOAR, 2010);20 that support existing fish stocks Prosopis juliflora in the United Arab have been buried or smothered by Emirates has caused biodiversity heavy construction activities and loss of associated shrubs; the wild the remaining species subjected to a cactus Opuntia spp. in Yemen has deterioration in water quality. Coral invaded rangelands and is now being bleaching incidents have been reported eradicated through mechanical means; as a consequence of rising seawater and the house crow, Corvus splendens, levels, high temperatures and salinity. is considered a widespread invasive Furthermore, recent natural disasters avian species. In the Mediterranean such as the Gono hurricane have Sea around 400 species of plankton caused algal blooms and resulted have been registered, some of which in red tides following the heavy are foreign to the sea’s ecosystem. sedimentation and turbidity on the Invasive alien species are paid Omani coast, which destroyed most of relatively little attention in the region the marine life in the vicinity. and hence fewer assessments are 19. The (GCC) available to track trends in their countries are responsible for about half distribution and population size. the world’s production of desalinated The lack of financial and technical water, to meet their growing water resources has impeded the capacity of needs. The environmental impacts research laboratories and government associated with desalination include agencies to improve their knowledge the impingement and entrainment about invasive species, while of aquatic creatures in plant intakes concerned sectors such as agriculture and the discharge of rejected hot and trade continue to have limited brine, residual chlorine, trace metals access to education programmes about and anti-foaming and anti-scaling this serious threat. agents into the near-shore marine 18. Biodiversity in marine ecosystems is environment, with direct impacts on threatened by human encroachment marine biodiversity. Furthermore, on to native habitats, mainly from wastewater recycling is widely physical habitat alteration, sand practised for irrigation in landscaping, dredging and reclamation to expand thus contributing to soil nitrification coastal development, an observed from effluents and inducing algal rising trend in the Arabian peninsula. growth and the deterioration of water A large percentage of the gulf coastline quality in aquatic ecosystems. Large has been reclaimed; Bahrain, for numbers of deaths of sea turtles, example, has expanded its coastline dugongs, dolphins, seals and birds have by 40 square kilometres; 40 per been reported in the nearby coastal cent of Saudi Arabia’s coastline has areas. been developed, with the resulting 20. Biosafety has become a rapidly growing destruction of 50 per cent of its area of concern for ecosystems and mangroves (EOAR, 2010).21 In the health in the region, notwithstanding ROPME sea area, near the United the benefits of biotechnology for Arab Emirates coast, the development food security. Although some West of massive marine artificial islands Asian countries such as Bahrain, has been gaining momentum Iraq, Kuwait and the United Arab over the past decade. Prior spatial Emirates have not yet ratified the planning and assessment of habitat Cartagena Protocol, while others destruction has been ignored and have not set up or implemented only limited sustainable management suitable frameworks to regulate the procedures have been implemented. use and transboundary movement of Marine benthic species and corals genetically modified organisms and living modified organisms, there is 20 See footnote 1. evidence that biotechnology products 21 See footnote 1

