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The Pennsylvania State University the Graduate School RITES OF The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School RITES OF PASSSAGE INFLUENCE ON CULTURAL IDENTITY AND LEARNING AMONG EMERGING BLACK/AFRICAN AMERICAN FEMALE ADULTS A Dissertation in Adult Education by Sonya Mann-McFarlane © 2020 Sonya Mann-McFarlane Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education May 2020 ii The dissertation of Sonya Mann-McFarlane was reviewed and approved* by the following: Elizabeth J. Tisdell Professor of Lifelong Learning and Adult Education Dissertation Adviser Chair of Committee Professor-in-Charge, Lifelong Learning and Adult Education Karin Sprow Forté Assistant Teaching Professor of Teacher Education and Adult Education Felicia Brown-Haywood Affiliate Assistant Professor of Lifelong Learning and Adult Education Peter J. Kareithi Associate Professor of Communications iii ABSTRACT The purpose of this qualitative research study was to examine how emerging Black/African American women, involved in rites of passage, experienced their rites phases of separation, liminality, and welcoming back, and the role these experiences assumed in forging positive cultural identity and development. In particular, the study focused on women involved in African-centered rites of passage as managed by the Ifa/Orisa tradition. This study was grounded in two theoretical frameworks related to adult learning: rites of passage and Black Feminism, as informed by Critical Race Feminism. The methodology of this study included 10 interview participants, chosen through purposeful criteria of having completed rites of passage, as supervised by a Yoruba Priestess and be between the ages of 18 to 25 at the time of the interview. In addition to the interviews, observations and artifacts provided ancillary sources of data. Data were analyzed using the constant comparative method. The findings of the study were grouped into five main areas: the orienting context highlighting the significance of female relationships; the separation phase (preparing for learning); the liminality phase (highlighting cultural learning); the welcoming back phase (celebrating learning); and their overall positive changed status. Overall, these findings revealed the role rites of passage assumed in advancing African-centered education, that bolstered concepts of Black Motherhood, Black female power, which served as positive influences on cultural identity development and learning. This study concludes with a discussion of the findings in light of the theoretical frameworks. It also discusses the limitations of this study and offers suggestions for further research, as well as implications for culturally responsive adult education theory and practice. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables ix List of Figures x Acknowledgements xi CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION 1 Cultural Identity, Rites of Passage, and Personal Background 4 Development of Mate Masie and an African Dance Company 5 Learning about Rites of Passage and the Yoruba Orisa Tradition 7 Further Development of African-centered and Rites of Passage Programs 11 Background to Problem 12 Development as Change Over Time 12 Emerging Adulthood 13 Cultural Identity Development and Rites of Passage 14 Rites of Passage as African-centered Education for Cultural Development 16 Problem, Purpose Statement and Research Questions 18 Theoretical Framework 19 African-centered Rites of Passage 19 Critical Race Feminism 20 Overview of Methodology 22 Significance of the Study 23 Assumptions, Limitations, and Strengths 25 Definition of Terms 28 CHAPTER TWO – REVIEW OF LITERATURE 33 Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks 34 Rites of Passage 35 History and General Background 35 Ifa and the Orisa Traditions 38 Phases of Rites of Passage 42 Separation Phase 42 Liminality and Incorporation 46 African-centered Worldview and Rites of Passage 48 v African-centered Worldview 48 African-centered Rites of Passage 50 Critical Race Feminism 53 Critical Theory 53 Critical Race Theory 54 Critical Race Feminism 56 Cultural Identity Development 59 Emerging Adulthood and Cultural Identity Development 60 Critical Perspectives on Cultural Identity Development 62 Black Female Cultural Identity Development and Learning in the United States 65 Sociocultural Influences 66 Ethnocentrism 67 Oppression 68 Masking 70 Cultural Reattachment 72 Culturally Relevant Education 73 African-centered Education 76 Indigenous Education 78 West African Rites of Passage as Indigenous Education and Africentric Pedagogy 79 Bragoro Rites in Ghana 80 Dipo Rites in Ghana 83 Yoruba Rites in Nigeria 84 Empirical Research - Black Female Cultural Identity Development and Rites of Passage 86 Methodology of the Review 86 Findings of the Review 88 Black Cultural Identity Development 88 Rites of Passage and other Support