DOCSLIB.ORG

Cultural Learning Is Cultural

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Cultural Learning Is Cultural BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (1993) 16, 495-552 Printed in the United States of America Cultural learning Michael Tomasello Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322 Electronic mail: [email protected] Ann Cale Kruger Department of Educational Foundations, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30303 Electronic mail: [email protected] Hilary Horn Ratner Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, Ml 48202 Abstract: This target article presents a theory of human cultural learning. Cultural learning is identified with those instances of social learning in which intersubjectivity or perspective-taking plays a vital role, both in the original learning process and in the resulting cognitive product. Cultural learning manifests itself in three forms during human ontogeny: imitative learning, instructed learning, and collaborative learning - in that order. Evidence is provided that this progression arises from the developmental ordering of the underlying social-cognitive concepts and processes involved. Imitative learning relies on a concept of intentional agent and involves simple perspective-taking. Instructed learning relies on a concept of mental agent and involves alternating/coordinated perspective- taking (intersubjectivity). Collaborative learning relies on a concept of reflective agent and involves integrated perspective-taking (reflective intersubjectivity). A comparison of normal children, autistic children and wild and enculturated chimpanzees provides further evidence for these correlations between social cognition and cultural learning. Cultural learning is a uniquely human form of social learning that allows for a fidelity of transmission of behaviors and information among conspecifics not possible in other forms of social learning, thereby providing the psychological basis for cultural evolution. Keywords: animal cognition; attention; cognitive development; collaboration; cultural learning; culture; imitation; instruction; intontionality; intersubjectivity; social learning; theory of mind Many animal species live in complex social groups; only learning processes that ensure this fidelity serve to pre- humans live in cultures. Cultures are most clearly distin- vent information loss (the ratchet) and thus, in combina- guished from other forms of social organization by the tion with individual and collaborative inventiveness, form nature of their products - for example, material artifacts, the basis for cultural evolution. Human beings are able to social institutions, behavioral traditions, and languages. learn from one another in this way because they have very These cultural products share, among other things, the powerful, perhaps uniquely powerful, forms of social characteristic that they accumulate modifications over cognition. Human beings understand and take the per- time. Once a practice is begun by some member or spective of others in a manner and to a degree that allows members of a culture others acquire it relatively faith- them to participate more intimately than nonhuman ani- fully, but then modify it as needed to deal with novel mals in the knowledge and skills of conspecifics. exigencies. The modified practice is then acquired by This overall perspective is not new, of course, but others, including progeny, who may in turn add their own echoes a central theme in the work of Lev Vygotsky. On a modifications, and so on across generations. This accu- number of occasions Vygotsky (e.g., 1978) contrasted mulation of modifications over time is often called the sharply the learning of human children in the "cultural "ratchet-effect," because each modification stays firmly in line" of development with their learning (and that of place in the group until further modifications are made. Kohler's [1927] chimpanzees) in the "natural line" of No cultural products exhibiting anything like the ratchet development. The cultural line is characterized not only effect have ever been observed in the ontogenetically by the presence of culture, whose important role in acquired behaviors or products of nonhuman animals human ontogeny Vygotsky so clearly demonstrated, but (Tomasello 1990). also by the uniquely human capacity to acquire cultural The very large difference in product between animal products. The coevolution of culture and the capacity for and human societies may be most directly explained by a its acquisition is also a major theme of the newly emerging small but very important difference in process. Simply paradigm of cultural psychology (e.g., Bruner 1990; Cole put, human beings learn from one another in ways that 1989; Rogoff 1990; Shweder 1990; Wertsch 1985b). But, nonhuman animals do not. In particular, human beings following Vygotsky, cultural psychologists have so far "transmit" ontogenetically acquired behavior and infor- chosen to focus almost exclusively on the important role of mation, both within and across generations, with a much culture, neglecting for the most part what the individual higher degree of fidelity than other animal species. The organism brings to the process of enculturation. © 1993 Cambridge University Press 0140-525X193 S5.00+.00 495 Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Basel Library, on 11 Jul 2017 at 10:49:06, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00031496 Tomasello et al.: Cultural learning In this target article we attempt to focus on the individ- ment is not. It is learning in which the learner is attempt- ual capacity for acquiring culture, that is to say, on the ing to learn not from another, but through another. This social-learning processes whereby human children ac- qualitative difference is possible because human