SECURITY OF RADIOACTIVE SOURCES THE EVOLVING NEW INTERNATIONAL DIMENSIONS

BY ABEL J. GONZALEZ

ecurity of radioactive also is known as a radiological moon-suited cleaning crews with sources has become an dispersal device, or RDD. Geiger counters in a big city Sissue of serious public Such a weapon would not downtown is bound to cause concern after the devastating create a nuclear explosion panic.” terrorist attacks of 11 Septem- with its dreaded mushroom The “dirty bomb”scenario is ber 2001. Yet it is worth cloud producing calcinating certainly not unique in the asking how serious the the heat, devastating shock waves menu of nuclear terror. problem actually is, given the and vast amounts of Nuclear installations with large fact that hundreds of radioactive fallout. radioactivity inventories, such dangerous chemicals and Although there have been as nuclear power plants and biological agents pose perhaps unfounded suggestions that a radioactive waste depositories, greater terrorist threats that dirty bomb explosion would can be attacked and their need to be urgently reduced. kill thousands and render radioactive materials dispersed. Radioactive sources do not entire cities uninhabitable, In the worst nightmare contain the type of nuclear these scenarios of devastation scenario, a nuclear weapon can materials that would allow are highly exaggerated. If such fall into terrorist hands, and someone to build a nuclear an attack actually occurred, the detonation of a nuclear 39 bomb and trigger a major the device would probably device with even a small catastrophe. Though scatter radioactive material nuclear yield in a major radioactive sources can be over a small area, restricting metropolitan area is sure to potentially dangerous for contamination to possibly a have devastating effects. anyone coming into close few city blocks. Casualties The odds of a radiological contact with them, they are affected by the radiation dispersal device falling into safely used in everyday life for would be limited, and the malevolent hands have medical care and treatment, perpetrators likely would be triggered particular public among other applications in harmed by direct radiation anxiety, perhaps because the fields of industry, agriculture, exposure from manipulating likelihood is perceived to be and science. the source. higher. Fears have been largely However, there is increasing However, even if an RDD augmented by the aftermath apprehension that radioactive would not injure many people, trauma caused by the New sources could be turned into a it could certainly cause much York and Washington attacks. terrorist tool — what the terror and psychological distress. Not surprisingly, security of media call a “dirty bomb”. The media recently stated that radioactive sources has been This term is used to describe a “in the wrong hands, even a placed high on the radioactive source shrouded relatively small amount of international agenda. by a conventional explosive radioactive material can cause The need for securing (similar to TNT), obviously the kind of low-grade terror seen radioactive sources is not new. built with malevolent intent. in the spate of anthrax-laced Security has always been If detonated in a public mail sent to US government and required for preventing domain, this mélange could media offices”. Moreover, they cause widespread reported that “terror, indeed, Mr. González is Director of the dissemination of radioactive appears to be a dirty bomb’s IAEA Division of Radiation and particles and for this reason it greatest attraction: the image of Waste Safety,. IAEA BULLETIN, 43/4/2001 CLARIFYING ISSUES & TERMS Safety & Security. Public apprehension generated by the new security dimension runs parallel with (and is perhaps enhanced by) confusion over technical terms and issues, often exacerbated by translation. The IAEA has long recognized this problem and comprehensively reported on it.* Safety and security — “sûreté and sécurité” — are two distinct terms in English and French; in many other major languages, a common word is used for these two concepts. Not surprisingly, therefore, many people wonder what the distinction is between safety and security. If they reached for their dictionaries, they would perhaps be none the wiser, because one of the definition of security is safety and vice versa. In the context of radiation sources, both words are used to denote a combination of administrative, technical and managerial features for two different purposes that can occasionally coincide but may also clash. radioactive elements such as cobalt-60 and caesium- ■ Safety of radiation sources is used to cover features 137, which are widely used in radiological medicine that diminish the likelihood of accidents with a source, and industry. A radioactive source never ceases to as a result of which people may be injured, as well as to emit radiation but the radiation intensity decays cover those that may mitigate the consequences of over time depending on the type of radioactive such mishaps. elements in the source. The term half-life is used to ■ Security of radiation sources refers to the features that indicate the period in which the