R E P O R T RESUMES ED 018 125 EM 006 180 VISUAL AIDS IN FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATION ANDCOMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, REPORT ON THE UNESCO REGIONAL SEMINAR INSOUTH AND SOUTH-EAST ASIA HELD IN NEW-DELHI, INDIA 8-27SEPTEMBER 1958. REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATION,NO. 27. BY- THAPAR, ROMESH UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND CULT.ORG PUB DATE 59 N EDRS PRICE MF-$0.25 HC -$1.64 39P.

DESCRIfTORS- *COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, *COMMUNITY EDUCATION, *INSTRUCTIONAL FILMS, *LITERACY EDUCATION, MASS INSTRUCTION, DRAMA, VISUAL LEARNING, AUDIOVISUAL AIDS, ILLITERACY,CHARTS, *CONFERENCES, ASIA, SOUTH ASIA, SOUTHEAST ASIA

SUCH TRADITIONAL VISUAL MEDIA AS VILLAGE PLAYS, 'PUPPETRY, AND SHADOW PLAYS CAN BE CREATED LOCALLY WITH ACTIVE PARTICIPATION BY THE LEARNER AND USED EFFECTIVELY IN COMMUNITY EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT. OTHER VISUAL MEDIA,SUCH AS FILMS, CAN BE BEST PRODUCED NATIONALLY IN VISUAL AIDS CENTERS IF GOOD COMMUNICATIONS ARE MAINTAINED WITH THEFIELD WORKERS AND IF AN AWARENESS IS KEPT OF SOCIAL SETTINGS AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES. FILM SOCIETIES WITHWELL-STOCKED FILM LIBRARIES CAN HELP SOLVE THE PROBLEM OF DISTRIBUTION. SYSTEMATIC EVALUATION WITH BASELINE SURVEYS, PRE - RELEASE TESTING AND CONTROL GROUPS IS ESSENTIAL. THIS DOCUMENT IS AVAILABLE FROM NATIONAL DISTRIBUTORS OF UNESCO PUBLICATIONS OR FROM THE DIVISION OF FREE FLOW OF INFORMATION, UNESCO, PLACE DE FONTENOY, PARIS -YE, FRANCE, FOR $0.75. (MF) Reports rs onMss communication

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This report is issued by the Clearing Houseof the Department of Mass Communication of Unesco. The purpose of the Clearing Houseis to collect, analyse and disseminate information on press, film, radioand television, pointing out their use for educational,cultural and scien- tific purposes. In carrying out this purpose,the Clearing House collaborates with international organizations, research centres and individual experts inthe field of mass communication. This series of Reports and Papers on MassCommunication is issued from time to time for the convenience of specialists. Unless otherwisestated, silziagioajaatjararawEllassua full or in part, provided credit is given to Unesco.The following reports and papers have so mummy.far been issued and are obtainable from the NationalDistributors of Unesco Publications in Member Statesor from Mass CommunicationClearing House, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris 7e.

REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATION

No 1 Films and Filmstrips about the work of the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies, May 1952 (out of print). No 2 World Film Directory - Agencies concerned with Educational, Scientific andCultural Film - Section A: Africa; Section B: America (North, Central and South); Section C: Asia and Oceania; Section D: Europe and Section E : International, July 1952 / September 1953 (free of request). No 3 Films and Filmstrips about Education. August 1952 (out of print). No 4 Unesco Publications on Mass Communication - An Annotated Bibliography. October 1952; (out of print) with Supplement 1954 (out of print). No 5 Television - An Experiment in Community Reception in French villages. August 1952 (out of print). No 6 Kerosene Filmstrips and Slide Projectors. November 1952 (free on request). No 7 The Daily Press - A Survey of the World Situation in 1952. December 1953 ($0.40; 2/- ; 100 FF.). No 8 Education for Journalism 1953. January 1954 ($0.40; 2/-; 100 FF.). No 9 Bibliography on Filmology as Related to the Social Sciences. February 1954 ($0.40; 2/-; 100 FF.). No10 Newsprint Trends 1928-1951. February 1954 ($0.40; 2/-; 100 FF.). No11 Paper for Printing (other than Newsprint) and Writing - 1929-1951 Trends. March 1954 ($0.40; 2/-; 100 FF.). No12 Aver for Printing and Writing - Tentative Forecasts of Demand in 1955, 1960 and 1965. April 1954 ($0.40; 2/- : 100 FF.). N° 13 Tentative International Bibliography of Works Dealing with Press Problems (1900-1952). September 1954 ($0.50; 3/-; 150 FT.). No14 Catalogues of Short Films and Filmstrips - Selected List. February 1955 ($0.40; 2/-; 100 FF.). No15 Catalogue of French Ethnographical Films. May 1955 ($0.40; 2/-; 100 FF.). No16 Television and Tele-Clubs in Rural Communities. July 1955 ($0.40; 2/-; 50 FF.). N°17 International Ritiec for the Cataloguing of Educational, Scientific and Cultural Films and Filmstrips. Preliminary edition, May 1956 ($0.40; 2/-; 100 FF.). No18 A Manual for Evaluators of Films and Filmstrips. May 1956 ($0.40; 2/-; 100 FF.). No19 List of Films Recommended for Children and Adolescents up to 16 years Following Selections made in 22 countries. June 1956 (out of print). No20 Catalogue of 50 Popular Science Films. July 1956 (out of print). No21 Current Mass Communication Research I - Bibliography of Books and Articles on Mass Communication published since 1 January 1955. December 1956 ($1 ; 5/-; 250 FF.). No22 Periodicals for New Literates : Editorial Methods. June 1957 ($0.75; 3/ 5; 150 FF.). N°23 Cultural Radio Broadcasts. Some Experiences. December 1956 ($0.40; 2/- ; 100 FF.). No24 Periodicals for New Literates. Seven Case Histories. November 1957 ($1; 5/-; 300 FF.). NO 25 Adult Education Groups and Audio-Visual Techniques. 1958 ($0.75; 3/6; 200 FF.). N° 26 The Kinescope and Adult Education. 1958 ($0.75; 3/6; 200 FF.).

. "PERMISSIONTO REPRODUCE THIS COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BO Ili Printed in the Workshops of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Place de Fontenoy, Pares 7e © UNESCO 1959

MC. 59. XVII. 27. A Visual Aids in Fundamental Education and Community Development Report on the Unesco Regional Seminar in South and South-East Asia held in New-Delhi, India 8-27 September 1958 by Romesh Thapar

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT.POINTS Of VIEW OR OPINIONS

STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY.

UNESCO TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION 3

I PREPARING THE SEMINAR 5

II - THE ROLE OF VISUAL AIDS 6 DISCUSSION

- GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF VISUAL AIDS SERVICES 9 DISCUSSION 10

- ORGANIZATION OF PRODUCTION 11 DISCUSSION 15

V DISTRIBUTION 16 DISCUSSION 18

VI-UTILIZING VISUAL AIDS 19 DISCUSSION 21

VII PROBLEMS OF EVALUATION 23 DISCUSSION 25

VIII - THE NEED FOR CO-OPERATION 26 DISCUSSION 29

IX- DRAMA, RADIO AND TELEVISION 30

X - REPORT ON SCREENINGS 32

XI- ADDITIONAL CONCLUSIONS 33 APPENDIX

List of participants, members of the Unesco Secretariat and experts 34 INTRODUCTION

"Audio-Visual Aids" is a term which sounds allowed to persist, there was every danger that rather complicated and technical, but it deals the gulf between the underdeveloped world and with a subject that is, in fact, as old as history the technologically-advanced world would widen, itself.The first songs of the ancients; their creating dangerous tensions, misunderstandings hymns in praise of creation; the simple graphic and conflicts. scratchings on the walls of prehistoric caves; the It was soon realised that audio-visual aids, patterns, colours and rhythms of dance, drama, both traditional and modern, could provide an fabric and handicraft; the spoken and the written effective means of tackling this problem. In word - these were the auditory and visual means 1954, Unesco organized a Seminar in Messina, of expression and communication employed by men Italy, on visual aids in fundamental education. and women everywhere from the dawn of history. It was attended by field workers with practical These traditional means still remain with us knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages today. True, in the advanced nations of the of existing audio-visual aids and with new ideas world some have become almost unrecognizable about how to intensify the work and make it more and others have been invented; vast organizations, effective.They pooled their experience to equipped with the latest techniques, use audio- arrive at general conclusions, which, it was visual aids to examine or portray anything from a hoped, would guide work in the future. pin to a locomotive, to win support for political, The Messina Seminar was organized around economic and social ideologies, to influence the the following main topics and activities: mind of man for good or for evil.It is only in 1. The theoretical aspects of the production and the underdeveloped regions that the early forms use of visual aids in fundamental education of ancient societies are intact, and are still (anthropological, sociological, psychological almost the only available methods of communica- and pedagogic aspects). tion between the people. 2. The practical aspects of the production and To study these forms of communication, to use of visual materials. revitalize and utilize them for the good of the 3. Professional training of technicians and community has become one of the major tasks of educators in the production and use of visual social educators, particularly in the underdevel- materials. oped regions which, since the end of World War II, 4. The supply and distribution of visual material have become independent or are on the way to and equipment. independence.Such pioneering work was done in 5. The use of visual aids in literacy teaching the past by individuals on their own initiative and for adults; in teaching reading and writing inspiration, but these isolated efforts could never in the mother tongue; in teaching a second match the challenge presented by the poverty, language to people illiterate in their own disease, illiteracy, apathy and despair prevalent mother tongue. in the underdeveloped regions.It became necessary to organize nation-wide campaigns for (1) When the New Delhi Seminar was held and this fundamental education(1) and community develop- report was written, the term "Fundamental Educa- ment using the most effective means (including tion" was in general use.It has therefore been audio-visual aids) in order to release the latent retained in the present publication.However energy of millions in the backward regions of the attention is drawn to the fact that the following world, to restore their confidence, get them resolution was passed at the session of the Unesco thinking and make them feel that they possess the General Conference in 1958: power and capacity to transform their lives and The General Conference, realise their dreams. Recognizing that the term "fundamental education" Millions of people in these less fortunate regions, has led to confusion, comprising some two-thirds of the world's total Instructs the Director-General to take immediate population, could neither read nor write and had steps to secure that a proper terminology which no chance of acquiring literacy by the ordinary can be applied all over the world be used by methods of schooling - and yet without enlighten- Unesco for all kinds of education of adults and ment for them and active co-operation on their young people and to discontinue as rapidly as is part, there was little chance of rapid and far- feasible the use of the term "fundamental educa- reaching progress.If this state of affairs were tion" in all official documents of Unesco.

3 The visual aids used, which constituted the popularizing audio-visual educational aids working materials of the Seminar, covered the in Africa and Asia. However, this first following subjects:the improvement of health Seminar could not tackle in any detail the It conditions and sanitation, the improvement of concrete problems of various regions. For agric,lture and better use of natural resources; this reason, Unesco agreed, at the request of the improvement of family welfare and home the Government of India, to undertake, withthe economics; the improvement of nutrition; the assistance of the Indian Ministry of Education, .inprovement of craftsmanship; and learning to the organization of a Seminar devoted specifi- read and write. cally to the role, organization, production, The reports and recommendations of the distribution, utilization and evaluation of visual working groups proved most valuable to those aids in South and South East Asia.

4 I - PREPARING THE SEMINAR

The purpose of the Seminar was to facilitate the The Regional Seminar opened on September 8, exchange of knowledge and experience concerning 1958, in New Delhi at the newly-built National the production of visual aids and their use in the Institute of Audio-Visual Education, established field for fundamental education and community by the Government of India.Afghanistan, development.It was obvious that the participants Cambodia, Ceylon, China, India, Indonesia, would have to be persons actively engaged in the Iran, Japan, Korea, Nepal, Pakistan, the production and use of visual aids for fundamental Philippines, Singapore and Thailand were rep- education and for community development, and resented.In all, there were twenty delegates, capable of participating in an exchange of views at three members of the Unesco Secretariat and an advanced level.Five Unesco visual aids five Unesco experts (see Appendix). experts working in the field were invited to lead The Indian Minister of Education, Dr. K. L. the discussions and other activities connected Shrimali, who presided at the opening session, rith the Seminar, under the general direction of urged participants in the Seminar to see that the Unesco Secretariat. audio-visual aids were not used in ways that The Seminar elected as its Chairman Dr. J. C. would disrupt the culture patterns of the region. Mathur, Director - Cenral of All-India Radio. They must be adapted, he said, to suit the The Seminar was convened by Unesco under the genius of each people.Unesco's emphasis on United Nations Expanded Programme of Technical regional meetings and regional prospects was Assistance. described as "wise and timely" by Mr. Prem To some extent, the shortage of funds restricted Kirpal, Joint Secretary of the Indian Ministry the scope of the agenda.Originally deliberations of Education, in the course of his welcoming were to be confined to visual aids, excluding drama speech. and such purely auditory aids as radio which would On behalf of the Director-General of Unesco, have required specialist participation.Television Mr. Harold Loper, Director of the Department was included merely to inform governments about of Education, Unesco, opened the Seminar which general trends and experience so far gained in was the second International Seminar to be held more advanced countries. Working papers were on this theme."Five years have passed since prepared in Paris to direct the discussion, to be the Messina Seminar", he said."Does the led by the Unesco experts, and to give participants fact that we are holding another Seminar on the an idea of how the various problems connected same theme mean that the conclusions reached with visual aids had been divided up for the at Messina are now outmoded?In general, no. purposes of the Seminar. I believe that many of the findings of that meet- However, it was later decided that it would be ing are still valid.On the other hand, some useful to include in the programme a general dis- basic assumptions in this field may have to be cussion regarding the use of drama and radio in completely revised."He went on to say: "Let fundamental education and community development, us remember that the Messina and New Delhi if only to arrive at certain guiding principles Seminars are but the first and second of a series which could provide the basis for more detailed of such meetings.It is our hope that there will debate and discussion by specialists in these gradually be built up a comprehensive and fields.A similar decision was adopted with systematic knowledge of the use of audio-visual regard to television.India, the host country, aids in education.And I am sure that your offered to assist the work of the Seminar in conclusions, while conforming to the austere drama and radio. requirements of scientific truth, will also reflect The programme also included regular screening the lively originality of the countries of Asia and demonstration of visual aid materials to where the freshness and vigour that have come illustrate the work being done in various countries with independence are associated with the wisdom and to show what can be learned from practical of an ancient culture of centuries". experience in varying conditions.Screenings In the course of the three-week Seminar, the and demonstrations were to include the whole Prime Minister, Mr. Jawaharlal Nehru, met the range of visual aids and each participating participants.His simple injunction - "You country was expected to contribute to the cannot teach without first being taught" - summa- programme. rized in fact the main purpose of the Seminar.