beings quire the skills and conventions of those around them. are able, depending on one's choice of theory and termi- What is new in our account is an attempt to understand nology, to take the role of the other (Mead 1934), to take social learning in terms of the most recent research and the perspective of the other (Piaget 1932), to attribute theory on children's social cognition. We believe that as mental states to the other (Premack 1988), to simulate the children's understanding of other persons develops - as mental states of the other (Harris 1991), to engage in joint they learn to understand other persons in terms of their attention with the other (Bruner 1983), to engage in intentions and beliefs, or even in terms of a "theory of mindreading of the other (Whiten 1991), to understand mind" - new processes of social learning emerge. Be- the other as a "person" (Hobson, in press), or to partici- cause of their role in the transmission and creation of pate with the other intersubjectively (Trevarthen 1979b). cultural products, we refer to these uniquely human We will speak of "perspective-taking" when the learner is processes of social learning as cultural learning. attempting to see the situation from another person's point of view and of "intersubjectivity" when both the 1. Social learning and cultural learning learner and other person are doing this simultane- ously and reciprocally. In all cases, the nature of the As typically conceived, social learning is individual learn- perspective-taking attempt depends, in a way that we will ing that is influenced in some way by the social environ- spell out later, on how the other "person" is conceived.' ment (e.g., Bandura 1986). In many cases this influence It is also important in our definition of cultural learning may be minimal in terms of the actual learning processes that what is retained by the learner after the social involved, however. For example, young animals may interaction has terminated is still in essence social. Thus, follow their mother to a food source and then learn to in all cases of cultural learning the learner must internal- extract the food by themselves; or human adults may give ize into its own repertoire not just knowledge of the children objects which they then explore on their own. activity being performed by another person, but also In these cases the social environment provides exposure something of the social interaction itself- the demonstra- only; the actual learning processes are wholly individual tion or instructions given by an adult, for example. This in the sense that what is learned is learned through the process of internalization (or, in Rogoff's 1990 preferred youngster's direct interaction with the physical environ- terminology, "appropriation") is not something myste- ment. rious or magical, in our view, but simply a special mani- In other instances the social environment may play a festation of basic processes of learning. The difference is more active role, most importantly by drawing the juve- that in internalization an important part of what is being nile's attention to a specific object or location in the learned is the point of view of another person (the "voice' environment that it otherwise would not have noticed (so- of the other, in Bahktin's terminology; cf., Stone, in press; called local or stimulus enhancement; Thorpe 1956). For Wertsch 1991) - which may sometimes be intentional, example, a chimpanzee mother's nut-cracking activities and thus refer to some entity outside that person. The may draw a youngster's attention to the rock-hammer and important point for current purposes is that the cognitive the open nut, both left on the hard surface necessary for representation resulting from cultural
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Social Learning and the Maintenance of Cultural Variation: an Evolutionary Model and Data from East Africa
    RICHARD MCELREATH Social Learning and the Maintenance of Cultural Variation: An Evolutionary Model and Data from East Africa ABSTRACT Human societies maintain between-group variation despite mixing of people and ideas. In order for variation to remain, migrants or their children must preferentially adopt local norms, customs, and beliefs. Yet the details of how cultural variation is maintained, despite mixing, remain unknown. This article addresses this problem by using a simple model of the evolution of cultural learning to interpret the results of a study of cultural variation in a small region of East Africa. I argue that the manner in which migrants of two diverse regions adapt to local beliefs and behavior depends on the costs and accuracy of learning in each domain. Observational studies are never definitive tests of any hypothesis, but these results suggest that conclusions about the significance of cultural learning for understanding individual attitudes and behavior depend strongly upon the domain of investigation. [Keywords: cultural evolution, social learning, East Africa, cultural variation] TUDY OF THE DIVERSITY of human adaptation, social differences in the physical and social environments indi- Sorganization, and belief has occupied more than a cen- viduals experience. Migrants (or their children) experience tury of anthropological description and explanation. Most a new economy, ecology and social world, and figure out social scientists are convinced that this diversity arises from how to behave. Social learning may still play a role in trans- a number of learning strategies, both simple and complex, mitting solutions to successive generations, but forms of in- and that sophisticated social learning in particular plays a dividual learning “evoke” (Tooby and Cosmides 1992) new key role in transmitting variation in behavior between gen- behavior when circumstances change, because of individu- erations.
