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Home , Nature reserve, Protected area

The Relationship Between Protected Areas and Indigenous Peoples

Raymond F. Dasmann University of California Santa Cnz, California, USA

ABSTRACT. ""-pnatural areas untouched by the really wildest . Americans still want to believe man-has alwaiys been rare, but onl, recently have people :hat those places are still remote and wild, just as they started drawing lines on inaps and preventing people from want to beliexe that there are "Pacific paradises" that using thim hav-e traditionil1y exploited. But without they have not yet spoiled. They are encouraged in this the support local people, the future of any is myth by television, with its never-ending wild animal insecure, since in tire " ;earchfor the means of their own sur- series which hover near "prime viewing time" and oc­ vival, the temptation t., e ploit reserued resourcesmau be irres- casionallv even invade it. istable. Such support should not be difficult to obtat,,, provided Unfortunately, in those "marc places" for Ameri­ tire proper approach is used: but conservatioi is not to cans, the pecple who have always lived there believe be accomplished onhI bya the esrablishing of specially protected the myth also, even though in their latest excursion into natural areas-it must be practice4 in all places at all times. the rainforest or the desert they have encountered the Guidelines on how to prov'ide for long-terv' positive interactions or the herds of those who had moved in from between local people and the are provided, the other side. People cannot accept the rate of change or the disappearance of natural abundance. It is too fast and it takes place within the lifetimes of adults who 1. INTRODUCTION spent their growing .years in a seemingly changeless . Nobody before had to worry about taking care Lf Perhaps the most difficult problem faced today in our the or the wild animals--they took care of them­ efforts to accomplish conservation of nature is the ina- selves, or God watched ever them. They had not been bilit' of people to recognize and comprehend the rates concerns. It is asking much for pe,-ple to accept at which the world is changing. For as long as people that in just five, ten or twentv years all the rules have have been on earth there have always been wild areas- changed, and that what "always has been" is no longer. the land across the river, the other of the mountain, Now we are drawing lines on the map, attempting the frontier. Throughout the human story there has to separate the wild from the tamed. We designate laids areas, been a backdrop of wilderness before which the acts of as nature reserves, national , or wilderness civilization were played. There seered to be always and we say that these are no longer places where people the more lands, more timber, more pastures, more wild can live, or take from, or use in any way except to inter­ *nimals to give substance to the myth of inexhaustible way of the visitor who comes to look, but not lived esources. fere. This is difficult for people who have always In the , even after most ,f the in wild country and consider themselves part of it. were rich had been :ettled by Europeans, there were still areas There may have been areas on earth that that seemed untamed-wild mountains, southern and teeming with but not permanently occupied by call wilderness. But it seems more swlmps, deserts. But beyond these were the more magic people, what we now areas were visited at least seasonally or p;aces, names to excite the adventurous spirits of young likely that such by or gathering parties, or were people-, the Arctic, the Himalayas, th Amazon, occasionally