radioactivity 40 prevent any unauthorized possession of the source and, decreases by half due to radioactive decay. For as a result, any non-permitted action with it. Security instance, as caesium-137 has a half-life of around 30 is achieved by ensuring that control of the source is years, a radiation source of this radioactive element not relinquished and improperly acquired. diminishes its intensity by half every 30 years. Radiation & Radioactive Sources. Frequently, the Security of Radioactive Sources: Clarifying Aims. terms radiation and radioactive are interchangeably Security of radioactive sources aims to ensure that misused to qualify a source. This misrepresentation control of radioactive materials is not relinquished has also been a cause of confusion. Some devices can be and improperly acquired, therefore preventing such sources of radiation without necessarily being materials from going astray and causing harm to “radioactive”. people and the environment or from being diverted ■ Typical non-radioactive radiation sources are various for malevolent acts such as terrorism. While safety is types of electrical generators of radiation, such as X-ray of relevance to all types of radiation sources, either machines and particle accelerators, which emit non-radioactive or radioactive, security is usually radiation while in operation but whose emitting limited to radioactive sources alone. properties cease as soon as the electricity supply is cut. Sometimes safety and security oppose each other: ■ Conversely, radioactive radiation sources (or for instance, the clear marking of radioactive sources radioactive sources for short) contain radioactive is imposed on safety grounds, but it makes materials, namely substances formed by radioactive radioactive sources more vulnerable to security elements emitting radiation themselves (the so-called breaches. The dichotomy has become evident in radioactive elements). Typical examples of discussions of the controversial issue of transporting radioactive sources are the sealed capsules containing radioactive sources by sea: while many coastal States request that comprehensive information on sources *See Vol. 41, No. 3, which covers issues of radiation being transported near their shores must be provided safety and security, accessible on the IAEA’s by transporter States because of safety, the latter WorldAtom site at http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/ prefer to keep information restricted for reasons of Periodicals/Bulletin. security. IAEA BULLETIN, 43/4/2001 radioactive materials going nuclear power production. radiation source in contact with astray, and, as a result, causing Nuclear materials, devices and tissue (a technique usually harm to people. Security of facilities are both scarcer and called brachytherapy, which radioactive sources has always better secured than radioactive comprises the interstitial been an important component sources. intracavitary, intraluminal, and of the IAEA radiation safety Abundance of Radioactive superficial applications of programme. In mid-1999, the Sources. Radioactive sources sources). Teletherapy can also be IAEA Bulletin (Vol. 41, No.3) are extensively and commonly performed with “accelerators”, a covered it extensively in an used in a wide range of non-radioactive radiation source edition, focusing on the IAEA medical, industrial, agricultural which, as the X-ray machines, response to key problems. and research applications. They do not present an evident Today, in the face of the vary widely in physical size and security threat. new challenges presented by properties, their amount of Many medical sources are the recent terrorist attacks, a radioactivity, and ease of mainly made from the new dimension of security access. The radioactivity of a radioactive element termed emerges: deterring the source is measured in units cobalt-60, which is a metal and diversion of radioactive termed becquerel (abbreviated has a half-life of around 5 years. materials from legal to illegal Bq). Years ago the unit termed Less frequently, the radioactive and criminal uses – such as curie (Ci) was widely employed element caesium-137, with a terrorist violence. The IAEA is and is still used. One becquerel half-life of around 30 years, is adjusting its response to this is a tiny amount of radio- employed. Many caesium new and remarkable reality. In activity. One curie, which is sources were manufactured September 2001, as the US equivalent to the radioactivity using the compound caesium terror drama was evolving, the of 1 gram of the radioactive chlorine (CsCl), a salt whose IAEA General Conference element radium, is equivalent physical form is a highly requested a review of IAEA to 37 billion becquerel. dispersible powder similar to work in the area, and in Medical Sources. In medicine, talc in its spreading properties. 