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 10 Marine biodiversity in Oman Arabian Gazelle, Gazella gazella cora, al Saleel, Oman are being experimented on or traded although they continue to endure in many countries. This issue requires hardships from recurrent wars. urgent attention. Nonetheless, further Iraq has recently become the 192nd capacity‑building efforts relating to signatory to the Convention on risk assessment and the management Biological Diversity. of genetically modified organisms and their impacts on health and D. Trends in the decline and biodiversity continue to be required in extinction of species the region. 23. Across the Arab region as a whole, 21. Uneven land tenure across the region 1,084 species are threatened with has led to a mismanagement of extinction, 24 per cent of these being natural resources and is hampering fish, 22 per cent birds and 20 per cent the implementation of adequate mammals (IUCN/WCPA 2008).22 In West administrative procedures. In addition, Asia, mammals have been undergoing unregulated tourism has allowed major losses in populations as a access to ecologically important sites consequence of habitat destruction. In and pristine habitats by motor sports the Mashriq, the numbers and natural adherents and the infrastructure of distribution of Capra ibex, and Gazella the sport, resulting in considerable spp. have been limited by geographical biodiversity loss. The unique area. Leopard populations have traditional knowledge, innovations dropped significantly in the mountains and practices associated with these of the Arabian peninsula (EOAR, ecosystems, which are essential to 2010).23 The Oryx leucoryx has become the conservation of existing genetic extinct in the wild but has been resources, have become threatened. salvaged through captive breeding 22. Lastly, the lack of progress in achieving in a number of Arab countries. In peace and security in the region has Socotra, Yemen, 250 endemic species been a great barrier to biodiversity are threatened with extinction conservation in West Asia. Natural (Ministry of Water and Environment resources are used unsustainably for and Environment Protection Agency, survival purposes and conservation is 2005);24 in Oman 136 plant species paid scant attention on the political are threatened and 46 per cent of agenda by decision makers in conflict- all native species are endangered riven territories. The Government of Iraq and the Palestinian Authority 22 See footnote 7. have, however, been vigorously 23 See footnote 1. promoting regional biodiversity 24 Ministry of Water and Environment – Environment Protec- activities and participating in tion Agency (2005). National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for Yemen. UNDP/GEF/IUCN YEM/96/G31 biodiversity conservation programmes, http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ye/ye-nbsap-01-en.doc.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 11 (Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs, 2001);25 in Jordan the bird species Pterocles alchata, Fulica atra, Ammoperdix heyi and Falco peregrinus are classified as rare and endangered (Ministry of Environment, 2008).26 24. Wild medicinal plant species are becoming rare or threatened with extinction because of habitat destruction resulting from changes in land use, excessive harvesting and harsh climatic conditions. In Jordan, Spiny-tailed Lizard, Uromastyx microlepis, Crocus hermoneus and Origanum Sakhir desert area, Bahrain syriacum habitats have been reduced in size while Capparris decidua has become threatened with extinction. In Jebel El-Arab in the southern Syrian Arab Republic, there is evidence that 50 per cent of the loss of plant species is due to poor management practices. Coral bleaching in the ROPME sea area has affected 20,000 square kilometres of coral beds, representing approximately 7.9 per cent of the world’s total coral cover (ROPME, 2004).27 Dugong populations in Bahrain, Soft coral Dendonephthya sp; Sergeant Qatar and the damselfish Abudefduf vaigiensis, United have been heavily affected by marine Arab Emirates construction activities that have destroyed most of the seagrass beds on seen as an essential undertaking, given which they feed. the inherent links between climate change and biodiversity. Although E. Country responses in some parties to the Convention on pursuit of the 2010 targets Biological Diversity have reported successes in such matters as the 25. The determination of West Asian gazetting of protected areas and the countries to conserve and restore community management of natural biodiversity has been demonstrated resources, West Asia is in the same through the ratification and position as other regions in that it implementation of biodiversity- has still failed to meet the 2010 target related multilateral environmental of achieving a significant reduction agreements, protocols and regional in biodiversity loss. This failure is agreements and through their support principally attributable to the fact for the Millennium Development that biodiversity is undervalued and Goals, in particular goal 7, to ensure the environment is not at the top of environmental sustainability, and goal the political agenda. The region is not 1, to eradicate extreme poverty and homogeneous and it lacks the financial hunger. The harnessing of synergies and technical resources necessary to with efforts to attain climate change achieve regional conservation goals. mitigation and adaptation targets is Political will and environmental awareness, coupled with the necessary legislative and institutional reforms, 25 First report on the state of the environment in Jordan, Ministry of the Environment, . are required to enhance the integration 26 See footnote 12. of biodiversity in sectoral planning 27 See footnote 17.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 12 Table 2 World Conservation Monitoring Centre world database on the protection of nationally designated protected areas