667 to which We used by the shamans or byyourg people on a "vision been in a particular place, and thle degree quest." The really barren and lifeless areas of tile poles, have adapted our ways of life to that area. Some can back over cen­ not trace their ancestry in a particular area the most arid deserts, the highest mountains, were to stay. they, turies, others have just arrived and don't intend occupied by people, and probably not visited. But par­ Some are entirely dependent on the resources of a pretty much that way today. Most of the land are still area, others come to visit, to trade, or to raid, as formal wilderness or set aside in na- ticular we designate source of livelihood elsewhere. Attitudes passed on to us by people who and have their tional ; is land rcsources can differ depending on at least, their homeland. We toward land and considered it to be, in part of allegiance to a par­ quality because they background, tradition and degree consider it tW be of real differences land. Too often ticular living area. Thee are therefore did not treat it the way we have treated to the need our war- between people in relatin to their response they have gone, and our legal designations, These, to to manage, or protect th. resources of an area. dens and patrols, take their place. Something seems however, cannot be resolved by a simple native'non­ have gone wrong, somewhere along the way. native dichotomy. Some natives only wish to go some­ We are nc.v attempting to find ways to put things where else; some non-natives deeply desire to become back together, to integrate the conservation of human natives and to cherish and care for the land they occupy. cultures with the conservation of the natural world. Wre In an earlier paper (Dasmann, 1974) 1attempted to do this in part to encourage those wlho have cared for distinguish people, a; those who live within an the land in the past to continue to do so, and in part ecosystem or several adjacent and related to encourage those who have not cared to begin to take and are dependent on those resources for their exist­ an interest in conservation of nature, to realize that their ence. Such people must over time learn to Ii.e within future is tied in with the future of the natural environ- the ecological limitations of their home area if they are ment and with the proper use of the lands and resources to survive. Although individually they may not have a on which they depend for their livelihood, strongly developed ecological consciousness, culturally We realize that the national parks, nature reserves the' are committed to sustainable ways of life that are and other protected areas of the world have most com- essentially sound in ecological terms. By contrast, bios­ monv been established without either the advice or phere people are those tied in to the global economy, whose consent of the people most likely to be directly affected livelihood is not necessarily dependent on the resources by their establi-hment Without the support, or at worst of any one particular ecosystem. I did not intend to set acceptance, by these people, the future of an\ protected up a dichotomy with this terminology, but rather to area cannot be considered secure, since in their search indicate the extremes of a cultural continuum. Much of for the means for their own survival the temptation to the difficultv encountered in attempting to achieve eco­ take wildland resources from the area, or to encroach logically sustainable ways of life comes from people who upon its boundaries, will tend to be irresistable. Fur- are in transition from one extreme to the other-their thermore, the prospect for extending any system of pro- cultures have been disrupted or destroyed, and with tected areas to take in new lands or becomes that their means of working with the natural environ­ increasingly dim where popular support for protection ment to which their ancestors were adapted, but they of nature is lacking. have not yet achieved any firm foothold in the global economy. From the viewpoint of cultural conservation, it is 2. INDIGENOUS PEOPLE obvious that the ecosystem people are the most likely to be adversely affected by contact with representatives In attempting to work with people who live in or near of the more dominant culture, including those who come to areas that have been designated as having protected with the intention of establishing nature reserves. The' status by the of the country concerned, or are also the people who have in the past maintained areas that are considered vorthy of some form of legal the ecological conditions that today are 'avourable to protection, there is dange, that we will confuse our- the establishment of nature reserves. However, does selves by our own terminology. If we designate some this mean that ihey should be given favoured status? people as "indigenous" and consequently worthy of Does their past record of occupancy of the area, includ­ special consideration, we leave other people in the cat- ing care for the wild species within it, entitle them to egory of "non-indigenous" and consequently not wor- remain in place even when the interests of the national thy of special consideration. I do not believe we can risk government and the international community dictate such a dichotomy, which from the outset establishes that should be given first priority tvo classes of citizens, one with special privileges, and in that area? If the answer is yes, should this entitlement the other presumably to be kicked around as usual. remain even after they adopt the ways of the dominant In one sense there are no indigenous people: all society-when automatic weapons replace bows and have ancestors who have come from somewhere else. arrows? At some time every native group was an invader, an I would suggest that all people who live in an area exotic coming from some other place. There are, how- and consider it to be their home must have similar rights ever, marked differences in how long each of us have