    [Show full text]
  • Cultural Differentiation in Learning Styles: a Review of the Research
    Cultural Differentiation in Learning Styles: A Review of the Research Robert Tripp, Ph.D. University of North Carolina Wilmington Abstract Students face a number of social and cultural challenges to success in the American higher education setting. Research on learning preferences, personality development, and learning style measurement has a rich history in psychological research, however, the refinement of the research to focus on cultural influences is relatively new and scattered at best. This review of standard literature presents research related to cultural differentiation in learning and learning preferences, and highlights the need for further work which explores the depth of influence of cultural components on learning preferences and pedagogical and programming strategies which successfully addresses this diversity. Introduction Research on learning preferences, personality development, and learning style measurement has a rich history in psychological research, including the writings of Freud and Jung (Hawk & Shah, 2007; Kolb, 1984; Kolb, Rubin, & MacIntyre, 1971; Swanson, 1995). However, the refinement of the research to focus on cultural influences is relatively new and has been inconsistent in regards to both time, depth of study, and findings (Entwhistles & Ramsden, 1983; Felder & Henriques, 1995; Glick, 1975; Gonzales & Roll, 1985; Gradman & Hanania, 1991; Hofstede, 1986; Lesser, Fifer, & Clark, 1965; Witkin, 1976). The following presents a review of seminal research related to cultural differentiation in learning and learning preferences. Literature Review Banks (2004) suggested the scarcity of literature on cultural influences on learning is a result of the complexity of the issue; class mobility and ethnic culture entwine themselves around the issue of learning characteristics in minority students (p.
    [Show full text]
  • Enculturation HUMANS ENGAGE in CULTURAL LEARNING
    Outline Humans Engage in Cultural Learning Enculturation and Socialization Enculturation Parenting and Families Culture and Peers Culture and Day Care Chapter 3 Culture and Education Religion Putting it all together Humans have ability of perspective-taking This ability allows humans to engage in HUMANS ENGAGE IN cultural learning CULTURAL LEARNING Cultural learning: learning from others & through others Humans learn by 1) mimicking adults 2) internalizing knowledge of other person through social cognition Culture is uniquely learned by humans Socialization: Process by which people learn rules and patterns of society ENCULTURATION AND Enculturation: Products of socialization process (psychological aspects of culture that that SOCIALIZATION become internalized through development) Socialization/Enculturation Agent: people, institutions and organizations that ensure socialization and enculturation • Ex) Parents, siblings, other family, friends, friends, school, church Parenting goals and beliefs Goals for children's development based on caregiving context and culturally valued PARENTS AND FAMILIES behaviors Goals lead to variation in parenting behaviors • Gusii and American mothers (LeVine et ai., 1996) • Gusii mothers : have parenting goal of protecting infants; to achieve this goal, engage in soothing behaviors and keep infants close • American mothers: have parenting goal of active engagement and social exchange ; engage in stimulation and conversation with infants Parenting goals and beliefs Parenting Styles Parenting Characteristics
    [Show full text]
  • Cultural Learning Redux
    Child Development, May/June 2016, Volume 87, Number 3, Pages 643–653 Cultural Learning Redux Michael Tomasello Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology M. Tomasello, A. Kruger, and H. Ratner (1993) proposed a theory of cultural learning comprising imitative learning, instructed learning, and collaborative learning. Empirical and theoretical advances in the past 20 years suggest modifications to the theory; for example, children do not just imitate but overimitate in order to identify and affiliate with others in their cultural group, children learn from pedagogy not just episodic facts but the generic structure of their cultural worlds, and children collaboratively co-construct with those in their culture normative rules for doing things. In all, human children do not just culturally learn useful instru- mental activities and information, they conform to the normative expectations of the cultural group and even contribute themselves to the creation of such normative expectations. In contrast to their nearest great ape relatives, who support the cumulative cultural evolution of human all live in the general vicinity of the equator, artifacts and practices over historical time (the so- humans have spread out all over the globe. To deal called “ratchet effect”). with everything from the Arctic to the tropics, For individuals who understand one another as humans have evolved a highly flexible suite of intentional (or mental) agents, there can be three sociocognitive skills that enable them to create, in basic types of cultural learning. When the basic concert with others in their cultural groups, a structure of the interaction is that the learner variety of techniques for coping with whatever intends to learn something by observing an actor challenges may arise in their local environment, (who may not even know she is being observed), from building igloos to tracking large game.