2 5 II - THE ROLE OF VISUAL AIDS

The Seminar began its deliberations with an The role of government is to plan and organize attempt to define the role of visual aids (and also, the programmes on a national basis and to to some extent that of auditory aids) in funda- provide the technical services and the basic mental education and community development. material aid which are beyond the resources Speaking from a paper prepared by Mr. Andre of the communities and of the voluntary organi- Lestage and himself, Mr. Henny de Jong, the zations. Director of the Seminar, introduced the Community development may properly be discussion. considered a component of the wider concept No definition of the scope and purpose of the of economic and social development - the one Seminar was possible without first understanding stimulating the other, giving direction to the what was meant by fundamental education and people's effort, checking community recession, community development.Mr. de John warned promoting collective action. against adopting over- rigid definitions, because It is, therefore, both an organizational and educa- the content of these movements varies from place tional process, recognizing the needs felt by to place.To provide a working basis, he quoted the people themselves, developing their capacity at length from the Twentieth Report of the to form judgments on the effects of activities, Administrative Committee on Co-ordination to the to determine the goals to be aimed at, to adopt Economic and Social Council (UN-ECOSOC docu- technical changes and to adjust themselves to ment E/2931 of 18 October, 1956).The following changes brought about by outside forces. concepts were recalled: Mr. de Jong then went on to discuss the concept The term community development embraces the of fundamental education.Quoting from the processes by which the efforts of the people Report of the Economic and Social Council themselves are united with those of govern- Committee, he stressed certain basic features: mental authorities to improve the economic Fundamental Education aims to help people, who social and cultural conditions of communities, have not obtained such help from established to integrate these communities into the life of institutions, to understand the problems of the nation and to enable them to contribute fully their environment and their rights and duties to national progress. as citizens and individuals. This complex of processes is made up of two Fundamental education is generally synonymous essential elements: the participation of the with "Social Education", "Mass Education" and people themselves to improve their living "Community Education", being either the initi- conditions with as much reliance as possible on ating process of community development or one their own initiative, and the provision of tech- of its technical services. nical and other services to encourage these It provides educational support to other technical developments and make them more effective. services and helps the agents of these services The programmes, designed to achieve a variety of to prepare the community for the acceptance of objectives, are concerned with local communi- new ideas. ties which have many and varied interests in A fundamental education programme demands the common. setting up of such supporting services as experi- The size of the area to be covered will be deter- mental units, training classes for educators, mined by considerations of economy and production of educational material, and content- efficiency, as well as by the need to concentrate testing of the use and effectiveness of these in on small rural communities which have a sense the field - all of which can be provided most of "belonging" and are unlike larger urban effectively by a fundamental education centre. groupings. Visual and, for that matter, auditory aids, Mr. de While successful action may require wider areas Jong pointed out, are a vital part of the supporting of operation and different types of organization, services of fundamental education which in turn is the active participation of the people in such a technical service of community development. action can only be obtained if the people recog- They must be produced, distributed and utilized nize the interests common to a number of in such a way that they are directed particularly communities. to illiterate and newly-literate people, mainly in If the participation of the people is to be really rural areas, in order to support and develop the profitable, it should take place within the efforts of those people alongside the efforts of framework of a national plan covering a large governmental authorities to improve economic, number of the smaller communities. social and cultural conditions.The field covers Success in community development programmes such subjects as agriculture, nutrition, education, demands that the people identify themselves vocational guidance and training, co-operatives, emotionally with these programmes. handicrafts and small industries, social welfare, housing, health, building and planning.

6 Such an approach requires that the visual aids where the printed word is inadequate.Secondly, services should be regarded as part of the larger the visual media are a valuable means of off- work of community development.In this setting the extreme shortage of qualified teachers connexion, any scheme for community develop- available for fundamental education.This is not ment calls for planning at the national level and to suggest that visual media can be used as a kind for an integrated approach.The Economic and of mechanical process, producing spiritual good, Social Council Report has this to say: "The very ready for consumption.The visual media are concept of community development elaborated tools in the hands of educators and not ends in above demands the use of the knowledge and skill themselves, but they do make it possible to a of all the relevant national services in an integra- large degree, to transfer teaching skill from the ted, rather than an isolated or fragmentary, way. field worker to the visual media producer. To serve the ultimate objective of a fuller and As Mr. de Jong pointed out, visual means, better life for individuals within the family and like television or the village drama, are becoming the community, the technical services must be something more than just aids.They are media conceived in a manner which recognizes the in their own right.It is, therefore, proper to indivisibility of the welfare of the individual. " speak of visual media, rather than of visual aids. Fundamental education services can generally be provided most effectively at a fundamental education centre with a network of local centres DISCUSSION and field workers, and visual aids services can greatly benefit from the existence of such a This being the first paper to be debated by the network. participants, there was a tendency for the dis- Finally, while one can think of a visual aids cussion of the role of visual aids to stray into service as working exclusively for fundamental problems connected with the organization, education and community development, one must production, distribution, utilization and evalua- also remember that the production of visual aids, tion of visual aids services.However partici- and particularly of films, is an expensive and/ pants proved from their own experience that complicated process and must, therefore, be visual media do render exceptional, specific considered in relWari to the resources of and irreplaceable services in fundamental educa- countries.In addition, a certain overlapping of tion, particularly in those underdeveloped visual and auditory services is often inevitable. countries which are striving to make up the lee- Roughly speaking, the visual media used in way of centuries.These aids provide the means fundamental education and community development of surmounting the barrier of illiteracy which should be designed to inform, to motivate and to has till now stood in the way of that spiritual instruct.Informational materials are of a and cultural revival of South and East Asia with- factual, documentary or reportorial nature and out which the people cannot be inspired or do not attempt to convey a specific educational mobilized for more. far-reaching economic and message.Motivational materials encourage, social tasks.Visual media can reach out to the inspire or recommend a particular course of remotest corners and, if properly designed, can action without being specific as to how the action give new power to the village educator. They is to be carried out and thereby facilitate the also help enterprising and enthusiastic members acceptance of new ideas or the changing of old of village communities to become part-time attitudes.Instructional materials are for the educators and in this way do offset, to some acquisition of knowledge and for the acquisition extent, the chronic shortage of teachers.In this of a technique for a specific purpose. connexion, it was repeatedly emphasized that To the above one must add a recreational visual media should never be allowed to replace function which has two aspects - the entertain- the teacher, for this would destroy the very ment value which educational materials should essence of fundamental education which draws possess, and the educational use of feature films. sustenance and strength from the living and real Speaking of the contribution which visual aide experience of the village educator. have made to educatiec, de Jong quoted with Several speakers stressed the need to concen- approval the statement made by Mr. S. K. trate attention on the role of simple and cheap Chakrabarti in his recent book, Audio Visual aids, often made locally, which are the main Education in India: "The case for an increased instruments for carrying through the programme use of audio-visual aids at all levels of education - in small and poor countries.In these regions, pre- primary, secondary, university and adult - it is futile to think of making or using elaborate has been established beyond all doubt".Research mechanical aids like films, unless the govern- supports this conclusion. ments realize what is involved and are prepared Two particular assets of the visual media with to make enough money available.The same regard to fundamental education and community point was also stressed in reference to larger development were noted.First, in an educational countries where developed film techniques tended process addressed largely to an audience of illiter- to dominate the visual media programme.Here, ates and new literates, these media can be used it was necessary to build up the initiative of the

7 social worker or educator in the field who was reduce the danger of using audio-visual media in increasingly being reduced to the status of a robot a way which might hinder the full participation of in charge of equipment and thus was in danger of the people in the drive to bring entire nations out losing the capacity to act as a "stimulant".For of the backwardness of centuries.For this this reason he should be thoroughly trained in the reason, the criterion of the Messina Seminar proper selection and use of the aids, and particu- which reads: "Films must not offend the beliefs larly in discussion techniques to be used after the and customs of the group", was criticized as being presentation. negative.It was proposed that this should be Linked to this was the suggestion that the role amended to read more positively: "Audio-visual of audio-visual media should be considered under media should be directly related to cultural prac- two headings - national and locaLThe require- tices in the region".Then only would field ments at these two levels, although complementary, workers be able to release thinking and action on are distinct.The fear was expressed that if this certain beliefs and customs which hinder progress was not done, there would be a tendency to permit and general well-being. attitudes at the more influential national level to In discussing the visual aids which can be used, dictate work at the local level.However, parti- the general opinion of participants was that where- cipants from smaller countries were of the opinion as television would take many years to "arrive" in that this problem applied only to larger nations South and East Asia, dramatic forms like village embracing a variety of cultures.All were agreed plays, puppetry, shadow plays and a host of other that, generally speaking, the fault in practice was similar traditional means of expression should be not with the media, but in the selection.Only used as fully as possible.They should no longer planning, i. e. careful study and research, at the be neglected, for they have proved effective where- national level, based on a willingness to consider ever they have been used.The participants were sympathetically the needs of the field worker, also of the opinion that account should be taken of could reinforce and make more effective the role the widespread impact that entertainment feature of audio-visual aids in fundamental education and films were having on culture patterns and seek ways community development. of using them for the general good.Reference was The opinions expressed by Mr. Fred Wale also made to radio, which was fast becoming an (Fundamental and Adult Education Bulletin, 1957, important auditory aid in the countries of South and No. 4) were pertinent to the discussion:"Just as East Asia. a literacy programme or the effort to bring pure The Seminar agreed that the role of audio- water to a community is not an end in itself, but visual media had increased to such an extent that an opportunity that serves a greater purpose, so considerable overlapping with other agencies was audio-visual products are not programmes in now taking place.This trend was likely to in- themselves.Often this is not clearly understood. crease in the coming years.It was therefore The professional or technician who earns his bread necessary to devise a method of minimising the and butter in the medium sometimes befogs the duplication of effort, removing bottlenecks in the issue.He wants it to be the goal, rather than the flow of material, and facilitating communication servant of the goal, and he resents being placed in between governments and village communities. what he considers a secondary position.Of course, It was emphasized that audio-visual programmes the medium is not secondary, but equally it is not for fundamental education and community develop- primary.It is complementary to the educational ment should be closely integrated with overall force that is stirring like yeast in the body of the national planning.This would call for real and community.Inspired production and the use of close co-operation between the several ministries audio-visual materials can stimulate and further concerned to increase and extend the usefulness arouse this educational force.This is the great of visual media in the spiritual, cultural revival challenge for the medium and for those who pro- of nations, it would be necessary to establish duce it.Audio-visual materials, if they are regular two-way communication between village going to reach into the heart of the problem, must level workers or educators and the production challenge the forces that lie as obstacles in the centres, whether national or regional.Partici- path of fulfilment.In a dependent society (where pants were of the unanimous opinion that the for generations there has been little or no question village-level worker or educator must be trained of the role of the majority ... timid, self-negating, and organized as the foundation of the programme, waiting... and no question of the role of the leader and that all programmes must be developed from ...the man who solves every problem... ) the the bottom upwards and not imposed by bureau- audio-visual materials we produce if they are to cratic fiat.Unless this was established and be effective, must dramatize the timid man, the accepted as a fundamental concept, it was felt man who though proud and generous in the quiet that the energizing and dynamic role of audio- dignity of his rural setting, has yet to be aroused visual media in fundamental education and to the full force of his collective power. He community development would be nullified and must be helped to understand the difference bet- stifled by the overpowering influence of admini- ween planning for a people and the people doing strators who had little contact with the living the planning..." These ideas, it was felt, would realities of the village communities.

8 III - GENERAL REQUIREMENTSOF VISUAL AIDS SERVICES

This subject was placed at the beginning of the He suggested therefore that thefirst requirement Seminar because it was generally felt that efforts of a good visual aids services organizationis to so far have often been too scatteredand that the see that there is a clearline of communication time has come for an integrated approach to more between the field worker and those producingthe ambitious projects, leading up to the formationof visual materials.Production and exhibition are visual aids centres capable of meeting require- merely opposite sides of the same coin,the one ments on a national or regional scale.This assisting the other. would also imply the replacement of more orless Speaking of the various kinds of visual aids - amateur projects by professional ones. the projected aids such as films,filmstrips and A comparable development is taking place with film slides, and the non-projected aidssuch as regard to the use of visual media in schoolsin photographs, flashcards, flannelgraphs, exhibits, Europe and North America where there is anin- models, puppets, drama and blackboards - creasing demand for high quality materialstechni- Mr. Spurr referred to the specialproblems of cally comparable with those produced by the transporting, maintaining and servicing projec- commercial mass media enterprises.With the tion equipment, which restrictedtheir use in the rapid development of suet media all over the field.The non-projected aids were popular world it seems probable that events will take a because they were portable, inexpensive to pro- similar course in other continents. duce and did not require muchtechnical skill to Mr. Norman Spurr, Unesco specialist inGhana, handle. The organizers of visual aids services introduced the subject.He began by saying that should therefore recognize the fact thatif visual if it is agreed that in the field of fundamentaledu- aids are to play their allotted part,they must be cation and community development those inactual easily available.Failure in this respect demora- contact with the people are the final instruments lizes the field worker.Good organization will of policy, the arbiters of success or failure,then keep the user fully informed about thetypes of it must follow that all organization ofvisual aids media available.Good organization will see to must be geared to their needs, in order tomake it that the visual material is sent outin good the aids, and the users of them, fullyeffective. condition, that films with writtencommentaries Unless organization is based on the realitiesof arrive with the commentaries in tiletins, that the situation, whether these be material orhuman, posters are not torn, that flannelgraphs have there is a grave danger that the onlyachievement flannel on the back of the pictures, that material will be a paper onea victory for bureaucracy is sent to the right destination - andin time! and a defeat for human relationships. Mr. Spurr then went on to deal with an expen- Visual aids services, Mr. Spurr pointed out, sive technical aid like 16 mm. film, whichis now are very vulnerable toorganizational myopia for readily available and which commands a wide the reason that all but the most simple aids are audience even in the most unexpected places. made for the field worker and not by him. Few Where populations are illiterate and the printed field workers are competent artists orskilled word cannot be exploited, projected aids film-makers, but such workers need graphicand (particularly films) are most effective, but such photographic aids, and for these they mustrely on services are difficult to organize.Ways and others.If the line of communication is a tenuous means must be found of making themost profit- one between user andmaker, then the tendency is able and rational use of this medium, fortoday for the visual aids to be made according toofficial there is almost an over-abundance of goodfilms dictates and, for that reason, to be, moreoften available from commercial, educational and than not, out of touch with the real situation.This government sources. places the field worker in a dilemma.Should he In a number of countries it is possible to use what he isgiven, knowing it to be inadequate borrow films, filmstrips, etc. from the embassies should he reject it or information centres ofvarious foreign countries. or even clearly unsuitable, or films altogether?In many cases the situation can be The problem, however, is one of sending compared with that of a driver of an expensive from country to country, unless the same language automobile travelling to his destination with his is spoken in both; either new commentaries must engine missing on one cylinder.He may get be provided or the originals must be"dubbed". there in the end, but at what a waste of thetrue The striped film has been used withconsiderable potentialities of the vehicle he drives! success.An effective visual aids service cannot Elaborating this point, Mr. Spurr declaredthat afford to overlook the necessity for providing if one of the most treasured tenets of community suitable machinery for the purchase and adapta- development is to take account of the needs tion of foreign films for use in fundamental educa- actually experienced in the community itself,there tion work. was all the more reasonto apply this principle Mr. Spurr went on to say that the very essence wheal dealing with community developmentstaff. of fundamental education and community 9 3 development is in its contact with every phase of initiative at the circumference, but decentraliza- the life of the community with which it deals, and tion can lead to lack of co-ordination and duplica- this means, or should mean, that all other spec- tion of effort. ialist agencies which work with the people concerned, The subject was then put before the Seminar should co-operate closely with one another and with for discussion. fundamental education.Agriculture, health, animal husbandry, rural housing and rural educa- tion all have a claim on the attention of the same DISCUSSION: set of people.In this situation even the formal educationalist and the fundamental educationalist The crux of the issue was whether, in view of the do not always appreciate each other's function or increasing scope of the visual media and the point of view.One of the essential points in growing demand for high quality materials techni- organizing an efficient visual aids service for cally comparable with those produced by commer- community development is to see that the service cial mass media enterprises, the old -type organi- is properly integrated with the work of other zation of one-man visual aids units attached to a agencies working in the area. particular project should develop into a fully- In assessing the progress made in audio-visual equipped visual aids centre with co-ordinating and media, Mr. Spurr referred to the startling changes distributing functions.The participants in the which have taken place since the beginning of this Seminar had already agreed that if "those in century.Newspapers appear in the morning, at actual contact with the people are the final instru- noon, and as evening editions.There are radio ments of policy - the arbiters of success or programmes round the clock, film theatres round failure - then it must follow that all organization the corner, and the world in one's home on a of visual aids must be geared to their needs in television screen.In every sphere there has been order to make the aids, and the users of them, technical change and technical improvement. fully effective".This naturally implied that the More people are experiencing and appreciating the producer or maker of visual aids is the servant of impact of high quality material than ever before, the user and, through him, of the tbonsumer". and are becoming more critical of the older, more Where the user is also the maker of the aids - prim:tive forms.If this is true in the more which may be the case at village level - the prob- devel,ped countries, what is happening in those lem is solved at the source, provided the user has areas where fundamental education and community adequate training in preparing the aids he wishes development touch life at a more undeveloped to use; but where this is not so, the situation is level?Is the same process taking place? Will full of difficulties and impediments - and these it take place?Is it true to say that on the whole increase if commercial enterprise, which is not visual materials for fundamental education are of subject to the same disciplines as the worker in a lower quality than similar materials in other the field, offers to assist in the job of producing fields, and if so what is the reason?Is it only a materials.This is more particularly applicable matter of hard cash, or is it due to an attitude of to the larger countries where conditions vary mind?Without doubt, as transport facilities widely from place to place and where distances increase and the villager is able to visit urban between producers and users of materials are areas much more often, he is going to be subjected great, although it may also be applicable to some to the influence of more sophisticated material than small countries as well.The suggestion was that with which he has been familiar.When will offered by some that the producer and his creative his critical faculty be aroused; and if it is aroused, unit should gain experience in the field before will notice have to be taken of it? preparing the aids.This, however, is not always Raising these questions and pointing to the fact practicable, particularly if the scale of production that there is already an increasing penetration into is large and a number of makers are involved.It rural areas of technically superior commercial was agreed however, that in order to establish media, Mr. Spurr declared that the challenge of healthy and regular two-way communication, the such media is basically a challenge for attention. field worker or educator would have to act as a Can this be met by putting the visual material used link between the producer and consumer of visual for fundamental education on a similar professional aids. basis?Is the battle for attention being lost because This in turn would mean that the field worker or we do not employ men who can write compulsively? educator would have to be adequately trained to Are the graphic arts missing their mark because act as the link between producer and consumer. the artists are not good enough?Is it time to let For various reasons ,many workers at present in the the professional take over no matter what the cost? field are not equal to this task.Most of them Finally, Mr. Spurr spoke of the need to establish have entered the service as educators without a visual aids centre as part of the fundamental proper preparation.In the absence of encourage- education and community development programme. ment to adapt and develop their own aids and One of the first problems would be to decide materials, they often tend to accept just whatever whether to centralize or decentralize the service. is sent.Moreover, the local worker is seldom Centralization can lead to a certain loss of made to feel that he is the master of a visual aids programme with power to condition or command opinion was that every step taken to integrate over- its development.Unless he is trained and lapping and isolated programmes would more than equipped and made to feel that his initiative will repay the effort. be respected and rewarded, there is every likeli- The Seminar had then to consider whether or not hood that the programme will fall short of its full the time had come for fundamental education and possibilities. community development in each country to have At this point, the question was raised as to how its own well-planned visual aids centre.Would a greater degree of professionalism was to be not these centres help train the field workers and achieved in the organization of visual aids services. strengthen the links between the makers and users Several speakers feared the professionalized of visual media?Cou ld greater competence or approach which, they thought, would kill local professionalism be attained by any other form of initiative, originality and creativity - the assump- organization?It was pointed out that these centres, tion being that the preparation of materials would like the Unesco Regional Centres already existing thus be handed over to technically qualified men in Mexico and Egypt, would not only train field who might impose their ideas and attitudes on workers in the production and use of visual those who, though they could not be described as materials, but would also lay the foundation for "professionals", were more closely linked to the future training.These centres would act as people.It was then pointed out that the word important clearing-houses of techniques, would "professional" in the context of the discussion develop research, and would not only link the was intended to refer to the quality of work and producer with the user in a single country, but the part of both producer and user.In other would also establish fruitful contact with work words, both the maker of visual aids and the done in other lands.They would help the exchange field worker or educator should be competent, of information and techniques, assist in planning trained in the required skills and adequately national programmes and bridge the gaps between equipped.With this view there was general various sectors of governmental activity.In agreement.Participants, however, were of the other words, they would be so organized as to opinion that while educators could be trained to reflect the needs actually experienced in the use the sample visual aids more effectively and village communities.The Seminar approved the to devise new ones, the organization of services basic idea, making it clear that the setting up of as such would still require specialist personnel visual aids centres for fundamental education and to handle the more complicated technical aids. community development would necessarily vary Closely connected with this aspect of organiza- from country to country according to local tion is the problem of whether development should resources and needs, and at the same time point- be decentralized or centralized.The general ing out that the mere setting up of centres did not opinion was that certain aids are better produced solve the problem of the lack of understanding of from a centralized pnint and others are more the value of such centres at top level in all effective if worked out locally.Some, like films, government departments.Whatever decision was cannot easily be decentralized in view of cost and made the important point was to see that visual other considerations,Each country would, of aids services were integrated with other agencies course, base its declaims on its own particular working in the villages. requirements and resources; but the general