41 December an initial report radiation sources are used for More than 10,000 teletherapy from the IAEA Director both diagnostic and therapeutic sources containing a capsule of General was discussed by the purposes. Radio-diagnostic cobalt-60 are in use worldwide. IAEA Board of Governors. techniques commonly employ Each source has a radioactivity Security of radioactive sources non-radioactive radiation of around one or several was one of the report’s topics. sources — usually X-ray hundred trillion becquerel, or (See the Insert in this edition.) machines — which do not 1014 becquerel, which is present an evident security equivalent to around 2000 REASONS TO BE threat. When radioactive curie. Cobalt, being a solid CONCERNED? sources are used for diagnostic metal, is not easy to disperse. Security of radioactive sources purposes — notably in nuclear However, the capsules usually is not a simple issue: the world medicine procedures — the contain around 1000 pellets, has abundant radioactive amount of radioactivity used is each pellet having a radioactive sources; their security is not small and again does not content of around 1011 homogen-eously stringent present an evident security becquerel or several curie. around the world and a threat. The available information on number of sources are outside Conversely, in radiotherapy, external beam therapy sources any governmental regulatory radioactive sources containing containing the radioactive control. As a result, radioa- large amounts of radioactive element caesium-137 is scarcer. ctive sources may be more materials are common. There These sources were used when likely to land in the wrong are two main radiotherapeutic this type of therapy first started hands than, for instance, the techniques, namely: the but their use was abandoned in nuclear materials used in the irradiation of tumors either favour of cobalt-60. The production of nuclear with a radiation beam external number of sources still in weapons or the civilian to the body (usually termed service (or awaiting disposal or nuclear installations used for teletheraphy), or placing the return to suppliers) is estimated IAEA BULLETIN, 43/4/2001 tens of thousands. About 80% of the sources contain the radioactive element iridium- 192; the remainder are sources of cobalt-60, selenium-75 and ytterbium-169. The typical activity is around 50 to 100 curies each or around three trillion becquerel. Their physical form is usually encapsulated metal, which makes them robust to desegregation. While these sources are therefore unlikely to be low. The amount of preserving food. Their number to pose a serious contamin- radioactivity of each source is approaches around 300 major ation hazard, they can produce similar to the cobalt-60 sources, facilities worldwide. Their significant injuries to i.e. around 1014 becquerel. radioactivity content is so high individuals in contact with the From the standpoint of security, that it is cumbersome to source. It is relatively easy to the difference, however, is the express it in becquerel; they steal an industrial radiography high dispersibility of the range from 10,000 to 1 million source, but difficult to caesium compound, which curie per facility — or a accumulate a larger number as makes them particularly million billion becquerel. In they are usually stored at tailored to any malevolent addition, there are a few different industrial locations. intent to contaminate a public thousand smaller self- Currently, around 10,000 environment. contained units, each with a iridium-192 industrial 42 Brachytherapy sources are radioactivity of around a radiography sources are more abundant than hundred trillion becquerel, or a supplied annually and replaced teletherapy sources but their few thousand curie. approximately every half a year. individual radioactivity is The radioactive element used Their activity is around 1 to orders of magnitude lower. in industrial irradiators is 300 curies, but typically 50 or The technique is commonly mainly metallic cobalt-60, with 100 curies. Their physical form performed manually with numerous “rods” containing is a metal pellet. The supply of sources of radium-226, thousands of pellets of cobalt- cobalt-60 sources is a few caesium-137, and iridium-192, 60 composing the source, but hundred per year with more with a radioactivity content of some facilities are still than a thousand in circulation. around 108 to 1011 becquerel equipped with sources of Their activity is between 10 to per source, and sometimes caesium-137. The radioactive 500 curies, but mostly 100 using the method known as sources of industrial irradiators curies. In addition, around remote after-loading. could pose a serious security 1000 sources of selenium-75 Industrial Sources. Many hazard; but they are not easy to and ytterbium-169 are more radioactive sources are steal, as thieves would probably supplied annually; their used in industry through die almost instantaneously activity range is about 10 to 30 applications such as irradiation from overexposure. curies. of products, radiography, and Numerous radioactive Finally, millions of sources gauges. There is a large number sources are used for purposes of having a relatively low of industrial irradiators around industrial radiography, the radioactive content are used as the world. These are huge number estimated at several industrial gauges and in other installations containing large amounts of radioactivity; they Photo: The IAEA has responded to a