    [Show full text]
  • Perspectives on Observational Learning in Animals
    Journal of Comparative Psychology © 2011 American Psychological Association 2012, Vol. 126, No. 2, 114–128 0735-7036/11/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0025381 Perspectives on Observational Learning in Animals Thomas R. Zentall University of Kentucky Observational learning is presumed to have occurred when an organism copies an improbable action or action outcome that it has observed and the matching behavior cannot be explained by an alternative mechanism. Psychologists have been particularly interested in the form of observational learning known as imitation and in how to distinguish imitation from other processes. To successfully make this distinction, one must disentangle the degree to which behavioral similarity results from (a) predisposed behavior, (b) increased motivation resulting from the presence of another animal, (c) attention drawn to a place or object, (d) learning about the way the environment works, as distinguished from what we think of as (e) imitation (the copying of the demonstrated behavior). Several of the processes that may be involved in observational learning are reviewed, including social facilitation, stimulus enhancement, several kinds of emulation, and various forms of imitation. Keywords: imitation, observational learning, social facilitation, stimulus enhancement, emulation Several reviews of observational learning have appeared in the advantage of such learning. The other approach can be character- past 20 years, including those by Galef (1988b), Whiten and Ham ized as the psychological approach, which focuses more
    [Show full text]
  • Get It: the Power of Cultural Learning, 2009
    Get It: The Power of Cultural Learning Feedback and recommendations from a public consultation by the Culture and Learning Consortium Arts Council England Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation Clore Duffield Foundation Esmée Fairbairn Foundation Foyle Foundation Heritage Lottery Fund Museums, Libraries and Archives Council Northern Rock Foundation Paul Hamlyn Foundation We shouldn’t be wondering whether children need art and music and stories and poems any more than gardeners wonder whether plants need water. The effect of deprivation is the same in both cases. The effect is less instant and dramatic in the case of children who know no culture, but just as deadly in the long run. We’re not talking about economic benefit or competitive advantage or maximising employment choices: we’re talking about life and death – the life of the mind and the heart, the murder of the soul. Philip Pullman Contents Culture and Learning Consortium Do it, watch it, experience it, love it, hate Foreword 2 it, dismiss it, create it, be transformed by Preface 3 it, join it, admire it, learn it, steal it, make Executive Summary 4 Ten Key Recommendations 6 millions from it, get comfort from it, be perverted by it, be repelled by it, be Introduction 12 . Background 4 astounded by it, want it … but ignore it? . Focus 5 The Foyle Foundation Surely everything or anything except the A new approach to latter. Children have to be introduced to culture and learning 16 the arts in every form. The scope 8 . The potential 0 Griff Rhys Jones 3. The challenges 4. A shared approach 26 Areas for advocacy and action with recommendations 28 .
    [Show full text]
  • Culture in Humans and Other Animals
    Biol Philos (2013) 28:457–479 DOI 10.1007/s10539-012-9347-x Culture in humans and other animals Grant Ramsey Received: 12 March 2012 / Accepted: 30 September 2012 / Published online: 16 October 2012 Ó Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2012 Abstract The study of animal culture is a flourishing field, with culture being recorded in a wide range of taxa, including non-human primates, birds, cetaceans, and rodents. In spite of this research, however, the concept of culture itself remains elusive. There is no universally assented to concept of culture, and there is debate over the connection between culture and related concepts like tradition and social learning. Furthermore, it is not clear whether culture in humans and culture in non- human animals is really the same thing, or merely loose analogues that go by the same name. The purpose of this paper is to explicate core desiderata for a concept of culture and then to construct a concept that meets these desiderata. The paper then applies this concept in both humans and non-human animals. Keywords Behavior Á Culture Á Epigenetic Á Evolution Á Innovation Á Social learning Á Tradition Introduction The study of culture in animals1 is a burgeoning area of research. Biologists, psychologists, and biological anthropologists are increasingly interested in the study of culture and are routinely describing the behavior of animals—from rats to sperm whales—in terms of culture (Laland and Galef 2009). Additionally, the field of 1 To avoid repeated uses of ‘non-human’, I will use ‘animal’ in what follows, not as picking out the Anamalia, but as denoting all non-human animals.