IV - ORGANIZATION OF PRODUCTION

Mr. Graham Crabtree, Unesco audio-visual aids three charts showing the lay-out at each stage adviser in Indonesia prefaced his lecture on the (see plates 1, 2 and 3).The three slides showed: need to establish visual aids training-cum-produc- (1) The minimum facilities required for produc- tion centres by remarking that the sponsors or tion. governments concerned never understand what is (2) An expansion and improvement of facilities. involved in organizing production for an effective (3) A greater expansion of facilities to make the audio-visual programme which treats the educator project more or less self-sufficient. or worker in the field as the key man, has faith in Slide 1: This plan was certainly not offered as him, and backs him up. Basing his views on infallible nor as a criterion for organizing his personal experience in Indonesia, he proceeded production centres for visual aids, said Mr. to outline the practical aspects of the matter. Crabtree.It was his interpretation of the Dealing initially with the question of premises, organizational problem based on experience he Mr. Crabtree proposed a programme in three had had in working in Unesco AVA projects, stages.He illustrated this by projections of government and commercial film production 11 studios art and printing concerns. It wa to do all work in 16 mm production with the intended as a starting point for discussion. exception of processing, printing, and sound ADMINISTRATION/PLANNING: The plan staits recording.This could of course only besuccess- with Administration and Planning- Administration ful if adequate serviceswere available within a referring to director, assistants and office stf; reasonable distance of the centre. Planning referring to duties of director, assis- Titling, text frames, animation, illustrations, tants, heads of departments or sections in deter special effects, models, required in the produc- mining the programme of production. tions will be done by the Graphics Section. LIBRARY: A first consideration should be WORKSHOPS: As there is a constant need for library facilities, in particular books for training the construction in wood and metal of equipment and research purposes, as well as films, film- required in the regularprogramme of work, a strips, slides and visual materials which would well-organized wood and metal workshop is be of immediate value in training and in production. recommended.For the making of bulletin Judging by experience in Indonesia it would be boards, frames for flip-over charts, special difficult to stress too highly the importance ofa light-panels for hand-drawn filmstrip work,and well organized and well equipped library. all the other items required,a workshop is "Distribution" in Slide One has reference to the essential, said Mr. Crabtree.Attached to this films, strips, slides, etc. which in the early section is Maintenance, which handles theservic- stages may be gathered from outside sources and ing of working equipment in the Centre. may be required in the various working areas. PROJECTION EQUIPMENT DISTRIBUTION: "Research" refers to planning details andrequire- The handling of projection equipment has been ments in each production. shown in the chart as a separate unitor section, TRAINING ROOM: Facilities for lecturing and but could in the early stages of the project be demonstration are required and this room may be incorporated into the Library organization,or one which can be used for film screenings as well. possibly the "Maintenance" part of Workshops. Provision must be made for "blocking out" this room. Wherever it is placed there must be somesuper- GRAPHICS: A work area for graphics designers vision of the equipment in its use outside the centre. is the next consideration.This area must in the This is particularly true when one or two motion- first stage not only be large enough for the art picture projectors and slide projectors must be staff but also for storage of graphics materials shared amongst a number of field working parties. and paper supplies;it must have space for cutting POWER AND WATER SUPPLIES AND tables, light-panel, type-setting, exhibit and TRANSPORTATION: These are facilities display work. which must be given special thought in the initial REPRODUCTION: Facilities for reproduction planning of the production organization. An must be planned adjacent to the Graphics Depart- adequate power and water supply is vital.The ment, for these two groups work hand in hand. location of the centre may present problems of "Reproduction" is shown in two sections- one both water and power demanding the procurement for the printing of visual materials such as of a generator for servicing the whole centreor connected picture sheets, posters, charts by providing additional power.It may mean the silkscreen printing methods (in the first stage by sinking of a deep well and the pumping of water hand-operated methode) - the second section for into storage tanks to carryover each day's the printing of informational and instructional operation.As for transporation, if it is not materials by duplicators and a small offset given sufficient attention, it can havea serious machine.The latter requires facilities for effect on the work programme.The heaviest production of plates: a small work area as part strain on the centre's transportationresources of this reproduction section. will come from the field teams, the film produc- PHOTOGRAPHIC LAB. AND FILM tion and photo section, the library and the graphics PRODUCTION: These two must be considered section, probably in that order. These facilities together, as their functions are closely allied. must be budgeted for in early planning for they The photo lab. is organized here for all processing are items which could eat up a large proportion and printing work in relation to stills, filmstrips, of the establishing funds. slides.Two sections are shown for the copying In each of these departments office facilities work - one for filmstrips, which requires its own and storage facilities must be incorporated into small area; and a second for copying, charts, the unit work area. maps, illustrations, text panels, required for the Slide 2:The expansion involved in the second offset printing and for the production of project- phase of the plan was described by Mr. Crabtree able and non-projectable aids. as follows: In the production of 16 mm films it is necessary STORAGE: This slide shows that a separation to investigate local services and perhaps go of the Storage facilities from each unit has taken through a trial period in using these to determine place.Because of lack of working area and the their exact worth to the planned programme. need to conserve space for production activities This calls therefore for a section organized in it is not always possible to have special storage, a conservative way with equipment and facilities but it is desirable, said Mr. Crabtree. He 12 mentioned that unit heads were responsible for An alternative to the automatic silkscreen keeping an inventory and keeping up with supplies printing might be an expansion of the offset but because of the pressure of work this was a printing by purchasing a large offset press to matter easily put aside, resulting in inconveniences print chart size sheets.If this were done the at later dates.With a separate unit for storage, plate-making facilities would have to be enlarged responsible for recording and purchasing, petty to accommodate a large copy camera, etchers, hindrances to production could be avoided. printing frames, etc. RESEARCH: Research is now shown as separa- FILM PRODUCTION:If no services are ted from the library facilities, because there available for the production of films or if those will be a greater volume of work as the centre available are unusable because of poor quality settles down to active production. of production, the inclusion of facilities for TYPE SETTING: As output increases, separate recording (tape and disc) must be made.This facilities for type setting will improve the system work area could also meet the periodic need for of production.There will be an increasing a shooting stage.A small work area for title demand for setting text panels for both non- shooting, special effects work and possibly projectable and projectable productions. simple animation shooting may be desirable - REPRODUCTION: Incorporated into the facili- this being determined by the size of the original ties for printing visual materials is the provision work area provided and its organization. of semi-automatic silkscreen presses which will MAINTENANCE: With an increase in produc- enable the centre to produce larger work with tion it will no doubt be necessary to expand the greater ease. maintenance section not only in equipment but FILM PRODUCTION: At this stage, it may be also in staff.There should be a regular system found desirable if not imperative, to expand the of checking machines and servicing them as they facilities of the photo-lab to include processing are pressed into greater use. and printing equipment.This should not be a Mr. Crabtree then pointed out some of the great strain on the organization if the possibilities more obvious requirements which need to be kept of this requirement are foreseen in the original in mind during the construction of the centre: planning of the photographic section.Working The lecture, demonstration and preview room conditions in this section can be greatly improved should have "blacking out" facilities, storage by providing special editing rooms. facilities, display areas and chalkboard for Slide 3: TRAINING: In the third stage of the plan demonstration work.If this centre is respon- which indicates full expansion, there is provision sible for a major training programme in for the addition of one or two rooms for training addition to production, and the training of purposes.This will be determined by the number personnel for that production, the area required of trainees in the centre and the manner in which for trainees would be 96 square metres.This production training is handled with the normal area is enough for the above requisites and for work programme. work tables for 16 students. LIBRARY: a further expansion of the library Graphics should have good lighting, preferably a facilities provides special organization for the north light (in the northern hemisphere). library of films, slides, filmstrips, non-projectable Artists do not require a large working area aids, and distribution organization for these.It but enough room to move about comfortably. can now be assumed that production within the 32 square metres will accommodate 4 artists centre has been under way for some time and that and the equipment they require.Exhibits and because of the volume of production it is desirable displays will require a 24 square metre area, to separate this service from the book library. which should be separated from the artists' MOBILE VANS:Mobile vans are now connected working room. 16 square metres will house with the library organization.Transportation the type-setting unit in its final stage. facilities should be expanded along with the entire The reproduction unit for silkscreen offset and fundamental education programme to provide a duplicators in the initial stage should be pro- more effective system. vided with 66 square metres of working space. EXHIBITS AND DISPLAY: Graphics production The area required for the photo-lab will be facilities are further expanded to separate the determined by the type of training programme. work of exhibits and display from designing. The darkroom of 80 square metres has been REPRODUCTION: An addition to the reproduc- designed principally for production.In addition tion section could be an automatic silkscreen to a staff of 6 it could accommodate 4 trainees press if the quantity of production required is and with reorganization 8 trainees. This more than can conveniently be handled by the section must have a good water and power hand-operated and semi-automatic methods and supply, ventilation system, development and if outside services for this mass production are film loading booths within the lab, and system- not available or cannot be used. atic layout of equipment to expedite production It must be remembered however that increase and training work.The area required for in reproduction facilities also increases the copying cameras is 20 square metres.To problem of supply of materials. house film production equipment, editing