number of incidents involving are usually employed for radioactive sources that have endangered people and the environment sterilizing medical products, because of breaches in safety and security. More needs to be done to assist IAEA BULLETIN, 43/4/2001 such as syringes, and for countries to upgrade their radiation safety and security capabilities. applications. They usually of this radioactive element contamination could be spread contain cobalt-60, caesium- from the Chernobyl accident). in the environment, and public 137, or americium-241, come In the Republic of Georgia a terror easily created. in many physical forms and number of such devices were Mainly Petty Theft, Rarely their regulatory control is found to have gone astray and Malevolence. It is to be noted, particularly gentle in many it appears that a number of however, that the theft of sources countries. They pose a minor them were manufactured by has not traditionally come from risk, but could lead to small- the former USSR and placed in malevolent criminal intent. scale but easily measurable some of the now independent Rather, the sources were stolen contamination. States. A serious accident more for economic benefit or Orphan Sources. Competent involving orphan sources, simply out of curiosity or governmental regulatory apparently from military ignorance. In fact there is no authorities around the world origin, in Lilo, again in record of a radioactive source exercise control over the vast Georgia, was recently reviewed being stolen for sabotage or majority of radioactive sources. and reported by the IAEA. terrorist activities — except for a The authorities usually subject Light Security. Often, no number of reported cases related the sources to a system of tight security measures are to the Republic of Chechnya in registration, licensing, applied to radioactive sources. the Russian Federation. (Accord- authorization and regular Traditionally the security aim ing to Russian press reports, six inspection. However, as the has been confined to prevent years ago, Chechens used a sources reach the end of their accidental access to the sources canister containing the expected working lives, they or petty theft (such as stolen radioactive element caesium to are no longer needed and shielding materials). In scare shoppers in a Moscow sometimes they are discarded particular, sophisticated anti- marketplace and, in 1998, by relinquishing their control. terrorist security measures for officials in the Republic defused Thus, radiation sources may radioactive sources are not a booby-trapped explosive become “orphaned” of any currently in place. In fact, even attached to a container of 43 control. The term “orphan” well regulated radioactive radioactive material). sources refers to sources that sources could be stolen and Benchmarking Possible may never have been subjected diverted with relative ease, as is Consequences. Serious to regulatory control or, the case for most chemical or radiological consequences from initially regulated, but then biological substances. non-criminal security breaches eventually abandoned, lost or Potentially the control of with radioactive sources have misplaced, stolen or removed regulated sources can be simply already occurred. These cases, without authorization. relinquished by the user and, as many of which have been Hundreds of industrial and a result, they could be easily reviewed and reported by the medical radioactive sources are taken away. Obviously, orphan IAEA, could be used as bench- abandoned, lost or stolen sources are even easier to mark for estimating the worldwide each year. It is not divert. consequences of terrorist use. clear how many orphan sources Both non-controlled regulated For instance, around a decade are in the world and their sources and orphan sources are ago, in the large city of Goiânia location is largely unknown. prone to fall in malevolent in Brazil, a security breach There have been reports of hands. An embezzled source can occurred leading to a incidents involving orphan be transferred without difficulty. radiological accident that can be sources in the new States It can be easily concealed in a considered as a yardstick for resulting from the dissolution truck, can fit into a suitcase and what could happen in a terrorist of the USSR. A notable case be easily removed, particularly if act involving a radioactive refers to thermoelectric the perpetrator is willing to source. A private radiotherapy generators containing huge disregard his or her personal institute moved to new premises amounts of the radioactive safety. By shrouding a radio- and left in place a caesium-137 element strontium-90 (the active source with explosives, teletherapy unit without amount of radioactivity per and detonating it in an appro- notifying the licensing authority. source is similar to the release priate manner, radioactive The former premises were IAEA BULLETIN, 43/4/2001 subsequently partly demolished eleven others suffered severe standards and to provide for and the caesium-137 source radiation. Investigators found their application at the request became insecure. Two scavengers two more stolen cancer of a State. Jointly