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Development and Aging Relations Between Episodic Memory, Suggestibility, Theory of Mind, and Cognitive Inhibition in the Preschool Child

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Development and Aging Relations Between Episodic Memory, Suggestibility, Theory of Mind, and Cognitive Inhibition in the Preschool Child Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 2006, 47, 485–495 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9450.2006.00542.x Blackwell Publishing Ltd Development and Aging Relations between episodic memory, suggestibility, theory of mind, and cognitive inhibition in the preschool child ANNIKA MELINDER, TOR ENDESTAD and SVEIN MAGNUSSEN University of Oslo, Norway Melinder, A., Endestad, T. & Magnussen, S. (2006). Relations between episodic memory, suggestibility, theory of mind, and cognitive inhibition in the preschool child. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 47, 485–495. The development of episodic memory, its relation to theory of mind (ToM), executive functions (e.g., cognitive inhibition), and to suggestibility was studied. Children (n = 115) between 3 and 6 years of age saw two versions of a video film and were tested for their memory of critical elements of the videos. Results indicated similar developmental trends for all memory measures, ToM, and inhibition, but ToM and inhibition were not associated with any memory measures. Correlations involving source memory was found in relation to specific questions, whereas inhibition and ToM were significantly correlated to resistance to suggestions. A regression analysis showed that age was the main contributor to resistance to suggestions, to correct source monitoring, and to correct responses to specific questions. Inhibition was also a significant main predictor of resistance to suggestive questions, whereas the relative contribution of ToM was wiped out when an extended model was tested. Key words: Episodic memory, theory of mind, cognitive inhibition, suggestibility, executive functions, forensic context. Annika Melinder, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, 0317, Oslo, Norway. E-mail: [email protected] INTRODUCTION Niemb, 2003). We here use the term suggestibility to refer to the incorporation of incorrect post-event information into a Episodic1 memory refers to the explicit memory of an event memory report, which might result in inaccurate or even false that took place at a specific time and place in the individual’s memories of an event (Ceci & Bruck, 1995). own personal history. According to Tulving (2002), episodic Despite a general consensus regarding the relation between memory is not present before about 4 years of age, but other age, memory and suggestibility, some authors suggest that researchers believe that episodic memory is present, but less memory performance is only partly explained by age (Poole accessible for testing earlier in life (Bauer, 1996; Bauer & & Lindsay, 2001), and that children who do remember their Wewerka, 1995; Howe & Courage, 1993, 1997). Episodic memory former experiences actually make memory errors (Powell & includes an “autonoetic” kind of consciousness that allows us Roberts, 2002). Young children’s failure to resist suggestive to be aware of the subjective time when an event took place information has been related to immature internal control (Naito, 2003; Tulving, 2002). This autonoetic aspect of episodic mechanisms (Bruck, Ceci & Melnyk, 1997; Harnishfeger, 1995), memory has been related to a person’s sense of self, which and several studies have looked at the relationships between with reference to memory is termed “the cognitive self” (Howe suggestibility and executive functions such as inhibitory con- & Courage, 1993, 1997). The emergence of a cognitive self around trol (Roberts & Powell, 2005; Ruffman, Rustin, Garnham & the age of two makes possible the early organization of infor- Parkin, 2001), and theory of mind (Scullin & Bonner, 2006; mation and experiences into an episodic memory form. Although Welch-Ross, Diecidue & Miller, 1997). However, no single episodic memory allows the individual to consciously re- study has looked at executive functions and ToM in relation experience past experiences, it does not always succeed in to suggestibility and episodic memory in a wider range of tracking the memory accurately back to the situation, con- preschool aged children. In addition, most of the studies designed text, or source in which the event to be remembered took place. in context of the children-as-eye-witnesses research have tested The quantity and quality of episodic memory performances North American samples; no Scandinavian study has mapped are age dependent; young children report fewer memories than the general socio-cognitive development in relation to memory older children and adults in free and cued recall (Baker-Ward, and suggestibility. Although Anglo-Saxon cultures are quite