4 13 facilities, work desks, etc., aminimum of 40 film production - including editing equipment, square metres is suggested to begin with. recording equipment projectors, screens, Recording rooms must have special construc- generating equipment and lighting facilities. tion for sound recording work.Editing, anima- Dealing with the question of staff, Mr. Crabtree tion and special effects work require approxi- emphasized the absolute necessity of getting mately 60 square metres. competent personnel; this would depend largely Continuing, Mr. Crabtree suggested that partici- on the progressiveness of the educational system pants should express their opinions on the basic as a whole and the availability of persons with requirements for each division of audio-visual aids knowledge of this particular work.Standards production and draw up a concise guide for must be set high, even if they have to be reduced workers in this field.The quantity and quality a little when the actual selection takes place. of equipment now available is quite staggering, The number of specialists to be recruited will he said, but from his own experience he was depend on the scale of the project.The Director against recommending equipment which might be should be an "all-round" man with vision and a unknown even if it were less expensive than fami- sound understanding of all aspects of visual aids liar equipment already in use.Equipment that work. He must be a trained educationist.The "looked good" but turned out to be quite unsatis- two departments of graphics and photography factory caused additional problems for the should be headed by specialists, the graphics production programme.It was therefore an in the early stages of the project doubling extremely important that serious thought should as director of both the designing and printing be given to the selection of the tools with which establishments, and the photographer directing to do the job. film production and the laboratory. As personnel The following points might be mentioned in is trained, each department should be assigned a particular: director.With experience, each person In graphics work there is no substitute for good gradually finds his niche. quality working tools and materials.A few Mr. Crabtree then went on to discuss training good brushes, good quality tempera paint, which, he said, must not only take technical quality paper, etc. save a lot of trouble and know-how into account, but also relate this know- keep artists in a good frame of mind. how to the psychological aspects of the work.It Lettering, drawing up text panels and titling are must follow a logical pattern including not only time-consuming jobs and today, with the the step-by-step procedures in each type of number of fine type faces available, this work production but also the relationship of one can usually be done by type-setting. If department to the other.A suggested outline production is on a large scale, it is worth syllabus for a training centre was as follows: considering setting up a hot-press unit with a 1. Introduction: history, objectives. selection of type faces or at least a set of fonts 2. Types of aids: classification. and a small hand proving press.In this 3. Using teaching aids: introduction. connexion, it may be noted that rubber-faced 4. General graphics training course (non- type helps to save a lot of time when working in projectable aids). the Roman alphabet. 5. Production of teaching aids (projectable aids, The display and exhibit unit should have its own but not including film production). set of tools.Sharing tools can cause a great 6. Practical experience in using aids. deal of inconvenience. 7. Equipment: types, operation, servicing. The semi-automatic silkscreen press or one-man 8. Application of teaching aids (how to organize squeegee is a great improvement over the slide visual aids programmes). system.It is big enough for the production of All training, Mr. Crabtree reiterated, should be charts and large posters.The automatic silk- closely linked to objectives, and these should be screen press should only be considered when outlined at the beginning of the programme. thousands of copies have to be printed. Periodic lectures, practical demonstrations of The small offset press, which costs approximately the use of materials, discussion and evaluation £4000, means speed and quantity production at would be a regular part of the training session. reasonable cost.Again, this should only be Because most trainees have little knowledge of included if production is planned on a national art and little drawing ability, the introduction of scale. a general graphics training course was strongly In the photo lab, the use of a "home-made" film- recommended.This course should follow a strip printer can prove most useful.This is strict pattern: first, testing of students' powers a contact printer which prints the entire strip of perception for the purposes of visual repre- in one exposure. sentation and of their ability in handling artistic There are many good copy cameras for filmstrip tools; next, instruction in lettering, using ruling work and cameras for stills work available. pen and compass, perspective, shading, using Selection should naturally be determined by colour, pencil, ink, tempera; then layout and individual preferences and experience.This design, enlarging, reducing and so on. The also applies to the selection of equipment for principle should be to instil in the trainee's 14 mind the necessity of a direct and simple approach Continuing, Mr. Crabtree said that the success- to visualization and to dispel his fear of attempt- ful operation of a visual media production centre ing to put his ideas into visual form because of his depends on a sound planning and administration lack of technical knowledge and skill. system.On the administrative side, it is When he goes on to the work of production, the imperative that government or sponsoring direc- trainee must understand methods of planning and tors should fully understand the objectives in the relationship of director to field worker to relation to the organization (a process which is producer, before studying the actual techniques never ending) and operation of the centre and of production.The "unit" system was suggested, appreciate the complexities and problems in the whereby a number of trainees are assigned to one production of visual media.The success of the project where they jointly plan and do research project will depend very largely on the promotion under the supervision of the director of the centre of favourable relations between sponsors and and the department heads.Work is followed administrators.The Director of the centre is through to final production.This type of train- in the same way responsible for unity of thinking ing requires thoughtful planning but allows of and action within the centre itself; and this can more control than individual project work. only- be achieved if he maintains a vital and Groups of four to six persons can be organized in sincere interest in all the details of production this way.As the trainees become more profici- and related matters - by such means as regular ent this system is abandoned and individual staff meetings.The planning of production is assignments are given. directed to the immediate needs of educational Mr. Crabtree suggested that the training of work.Researchers study the subject for ordinary staff and of specialists should both be production and discuss all aspects of it with the handled at the same time, the staff taking part in department heads and with the production all demonstrations and lecture work and receiving personnel who are to handle the work. The head their technical training from their department of the department thereafter takes control but is heads in job assignments.Arrangements should in constant touch with the researcher or sponsor also be made to give advanced training to the of the project.The department head should most competent staff members and students, never become simply a figure-head. through fellowships or appointments to special In conclusion, Mr. Crabtree dealt with the organizations within the country.This is part question of budgets. He suggested five require- of the planning necessary for the future expansion ments which might be used as a guide, due allow- of the centre's activities. ance being made for local conditions. Referring in passing to the. general organiza- 1. Estimation of establishing costs: includes tion of a film school, Mr. Crabtree presented a equipment materials, construction of divisional basic plan for the consideration of the Seminar: areas in building and special items, furniture, 1. Planning etc.Additions to this would be building con- Objectives, budgets, film style and make-up, struction costs or rental and staff costs in the use of outside services, production contacts, case of non-governmental organizations. etc. 2. Estimation of operational costs: materials, 2. Research and Scripting construction work, maintenance costs, trans- Research methods and procedures, script portation, medical expenditures. structure, style, treatment. 3. Understanding of government finance system: 3. Direction procurement of funds and payment. Co-ordinating of film production requirements, 4. Control of budget:careful consideration of shooting, titling, special offsets, etc., direc- requirements, planning priority purchases, tion of photography, actors, recording etc. an effective inventory system. 4. Photography 5. Estimating budget requirements for future Exterior and interior shooting, titling, plans and expansion of the centre: assessment special effects work, animation, etc. of expansion of production and training facili- 5. Editing ties, additional equipment, materials, staff Methods, techniques. and working quarters required. 6. Sound Synchronized and non-synchronized sound and speech, music, editing, re-recording. DISCUSSION: 7. Processing and Printing Methods, techniques, etc. Some participants, while warmly welcoming the In all branches emphasis should be placed on the proposals advanced for setting up a visual aids need for imagination and ingenuity in producing centre, were worried by what they felt might be aids, the realization that ambitions must be an over-elaborate project.Even the first stage governed by practical possibilities and that appeared to be beyond the resources of certain content is more important than quality if the visual countries.It was pointed out that while the media is to be effective and of value to the scheme would have to be adjusted according to educational programme. local conditions, it represented in fact the barest 15 minimum required to ensure the establishment was tentatively suggested that this work might be of an efficient centre for fundamental education entrusted to a social scientist working in close and community development.The three-stage co-operation with educators in the field.The approach has the advantage of allowing a country latter, having been trained in the centre in the to assess its requirements and act accordingly, effective use of aids, would have much to contri- moving to the second and third stages only when bute and would not be in the position of some of programme and activities demanded this expan- the earlier-type educators who could easily be sion.The main point brought out in the paper made to submit to administrative dictates from was that the organization of any production and audio-visual centres which were not really a training centre should be based on needs actually part of the fundamental education and community experienced in the field.Because the field development programme.Under the new system, worker or teacher is in the final analysis the key it was felt, the educators in the field would man in fundamental education and community receive recognition for their work and might be development programme, all organization should encouraged to start smaller local units for visual be planned in accordance with his needs.This aids, an activity which would certainly reinforce means that the organization of facilities for the research co-ordination and training at a training teachers in all aspects of audio-visual national visual aids centre. aids work, and the organization of a production The Seminar was unanimous in urging Unesco centre as a service to teachers, is in fact to recommend strongly to the governments con- "backing up" the training programme. The centre cerned that no visual aids project be launched proposed would function on a national level and without prior research, study and understanding would inspire the setting up of similar but smaller of what was required to ensure success; that all centres if the area to be covered were too large organization should stem from the field teacher; for a single national centre.It was emphasized that objectives on a provincial or national scale that the flexible approach of phased development should be clearly defined; that well-trained was a prime necessity in planning. teachers should be available to implement these The suggestion that perhaps in underdeveloped objectives; and that visual aids training and countries it would be better to postpone the organi- production centres should be designed to fulfil zing of such a centre and to concentrate on persuad- training and production requirements of the ing existing teacher-training institutes to open fundamental education and community develop- audio-visual sections was ruled out as impractical ment programme.In addition, steps should be and not conducive to the preparation of adequately taken to educate the sponsors - that is, the equipped village-level workers or educators since governments - to adopt positive attitudes; to have their specific interests would tend to be over- faith in the educator in the field; to back him up whelmed.Again, participants emphasized that as the key man whose needs cannot be shelved; the purpose of the visual aide centre should be and to give encouragement and a free hand to the not only to train educators but also to do research artist who is the backbone of any visual aids which would assist the worker in the field and service.In this connexion the Seminar stressed make him more effective as a link between the the fact that in any organized programme, it is producer of aids and the consumer.No teacher- important to guard against being rushed by too training institute could possibly fulfil this function. many demands; and also that the sponsors must In the countries of South and East Asia there was be made to realize the limits of output of a pro- a considerable lag in this respect. because many duction organization which has to have time to governments still considered this work relatively reflect and to create. For this, both money and unimportant.The establishing of such a centre, enlightened sponsorship are necessary. it was pointed out, would also make it possible to Finally, the Seminar strongly recommended popularize the idea that education at every level - that a concise guide on the basic requirements primary, secondary, high school and college - for the setting up of audio-visual aids training should make use of audio visual media. and production centres should be prepared by Special stress was laid on the need for these Unesco. centres to do follow-up work and evaluation.It

V - DISTRIBUTION

The Seminar was fortunate in getting Mr. Charles who has had fifteen years' experience in the W. Marshall, Asian representative of the National distribution and use of films and filmstrips, Film Board of Canada, to introduce the problems concentrated particularly on these two media, of distributing audio-visual aids.Mr. Marshall, declaring that much of the experience gained in

16 these fields would apply to the other visual and looking for impressive statistics of showings auditory aids. and attendance, or seeking to help people improve To begin with, he defined the subject to be their conditions of life.Perhaps we are naive discussed.Distribution of audio-visual aids, at times in our assessment of the impressions reduced to its simplest terms, simplymeans that films make on the thinking of audience finding new audiences for existing material,or members.It might be profitable to categorise finding new material for existing audiences.He films in more clearly-definedgroups, particu- explained that although this sessionwas dealing larly if the merits of commercial release through mainly with the mechanics of distribution,as theatres or cinemas are to be considered. other sessions were dealing with evaluation and Another reason for keeping qualitative distribu- utilization, it was difficult to ignore completely tion constantly in mind relates to the link between the qualitative, and to confine the discussion distributor and producer, for it is essential to entirely to the quantitative aspects of the subject. know what is found most useful and why, what He suggested that some time be devoted to the falls short of its objective, what succeeded and consideration of distribution goals in relation to why, etc. the nature of the material to be distributed. Mr. Marshall suggested that it might beuse- By distribution goals, the speakermeant the ful to examine and record the minimum physical type of situation which confronts an organization requirements of any visual aids library and togo such as the National Film Board of Canada, when on from there to the make-up of more adequate it seeks to extend the distribution of its audio- types of libraries which not only supply requests visual products to other countries. In general for material but also actively promote itsuse. terms the goals of such an organizationcan be Here a distinction would have to be made between simply stated as, first, to increase international libraries whose objectives are defined by the understanding and, second, to help withany sponsors and those which are set up to meet the programmes of development for which it can needs of the groups they serve. proide suitable material.But when applied to All distribution work has one common objective actual field requirements, these broad principles - to get the right aid to the right place at the right or policies require more precise definition. time; and to do this as quickly and inexpensively The question which first arises is that of as possible.This of course raises the question language.To what extent will the value ofa of the merits of centralized service,as opposedto film or filmstrip increase if a version is made in decentralized service and of certain economic a local language?Mr. Marshall suggested that alternatives such as circuit distribution and in the majority of cases the answer is:little or shared use;for all those who have to work with none!Where visual aids depict unfamiliarcos- limited budgets are constantly conscious of the tumes, environments, conditions and practices, need to develop more economical methods of it is extremely doubtful whethera mere change making use of the resources available. of language will help the members ofan audience Since we must constantly think both of the to identify themselves with the subject.In many quality and quantity of distribution, it follows situations, where the scenes depicted do have that the distribution of projected aids requires some meaning in the experience of the audience constant awareness of equipment, its availability members, it is likely that there will also be and suitability.In self-protection, a film some familiarity with the original language of library requires assurance that the equipmenton production if it is international in itsscope.In which its films are to be shown is in good condi- setting distribution goals, therefore, itcan be tion and competently operated.There is much completely unrealistic to plan for mass distribu- to be said both for and against the standardized tion of certain material which by its nature is use of one particular brand of equipment, but incomprehensible to the people who are to see whatever course is adopted the items of cost and and use it. dependable servicing facilities, preferably by Mr. Marshall also suggested that time might the manufacturer's agency, must be given first usefully be devoted to considering the r8le of consideration. visual aids in areas that are largely illiterate; The related questions are many.What are the effectiveness of integrated programmes of the obligations if any, of an audio-visual library films, filmstrips, posters and take-home picture to provide information and perhaps services in leaflets in motivating people to action and in connexion with equipment?Since having visual changing attitudes; and possible ways of exploit- aids but no equipment is like having ammunition ing the emotional impact of sound motion-pictures without a gun, the availability of equipment isan - an impact which is additional to the intellectual inescapable problem.What are the merits and appeal that they share with other aids. drawbacks of providing services through self- Nor would any Seminar be complete without contained mobile units as opposed to the building some examination of the purposeful distribution up of resources of local equipment?There is of films, as distinct from their random distribu- also the problem of getting competent operators tion as a form of recreation.To do this, it or projectionists. would be necessary to decide whetherwe are Another question which might be discussedwas

5 17 that of providing consolidated catalogues and major consideration in the distribution of materi- directories of all sources of free visual aids als.As far as possible, "travel-time" between within a given area.This is particularly impor- distributing centre and user would have to be tant in relation to sponsored films, in view of the reduced to the minimum to increase frequency of extremely large numbers that are available free use.In addition, considerable attention would of charge. also have to be given to careful packaging and Mr. Marshall concluded this introductory transport. address with a suggested outline of questions that The whole problem of equipping and properly might profitably be dealt with in the discussion maintaining audio-visual aids libraries, in view that was to follow. of the climatic conditions in the region would have to be considered carefully.More funds were needed to ensure that materials already DISCUSSION: housed did not deteriorate, and to replace material already deteriorated or otherwise Some interesting information came to light during damaged.These libraries should be given the the discussion about the distribution of audio- equipment they need to service and preserve visual aids.It became apparent that, with a few audio-visual materials, and if possible, should exceptions, in the countries of South and East have temperature and humidity controls. To Asia the majority of projected aids are received deny this equipment would be tantamount to from sources outside the region and therefore destroying the materials available. Participants seldom reflect the real needs of the village expressed their views on what they considered communities.Even in the case of non-projected to be the minimum physical requirements of materials which are locally produced, a distribu- libraries, such as adequate storage facilities tion system in which the user's preference is the (preferably steel racks), sufficient working space primary consideration has yet to be worked out. (tables, desks, files, card-indexes), packing and Some countries were making attempts to remedy shipping facilities.There was a marked prefer- this state of affairs, but the effort was haphazard; ence for the alphabetical system of storage classi- selection was largely directed by government fication as opposed to the numbered system policy, but this did not necessarily mean that it as regards both convenience and saving of space. corresponded to the basic requirements of funda- It was also suggested that, in order to relieve mental education and community development. the strain on such libraries, non-projected aids The larger the country, the greater the lag in services should be decentralized as far as establishing distribution network reflecting the possible. real needs of the people.A carefully studied Dealing with the question of promoting the use plan for economic and social development under of audio-visual aids, participants stressed the need government authority is an absolute necessity, for a clear statement of operating rules and condi- and ways and means must be found of fitting a tions, a simple system of registering borrowers distribution system into this plan, taking into and the type of equipment in their possession, the account the requirements of the community. preparation of simple forms for advance and Participants in the discussion were of the current bookings, adequate catalogues describing opinion that a first step towards developing better resources, and for mailing lists that would enable and more effective distribution of audio-visual libraries to inform potential users of materials materials would be to establish special libraries available.It was recommended that each library for this purpose.Such libraries were few and should prepare its own forms for acknowledge- far between - and some countries did not even ment of bookings or substitutions, for advice of have the rudiments from which they could be shipment and due back date, for due back control, developed.In this connexion the advantages and for acknowledgement of return shipment and for limitations of centralized and decentralized dis- evaluation or audience reaction.Libraries tribution, especially with regard to films, were should also develop the users' sense of responsi- discussed along with related questions such as bility and impress upon them that careless hand- specific libraries linked to sponsor's objectives ling of materials results in a reduction of and general libraries meeting the needs of users. resources.Warnings to careless users that It was generally agreed that, while the availability they risked losing the library services had been of resources and funds would dictate development found to be effective.This approach was certainly from country to country, by and large, the system better than merely locking up libraries for fear of block circulation from centralized libraries of damage or loss, which was a not uncommon (i. e. the distribution of a number of films within practice in certain areas.Regular inspection a definite area and over a given period) was one and maintenance of materials was of paramount possible way of overcoming the grave shortage of importance and should never be interfered with. libraries and ensuring frequent and more effec- Practical measures such as the placing of simple tive use of limited materials by a larger number seals on the holes in film reels, the use of carbon of organizations.Programmes should be selec- tetrachloride for cleaning films (adequate ventila- tive and frequency of use should always be a tion precautions being taken), and the vacuumating