Country Number of designated protected areas

Iraq 6

Syrian Arab Republic 17

Jordan 22

Lebanon 15

Yemen 6

Saudi Arabia 128

Kuwait 19

United Arab Emirates 15

Oman 6

Qatar 4

Bahrain 4

land cover to 10‑15 per cent over and decision‑making in economical the coming 10 years. Protected areas valuation procedures. and biosphere reserves in the Arab 26. Environmental impact assessment region continue to be established and studies have been implemented to a wetlands of international importance certain extent in the region; as yet, are being registered under the Ramsar however, public participation in the Convention. Nevertheless, the overall process is limited. Efforts must be area under such protection remains mounted in the region to incorporate small when compared to global efforts biodiversity policies into national towards this target. For example, the development planning processes in proportion of protected areas in Jordan all economic sectors. In West Asian and Oman is below 6 per cent of the countries, as is the case elsewhere, countries’ total area, as compared to effective enforcement measures in a worldwide ratio of over 12 per cent biodiversity conservation need support (UNEP, 2008)28. In West Asian countries, from decision makers and legislators the number of international terrestrial who are officially mandated with and aquatic protected areas rose from ensuring the integration of economic 120 in 1970 to 231 in 2007, totalling valuation of biodiversity in the market 87,863,902 hectares (UNEP 2007).29 and government taxation systems. 28. While in some countries, such as 27. Endeavours to expand protected Jordan and Lebanon, the number areas and biosphere reserves in West of protected areas has grown and Asia have been gaining momentum in some countries, with the aim of 28 UNEP (2008). GEO Data Portal. United Nations Environ- extending their proportion of overall ment Programme. http://geodata.grid.unep.ch/. 29 Ibid.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 13 management schemes have been introduced, local communities need to be more closely involved in decision‑making to ensure effective administrative and financial management. In Saudi Arabia 16 protected areas have been gazetted, adding 71,782 square kilometres to the total area under protection. In Bahrain, a breeding programme for the highly endangered marsh frog, which disappeared as the country’s freshwater springs became degraded, has been established and a recovery programme has been implemented for were reintroduced in three reserves, the rare Arabian sand gazelle in the al- Shahanya, Ushaijrij and Almazhabyah. Areen wildlife park. The Rhim gazelle, which had become locally extinct, was also reintroduced 29. The most significant achievement in following successful captive breeding ecosystem restoration was the work efforts. The reintroduced populations to restore the aquatic ecosystems have grown to number 650 Arabian destroyed by drainage and dam oryx and 3,500 Rhim gazelles. In construction in the Ahwar marshlands addition, some captive breeding efforts between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to reestablish the wild cow, and also in Iraq (UNEP, 2003).30 The creation of certain gazelle species, have been large artificial wetlands in Iraq and undertaken in Jordan, Oman, Saudi the Syrian Arab Republic, however, Arabia and the Syrian Arab Republic. has offset the loss of biodiversity on the Euphrates river by attracting 30. West Asia relies on a wealth of migratory and water birds important community-based traditional to the West Asian region. At the same knowledge and customary laws that are time, successful in situ conservation at the core of biodiversity conservation. of endemic cereal crops has been There is general consensus among the undertaken in Jordan and the Syrian countries of the region to support an Arab Republic (EOAR, 2010). In international regime on access and Yemen, populations of the Arabian benefit‑sharing, to regulate the use of leopard have been restored through genetic resources and to protect the ex situ conservation and progress rights of the indigenous communities has been made towards biodiversity that are preserving them. The conservation targets through research benefits of biodiversity as a resource programmes and establishment of which underpins ecosystem services gene banks. In Qatar, progress has and the potential advantages from been made towards the restoration bioprospecting, which may result in of the Arabian oryx, populations of patents or sales of new drugs, together which were extinct in the wild. A small with the inherent economic value founding herd was successfully bred in of biodiversity, are evidenced by the captivity at the Arabian Oryx Breeding income generated for stakeholders. Centre and animals from this stock For example, in the Syrian Arab Republic, traditional ways of life, such as nomadic grazing and forest use, 30 UNEP (2003). Environment in Iraq: UNEP Progress Report. United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva. are encouraged and already protected http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/Iraq_PR.pdf.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 14 under local laws. National laws and by the Strategic Plan and the new by-laws by all parties are yet to be post‑2010 biodiversity targets under reviewed in line with the international the Convention on Biological Diversity. regime on access and benefit‑sharing, To bridge the gap between science which is to be adopted at the tenth and policy and to assess the status of meeting of the Conference of the the biodiversity of the entire region Parties to the Convention on Biological and the associated indicators and Diversity in Nagoya, Japan, in 2010. trends, more research based on sound The Convention’s clearing‑house science and more intensive monitoring mechanism has demonstrated are needed. Decision makers in the that international cooperation is region must make concerted efforts fundamental to global biodiversity to endorse national laws governing conservation. Stakeholders in West human behaviour. To that end, regional Asia, in particular Lebanon and Saudi dialogue between Governments, Arabia, have been implementing this stakeholders and the science mechanism effectively to develop community must be encouraged. further knowledge on biodiversity Last but not least, efforts to reconcile trends, technologies and success development and conservation while models of conservation programmes. maintaining an ecological balance in the surrounding natural world 31. In conclusion, more substantive efforts represent the path that must be are required in West Asia to meet followed if the future of this planet is to the global biodiversity objectives set be safeguarded.

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 15 United Nations Environment Programme Division of Environmental Law and Conventions/ Regional Office for West Asia (ROWA) United Nations Environment Programme Tel: 973 178 127 77 Ext. 752 P.O Box 30552 Fax: 973 178 251 10/1 Nairobi, 00100, Kenya E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.unep.org.bh

State of Biodiversity in West Asia | 16