Ornstein, Gordon, Follmer & Clubb, 1995; Bruck & Ceci, 2004; similar, there are factors that may vary between the cultures Goodman & Melinder, in press; Poole & Lindsay, 1995), and and affect the developmental trajectories of cognitive functions. their memories are more susceptible to suggestive post-event information such as misinformation, repeated questioning, and the use of props (Ackil & Zaragosa, 1995; Cassel & Bjorklund, Episodic memory development 1995; Ceci & Bruck, 1995; Priestley & Pipe, 1997; Salmon & Pipe, There are several factors that might contribute to the fragility 2000; Schacter, 2001; but see Finnilæ, Mahlberga, Santtilaa & of episodic memory and the greater suggestibility of young © 2006 The Authors. Journal compilation © 2006 The Scandinavian Psychological Associations. Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA. ISSN 0036-5564. 486 A. Melinder et al. Scand J Psychol 47 (2006) children, but immature source monitoring skills have been tasks (Stroop, 1935; Zelazo, Müller, Frye & Marcovitch, identified as a critical factor (Giles, Gopnik & Heyman, 2002). 2003). Cognitive inhibition is an executive process that helps Source memory, the ability to identify the origin of a memory the individual to ignore irrelevant stimuli. Because cognitive element, is one of the defining characteristics of episodic inhibition facilitates s memory retrieval by suppressing imme- memory. This ability improves between the age of 4 and diate responses long enough to search memory and provide 6 years. Experimental evidence indicates that source memory well-thought answers (Lorsbach, Katz & Cupak, 1998), it develops gradually during the preschool years, both with might be argued that stronger resistance to suggestion should respect to the ability to discriminate between external sources be observed among children with more developed cognitive of information – e.g., who said what (Lindsay, Johnson & inhibition capacities. Empirical research tends to support Kwon, 1991) – and the ability to discriminate between exter- this prediction. For example, Alexander et al. (2002) found nal and internal sources – e.g. distinguishing between what that 3- to 7-year-old children’s memory errors and suggesti- is imagined and what is said (Foly, Johnson & Raye, 1983). bility were predicted by level of cognitive inhibition, indexed In particular, if sources are similar (Lindsay et al., 1991), or by a Stroop-like task (the Day/Night task; Gerstadt, Hong if memory testing is delayed (Parker, 1995), young children & Diamond, 1994). Cognitive inhibition was inversely related tend to perform worse than older children in both non- to total incorrect units provided in free recall (r = −0.34), suggestive and suggestive paradigms. and to omission errors (r = −0.29) made to misleading yes-no Giles et al. (2002) investigated the association between questions, with age controlled. A recent study that examined suggestibility and source monitoring in 32 children (ranged 5–7-year-old children’s susceptibility to suggestibility, did not 3–5 years of age) after being presented with a story in two find any relationship between three measures of inhibition sensory modalities (e.g., in a silent video and in a spoken (including the Day/Night task) and resistance to suggestion narrative read by the experimenter) about a young boy feed- (Roberts & Powell, 2005). A fourth measure of inhibition ing his dog. Each of the six test items used to assess children’s (verbal retroactive inhibition) explained in combination with ability to resist suggestion consisted of a declarative phase age 17% of the variance in suggestibility scores. A limitation (always including incorrect event information), followed by of the study, pointed out by the authors, was that the sample a question that prompted for agreement with what was said. had an average age of close to six years, an age at which If the child yielded to the question, he/she made a false children evince ceiling effects on some of the tasks (e.g., the alarm, if however he/she rejected the question, resistance to Day/Night task). In the present study we include a wider suggestion was evinced. The source monitoring measures age-range of children. consisted of two separate tasks that assessed children’s abil- Cognitive inhibition has been related to the ability to ities to identify specific story details. Specifically, they found avoid false alarms and to source monitoring in 6-, 8-, and a positive correlation between source-monitoring and the 10-year-old children after watching a video and/or listening ability to resist suggestion, also when age was partialled out. to a tape about a dog (Ruffman et al., 2001). It is frequently Giles and coworkers also showed that preschool children claimed that if source information is presented without false were more able to resist post-event information when they induction, multiple exposures to an event (e.g., both watch- had been encouraged
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