18 VISUAL AIDS PRODUCTION ORGANIZATION SLIDE 1 GRAPHICS PRODUCTION Non-projectable aids Projectable aids TRAINING Type setting Lecture Exhibits /Displays Demonstration Preview

REPRODUCTION (Silk-screen) Non-projectable aids Hand co,ration POWER REPRODUCTION and Small Offset, Duplicators WATER Info. / Instructional materials SUPPLIES Offset Plats-making

PHOTOGRAPHIC PEOD. LAB. Processing/Printing Stills, Strips, Slides

Copying Filmstrips ADMINISTRATION Copying Requirements Slides Offset Filmstrips Requirements PLANNING

FILM PRODUCTION 16 mm Editing, Titling Special effects Equipment etc. TRANSPORTATION Film Production/ Library Graphics/ Photo Proj. Equipment WORKSHOP Distribution Wood/ Metal

LIBRARY Maintenance Books, Films Strips, Slides Non-projectable aids

Projection Equipment Distribution SLIDE 2 GRAPHICS PRODUCTION Non-projectable aids Projectable aids TRAINING Exhibits/ Displays Lecture Demonstration Preview

REPRODUCTION (Silk-screen) Non-projectable aids POWER Hand operation, Semi-automatic and REPRODUCTION r- WATER Small Offset, Duplicators STORAGE SUPPLIES Info./ Instructional materials I Graphics/ Photo Offset Printing Supplies Plate-making

L NMI PHOTOGRAPHIC PROD. LAB. Processing/ Printing StiAs, Strips, Slides,

Copying Fi lmstrips ADMINISTRATION Requirements Copying SI ides Offset Filmstrips Requirements PLANNING 116 mm processing. printing

FILM PRODUCTION 16 mm Titling OM MIN =MI IMMO MI 111 effects ESpecialquipment, etc. TRANSPORTATION --1 Eating RESEARCH Film Production/ Library L Graphics/ Photo Proj. Equipment Distribution WORKSHOP Wood /Metal

Maintenance LIBRARY L Books, Films Strips, Slides Non.projectable aids Projection Distribution I Equipment Distribution

Stage 2 extensions shown thus SLIDE 3 GRAPHICS PRODUCTION TRAINING Non-projectable aids Lecture Projectable aids Demonstration Type setting Preview Exhibitions/ Display TRAINING Lecture Demonstration II MIN NMI WEI =B IRIS ...... REPRODUCTION lk- screen) TRAINING Non-projectable aids ILecture Demonstration 1 Hand operation isam mum ow ma Semi-automatic, Automatic Press REPRODUCTION POWER Small Offset, Duplicators and Info./ Instructional materials WATER Offset STORAGE SUPPLIES Plate-making Graphics/ Photo Offset Printing Printing Supplies (Large press) Extension Plate-making Servicing LNM NM MINI I= NM NM

PHOTOGRAPHIC PROD. LAB. Processing/Printing Stills, Strips, Slides, Copying Copying Filmstrips Slides Requirements Filmstrips ADMINISTRATION Offset Requirements 16 mm processing printing

FILM PRODUCTION 16 mm Equipment, etc. Editing I Recording o Interior Shooting TRANSPORTATION I Film Production/ Special effects 1 e RESEARCH Library Titling, Animation Graphics / Photo Proj. Equipment Distribution WORKSHOP Wood/Metal Mobile vans Maintenance Maintenance Leo am amsa

LIBRARY Projection Equipment Films, Strips, Slides, Distribution Non-projectable aids ill

Stage 3 extensions shown thus process for preserving new prints and negatives between those in charge of distribution and those were recommended to all libraries. handling the materials.An interesting discuss- Taking note of the fact that these librarf:s must ion took place on the use of "international sound have adequate funds, and that there can be no such tracks", or film tracks composed of music and thing as an absolutely free service in view of the sound effects but without a spoken commentary, inescapable costs of operation which must be leaving it to the educator or field worker to underwritten, participants in the Seminar dis- provide a commentary in the local dialect with cussed the question of whether a nominal charge the aid of a written commentary sent with the should be levied on the user.There was some film.Participants were of the opinion that this difference of opinion, but it was considered that approach demanded considerable ability on the if this practice was adopted it would certainly part of the field worker but that it could be most help to ascertain the needs of the users, enhance effective.Some suggested the use of a com- the value of the service, and develop the idea of pletely silent film with a spoken commentary by self-help. It was repeatedly emphasized that no the local field worker. real purpose was served by using audio-visual In view of the absence of organized sources of aids if the sole object was to pile up imposing supply of films and filmstrips especially suitable statistics or reports.Participants warmly for fundamental education and community develop- approved every attempt to do a bigger job.More ment work in South and South East Asia, the expeditiously and more effectively, but reminded Seminar was strongly of the opinion that Unesco workers in the field that this could only be achieved should recommend to various member governments if the distribution system corresponded to the real in the region that they establish libraries for this needs of the village communities. All attempts to purpose.In this connexion, governments or integrate the use of various audio-visual aids in a sponsors would have to be persuaded to do more single line of action or a current programme were than at present to build up stocks of audio-visual most valuable and demanded close co-operation materials and to train staff for distribution services.

VIUTILIZING VISUAL AIDS

Mr. G. K. Atha lye, who is a Unesco expert working of the experience gained during the last five years. in Thailand, opened his address by reminding the For example, it had been said that blackboards Seminar that visual aids, like other instructional were not readily available or easilytransported aids, should be studied in relation to the object to in isolated areas.But in some areas of India be achieved.With this in mind we should give and Thailand teachers have now been trained to some' thought to the advantages to be gained from make their own portable blackboards of the roll- the use of the various types of visual aid.It up type from stiff brown paper, lampblack, glass might be helpful, before studying this question, to powder or fine sand, and glue. consider certain points such as: With reference to the utility of village drama the place of visual aids in community as a tool of instruction, Mr. Atha lyeapprovingly development; quoted Mr. Pickering's article (Fundamental and the tools of instruction; Adult Education Bulletin No. 4, 1957) on village the users and their training; drama in Ghana and claimed that the three main methods and pedagogy. reasons advanced to underline its growingimport- The first of these points had been discussed in ance could be applied to the countriesof South the section dealing with the role of visual aids. and East Asia: With regard to the second, which is concerned 1. Knowledge of its potentialities had grown with with the visual process of learning, it should be the years; remembered that learning takes place outside the 2. Certain specific needs in mass education have classroom as much as inside.In other words, arisen which experience shows are adequately learning is simply the transfer of knowledge from met only by village drama; those who know to those who don't.The choice 3. Village drama is the most truly Ghanaian of the means to be used obviously depends on the audio-visual aid because it depends upon a situation and the object in view. nation-wide aptitude and liking for drama and Mr. Atha lye urged the participants in the because of its intimate relation to local customs Seminar to study carefully certain conclusions and traditions. arrived at at the Messina Seminar concerning the Mr. Atha lye said that all workers in the field advantages and limitations of various visual aids. were concerned with creating anatmosphere of These must be approved or amended on the basis goodwill in the villages and they would agree 19 that village drama served this purpose admirably. referred to was the paper by Dr. Evelyn Wood of With regard to the relative value of the instru- the Allahabad Extension Training Centre, entitled: ments or tools of instruction, Mr. Atha lye de- "Evaluation of effects produced by using Audio- clared categorically that no one means is intrinsi- visual Aids with Village Audiences in India." cally superior or inferior.In the hands of a good Mr. Atha lye suggested the application of assess- educator any instructional aid is effective because, ment tests such as those outlined by Dr. Wood facilities permitting, he knows exactly what is and warmly supported the remarks made by Mr. needed in a particular set of circumstances. He Lefrancabout presentation and audience never expects a miraculous result from this or preparation. that particular audio-visual aid - any profound Continuing, Mr. Atha lye dealt with the third effect demands an unremitting effort of creation factor which conditions utilization.What qualifi- and production."The secret of effectiveness", cations should users possess? according to Mr. R. Le Franc, "does not lie in There are instances of audio-visual mobile any one document whatever its value, but in the units having been considered to be too valuable series; the effect of documents is cumulative". as Government property to be entrusted to a Participants would support or reject this view in teacher or educator, because, supposedly, terms of their own experience. teachers are bad administrators.So under the Community education, as Mr. Fred Wale has dignified designation of "Officer", a law graduate aptly pointed out, is not the purchase of a sound- who sees no future in a legal career and happens track fully equipped with all the latest projection to apply for the job, is put in charge of the mobile equipment, commissioned to ride into the hills, unit, with a driver and an operator of the projec- the plains, or the desert to show films to the tor to match.The film show programme, as it people on subjects that someone not in the audience is usually called, is planned by the officer in considers it important for the audience to see.It charge, just a few minutes in advance.The is not a Walt Disney cartoon on the effects of officer sees to it that the films which are likely impure water followed by a simple attractive to please the local dignitaries of the village where poster of Indians in their native dress.It isn't the unit happens to be are shown by his operator. flip cards, flannelgraphs, filmstrips, puppets or The programme is over, the officer is praised any of these useful inventions.It is none of these, for the very interesting evening and an entry is and yet it is all of these.It is all of these when duly made in his diary that "the village community they are so closely interwoven into the fabric of learned quite a lot about the democratic way of the whole that the fabric would be torn if one or life from the film show." the other were removed.When the writer, the It is not sufficiently realized that the provision film maker, the graphic artist, and the educator of costly equipment for community development are working in complete agreement as to purpose programmes is mainly for the education of the and procedure, then and only then will any or all community and not just for the entertainment of a of these media be used successfully in a community privileged few.This sorry picture, Mr. Atha lye education programme. said, owes its origin to the fact that the education It is true, Mr. Atha lye said, that in a well of the community is, more often than not, com- organized community education programme, pletely overlooked.Mr. Fred Wale has put it well: various consultations take place, meetings are "Programmes of audio-visual aids or material held to effect co-ordination in the work of differ- that best serve the deeper purpose of community ent departments, and the educator seeks the co- education deal with people, not things." operation of the visual aids section.Yet still Mr. Wale states the case for responsible use the question remains as to whether we work as a of educational aids forcefully when he says that team when the need for production of a film or "it would be wasteful and discouraging to place filmstrip or even a humble non-projected instruc- carefully-designed educational products in the tional aid is felt in connexion with a specific hands of someone who by training and by nature problem on hand.No fruitful results can be is no more than a 'projectionist'''.Does this expected unless and until this idea of team-work mean that the user-educator should not concern in production of visual aids is put into practice. himself with the technical side?Should he not Have we done anything to achieve this?If not, also be a good projectionist?Should he not be in what are the obstacles in our way? Are there any close contact with the producer and participate in means by which these obstaclei could be overcome? "an integrated audio-visual product?" The A further question is whether visual aids, parti- answer to all these questions is provided in one cularly films, present specific difficulties in sentence.The educator is the key man who interpretation for unenlightened audiences. Very knows what is best in specific circumstances. few had attempted or cared to examine the film Innumerable examples can be cited of the versa- media for its emotional effect, for its intellectual tility which is demanded of the educator who is hold, and for the resulting action after its use.It also required to be an audio-visual aids specialist. was generally considered that the yardstick for If he has to use non-projected types of visual aids measuring these three factors was non-existent. for his teaching, he must know how to get his A discussion of this question which might well be planned instructional aids prepared by himself or 20 by his helpers - the artist, the carpenter, the (c)Integral education implies that learning is an modeller, etc.As for posters, charts, flannel- aid to living, that it is the means to an end and graphs, diagrams, etc.,if they are required for not the end itself.The task is not so much to general use and duplicated copies are desired, teach adults different subjects like history, they must be technically perfect.If he has to geography or sociology, but to use the data and give guidance to teachers in organizing the aids the results of those disciplines for the purpose programme, he must know the philatelist's of elucidating or explaining situations which are method of collecting stamps, the naturalist's part and parcel of the lives of the men and way of collecting specimens of shells, butterflies, women concerned. stones,etc.When he is using teaching aids (d) The informal approach used in fundamental depending on projection, it is an asset for the education is necessary because it is less fettered educator to know the first principles of electri- than the formal education given in primary and city, optics, photography and the techniqueof secondary schools and in universities, which is preparing slides, filmstrips and films. And burdened with curricula, methods and standards, he must be able to state his requirementsclearly examinations and certificates. to the producers of such material. (e)It is the business of the educator to ascer- All this goes to show why training is necessary tain or visualize the professional preoccupations both for the educator, who is the user of material, of his charges and to select his material from and the producer, who is intimately connected the complex infinity of sciences and techniques with the problems of the educator. in order to devise a teaching method which Mr. Atha lye insisted that the user should have organizes that material into a living and pro- a fundamental training as an educator with gressive whole.In other words, functional complementary training to enable him to master education must be based on the environmental the latest means of communication. It would conditions of the community. seem indispensable, therefore, that specialized (f)Active participation by learners goes a long courses should be established for this purpose way to help them retain what they learn.It is in pedagogical institutions and in national and said that people retain an average of only 20 per regional audio-visual centres and any other cent of what they hear, 30 per cent of what they similar institutes. see, 50 per cent of what they both see and hear Dealing with the fourth conditioning factor - and 70 per cent of what they actually do for methods and pedagogy - Mr. Atha lye pointed out themselves. that although community development is chiefly A study of these aspects of methods and concerned with the introduction of new techniques, pedagogy would help answer many questions: it is also concerned with attitude building and is how to build up audiences; how to make them therefore greatly influenced by community edu- into active and coherent groups; how to stimu- cation.In this respect there are a number of late them; how to lead them; how to organize specific principles of a pedagogical nature that discussions; how to make them meet regularly should be kept in mind by the users of visual aids: so that continuity of education can be achieved. (a) The need to eliminate mistrust or dislike of These questions lead to the main question of groups with regard to the use of audio-visual aids distribution, i. e. how to build up a network of and to create a sympathetic attitude cannot be audiences which forms the basis of distribution over-stressed.The instrument serving the services. group is not simply the device or machine, but In conclusion Mr. Atha lye dealt briefly with the activity which can be conducted with and several questions of practical pedagogy, such as around it.A trained educator, therefore, sees the selection of appropriate subjects, programme to it that mutual co-operation between him and building and typical methods of showing films, the group is achieved through a clear understand- and the difficulties in the use of films. ing of the purpose for using these instructional tools.An intelligent and efficient first presenta- tion will help to avoid frustration on subsequent DISCUSSION: occasi ons. (b) The necessity for motivation. The problem of After agreeing that in fundamental education and getting aduIts together for study and inducing them community development the choice of tools used to continue this activity involves more thanmethods must depend upon the sort of audience in view, or pedagogical principles.Real motives are neces- participants drew attention to the lack of team sary, and for this reason it is the primary duty of work in the preparation of audio-visual materials. the educator to familiarize himself with the aspira- While educators in the field should be helped by tionsf the groups and individuals in his charge. specialists or experienced persons to utilize The importance of such psychological factors as the materials at their disposal effectively, the COMpensation for a sense of inferiority, the idea producer of these materials should be assisted thatthe acquisition of knowledge will lead to superi- by someone familiar with local attitudes.This onty and prestige, the desire to escape from the would require close co-operation, both at the stigma of ignorance, must also be taken intoaccount. pre-production stage and during actual production, 21 between the maker of aids, the specialist in the film to audiences or whether they were satisfied subject, and the field worker.Participants were with merely projecting it; whether they attempted firmly of the opinion that the pilot projects to to explain the devices used by film makers to investigate local attitudes and reactions were an represent the passage of time, and so on; essential preliminary activity to the preparing whether they conducted group discussions after and launching of any audio-visual programme. It the showing of the films, etc.While admitting was pointed out that this was oneof the tasks to that in village communities far from the towns the be entrusted to the proposed visual aids centres. use of films presented some difficulties, the Tackling the urgent question of building bigger participants were of the opinion that audiences audiences in the village communities, the Seminar learned quickly.The films used must, however, considered that there were a number of factors be specially designed for village audiences.The which contributed to the fuller utilization of visual single idea, the simple story, slow editing, the aids.The educator or field worker must be strong visual image and live actors, and at the trained to build up an atmosphere of confidence in same time the avoidance of"tricks", abstractions, the village communities, to avoid suspicion and complicated animations and graphs, helped to misunderstanding, and to create a receptive and increase the utility of the film as an aid in funda- sympathetic attitude to the use of visual aids. mental education and community development. In Unesco was urged to consult with Ministries of addition, film programmes should not range over Education on this problem and to supply experts, a variety of unrelated subjects, for this made specialists and advisers whose job would be to comprehension more difficult.With regard to train teachers to teach other teachers - a rather form and content, the meeting insisted that in lengthy process but a most necessary one. The films prepared for village audiences the producers necessity for motivation or inducement to study should search for simple straightforward forms was stressed.Participants declared that very to portray the vital and all-important content. little was being done in this respect by the Extending the discussion to cover the commer- countries of the region, nor was the effectiveness cial feature film, the Seminar was unanimous in of the integrated use of various aids and the need recognizing the useful purpose which these films, for co-operation between informal, functional and carefully selected, could serve in rural areas. active education fully recognized by administrators, Films on the lives of famous men, religious and specialists, educators and field workers.The social leaders, and films based on history and experience of participants had shown that so long legend not only entertained most audiences but as education was community-centred and grewout also helped to educate them.Participants of the needs of the community it continued to attract considered that the commercial feature film more and more people; that education shouldbe occupies a most important place in the education informal as far as national traditions allowed; that systems of a poor country where, because of illiteracy and poverty, the other media of mass teaching practices should not be modelled on those ri used in schools and colleges; and that there should communication are not developed and touch only be latitude in the content of the programme. The a minute section of the population.Some argued main purpose of the programme was to keep the that certain of these films have done more harm people occupied and to make them aware of their than good, but pointed out that others can be a collective power to bring about social betterment. powerful instrument in the hands of the educator. Only if this were done, could it be said that utili- However, if the cinema is to play a useful role zation of visual aids was fully effective. The in the great task of reconstruction, and prove seminar recommended that in order to assist this valuable in fundamental education and community process, the governments of the regionshould be development, administrators and the authorities urged to establish general audio-visual courses concerned must begin to appreciate its tremen- in all national and local pedagogical institutes. dous possibilities and give it the recognition Such a step would help to develop co-operation and encouragement it so richly deserves.Parti- between all sections of the teaching profession, cipants urged governments to make extensive use remove mistrust and enrich both theory and of specially selected feature films in the rural practice. areas and to help producers to reflect in their The utilization of films was discussed in detail films the drama of the changes taking place in with particular reference to whether they were the countries of South and East Asia.In this understood by village audiences.Experiments connexion, Unesco was urged to recommend to in underdeveloped areas suggested that the most various governments the setting up of film socie- profitable use of films would depend on whether ties served by well-stocked libraries to meet the field workers or educators first introduced the needs of both urban and rural areas.