    [Show full text]
  • An Examination of Culture Knowledge: a Study of L2 Teachers’ and Teacher Educators’ Beliefs and Practices
    4 Spring 2011 An Examination of Culture Knowledge: A Study of L2 Teachers’ and Teacher Educators’ Beliefs and Practices David R. Byrd Weber State University Anne Cummings Hlas University of Wisconsin, Eau Claire John Watzke University of Portland Maria Fernanda Montes Valencia Saint Louis University Abstract: Historically, culture has not been emphasized as much as linguistic fea- tures in the teaching of second languages, but the introduction of the National Standards has provided an opportunity for a shift in this trend. This study surveyed 415 world language teachers and 64 teacher educators about the extent to which the culture stan- dard is a focus of teaching and the motivators and barriers in maintaining culture knowledge. Using descriptive statistical analysis, survey results suggest that both groups share some concerns, motivations, and barriers to teaching culture, but they also differ in significant areas. The article concludes with some potential implications for teacher education programs as well as suggestions for continued professional develop- ment for teachers related to culture knowledge. Key words: culture, professional development, Standards, survey results, teacher education David R. Byrd (PhD, University of Iowa) is Assistant Professor of Education at Weber State University, Ogden, Utah. Anne Cummings Hlas (PhD, University of Iowa) is Assistant Professor of Spanish at the University of Wisconsin, Eau Claire. John Watzke (PhD, University of Iowa) is Professor of Education and Dean of the School of Education at the University of Portland, Oregon. Maria Fernanda Montes Valencia (ABD, Saint Louis University) is a doctoral student in Educational Studies at Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri. Foreign Language Annals Á vol.
    [Show full text]
  • Acculturation As a Developmental Pathway David Lackland Sam University of Bergen, Norway, [email protected]
    Unit 8 Migration and Acculturation Article 6 Subunit 1 Acculturation and Adapting to Other Cultures 4-1-2003 Acculturation as a Developmental Pathway David Lackland Sam University of Bergen, Norway, [email protected] Brit Oppedal Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Norway, [email protected] Recommended Citation Sam, D. L., & Oppedal, B. (2003). Acculturation as a Developmental Pathway. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.9707/2307-0919.1072 This Online Readings in Psychology and Culture Article is brought to you for free and open access (provided uses are educational in nature)by IACCP and ScholarWorks@GVSU. Copyright © 2003 International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology. All Rights Reserved. ISBN 978-0-9845627-0-1 Acculturation as a Developmental Pathway Abstract This chapter looks at some developmental issues in the acculturation of children and adolescents with immigrant backgrounds. In addition to raising critical questions about this line of research, the chapter examines some underlying assumptions and their implications for the study of acculturation in younger people. It is argued that ambiguities in the final outcome of acculturation and differences in acculturation experiences of adults and children make it necessary to bring developmental perspectives closer into this line of research among children and adolescents in immigrant families. Against this background a modified developmental contextual model is suggested as an alternate perspective to the understanding of the acculturation
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Introduction: the Evolution of Culture in a Microcosm
    1 Introduction: The Evolution of Culture in a Microcosm Stephen C. Levinson Evolutionary speculation constitutes a kind of metascience, which has the same intellectual fascination for some biologists that metaphysical speculation possessed for some medieval scholastics. It can be considered a relatively harmless habit, like eating peanuts, unless it assumes the form of an obsession; then it becomes a vice. —R. V. Stanier, Some aspects of the biology of cells in H. Charles and B. Knight (eds.), Organization and Control in Prokaryotic Cells As the quotation here suggests, this volume is full of the vice of speculation. Yet any student of the human condition can hardly avoid it. Somehow culture—or at least the culture-bearing ape—evolved. An evolutionary perspective on human culture, which is much less fashionable now than it was 70 or more years ago, seems inevitable, yet the social sciences actively resist it, allowing ill-informed conjectures from other sci- ences (which does little to increase the interest from the social sciences of course). In this introductory chapter, I try to do two things: The first is to deal frontally, and speculatively, with what I take to be the “big questions” about the evolution of human culture. This may serve as a partial introduction to the more detailed explo- rations in other chapters in this volume. The second is to give the reader some grist for these speculative mills. I will argue that if we look at the details of any culture, it is quite clear that we need an evolutionary perspective to understand how such fea- tures could have arisen (note that such a perspective is quite consistent with other kinds of social science explanations).