with other entered the premises and, not treatment machines awaiting the specialized agencies within the knowing what the unit was but scrap dealers in a suburban UN system, it has set up thinking it might have scrap Bangkok parking lot. international radiation value, removed the source Authorities and the media protection and safety standards assembly from the radiation have reported on other similar that include requirements for head of the machine. This they events. Last year, an Egyptian the security of radioactive took home and tried to farmer and his young son died sources. These are the so-called dismantle. In the attempt the from radiation exposure after International Basic Safety source capsule was ruptured. taking home a cylindrical Standards for Protection against Contamination of the source left behind in their Ionizing Radiation and the environment ensued. As result of village by a construction crew. Safety of Radiation Sources, or this event, 14 people were Five other family members BSS in short, which since 1992 overexposed and four died were hospitalized with skin require inter alia that within four weeks. Around eruptions, and some of their radioactive sources shall “be 112,000 people had to be neighbors fell ill. The tiny kept secure so as to prevent monitored and 249 were found metal cylinder, containing theft or damage…by ensuring contaminated. Hundreds of radioactive iridium, came from that…control of a source not houses had to be monitored, 85 a radiography source be relinquished…” were found to be contaminated commonly used to screen In order to provide for the and hundreds of people had to welded pipes. In Algeciras, application of these be evacuated. The full operation Spain, a few years ago, an international standards, the of decontamination produced orphan radioactive source of IAEA uses a variety of 5000 m3 of radioactive waste. unknown origin mixed with mechanisms — including the 44 The social impact was such that metal scrap landed in a performance of peer-review an outlying village to Goiânia, foundry and was melted down. appraisals of the safety and where the waste repository was The incident, which security situation in a installed, has incorporated the contaminated the premises and requesting State, the provision three-foil symbol of radioactivity involved mild releases of of technical cooperation and into the village flag. radioactive materials into the education and training, and This was not the only case of environment, prompted a the fostering of information security breaches intensively general enhancement of exchange. The IAEA has also a studied and reported by the control by the Spanish mandate in the implementa- IAEA. For instance, in the authorities. tion of relevant obligations Estonian village of Tammiku, in undertaken by States through 1995, five people in one home BUILDING ON THE international “conventions”, were affected after someone IAEA RESPONSE notably the conventions of found a tiny radioactive metal Strengthening the security of notification of radiological fragment in a nearby field and radioactive sources is not a new emergencies and of emergency put it in a kitchen drawer. The challenge for the IAEA. The assistance that are applicable fragment, whose origins are “UN nuclear watchdog”, as the should a crisis involving a dirty unknown, exposed the family to media have labeled the IAEA, bomb occur. high radiation levels over several has an international mandate The Dijon Conference and weeks. In another example, in in the protection of health the International Action Plan. Samut Prakarn, Thailand, in against exposure to ionizing While the IAEA security 2000, a group of scrap dealers radiation, and such exposure standards can be traced back to cut through the shiny metal may be caused by breaches in 1992, it was not until 1998 innards of a stolen cancer the security of radioactive that governments became fully treatment machine and removed sources. The IAEA is author- aware of the international the cobalt-60 radioactive source. ized by its Statute to establish dimensions of the security IAEA BULLETIN, 43/4/2001 Three of the dealers died and pertinent international threat associated with radioactive sources. In that ling national authorities terrorist attacks on New York year, the IAEA jointly with regulating the security of and Washington took place. Interpol, the World Custom radioactive sources, was Assisting the Developing Organization, and the convened by the IAEA in World. Even the smaller and European Commission organ- Buenos Aires, Argentina.