22 VII - PROBLEMS OF EVALUATION

In his introductory talk on the most controversial this kind of control may sometimes be practicable, subject before the Seminar, Professor Charles it may raise another kind of problemthe prob- Madge, a social scientist attached as a Unesco lem of cost and scale. expert to the National Fundamental Education 2. The next important problem is that of bias, Centre in New Delhi, opened proceedings by the influence of the human factor, which besets suggesting the limits within which it would be all social research.Evaluation in the particular useful to confine discussion.Evaluation in field of this Seminar is affected by this problem general would be too wide a subject."Evaluation in a special way.The question is:should evalu- of audio-visual aids in fundamental education and ation be carried out by the agency which is carry- community development", might on the other hand, ing out the fundamental education or community be too narrow.He suggested a compromise: development activities, or should it be carried "Evaluation in fundamental education and commun- out by an independent agency?The staff of the itydevelopment with special reference to audio- agency are subject to various kinds of bias, for visual aids."This, he felt, would enable parti- example because of their personal association cipants to avoid having to consider audio-visual with the success or failure of the work and also aids in unrealistic isolation from the context for because, being in such close contact with the which they are designed and in which they are programme, they may have "blind spots" about it. used. This is the argument for setting up an independent Professor Madge explained that when we evaluating agency, such as the Programme "evaluate" educational methods or materials, we Evaluation Organization which has been set up in seek to assess performance on a more systematic India. For any very large programme, like the and precise basis than ordinary fallible human Community Development Programme in India, opinion, and we try to make use of measurement this sort of organization appears to be desirable. whenever there is something that we can usefully It has to be carefully planned so as to ensure that measure.He urged that we stick to this use of the staff are sufficiently briefed on local condi- the term "evaluation" during the Seminar and not tions and on the methods and objectives of the mix it up with the everyday process of forming a programme;only then will the evaluation seem judgement.Systematic evaluation is far from fair or helpful to the people in the field; and only easy if it is to attain any degree of accuracy, then will it serve as an effective link between their because it takes place not in the laboratory but experience and the decision-taking at the top. under field conditions.Four problems arise 3. The answer to the problem of bias may be to which, Professor Madge declared, have by no build up a staff of specialists in evaluation.But means yet been solved. this would raise further questions such as what 1. From a technical point of view, the basic the qualifications of such specialists should be problem is the problem of control - that is, how and how far we ought to go towards this kind of to control the conditions under which tests, specialization.There is a danger of developing measurements and observations are carried out. too many kinds of pseudo-expert, particularly in Evaluation involves a check-up on (a) the original such fields as the social sciences, education and or baseline situation, (b) the methods used to psychology.The tendency is to exaggerate and change it, and (c) the results obtained. To record over-sell the contribution of the "expert" in these these three stages satisfactorily under field condi- fields.There are, however, a few people, like tions is a full-time job.And there is an added the staff of the Indian Programme Evaluation difficulty: changes in the situation at the final Organization, who have had really valuable experi- stage may be due to factors outside the control of ence.There are also some social scientists who the evaluators, and it is not easy to separate the have had relevant experience in allied fields. effect of a particular method or combination of Generally speaking, anyone who is going to carry methods from the effects of such extraneous out a serious attempt at evaluation should have factors. some theoretical knowledge and practical experi- For example, after a nutritional campaign has ence of social research, and of its methods and been running for a few years, there may be a pitfalls.To this extent specialization in evalua- decline in deficiency diseases; but it may not be tion should be encouraged. possible to determine how much of the decline 4. Finally, there is the problem of cost and was due to the nutritional campaign and how much scale.Precise evaluation is difficult and is to some extraneous factor, such as a series of expensive to carry out.The practical demand good harvests.A suggested solution to this for evaluation stems from the need to make the problem is that the tests should also be carried most efficient use of resources in our programmes. out in a control area where no educational But how much of these resources should be set campaign had been held but where conditions were aside for this kind of efficiency check?If money similar in other respects.Although the use of is to be spent and specialists employed in 23 evaluation, it must be done on a scale which As agreement on how they should be selected. appropriate and worth while.It should not be Should we look for indices in the physical environ- very costly and elaborate nor should it be super- ment, such as higher crop-yields, or the construc- ficial.What we must do is to decide how to tion of more latrines?Such indices, obviously, steer between these two extremes. should be despised.They are objective,and Professor Madge offered some such suggestions relatively easy to measure.The difficulty lies from his own experience: first for the evaluation in interpreting their significance in relation to of a project or campaign taken as a whole, and the broader objectives of the programme. How secondly, for the evaluation of a particular item much have such changes added to the general designed for use in the campaign.He was doubt- welfare?Who has benefited least and most? Is ful whether, as a rule, it was economic to evalu- the community better integrated? Has the pro- ate separate items, except as part of a wider gramme aroused a continuing interest in self- survey which could take in the whole range of help?Has there been a change in attitude to- local circumstances and objectives.Priority wards further change? These and similar should certainly be given to overall evaluation questions have often been asked; and there are if a choice were possible. those who advocate psychological attitude-testing Such overall evaluation, however, would be methods, to be repeated at intervals.Professor meaningless unless more attention is paid to base- Madge was sceptical about the use of psychological line survey.The tendency almost everywhere has testing in this field except on a limited and experi- been to skimp on this essential aspect and to regard mental scale.There was, however, ample scope it as a luxury or a way of holding up action. By for the observation and measurement of changes now experience has shown that action programmes in social behaviour. could have been more purposeful if more time had Commenting on the evaluation of particular been given to initial studies and their assimilation audio-visual aids, Professor Madge outlined some in the programme.Moreover, evaluation of the of the difficulties facing the evaluator.For changes following upon a programme is imposs- example, to justify educationally the outlay on a ible without a record of the situation when the film or a broadcast one would need to know not programme started.This record should deal not only how many people saw or heard it, but how only with the more static, traditional side of the much of the message got through and what effect situation but also with the factors already working it had on their subsequent behaviour. for change, which will almost certainly include Audio-visual aids are by definition aids to a several forms of government intervention. Nowa- wider process of education and persuasion, and days it is exceptional for a fundamental education they can only be evaluated in this context, in or community development programme to start which local conditions, cultural background and in a virgin field. the personality of the educator play so large a The next essential, according to Professor part.If an institute of audio-visual aids were Madge, is a far more thorough record of the financially and technically sufficiently well- action taken under the programme than is usually endowed, it might make useful experiments in available.For this purpose official reports this field; but for practical purposes there is required by administration are not always ade- little to be gained by attempting this particular quate, though they provide one source of informa- sort of evaluation on an extensive scale under tion.There is no method of recording action as fundamental education and community develop- effective as continuous participant-observation, ment conditions. such as is part of the normal duties of the officers Professor Madge was critical of some of the of the Indian Programme Evaluation Organization. samples of evaluation of films reported at the The extent of actual use of audio-visual aids, such Messina Seminar.Quality ratings of this sort as mobile film vans or community radio systems, were not evaluation in the sense he intended. should certainly be included in this record.While Attempts have been sometimes made to observe telling objectively the story of what was done by or measure the overt response of the audiences - the personnel of the programme, or at their whether they laugh, clap, walk out, etc.It is prompting, the action record should also take note certainly worth while to know whether a given of factors extraneous to the programme which audio-visual aid can attract and hold a given have produced or retarded changes. Obviously audience under given conditions.But it is not the evaluation observer cannot be everywhere at always easy to interpret the observable reactions. once and cannot see everything that is going on. It may indeed be useful to have the educator's The observation should therefore be designed so judgement, after accumulated experience, on as to include all occasions of special importance whether films in general, or a particular film, and, as well, a representative sample of normal have created interest and of what use they have activity. been made in a campaign.But we must distin- The final stage of evaluation, Professor Madge guish between personal judgement and the more said, is to describe and measure changes after a impersonal process of evaluation.Professor given period.For this it is necessary to select Madge himself felt that the considered opinions significant indices, and as yet there seems little of a few educators with wide field experience would carry more weight with him than the stati- of evaluation were accepted in the underdeveloped stical result of a great many people filling in so- countries of South and East Asia, then it would called evaluation forms. become almost impossible to assess or judge Pre-release testing of audio-visual material in within a short time the possible impact or effec- the field is important and worth while.It is not tiveness of visual or auditory aids; that this quite the same thing as evaluation, but it is some- would severely handicap both the makers and thing that might profitably be discussed in this users of aids who would have to wait for a context.Such testing is most useful when it is rather costly and complicated survey before they carried out by the materials producer himself. could arrive at any conclusion regarding the use- Naturally, it is a tricky business, because in fulness of their work.Against this line of argu- trying out the material with a few human guinea- ment several speakers maintained that it would pigs, one may not always be sure whether their be equally wrong to rely on doubtful judgements reactions reflect an individual or a cultural way which might have little or no relation to the facts of seeing things. of the situation or to scientific truth."Evaluation" Professor Madge said that his own inclination must be considered within the context of the over- would be to cultivate acquaintance with a group of all programme of fundamental education and individuals, selected as being representative of community development and as part of it. the cultural milieu towards which the message is A long debate ensued on the need to define the to be directed, but if possible, more intelligent meaning of the terms in current use.It had been and articulate than average. Such people would pointed out earlier that a distinction should be soon learn to point out those features which would drawn between pre-release testing and scientific not be understood or which would carry irrelevant evaluation after the programme has got under or misleading associations. way. Participants were inclined to agree that In conclusion, Professor Madge declared that this approach was realistic and should be more an awareness of social settings and cultural widely encouraged.While maintaining that pre- differences is essential for producers of materials release testing required the launching of care- and for educators in this field.They do not need fully worked out pilot projects, many speakers to specialize in sociology to get this awareness, reported that in their countries this aspect was which can best be stimulated by a combination of much neglected.So far, scientific evaluation study of base-line surveys and evaluation reports, and the organization and staff required for it discussion with those whostrbusiness it is to were non-existent in all but a few countries -and specialize on the sociological side and, most even in those few countries the effort waswoefully important of all, field experience intelligently inadequate.It was agreed that there could be no interpreted and assimilated. short cut to the process of evaluating, that it was costly and took much time in carrying out the required investigation, but that it was necessary DISCUSSION: to begin to spend funds on the building up of an organization to deal with it. Is it possible to make a scientific evaluation of Participants accepted the fact that base-line the effectiveness of a single visual aid in isolation surveys were vital if evaluation was to bedone from other influences which are conditioning the scientifically, but admitted that no such organiza- thought and activity of village communities? Can tion for conducting these surveys existed in their the visual aids programme as such be evaluated countries.Similarly, it was difficult to control in isolation?Have the evaluation efforts made test conditions in the field or to use control groups so far been of a genuinely scientific or of a to get over the handicaps of a long-term and pseudo-scientific nature, and can they be relied costly evaluation project.No adequate records upon to assist those leading the programme for were kept, of action taken during acampaign or of fundamental education and community development? the extraneous factors at work.These were Should not the forming of on -the- spot individual serious deficiencies, particularly in view of the judgements be abandoned in favour of a systematic fact that the social sciences, even in the best of process of finding out exactly how far a programme conditions, cannot always depend on having exact has attained its objectives?Would it not be more data to work on since they deal with a field scientific to define the subject under discussion where it is difficult to demarcate easily the as "Evaluation in fundamental education and realms of fact and opinion. There was, however community development, with special reference general agreement that it was wiser wherever to audio-visual aids" rather than as "Evaluation possible to entrust the task of evaluation to an of audio-visual aids in fundamental education and independent agency rather than to the fundamental community development?"On these related education and community development agency questions, participants expressed a variety of itself, though of course the co-operation of the opinions.A real effort was made to find a latter would be necessary.In this connexion correct definition of the term "evaluation" which, the need to educate evaluators in the social all were agreed, had been loosely used in the past. sciences, particularly in social research methods, It was pointed out that if the scientists' concept was stressed and the developinginterest in such 25 subjects was welcomed.However, although the community.However, participants were of the evaluation of a whole campaign could not be done opinion that despite the drawbacks, this approach dispassionately by the persons involved, the pre- might prove most useful, particularly if panels release testing should be entrusted to the produ- were established on a nation-wide basis, taking cers of the aids; they must see whether, among into account variations in the economic, social selected individuals, or groups, their materials and cultural patterns, and if they were refreshed were understandable, whether they were success- every now and then with new members.The ful in communicating the ideas to be put across, Seminar urged countries of the region to begin and whether the message prompted the type of experimentation along these lines and to make thinking desired. the results of their investigations known. It was suggested that one fairly useful method Finally the participants stressed the need to of assessing the effectiveness of particular audio- stimulate educators and producers of materialsto visual aids and of improving work on them was an awareness of social andcultural differences in to establish representative panels of personswho the field.A heightened awareness is needed are users and "consumers" of the aids.These when dealing with village communities, often panels could be used at various stages of produc- remote from cosmopolitan urban groups.This tion and utilization.For example, teachers obvious truth is often neglected and there is a could be brought into a discussion panel on a tendency to ignore the complex set of factors teaching aid.Then again, certain selected usually at play in the village communities.If citizens could be mobilized as an assessing panel. educators, and even producers of materials, are Of course, much would depend on the selection of encouraged to work in familiar environments, panels; they might not reflect average reaction half the battle is won and the work of evaluation or they might, in the course of time,become or assessment in turn becomes more effective. professional in their attitude and therefore rather This, the Seminar felt, should be one of the basic remote from the comprehending level of their principles of visual aids work in fundamental education and community development.