NATIONAL PARKS, CONSERVATION, AND DEVELOPMENT 668 and be given equal consideration when planning for laws become mo'e restrictive when a species is endan­ nature reserves or other protected areas. The question gered. It must be flexible enough to recognize that some to be asked is not whether they are indigenous, but people can be compensated in cash for the lands or whether their ways of life are compatible with the ob- resources they may be asked to sacrifice, but that others jectives and goals of conservation. Hunter-gatherers who cannot. Those who cannot are not only those with tra­ have traditionally been conservative in their use of wild- ditional rights or communal ownership, but all those life and resources and constitute no threat to the who closely identify with the land and the natural en­ future of wild species in that area should bc encouraged vironment where they live-the new natives on whom to remain within a and to participate the future may depend. actively in its protection. However, this arrangement can only work so lorg as their numbers and their re­ source utilization remain in balance with the productive 3. NATURE RESERVES AS ISLANDS capacity of the area. As Brownrigg (1982) has pointed out, "protected areas planning must also anticipate pop- Since the work of McArtaur and Wilson (1967) there ulation increases and culture change. It is unrealistic to has been increasing interest in the concepts of island expect a group to atrophy, or worse, to 'return' to some biogeography as these apply to the size, shape, and traditional technology long ago discarded in favour of distribution of national parks, nature reserves and other a more modern alternative." Agreement must be reached, protected areas. The prospect that areas designated for however, for population surpluses to be accomodated nature conservation may in the future exist as islands elsewhere, and for utilization, whether tradi- surrounded by lands used intensively for the production tionai or modern in its technology, to remain within of and other necessities for human survival has prescribed limits. Otherwise the goal of nature conser- caused serious concern that these areas may be inade­ vation is sacrificed. quate to provide for the survival of the species originally Hunter-gatherers, fisherfolk, hunter-gardeners, contained within them. The basis for this concern has shifting cultivators, and pastoral nomads could in theory been explored in books by Soul and Wilcox (1980) and all be accommodated within protected areas, providing Frankel and Soul (1981). To counteract any tendency they agree to the limitations already described. But the toward insularization of nature reserves, the Unesco same rules must apply to non-traditional people who Reserve project (Unesco-MAB, 1974) has pro­ occupy areas of high priority for nature conservation, posed that such reserves cousist of a fully protected core including those primarily involved in raising cash crops area () surrounded by buffer zones for export. If their ways of using the land do not conflict which may be used for recreation (national parks) or with nature conservation priorities, and if they agree to compatible forms of resource exploitation (managed for­ limitations on their numbers and their use of resources, ests, , hunting areas, etc.) grading outward they can equally be welcomed within a protected area to more inensively used areas. Although man' desig­ and be asked to join in the activities of protecting and nated biosphere reserves do not fit these criteria, triose managing the reserve. national parks systems that have been reasonably suc- To say these things is easier than to do them. If the cessful for nature conservation, such as tho-Se of the doors of the national )ark- and reserves are to be opened United States and , do have Ae Facto buffer zones to some people, perhaps under carefully detined con- surrounding and often connecting the national parks. ditions, then what about others who also claim rights These are for the most part federal, state or provincial to the land or resources of the area? Are those with areas in which use is controlled and managed with a ownership rights which have been formally recognized view toward sustainabilitv. Furthermore, even beyond bv the government to be treated differently from those these protected areas the general level of jand manage­ with traditional rights dating back into the distant past ment is reasonably good, and the common attitude of that are not formally recognized? What about those, the human population is at least indifferent and benign, such as many American Indian nations that once had and at best highly favourable to nature conservation. formal rights, established by treat', but have lost their As a result, many tovns and are de fcto land to others or to the government despite these agree- , supporting an unusual abundance and di­ ments? Furthermore, are we to agree to one set of con- versity of wild bird species as well as a surprising variety ditions governing the establishment of protected areas of small . in the non-industrialized world that do not also apply In those parts of the United States where nature to the industrialized ;%orld? Are the Sioux in the Black conservation is most successful, it is not the nature areas Hills to be treated differently from the Yanamani in the that are islands, but the human communities. The pat­ northern Amazon basin? ' tern of human use is such that cities, and inten­ What I am recommending is a uniform code for the sivelv used rural areas form a pattern of large and small treatment of people whose cultures or means of liveli- islands connected by transportation corridors, but sur­ hocd are likely to be affected by the establishment of rounded by much larger areas within which native veg­ protected areas. The code can take into account the etation and animal life survive very well. is likely to be secure, and special problems of endangered peoples, just as The future of no country