* The less developed countries make ized the first international Conference recommended use of radioactive sources. It is Conference on the issue, in updating and strengthening of to be expected that where Dijon, France. In the Dijon the Action Plan. resources are scarce, the tight Conference, hundreds of At its March 2001 session, control of radioactive sources is specialists and governmental the IAEA Board of Governors not a high priority. The IAEA representatives from member was informed about the major has been responsive to this States of these organizations findings of the Buenos Aires situation and, some years ago, discussed the problem for the Conference, and welcomed the launched a technical co- first time and produced fact that the Conference had operation project (as an IAEA concrete recommendations. achieved its purpose of Model Project) aimed at Following suit, the IAEA facilitating a broad exchange of strengthening national General Conference decided information among national regulatory infrastructures in to implement an international authorities. The Board noted developing Member States, and Action Plan that included its major findings and thus enhancing the security of measures to strengthen the requested the Secretariat to their radioactive sources. global security of radioactive assess their implications for the The Model Project was sources. Among other relevant Action Plan, to implement any launched in 1995 and 52 actions already completed, the adjustments to the Action Plan developing countries have sources deemed to be a secur- that might become necessary in participated from the outset. ity threat were generically light of those major findings One of the project’s milestones identified and classified, and a and of comments by Member refers to the strengthening of non-binding “Code of States. It further requested the regulatory infrastructures, 45 Conduct” for States has been Secretariat to inform the Board which when reached would adopted and published by the and the General Conference of obviously enhance the security IAEA. any such adjustments. of radioactive sources. The Buenos Aires The IAEA Board of By September 2001, the Conference: Concerns of the Governors and the General status of implementation of National Controllers. More Conference approved a revised these milestones is as follows: recently, in December 2000, Action Plan at their meetings ■ About 7% of the partici- another topical international in September 2001... just at pating countries had promul- conference, this time assemb- the same time when the gated related laws and estab- lished a regulatory authority; more than 42% had adopted *The International Conference of National Regulatory Authorities with regulations; about 80% of competence in the Safety of Radiation Sources and the Security of them had established an Radioactive Materials was organized by the IAEA in cooperation with inventory system of the radio- Argentina’s Nuclear Regulatory Authority, and hosted by the Government of active sources under their Argentina in Buenos Aires in December 20002. It was attended by 89 jurisdiction; and representatives of regulatory bodies in Angola, Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, ■ About 50% had a system for Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, the Czech the notification, authorization Republic, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Estonia, Ethiopia, France, and control of radioactive Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Ireland, Italy, sources. Japan, Jordan, the Republic of Korea, Latvia, Madagascar, Mongolia, The assessment of the Namibia, Norway, pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Portugal, effectiveness of the programme Romania, the Russian Federatin, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sudan, Sweden, has been carried out by peer the Syrian Arab Republic, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, review teams that went to 32 Turkey, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the United Republic of countries. The reasons why Tanzania, the United Statees, Viet Nam, Yemen, and Yugoslavia. many countries have not yet IAEA BULLETIN, 43/4/2001 COUNTRIES IN THE IAEA MODEL PROJECT ON participating countries, it is UPGRADING RADIATION PROTECTION obvious that the development INFRASTRUCTURE of a mature infrastructure requires years of effective AFRICA EUROPE national effort with continuous Cameroon Albania government commitment. Côte d’Ivoire Armenia By the end of September 2001, Democratic Republic Belarus the IAEA had received a of the Congo Bosnia and Herzegovina request from another 29 Ethiopia Cyprus countries to join the Model Gabon Estonia Project. (See box.) Ghana Georgia It is to be noted, however, Madagascar Latvia that IAEA assistance can only Mali Lithuania be rendered to those Mauritius Republic of Moldova developing countries that are Namibia The Former Yugoslav Member States of the IAEA. Niger Republic of Macedonia Around 50 countries of the Nigeria UN membership are not Senegal EAST ASIA IAEA members. In addition, Sierra Leone Jordan there are a number of political Sudan Kazakhstan entities that do not even have Uganda Lebanon UN membership. In all of Zimbabwe Qatar these territories, radioactive Saudi Arabia sources are being used and LATIN AMERICA Syrian Arab Republic they do not receive IAEA Bolivia United Arab Emirates assistance. It is suspected that 46 Colombia Uzbekistan in many of them the control Costa Rica Yemen of radioactive sources does not Dominican Republic exist; perhaps the local El Salvador WEST ASIA authorities are not even aware Guatemala Bangladesh that they have a problem to Jamaica Mongolia attend. Nicaragua Myanmar The vocation of the Panama Sri Lanka developing world to tackle