VIII - THE NEED FOR CO-OPERATION

Co-operation, and the urgent need for it at all lecture.No amount of co-operation at higher levels, had been a recurring theme during the levels, national or regional, would be worth Seminar.The problem was discussed in detail anything without this minimum foundation. in an introductory lecture by Mr. A. J. Halls, a Although this sort of approach might appear to Unesco specialist working in India. restrict the initiative of those working on the After stressing that in present-day conditions programme and transform their creative function no form of mass communication can be theproduct into a mechanical one, this was not really so. of a single individual and that, whether the media In co-operation there is nothing to prevent each are used for education or for entertainment,they specialist from making his contribution to the demand the co-operation and co-ordination of a final product, even though certain concepts and large number of specialists and technicians, ideas may undergo modification during the Mr. Halls declared that, in the field of fundamental creative process. education which is so wide and requires such a In this connexion, Mr. Halls emphasized that variety of knowledge and of techniques, to operate because fundamental education covers a wide An isolation is to fail.He gave several examples field and must necessarily be co-ordinated with to show that this basic need is often ignored by the educational requirements of the State and of audio-visual units or groups. Programmes are other organizations administering the educational asked for without provision being made for ade- system, methods of ensuring co-operation and quate time, for finance, or for the necessary understanding must be found. He drew particular consultation with specialists on the subject, or on attention to certain materials produced by inde- educational methods or techniques.In fact, an pendent or commercial agencies, most of which audio-visual aid often failed, not because of were educationally unsound, if not altogether faulty technique but because of the obvious lack of undesirable, because co-operation and co-ordina- co-operation and co-ordination between the techni- tion were lacking. cal specialists and those skilled in the educational Mr. Halls then referred to the tendency, which processes involved. seems to be gaining ground, to dividethe produc- It was this state of affairs that prompted Mr. tion of audio-visual aids into smaller and more Halls to place the need for co-operation at the specialized groups.The specialist is apt to say: production unit level at the very beginning of his "It is unlikely that anyone else will understand my

26 work, it is absolutely necessary that I control by reporting breakdowns which either do not exist the means of producing my own audio-visual aids or which could be rectified by anyone with an and I must determine not only the content but elementary knowledge of the equipment used. also the general educational aim on which they Mr. Halls emphasized that the details of co- are focused. "While the result of such activity operation at all levels is a matter for governments is normally educationally unsound and overlaps to take up, and one that will depend in the final with the work of other units, the multiplication count on the structure of the administration, the of such small units is also economically unsound composition of ministries and the inter-relation and increases the complexity of production of various departments.In general, however, processes. it is desirable that some co-ordinating body Having discussed the importance of the produc- should exist whose main function is to effect co- tion side at some length, Mr. Halls said that it operation between all those engaged in the produc- was also true that without effective equipment for tion and utilization of audio-visual aids for employing the aids and a proper supply system educational purposes.Where possible, this co- there could be no programme.All this requires operation should include non-governmental organization and unless there is co-operation producers and users.The form which such a between a large number of organizations, officials body should take will depend largely on the and individuals such organization is difficult to requirements and the circumstances of the realize.Much depends on the actual structure of country concerned. the national or local fundamental education Whatever the form such bodies assume, services themselves.This being so, it is not however, a major part of their duties should be easy to make hard and fast rules about effective to see that the programme material is maintained types of organization.It is obviously useless to at a high standard.They should also encourage suggest a centralized form of distribution for a research in technical processes, in the evaluation structure which is highly decentralized or to of the impact of the various programmes, and in support a regional distributive system within one the problems of supply and distribution.In other that is rigidly centralized.The best that can be words, whether or not these bodies engage in said is that where the problem involves a large production themselves, they must - if they have area and a multitude of people, the cost of to do with the whole field of audio-visual aids - distribution and supply will be the eventual factor encourage co-operation between the multitude of dictating the organization that will finally result. specialized interests concerned. There is little doubt that economical listribution When such co-ordinating bodies are set up, it will result only from the closest co-operation is often feared that in the attempt to co-ordinate among all production agencies.Any attempt by such a diversity of interests the initiative of the these agencies to solve their distribution and independent producer will be blocked.Mr. Halls supply problems individually, must result in a suggested, therefore, that it is necessary, in rise in the cost of audio-visual services. constituting a central co-ordinating body at a high Then again, the maintenance and effective use level, to reconcile the idea of co-ordination and of equipment must tc a large extent depend on the co-operation with the need for freedom to experi- individuals concerned at the field level.There ment and to produce material which may not con- should, of course, be supporting maintenance form to the convention of the moment. services in the form of visiting technicians or Continuing, Mr. Halls said that whether we central depots but, by and large, maintenance favour the establishment of such a centralized must fall within the sphere of the individual service or not, it is becoming increasingly evi- operator of the equipment.This being so, it is dent that in an extended programme of fundamental essential that all those whose job it is to handle education, the costs of production are now so high equipment should receive training which will that it is becoming economically difficult to enable them to understand the need for care, to provide the elaborate facilities and the trained effect minor repairs, and to know when an instru- technicians required for small units.If this is ment or a machine needs the attention of a skilled so, some form of co-operation must be evolved mechanic. between the field unit unable to produce its own Such training, however, will be of little use materials and the large production centre with unless officials at higher levels are also aware of the facilities for doing so.This may be done in these facts. There can be no co-operation between a variety of ways, either by appointing officers the various levels of administration if those respon- who will work with the field units or by attaching sible are themselves uninformed as to the needs representatives of the field unit to a central of the equipment which they have supplied. production unit for a given period.Other methods Many of us are aware, said Mr. Halls, that it will suggest themselves, but whatever method is is this leck of training at all levels which is adopted it is imperative that no audio-visual aid responsible both for the lack of urgency with should be produced by a centralized agency unless which requests for spare parts or for aid in it is produced in co-operation with a person with repair are treated, and for the way in which the field education experience in the area for which it technician in the field can disrupt a programme is designed. At this stage, Mr. Halls dealt with the demands is drawn from only a few sources and that valuable made by literacy campaigns and the need to pro- material has been often omitted because of lack vide follow-up and reading material for new literates of knowledge of what is available.It seems there- and the new reading public.This calls for the fore that some form of international co-operation use of charts, posters and other visual material is desirable which would aim at the provision of as well as books and illustrations, all of which information on the material available, technical need to be produced in large quantities. The developments, and the results of experience and various simple methods for the production of research.Such a means of co-operation exists these things - such as hand drawing, stencilling, already in the Mass Communication Department linoblocks, etc. - while useful in the experimental and Fundamental Education Section of Unesco, the period, are quite inadequate if the material is to former being concerned primarily with the tech- reach the desired audience.Therefore use has nology and the latter with the educational aspects to be made of the various printing processes, of audio-visual aids in fundamental education. usually those operated by commercial agencies. One of the forms which such co-operation takes, Here again, it is necessary to see that all as Mr. Halls pointed out, is the holding of material is produced in consultation with both seminars where ideas and experience can be dis- the educational and the audio-visual authorities. cussed.The field, however, is so vast that it is The potentially large audience will prove attrac- unlikely that the organizing of seminars, together tive to commercial and other interests, so much with the clearing-house facilities which already so that there may be a danger that this audience exist in Unesco, will be sufficient to provide an of unsophisticated people will be exploited for adequate medium for co-operation between the other than educational ends unless fairly strong various countries concerned with the future educational control is maintained. development of audio-visual services. In many cases such materials are produced, Referring to a suggestion made by the Indian. not because of any deliberate desire to impose Minister of Education, Mr. Halls proposed that unsuitable standards but because the producer the Seminar might discuss the establishment of a is unacquainted with the type of material needed. small audio-visual bureau within the South and It may be of interest to state here that Unesco is East Asia region, which would, with the help of well aware of this problem, and by initiating a Unesco, seek to stimulate co-operation between Seminar in Rangoon in 1957 to study the problem, the countries of this area. and by its efforts to establish Literacy Bureaux This bureau could be responsible for publishing in various parts of the world, is playing a vital a newsletter, organizing seminars and exhibitions, role in establishing co-operation between com- providing information on a variety of topics use- mercial and government printers and the various ful to producers and users, conducting research educational agencies concerned.It must be and making known the materials available for realized however by those concerned in this work fundamental education and community development. that the audio-visual specialist has an important The bureau could also co-ordinate the efforts role to play in this task, for only he has a know- made by various governments and other organiza- ledge of both technical processes and the effective tions to provide adequate training in techniques organization of visual materials without which and methods.The tasks of the bureau might most of the effort put into this kind of production include the publication of a regional journal in is wasted. which the developments in audio-visual aids in Mr. Halls next referred to the fact that various South and East Asia could be recorded and dis- types of mass communication are rapidly transcend- cussed. ing national frontiers.Books and posters flood in Mr. Halls then summarized the gist of his from the outside, films from other countries are proposals on co-operation and co-ordination as available, and foreign radio programmes can be follows: received on all but the most primitive radio sets. 1. At the operative level co-operation must In the educational field, those visual programmes exist between those responsible for the production, which depend on printing and photographic processes utilization and distribution of audio-visual aids. are also often produced outside the country con- This might be achieved by a co-ordinating body at cerned, and one is faced with the necessity for what in some countries would be called district co-operation not only with the producing agencies and in others state level. within the country itself, but also with those of 2. Co-operation must also take place at the other countries.This is as it should be, but if national level between ministries, government such an internhange of materials is to be effective departments and other agencies producing and there must be some form of co-operation between using audio-visual aids.This might be achieved the countries concerned, to determine both suit- by setting up a national or central body on which able techniques and the type and content of the these various agencies would be represented. material produced. 3. Where such a central body exists, it is Such co-operation, said Mr. Halls, can and desirable that commercial and other producers does exist between individual countries; but it should be represented along with the universities becomes all too obvious that much of the material or other educational bodies or agencies interested

28 in the evaluation and testing of audio-visual Warmly welcoming every step taken to arrange materials. co-operation at the international level, and parti- 4. At the international level, co-operation between cularly between the countries of South and South- governments should be encouraged together with East Asia with their many common problems, the participation of the governments in the South- the Seminar discussed at length whether there was East Asia area, in the work of Unesco in this any need to establish a regional co-ordinating field. bureau to serve the areaa bureau that would 5. As it is apparent that an audio-visual act as a clearing house for information, publish programme depends for its effectiveness on the literature and newsletters of value to the region, knowledge and skill of those engaged in it, co- provide the sort of training that did not exist at operation between the countries of South-East various national levels, and conduct a certain Asia in the training of the various types and amount of research and experimental work of levels of workers in the various branches of the benefit to educators irrespective of the area in subject should be organized. which they worked.There was some difference 6. The desirability of settingup a small co- of opinion as to the exact tasks of such a bureau. ordinating bureau to further these aims was Would it not duplicate work being done by Unesco suggested.Such a bureau would be charged with in Paris, by Unesco experts and by United Nations the task of stimulating and organizing co-operation Information Centres?Would training be at all in South-East Asia along the lines mentioned levels and if so, would it not get divorced from previously and in publishing a newsletter or actual conditions in various parts of the region? journal concerned with audio-visual aids in this Would the functions of the bureau overlap with area. those of visual-aid centres to be established? It was generally felt that the information and clearing-house facilities provided by Unesco in DISCUSSION: Paris were of world-wide scope and could never really satisfy the needs of particular regions; After considering the proposals mentioned above, that publications directly linked to specific several speakers wanted to know how, in practice, problems would be a great help to workers in co-operation and co-ordination should be achieved the field; that training at the bureau would be at at the operative level, namely the village. It a higher level than anything provided by the was pointed out that the various authorities at countries themselves and might help develop village level were often at loggerheads and that expert or specialist personnel from these these tensions and conflicts presented serious countries; that research and experimental work obstacles to audio-visual work.In this connex- would also aim at solving technical problems ion, it was stressed that in the countries of common to the region; and that there was no South and South-East Asia a certain amount of valid reason why such a set-up should overlap prodding from the top or at national level was with other national organizations.It was made usually necessary to prepare the way for co- quite clear, however, that participants while operation at village level.The Seminar, expressing their views were not committing their conscious of the danger of ruling by fear or by governments.Unesco was anxious to know the bureaucratic orders from the top, urged that, in general reaction of participants and, if the order to overcome the difficulties prevailing in proposal was approved, it would discuss the the region, co-operation should be sought simul- details with the governments concerned. taneously at national, district and village levels, Speakers expressed their conviction that the the committees established to ensure co-operation project should start in a modest way and then should work in harmony with each other and, as build up to its full stature.There was general far as possible, higher committees should sympa- agreement that first priority should be given to thetically consider the needs and demands of the information and publishing facilities. Once lower committees. these had proved their worth, training and Participants were of the opinion that whatever research could be taken up.The proposal to co-operation already existed needed strengthen- launch, with the bureau a long-term training ing by giving it organizational form.At the programme at all levels was defeated on the national level, in particular, it was essential grounds that it was unrealistic in view of the that representation should be given to all varying conditions prevailing throughout the ministries government departments, independent region.The suggestion that training at the commercial interests and other educational bodies bureau should include the holding of seminars or agencies which are producing and using audio- and the grant of fellowships was approved. The visual aids and vhich want their materials evalu- proposal that the bureau should encourage co- ated and tested.Organizational forms would operation and exchange among its members in vary from country to country, but every effort the field of audio-visual aids production, must be made to work in such a way as to secure particularly films, was also welcomed.After co-operation at the lowest operative level without it had been explained that Unesco could not offer which no audio-visual aids programmecan succeed. financial or other aid over a long period, and

29 that it would confine itself to helping the establish- proposal be followed up and the bureau located ment of the bureau in the early stages, the at a place where conditions would assist its Seminar unanimously recommended that the efficient working.