669 NMeDirection in v'roteceArea ,anagement Suitable living spaces for man will survive, banized areas provide certainly no system of parks and reserves areas-no wild species. if we attempt to set up systems of protected system of land matter how well distributed-within a degradation of use that otherwise is contributing to the use re- 4.2. Ownership, tenure and resource , exhausting the pvoductivity of renewable of agricultural sources, and relying on heavy inputs tenure or resource use resource The rights of land ownership, chemicals to compensate for a deteriorating cr resource do not include the right to should pro- abuse. Recognition of sufch rights by base.In considering the relationships of people to for reasonable care and well beyond the be dependent upon agreements tected areas, therefore, we must look and its resources. the local peo- stewardship over the land boundaries of those areas and work with sustainable svstems of land ple to create ecologically as parts and resource use. Nature reserves must be seen Obviously, 4.3. Protected natural areas of those systems, not separate from them. must see the opportunity for economic stability intended people The establishment of protected natural areas of ecological sustainabilitv before they will or in a context to provide for the conservation of biotic communities serious interest in protecting *he wiid environ- but with­ take a wild species in surrounding or adjacent areas, merits of protected areas. between peo­ of strict out adequate attention to the interactions Without in any way denying the importance can have adverse ef­ closely pro- pIe and the natural environment, nature reserves, national parks or other To provide for long­ to universal fects on local economies or cultures. tected areas, equal attcntion must be paid guidelines are apply term positive interactions, the folloving ru!es of and nature protection that of min- potentially useful: throughout the country. In various calculations size needed to maintain the genetic long imum population Use of local knowledge. People who have a wild animal species and minimum 4.3.1. diversity within a or occupancy of areas to be considered needed to maintain that pop- historv of use area of protected reserve have a familiarity with its species, we will never have a for protection also ulation, it becomes apparent that processes which cannot adequate to communities and ecological system of nature reserves or n7tional parks inventories or base­ must readily be gained through surveys, all wild species 'Saul and Wilcox, 19S01. We particular, protect of line studies by experts from elsewhere. In able to rely on the rational use and management anc dis­ be long-term trends or fluctuations in abundance lands outside the reserves. species, past influences and ch.nces, of national parks and na- tribution of wild The magnificent system for human purposes can be de­ is likely to be in- values and usefulness ture reserves in the state 'of Alaska local people. Consultation for those spe- term.ntd most easily from adequate to protect wolves and caribou; to gain the knowledge state of .-,laska. with these people is essential cies alone we need virtually the entire for the avoidance for the? important for both conservation and Fortunately we have the entire state of Alaska, areas, of conflict. wildlife laws of that state, which apply to all enforced-the necessary degree of protection. offer-if 4.3.2. Local involvement with planning of protected proposing therefore that we give attention to rules those I am areas. Planning of protected areas should involve use and nature conservation that apply every- pos­ of land people who are most likely to be directly affected, and not just to areas within or near protected protected where itively or negatively, by implementation of areas. We need to recognize that planet Earth the natural area status. Every effort should be made to achieve originally established as a nature reserve, the only disrup­ was desired conservation objective with minimum know of in the entire universe. We need to keep to one we tion of traditional ways of life and maximum benefit it that was'. and regu­ local people. Boundaries of protected areas should reflect lations governing their protection and use the actual conservation objectives to be accomplished and the ways in which these can be achieved through 4. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OR GUIDELINES adhere to local cooperation, rather than attempting to conser­ internationally approved categories. A simple may ration rule that has local adherence and support 4.1. General principle none. accomplish more than a national park that has to human The conservation of nature is fundamental and con­ everywhere. 4.3.3. Local involvement with management existence and is the concern of all people should be of servation. Insofar as possible, local people It i.,not to be accomplished only by the establishing involved with management and conservation practices specially protected natural areas, but must be practised within a protected area. All of them, at best, should in all places at all times. All areas must be protected area. At ur- take an active interest in the protection of that areas to some degree, since even the most heavily

DEVELOPMENT NATIONAL PARKS, CONSERVATION, AND 670 the least, they should provide the guards, wardens, include many who are not permanent inhabitants of the rangers, and labourers. area or its vicinity. Other groups may use the area sea­ sonally- migratory hunter-gatherers, nomadic pastor­ 4.3.4. Use of protected areas to safeguard native cul- alists, etc. Still others may only use the area occasion­ tures. People who have traditionally lived in isolation all', but those occasions may have great importance in from the dominant cultures within a country may be relation to religion, ceremony, or long-term subsistence protected from unwar -d outside interference by estab- needs-the area may already be a "reserve" for people lishment of a protected area which includes all of the who do not live there permanently. All of these people lands thev have tradit' nallv used-giving them the must be considered in reserve planning, conservation, authority to exclude outsiders and to manage the lands use, and economy. as they see fit. Protected natural areas are also useful as buffer zones surrounding the traditional lands of iso- 4.3.7. Planning and development of surrounding areas. lated cultures. Outsiders are in this way controlled by Planning or development of protected areas must not the p;otected area authorities. Neither of these options be undertaken in isolation from planning and devel­ is intended to exclude interaction or travel on the part opment of the lands surrounding the protected areas to of the native group. The reserve boundary or buffer provide a viable and sustainable economic future for the zone has a "one-way screen" keeping out unwanted people involved. The principles of agroecologv and vistors but not holding people inside who wish to leave. agroforestry as well as should be considered in the planning and development of these 4.3.5. Economic b-nefits. Economic benefits derived from areas. The basic principles of ecodevelopment should a protected area from tourism or other forms of use be applied. The conserrationunit approach developed by must be shared with local people according to agree- W. J. Lusigi (1978) for Kenya may provide a useful ments and contracts reached before the protected area model. is established. For existing protected areas, renegotia­ tion with local people will be important to give them a greater role in maintaining the protected status of the Acknowledgements area. This paper was prepared for IUCN's Commission on 4.3.6. Definition of "local people". The people directly National Parks and Protected Areas in cooperation with affected by the establishment of a protected area often the United Nations Environment Programme.

671 New' Dir&'ctions in Protected Area Aa,:ago'ee