Programs 89 U.S. Based Studies 90 Black/African American Female Rites of Passage in the US 94 Summary, Conclusions, and Gaps in the Literature 98 CHAPTER THREE – METHODOLOGY 101 Qualitative Research Paradigm 101 Assumptions of Qualitative Research 103 vi Varied Types of Qualitative Research 104 An Interpretive Study and Critical Research 105 Background of Researcher 107 Participant Selection 109 Interview Participant Criteria 109 Data Collections Methods 113 Interviews 114 Interview Data Analysis 117 Documents, Artifacts, and Observations 118 Critical Data Analysis 120 Dependability Strategies 121 Trustworthiness 121 Applicability 122 Summary 123 CHAPTER FOUR FINIDINGS 124 Study Participants 124 Findings 126 Data Display 127 Orienting Context: Significant Relationships 128 Family Tradition 128 Female Role Models 130 Experiencing Separation: Preparing for Learning 131 Ritual Bathing 134 Prolific Uses of the Term “white’ to Refer to Ritual 135 Scarification 138 Experiencing Liminality 142 Group and Peer Learning 142 Group Learning 145 The Learning Environments 146 The Task List 149 Experiencing Welcoming Back 155 Traditional Dance 156 The Bembe 158 vii The Gelede 159 Positive Changed Status 161 Start of Menses 163 Racial Identity 165 Recognized Membership Status 166 Conclusions 170 CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS, and IMPLICATIONS 172 Summary of Findings 173 Intersecting Theoretical Frameworks 177 Rites of Passage 177 Black Feminism, Informed by Critical Race Feminism 179 Research Question 1 181 The Separation Phase, Preparing for Learning 182 Significant Experiences in Liminality: The Cultural Learning Phase 185 Welcoming Back Phase: Celebrating Learning 187 Bembes 188 Traditional Dance 188 The Gelede 189 Research Question 2 190 Orienting Context and Women’s Cultural Identity 191 Specific Roles and Rites Relating to Positive Cultural Identity 192 Start of Menses 194 Separation Rituals 195 Liminality and Cultural Learning 197 Racial Identity and Cultural Identity 199 Racial Identity 199 Group Membership 200 Summary 201 Implications for Theory and Practice in Adult Education 202 Implications for Theory 202 Implications for Practice 205 Limits, Strengths, and Suggestions for Future Research 210 Limitations and Strengths 210 viii Suggestion for Future Research 211 Conclusion 213 Personal Reflections 214 Appendix A – Interview Guide 217 Appendix B – Field Notes 218 Appendix C – Letter to Priestess 222 REFERENCES 224 ix LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Empirical Studies Categorized by Methodology 87 Table 2 Summary of Empirical Study Topics 88 Table 3.1 Interview Participants 112 Table 4.2 Data Display 127 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1 Creswell and Creswell (2009) Model for Qualitative Analysis 117 Figure 4.1 Osun’s Brass bell 133 Figure 4.2 Odu Osa Meji (Karade, 1994) 139 Figure 4.3 Scarification Markings 141 Figure 4.4 Table of Contents from Egbe Handbook 150 Figure 4.5 Hand dyed fabric 154 Figure 4.6 Orisa Esu 219 Figure 4.7 Osun Worshipers Southern USA 221 Figure 4.8 Elder Priestess of Osun Praying at the River 221 xi ACKNOWLEGEMENTS I wish to thank all the people whose assistance was a milestone in the completion of this project. I could not have completed it without your support, patience, and encouragement. First, I wish to acknowledge the support and great love from my ancestral family. To my father, Harvey Mann, my mother Mary Jane Covil Mann, and my Babalosha, Chief Olofundeyi Olaitan, thank you for presiding over this process. To my living family, my daughter Ayana, my son Chinua, my granddaughter, Amaya, and my grandson, Kyiel: Thank you for believing in me. Your faith helped keep me focused on this work. I would also like to acknowledge and thank the following people: To Egbe Moremi members for trusting and supporting me. To Iyalosha Dr. Osuntoki Mojisola for your countless prayers and continued guidance. To my dissertation chair and advisor Libby Tisdell for your endless attention to this project and invaluable guidance. To the members of my dissertation committee, Felicia Brown -Haywood, Peter J. Kareithi, and Karin Sprow Forte, for your their time and willingness to help me through this process. To Robin Redmon Wright for your critical approach to teaching and learning. To Dr. Karen Hinton-Polite and Samantha Cuascut for your unyielding support and encouragement. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION “Sitting here in limbo, but I know it won’t be long . Sitting here in limbo, like a bird without song. But they’re putting up resistance, and I know it’s my faith that leads me on. Sitting here in limbo—waiting for the dice to roll…Sitting here in limbo—got some time to search my soul. Well, they’re putting up resistance, and I know it’s my faith that leads me on.” ~Jimmy Cliff These lyrics to the song “Sitting in Limbo” by Jimmy
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