IX - DRAMA, RADIO AND TELEVISION

It had been decided earlier that in view of the In organizing puppet shows, shadow plays, folk fact that most countries were represented by dramas etc.,the basic approach should be to re- single delegates and that there was no specialist tain and bring out the traditional form while representation for drama, radio and television, providing new themes and stories; any attempt no full or authoritative discussion could take to impose the modern realistic and naturalistic place on these auditory and visual aids and their type of drama of the West on these regions would role in fundamental education and community defeat the object of ensuring participation and development.However, the media being of vital retaining aesthetic standards.The use of importance, it was decided to discuss them in- stylized decorations, blending of song, dance and formally and to work out certain guiding principles drama, - these are some of the respects in for their use. which special care will need to be taken.It is, The discussion on drama was introduced by therefore, recommended that the organization of Mr. J. C. Mathur, Director-General of All-India drama and folk theatre for educationalpurposes Radio, Mr. A. Elmore, Unesco expert on drama, should invariably be done in close consultation and Mr. Miles Lee, Unesco expert on puppets; with persons who have made special studies of the discussion on radio was introduced by Mr. these forms, and that scriptwriters should always Mathur; and that on television by Mr. J. S. be given the opportunity to see performances and Bhownagary, from the Unesco Secretariat, who listen to their recordings before they are commis- presented a paper prepared by his colleague, sioned to write new stories for such programmes. Dr. H. Cassirer. Since in many countries folk drama troupes The general views of the participants are and puppeteers cannot earn their living by collec- reflected in the summaries of the discussions tions from the audience, it is absolutelynecessary which follow.They were of the opinion that that the State should subsidize these troupes. special seminars should be organized on drama Similar State patronage should be extended to the and radio in fundamental education and community urban drama which has a serious competitor in development. the film.Such patronage could perhaps be accompanied by conditions requiring the troupes Drama and Folk Theatre to give occasional programmes of educational value also. In most South and South-East Asian countries, In most Asian countries, there are inadequate there are rich traditions of classical drama and arrangements for training in dramatic technique, folk theatre in its various forms, all of which particularly with regard to drama used for have been used as a medium for education and the educational purposes.It is therefore recom dissemination of nobler humanitarian ideals, but mended that training centres should be setup in they are now in serious danger of dying out for different countries and that the training should be want of patronage and because of the popularity in the traditional media of that country.Further of new media.Drama ensures better audience the training programme should be combined with participation, a greater sense of intimacy, and production and its object should be not to train creates a more living environment of communi- individuals for whom there are no immediateopen- cability than the projection type of media.It will ings in their profession, but made to train groups therefore, be both from cultural and educational or troupes which can produce programmes while points of view a serious loss if the drama and the under training and then follow up by giving folk theatre are not revitalized and used tocon- professional performances. tribute to the education of the people in this In some South and South-East Asian countries, region. religious sentiments and customs have stood in Whenever any attempt is made to use drama the way of the growth of drama, though such and folk theatre as a medium for fundamental inhibitions are now on the decline.In these education and national development, care should countries the dramatic form should be introduced be taken to ensure that their dramatic and artistic gradually through adaptations and elaborations elements are not compromised either in form or of the traditional ballads, folk songs, poetic in content and that their cultural value is not symposia, etc. sacrificed to instructional ends. The dearth of suitable scripts is a problem in 30 most Asian countries since the traditional forms and national broadcasting organizations. subsist upon stories and plays written long ago. Though community listening has been widely It should be possible to encourage group play- practised in underdeveloped countries, fuller making along the lines adopted in several under- educational use of the radio is possible only with developed countries where the suggestion of a group listening accompanied by discussion. The single theme has been followed up by contributions success of the recent Farm Forum projects as a by members of the community leading to the stimulus for new thinking, as a voice of the new emergence of a well-integrated play. village, and as a factor in the growth of rural development based on discussion and follow-up Radio activity, would justify the adoption of this tech- nique in all South and South-East Asian countries. Fuller utilization of the radio for the purposesof Unesco might also consider giving assistance by fundamental education and increased facilities for (a) promoting the training of group leaders, organized listening by adults in rural and urban (b) providing technical aid for mobile studio vans areas, should occupy an importantplace in the and (c) making available the results of the evalua- audio-visual educational programmes of South tion of such projects in different parts of the world. and South-East Asian countries. Unlike most The use of radio for fundamental education calls other media of mass communication, a radio for specialized techniques of script-writing and programme can simultaneously reach widely production.For this reason Unesco might scattered and large communities and can be a consider instituting some centres for the training daily or periodical feature, with scope for repe- of script-writers and producers of radio pro- tition and for participation by the people them- grammes for fundamental education. selves. As most Asian countries are not at present in The biggest hindrance to the use of the radio a position to introduce television, afuller for fundamental education is the high cost of exploitation of radio programmes for educational radio receivers in most underdeveloped countries. purposes should be attempted by providingvisual It is therefore necessary not only to provide these material to accompany radio programmes at countries with technical aid for the manufacture the listening end.This calls for full co- of low-cost radio sets but also to promote the ordination between agencies responsible for installation of a sufficient number of low-power educational radio programmes and the production transmitters dispersed over large regions and and distribution of visual aids. relaying programmes for rural communities Impartial assessment of radio programmes for owning inexpensive single-band sets. fundamental education and rural development by Closely allied is the need for providing experts is extremely necessary.It is suggested community sets and wire-broadcasting.All that Unesco might consider earmarking funds for schemes for providing community sets should periodical assessments in different parts of include a comprehensive service for prompt South and South-East Asia and make available the maintenance and repairs. results of such assessments to all the countries While the producers of radio programmes for in the area. fundamental education should be well acquainted Broadcasting organizations in underdeveloped with and if necessary prepared to adopt the countries should not treat rural programmes only programme techniques that make"commercial" as programmes for special audiences;on the services popular, the unrestricted growthof the contrary, the use of old cultural forms such as advertisers' radio in underdeveloped countries, folk drama, operas, songs, etc. , for rural where cultural values are already beingexposed programmes should be regarded as a new source to different kinds of commercial exploitation, of culture and entertainment for the general must be viewed with concern by educationists programmes.In other words, rural programmes who can command neither the financial nor the should be deemed to have a significance beyond technical resources of the commercial advertisers. their direct use as a medium of fundamental A careful study of the impact of the advertisers' education. radio on the educational radio programmesin underdeveloped countries is, therefore, strongly Television recommended. The Seminar was persuaded of the possibility The Seminar then went on to discuss certain of using the radio for (a) the training ofteachers guiding principles for the establishment and use and 'educators', (b) further education programmes of television for fundamental education and for adults denied the opportunity of school or community development.A thorough under- college education. standing of the nature of television and itsspecial Considering the shortage of trained teachers and characteristics as a medium of communication educators in Asian countries, a pilot projectfor and education, under conditions entirelydifferent the use of the radio for training purposesdeserves from those under which it has functioned in more priority.This is a matter which should be given advanced countries, is necessary if it is to be urgent attention by Ministries of Educationand used for economic and social development. 31 Though television can be considered a visual the groups and the broadcasting authorities. aid in certain limited circumstances, it is in the Programme producers and organizers should fullest sense a visual medium of entertainment, make it a point to regenerate traditional forms enlightenment and information, capable of serving which have deep roots in the countries concerned, many different sections of the population, of by giving new content to them. touching on all branches of knowledge and experi- There should be continuous and close personal ence and of exerting an all-round influence for co-operation between those who build the pro- human betterment. grammes and those who use them for educational In the areas under consideration both instruc- purposes. tion and entertainment are important and should After the period of technical training and not be separated in the preparation of programmes. experimentation has been completed- and such This interpretation of programming being kept in a period which must precede the installation of mind, television should be able to accomplish the any television service - the facilities made following purposes: available should not be too limited and program- (a) Economic Development ming should not be begun on too limited a scale. (b)Social Development The basic demands of the audience will have to (c)Education be satisfied.Superficial or "half-way" solutions (d)Information will not achieve this. (e)Entertainment. Many delegates stressed the danger, in under- Television can be most helpful in supplementing developed countries, of surrendering the medium other methods of education and information to commercial organizations, considering thata although, of course, it cannot supplement them. commercially organized television service could It must be used as part of an expanding educational be used properly for education and would inevi- process. tably lead to the lowering of standards. The In the countries under consideration the organi- Seminar appealed to Unesco to help combat this zation of reception should be the responsibility of danger. the broadcasting organization. Though the The Seminar considered it most unfortunate majority of the population in these countries live that in more advanced countries where verymany outside the towns,, the importance of urban areas other entertainment media and facilitieswere as centres of influence should not be neglected. highly developed, millions were being spenton Group viewing and discussion techniques seem to television, whereas in less developed countries, be the best solution.This makes it necessary to where this most powerful new medium was train local group discussion leaders belonging to desperately needed for educational purposes, the communities concerned and to establish an funds were not available.It urgently appealed to active two-way channel of communication between Unesco to help remedy this situation.

X - REPORT ON SCREENINGS

Screenings and demonstrations were a part of the technical knowledge of the subject of the aid. daily programme of the Seminar.This report Since this background information about the was prepared by a specially appointed committee various films and filmstrips screened was not and is based on the opinions expressed after the always available no attempt was made at evalua- screenings in the course of discussion.It was tion.However, the material was discussed made clear that the report does not attempt an under three headings: (1) Does the aid achieve evaluation of the materials screened, but simply its purpose in putting across its idea? (2) Is records immediate reactions. there any criticism of technique?(3) What ideas All visual material is concerned with communi- do you get from this aid which may be of value in cating information and the final judgement of its your own country? success or failure can only be made by the indi- There were several examples of films with vidual for whom it is intended.Nevertheless it specially synchronized musical sound tracks and is possible to make a practical estimate of the there was one outstanding demonstration of a film value of a visual aid as a means of communication, made with sound effects, music and commentary provided the kind of audience the material is for a multi-lingual society.This showed, when designed for and the information and ideas it is played silently, that its message, clearly stated intended to pass on are known.It is, therefore, in visual terms, could also be understood by any necessary for the persons passing judgment on group whose language was different from that of the value of a visual aid to have knowledge of the the commentary.It was felt that although every audience, and in some cases specialized subject could not be treated in this way, much

32 F more attention could profitably be given to con sequence within the film, could be understood centrating on the visual image and visual without the aid of the sound track.Films were continuity for fundamental education and community shown to a local audience in the presence of the development, rather than on what appears to be delegates and the continued value of the experi- at present an over-reliance on the commentary. enced and dedicated live commentator was The emphasis on visual communication, whether clearly demonstrated. in films or in filmstrips, lends itself to greater The question of the relative impact of the audience participation at the moment of screening. technical quality of low-budget visual material The opinion was also expressed that the most compared with more expensive productions was unprofitable way of spending money was (1) to put touched upon, and it was felt there must be a too much information into a single film or filmstrip, minimum standard below which material would and (2) to try to influence too diverse an audience. be unacceptable. Opinion remained divided on whether a wholly During the Seminar several participants also positive approach was required or whether it was displayed graphic materials (posters, banners, necessary to show negative attitudes and behaviour. photo-panels, etc. ) and explanations were given The answer to this seemed to be that the approach as to how and why they were made and used. The would depend on the subject and background of the Unesco Travelling Reference Library was also audience. The same was also true of the use of displayed. humour and even of ridicule. Finally, it was felt that there was a danger of It was felt that any dialogue film whose language creating psychological resistance to visual was different from that of the audience seeing it, material, if it depicted actions or put forward suffered in impact, unless the gist of it was para- ideas which were unattainable except under phrased or translated.This was true even if the optimum conditions.Positive disbelief and visual material and continuity were of such suspicion might be created if the presentation of quality that the main theme of the film, or of a actions and ideas was contrary to the experience of the audience.

XI - ADDITIONAL CONCLUSIONS

The Working Committee appointed by the Seminar South and East Asia:(b) sponsor surveys of the prepared the official report which was passed various forms of folk theatre including puppetry; unanimously by the Seminar.The additional (c) make available to the countries of the region conclusions reached at the end of the three-week the results of any experiments designed to use session were as follows: the theatre for educational purposes. Apart from the conclusions specifically relating (ii) The Seminar thought that it had become to the subjects mentioned above, the Seminar also absolutely necessary to define quite clearly the reached certain others of an entirely general subjects to be dealt with by future seminars on nature and which should probably be taken into the basis of the following considerations: consideration for the organization of future A distinction should be made between visual seminars. and auditory aids.The two seminars so far (i)The New Delhi Seminar emphasized strongly held (Messina and New Delhi) certainly did not the invaluable help which village drama, puppets, exhaust this subject. More far-reaching study folk songs and folk dances can bring to adult and scientific research should be undertaken and education as well as to fundamental education and encouraged in such fields as psychology and community development campaigns.Indeed, the filmology, for example. Radio and television Seminar almost concluded that these aids were at considered as tools of adult education funda- least as valuable as films in such places, for mental education and community development, example, as certain regions of South and East should in future be dealt with in separate Asia where these forms of expression had their special seminars. The Marly-le-Roy Seminar roots in ancient but living popular traditions. The (France, June 1958) on television and adult edu- Seminar, therefore, would urge upon Unesco to cation is an example which should be "regional- (a) organize a special Seminar devoted to drama ized" in South and East Asia, in Africa, in and the folk theatre and its utilization for funda- Latin America, etc. mental education and community development in

33 APPENDIX

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Name Country Official address Mr. H. A. W. Mansury Afghanistan Director of Fundamental and Audio-Visual Education and Community Development, Ministry of Education, Kabul Mr. Tol Boun Cambodia Officer in charge of Audio-Visual Aids Section (Fundamental Education) Pnom-Penh Mr. Rajakarier Ceylon Officer in charge of Adult Education and Audio-Visual Aids, Department of Education, Colombo Mr. Pao Ho Lee China Acting Director, Audio-Visual Education Centre, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China Mr. J. C. Mathur India Director-General, All-India Radio, New Delhi Mr. L. R. Nair Director of Advertising and Visual Publicity, (Alternate delegate) Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, New Delhi Mr. A. R. Deshpande Director, National Fundamental Education Centre, New Delhi Mrs. H. J. Moos Education Officer, Ministry of Education, New Delhi Mr. G. D. Aggarwal Secretary, 'Indian Documentary Producers' Association, Bombay Mr. G. Renu Special Officer of Audio-Visual Education Department, Government of Mysore, Bangalore Mr. S. L. Khurana Deputy Secretary, Ministry of Community Development, New Delhi Mr. M. C. Nanavaloodisr Director of Social Education, Ministry of Community Development, New Delhi

34 Name Country Official address Mr. F. Situmorang Indonesia Director, Teaching Aida Centre, Bandung Mr. Akbar Shakerin Iran Technical Adviser, Department of Fundamental Education, Ministry of Education, Teheran Mr. Haruo Maekawa Japan Audio-Visual Education Section, Social Education Bureau, Ministry of Education, Tokyo Mr. Sung Jun Choi Korea Counterpoint Director, Korean Fundamental Education Centre, Suwon Mr. Krishna Raj Aryal Nepal Professor of Education and Director of Publications, College of Education, Khatmandu Mr. Tirtha Raj Upreti Assistant Director of Public Instruction, Government of Nepal, Khatmandu Mr. Osias del Rosario Philippines Director, Audio-Visual Centre, Bureau of Public Schools, Manila Mr. F. S. Lian Singapore Lecturer, Audio-Visual Aids Section, Teachers Training College, Singapore Mr. Peter Seow Ministry of Education, Kay Siang Road, Singapore Mr. Prayuth Swasdimongkol Thailand Assistant Head of Popular Education Section, Adult Education Division, 1211 Suthisuksa School, Klongsan, Dhonburi

Unesco Secretariat Mr. J. S. Bhownagary Department of Mass Communication Mr. H. de Jong Mr. A. Lestage Department of Education 1-.,-wwwnrwamir

Experts Mr. G. K. Atha lye Unesco Visual Aids Mission to Thailand Mr. G. Crabtree 11 il 11 11 " Indonesia Mr. A. J. Halls II 11 11 11 "India Mr. M. C. Madge 11 11 11 11 11 11 Mr. C. Marshall Asian Representative, National Film Board of Canada Mr. N. Spurr Unesco Visual Aids Mission to Ghana

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