Paraguay Viet Nam this problem is clear. For instance, the issue was debated Notes: Since 11 September 2001, another 29 countries have made requests to the in April 2001, during the First IAEA to join the Model Project. In Africa, they are Angola, Burkina Faso, Egypt, Africa Workshop on the Kenya, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Morocco, Tunisia and the United Republic of Establishment of a Legal Tanzania; in East Asia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Framework governing Rad- Singapore and Thailand; in West Asia, the Islamic Republic of Iran and Kuwait; in iation Protection, the Safety of Europe, Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Malta, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia and Radiation Sources and the Turkey; in Latin America, Ecuador, Haiti, Uruguay and Venezuela. Safe Management of Radio- active Waste, which was organized by the IAEA, held attained the targets of these inadequate implementation; in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and milestones include: time- and insufficient financial and attended by 35 participants consuming legislative pro- technical resources, trained from 14 Member States cedures; institutional instabil- staff and support services. (Angola, Egypt, Ethiopia, ity; budgetary constraints; Thus, in spite of the fact that Ghana, Kenya, Libya, overlapping responsibilities; substantial progress has been Mauritius, Namibia, Nigeria, limited regulatory indepen- made in upgrading the Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, IAEA BULLETIN, 43/4/2001 dence and empowerment; infrastructures of control in Zambia, and Zimbabwe). The Workshop adopted a significant radioactive sources The Report notes that while “Common Position on the are localized, registered, the IAEA has developed im- Establishment of a Legal secured and controlled from portant international stan- Framework governing Rad- “cradle to grave”. dards for radiation protection, iation Protection, the Safety While this strategy is these contain general, but no of Radiation Sources and the immutable, its application has detailed, requirements on the Safe Management of Radio- to be adapted to the new security of radiation sources. active Waste” (the Common security dimension. Before it It further notes that the main Position). In the Common was targeted to breaches in threat associated with radio- Position, the participants security caused by innocent active material, such as “recogniz[ed] that most African mistakes or petty theft. Today, sources and radioactive waste, countries lack the capacity for the scope is being widened to lies in deliberately exposing the environmentally sound include malevolence and individuals to radiation or the disposal of sources that have terrorism. Moreover, following dispersion of the material, outlived their useful life” and the recent attacks, three new with consequent harmful “not[ed]… that manufacturers elements, associated with effects to people, property, of radioactive sources should be seemingly new characteristics and the environment. While required to return sources to the of potential perpetrators, must the consequences of this country of manufacture and be particularly taken into threat may be limited in that exporting States should be account, namely: comparison with threats responsible for ensuring that ■ intent to cause widespread related to other types of manufacturers duly carry out panic and harm among civil- nuclear security risks, the their duties of reshipment and ian populations; likelihood may be somewhat disposal of sources that have ■ ability to work with mod- greater. This is because the outlived their useful life”. ern technologies; and security of radioactive sources The participants also “not[ed] ■ a suicidal approach. is lax in some States — keyed the need for the adoption and more to the protection of 47 implementation of an interna- OUTLOOK FOR property than to radiological tionally legally binding instru- BETTER SECURITY risk. As a consequence, an ment setting out appropriate A number of new initiatives undetermined number of rules and procedures regarding are being considered by the sources have become the return of sources that have IAEA Secretariat and the “orphaned” from regulatory outlived their useful life in IAEA Board of Governors. control, and their location is importing African countries”. On 30 November 2001, unknown. In addition, the participants IAEA Director General sub- To increase the protection called upon the IAEA to “create mitted a report on “Protec- of radiation sources, the IAEA a forum for African countries to tion Against Nuclear Terror- proposes a number of mea- consider the Code of Conduct ism” to the IAEA Board of sures to strengthen regulatory on the Safety and Security of Governors. The Board is control and to update its Radioactive Materials and give considering a set of measures standards and expanding it a legally binding effect so that related to upgrading the programmes in respect to the safe and peaceful use of security of nuclear material, terrorism threats. nuclear technology is not radioactive material, and The proposals include: compromised”. nuclear facilities. The ■ introducing a peer review Maintaining the Strategy; proposed measures, as they service to appraise State Widening the Scope. The are being developed, would regulatory infrastructures for overall IAEA strategy in the substantially expand and the security of radioactive security of radioactive sources strengthen IAEA programmes sources, including protection can be briefly formulated as for the physical protection of during transport; follows: assisting Member nuclear material and facilities, ■ examining the feasibility of States to create and strengthen and for the security of helping States to locate large national regulatory infrastruc- radioactive sources and orphan sources to bring them tures in order to ensure that material. under regulatory control; IAEA BULLETIN, 43/4/2001 ■ reviewing and eventually nuclear terrorist threat. The statement to the Board in revising the Code of Conduct IAEA, among other steps, November 2001, nuclear on the Safety and Security of proposes to upgrade its security is only as good as its Radioactive Sources to make it Emergency Response Centre weakest link, and effective more comprehensive in to improve the speed, and stringent standards must relation to security and to efficiency, reliability and be globally applied, and determine how compliance quality of the response in case security upgrades must be might be monitored; of a large radiological measured against such ■ reviewing the requirements emergency. Its Emergency standards: on the security of radioactive Preparedness Review Service “Traditional thinking — that sources contained in the also can provide thorough nuclear security is exclusively a International Basic Safety appraisals of national national responsibility — must Standards for Protection emergency response yield to the reality that a against Ionizing Radiation and programmes, as well as combination of national and for the Safety of Radioactive training to increase a State’s international measures is Sources on and updating capability to respond fundamental to an effective other relevant documents; effectively to the possible nuclear security regime. In my ■ exploring the practicability consequences of a radiological view, the time has come to adopt of an international marking emergency. a new approach to the whole system for large significant The Report also proposes to question of nuclear security. Just sources and of establishing a set up international response as we have developed an effective norm for a more secure physi- standby teams that could be regime to counter the possible cal form for such sources; promptly dispatched to States diversion of nuclear materials by ■ assessing the threats, and needing urgent assistance. States, we need an equally possible actions, relating to The Board next meets on effective regime to counter malicious acts involving the Agency’s ongoing efforts possible acts of theft and violence 48 radioactive waste. to reinforce its security involving nuclear facilities, In addition to these programmes in March 2002. nuclear material and other proposals, the IAEA Secretar- Like other aspects of radioactive sources — a regime iat has initiated and the Board nuclear security, upgrading with internationally agreed is considering measures for the security of radioactive standards for security and improving the security of sources requires a global appropriate mechanisms which, nuclear material that would response. In addition to while taking account of the need be applicable to the security national measures, there is an for confidentiality, also ensure of radioactive sources and indispensable need for effective implementation. This material. These measures are international measures to approach will require the aimed at increasing the capa- ensure that security is sustained support of all — but bilities of States to detect and effective worldwide. The equally will be of benefit to all.” respond to theft, illicit International Atomic Energy A monumental security trafficking, and other mali- Agency can contribute in agenda lies ahead for national cious acts or threatened use of many areas to establish and governments and the Agency. such material. (See the article, ensure the application of Concerning the security of page 12, and the Insert to this international norms and radioactive sources, one of the edition.) standards, provide main challenges will be to The Report to the Board international forums for address the problem squarely also covers improved emer- information exchange, and effectively, weighing its gency response capabilities. identify deficiencies and importance relative to the The IAEA has the only propose strategies to resolve potential range and scale of all international response system them, and coordinate bilateral types of threats posed by in position to immediately and international support to terrorists, including the react and assist countries in States in need of assistance. possible use of chemical or the event of a radiological As IAEA Director General biological agents as tools of IAEA BULLETIN, 43/4/2001 emergency caused by a ElBaradei emphasized in his terror and destruction. ❐