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THE RED ROAD of the IBERIAN EXPANSION: Cochineal and the Global Dye Trade

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THE RED ROAD of the IBERIAN EXPANSION: Cochineal and the Global Dye Trade THE RED ROAD OF THE IBERIAN EXPANSION: Cochineal and the Global Dye Trade Ana Filipa Albano Serrano Doctoral Thesis in History Area of Specialization History of Discoveries and the Portuguese Expansion July 2016 Doctoral Thesis “The Red Road of the Iberian Expansion: Cochineal and the Global Dye Trade” presented to meet the necessary requirements for obtaining the PhD degree in History of the Discoveries and the Portuguese Expansion under the academic supervision of Dr. Jessica Hallett (Centro de História d'Aquém e d'Além-Mar, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa e Universidade dos Açores - CHAM, FCSH-UNL & UAÇ) and Dr. Maarten van Bommel (Programme Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage, University of Amsterdam - UvA). Financial support provided by the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT), Portugal [SFRH/BD/73409/2010]. ii Daniel, unquestionably it was fate. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Throughout the past years, my life was shaped by numerous experiences, triggered by the many people who entered in my life. From these people, my supervisors Jessica Hallett and Maarten van Bommel have posed a central role since 2010, when they found deep interest in my Master thesis and have enthusiastically led to its continuation into a PhD. I am indebted for their guidance and support in my first steps in the world of academic research. Because money stimulates progress, I am much obliged to the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT, Lisbon, Portugal), which funded my research between April 2011 and March 2015. Furthermore, the Centro de História d'Aquém e d'Além-Mar, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas da Universidade Nova de Lisboa e Universidade dos Açores (CHAM, FCSH-UNL & UAç, Lisbon, Portugal) subsidized my participation at the Dyes in History and Archaeology meetings in 2011 and 2014. The Department for Movable Heritage, Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed (RCE, Amsterdam, The Netherlands) opened its laboratory facilities to my research, between March 2012 and June 2015, and funded my participation at the HPLC 2013 and the “Biosystems Data Analysis” course at the University of Amsterdam, in 2014. The funding granted by the European consortium CHARISMA (ARCHLAB Access) in 2011 provided the contact with the archives and laboratories of the British Museum (BM), the National Gallery of London (NGL) and the RCE. In this context, I am thankful for the reception of Thibaut Devièse and Catherine Higgitt at the BM; Jo Kirby- Atkinson and Marika Spring at the NGL; and Ineke Joosten at the RCE. At CHAM, I gratefully acknowledge João Paulo Oliveira e Costa who had an important role in my integration as a PhD research assistant in CHAM since 2010; Nuno Senos, for allowing me to be part of the research group The Arts and the Portuguese Expansion, since 2012; Tiago Miranda, for permitting my participation in his research seminar “The Archives and the Construction of Modern History and Expansion”; and António Candeias (Department of Chemistry, Universidade de Évora, Portugal), who was a member of the jury for my preparatory first year’s PhD thesis in 2011. In addition, I felt privileged to contribute to the birth and first stages of the project Textiles, Trade and Taste – Portugal and the World. Through the organization of a workshop in Seville in 2012, organized by CHAM and the History, Geography and Philosophy Department from the Universidad Pablo d’Olavide iv (UPO, Seville, Spain), I came across Igor Pérez Tostado and Bethany Aram from UPO, who kindly put me in contact with historical references and researchers. This was the case also of Carlos Marichal (Centro de Estudios Historicos, El Colegio de México) and Barbara Anderson (independent researcher, U.S.A.), to whom I am genuinely grateful for sending me their publications. Moreover, I would like to express my gratitude to the invaluable advice given to me by Jeremy Baskes (Ohio Wesleyan University, U.S.A.) and Carlos Álvarez Nogal (University Carlos III de Madrid, Spain) on historical currency conversions. For the chemical investigation, I must address the researchers from whom I obtained insect dyes: Liberato Portillo (Botanical and Zoology Department, University of Guadalajara, Mexico); Mónica González (Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias, Tenerife, Canary Islands); Douglas Miller (Agricultural Research Service, Systematic Entomology Laboratory, Maryland, U.S.A); Piero Tiano (ICVC-CNR, Florence); Monique Simmonds and Mark Nesbitt (Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, London, England); Tatiana Falcón Álvarez (Universidad Nacional Autónoma México, Mexico City, Mexico); Dominique Cardon (CIHAM/UMR, Lyon, France); Ewa Simon (Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland); Łagowska Bożena and Katarzyna Golan (Department of Entomology, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland); Hassan-Ali Vahedi (College of Agriculture, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran); Cheryl Porter (Thesaurus Islamicus Foundation, Cairo, Egypt); Jenny Balfour-Paul (Exeter University, Devon, England); Elizabeth Keheyan Yeghis (Sapienza University of Rome, Italy); and Dimitrios Mantzouris and Yiannis Karapanagiotis (University Ecclesiastical Academy of Thessaloniki, Greece). Without their generosity it would not have been possible to conduct such wide-ranging scientific analysis. Likewise, I am grateful for the textile samples donated by Regina Hoffman-de Keijzer (Universität für angewandte Kunst, Wien, Austria); the input on dyeing recipes and supportive literature from Anita Quye and Jing Han (Centre for Textile Conservation and Technical Art History, University of Glasgow, Scotland), Dominique Cardon, and Katarzyna Schmidt-Przewozna (Institute of Natural Fibres and Medicinal Plants, Poznan, Poland); and to the insects, dyed textile samples and suggested literature and advice given by Andre Verhecken (independent researcher, Antwerp, Belgium) and Jo Kirby-Atkinson (independent researcher, London, England). Acknowledgements are extended to all conservators and museum curators who sent historical textile samples - or allowed me to go on site to collect them; information and v photographs about the textiles; and/or forwarded authorization to analyse their samples: Bettina Niekamp and Regula Schorta (Abegg-Stiftung, Riggisberg, Switzerland); Erwin Hildbrand and Marie Wörle (Landesmuseum, Zurich, Switzerland); Ann Grönhammar, Johanna Nilsson and Lizette Gradén (Kungl. Livrustkammaren, Stockholm, Swede); Ana Kol (Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon, Portugal); Maria de Jesus Monge (Palácio de Vila Viçosa, Portugal); Angelika Neuhausen (Deutsches Textilmuseum, Krefeld, Germany); Susan Marti (Bernisches Historisches Museum, Bern, Switzerland); Florica Zaharia, Janina Poskrobko and Sheila Canby (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, U.S.A.); Claire Berthommier (Musée des Tissus et Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Lyon, France); Suzan Meijer (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, The Netherlands); Annette Fluri (Schule für gestaltung auf der Lyss, Basel, Switzerland); Micha Leeflang and Peter den Held (Catharijneconvent Museum, Utrecht, The Netherlands); Clara Serra and Maria Fernanda Passos Leite (Museu Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisbon, Portugal); Barbara Karl, Edith Oberhumer and Martina Dax (Österreichisches Museum für Angewandte Kunst, Wien, Austria); Ewa Orlińska-Mianowska and Monika Janisz (Muzeum Narodowe w Warszawie, Warsaw, Poland); Susan North, Joanne Hackett, Lucia Burgio and Rosemary Crill (Victoria and Albert Museum, London, U.K.). At CHAM and RCE, I received plentiful contributions, help and advice from fellow colleagues. Hence, I express my gratitude to my friends Raquel Santos, Inês Cristovão and Catarina Simões from CHAM, and to Annelies van Hoesel, Jantien van der Zijden-Wanrooij and Luc Megens from RCE on whom I could always count. Also, I would like to strongly thank the help of Andre van den Doel, who made himself available when I most needed someone to assist me with the multivariate statistical analyses. Other colleagues from RCE have also had a preponderant role in my work, namely Eliane van Dam and Klaas Jan van den Berg for the mass spectrometry; Ineke Joosten for the SEM-EDX; and Frank Ligterink and Suzan de Groot, for the colour measurements and the artificial ageing of dyed fibres, respectively. Acknowledgments would not be complete without mentioning the people who have been a remarkable constant in my personal life. Therefore, I am thankful to my parents, who financially supported me when I was waiting for my FCT grant and, especially to my mother, for taking care of anything and everything. Lastly, I would like to express my deep gratitude to Daniel, who has relentlessly supported my work and, above all, gave me great strength and motivation while writing this thesis. Likely, if I had not opted to go down this “red road”, I might have never met you. And for this, I am so glad I did. vi The Red Road of the Iberian Expansion: Cochineal and the Global Dye Trade Ana Filipa Albano Serrano Entre finais do séc. XV, início do séc. XVI, portugueses e espanhóis ampliaram os seus impérios, alargando-os ao continente americano. Enquanto os portugueses cedo se dedicaram à exploração de pau-brasil, os espanhóis estabeleceram um monopólio de cochinilha americana, a qual se tornaria num dos mais importantes produtos comerciais do Atlântico até ao séc. XIX. O desenvolvimento deste projecto doutoral combinou Química Analítica e História Económica com o objetivo de explorar o impacto deste insecto americano na circulação global de corantes,
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