    [Show full text]
  • Culture Learning in Language Education: a Review of the Literature
    Culture Learning in Language Education: A Review of the Literature R. Michael Paige, Helen Jorstad, Laura Siaya, Francine Klein, Jeanette Colby INTRODUCTION This paper examines the theoretical and research literatures pertaining to culture learning in language education programs. The topic of teaching and learning culture has been a matter of considerable interest to language educators and much has been written about the role of culture in foreign language instruction over the past four decades. For insightful analyses see Morain, 1986; Grittner, 1990; Bragaw, 1991; Moore, 1991; Byram and Morgan, 1994. Most importantly, in recent years various professional associations have made significant efforts to establish culture learning standards (Standards, 1996; AATF, 1995). Yet, to date, there have been few critical reviews of the literature. In certain respects this is not surprising because culture learning is not exclusively the domain of language educators. On the contrary, the field is highly interdisciplinary in nature; contributions to the knowledge base have come from psychology, linguistics, anthropology, education, intercultural communication, and elsewhere. Moreover, anthropologists, intercultural communication scholars, and psychologists, in particular, have studied cultural phenomena quite apart from their relationship to language learning. The review confirmed what we expected: a substantial amount of important writing on culture learning exists, much of which is completely unrelated to language education. The rationale for conducting this review of the literature was to determine if studies existed which could: 1) support and/or challenge current language education practices regarding the teaching of culture, 2) provide guidance to language educators on effective culture teaching methods, 3) suggest ways to conceptualize culture in the language education context, 4) suggest ways to assess culture learning, and, 5) indicate which instructional methods are most effective for various types of culture learning objectives.
    [Show full text]
  • The Implication of Bandura's Vicarious Reinforcement in Observational
    Journal of Christian Education in Korea Vol. 61(2020. 3. 30) : 81-107 DOI: 10.17968/jcek.2020..61.003 The Implication of Bandura’s Vicarious Reinforcement in Observational Learning for Christian Education Jongmin Lee(Assistant Professor, Chongshin University) [email protected] Abstract This study reviews Bandura’s vicarious reinforcement in observational learning process and implies this concept into Christian education in terms of spiritual role modeling. The first part of this study answers three questions: “what is vicarious reinforcement?” “how does vicarious reinforcement take place in observational learning?” and “how does vi- carious reinforcement affect observer’s behavior change?” Bandura con- ceptualizes the learning process with observational learning and imi- tative or non-imitative performance. Based on this concept, Bandura de- fine the roles of vicarious reinforcement in the four steps of ob- servational learning process: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivational process. Also, the three effects of vicarious reinforce- ments are explained in the following categories: the observational learn- ing effect, inhibitory or disinhibitory effects, and eliciting effect. Adapting the structure of observational learning theory in terms of the effect of vicarious reinforcement and the function of role models, the second part of this study examines the biblical concept of imitation of Christ and the modeling strategy of discipleship. Especially Paul’s spiri- tual role model serves as positive vicarious reinforcement for the Christian believers to perform the desired behaviors. Also, Paul’s con- demnation serves as explicit negative vicarious reinforcement. Then, the last part of this study covers the implication of these findings from ob- servational learning and empirical studies in terms of spiritual role mod- 82 Journal of Christian Education in Korea eling to Christian education.
    [Show full text]