Govt. of India

Project on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve’s Coastal Biodiversity

National Research and Monitoring Moderation Workshop

Compilation of Research Papers Volume I

V.K. Melkani V. Naganathan R. Uma Maheswari

Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust Ramanathapuram - 623 501, Tamilnadu

December 2006 Citation: V.K. Melkani, V. Naganathan and R. Uma maheswarai 2006. Compilation of Research papers, National Research & Monitoring Moderation Workshop, 15 - 16th, Dec. Madurai.

This publication has no commercial value. It is for circulation only.

December 2006

Sponsored by Global Environment Facility and United Nations Developmental Programme New Delhi

Edited and Published by Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust Ramanathapuram - 623 501, Tamil nadu, India

Editor’s Address V.K. Melkani, V. Naganathan, R. Uma maheswari Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust 366, Solaikili Towers, Vandikara Street, Ramanathapuram - 623 501, Tamil Nadu, India. Ph: 04567 – 226 335, Fax: 04567 - 229 228, E-mail: [email protected]

Authors are exclusively responsible for the content of their manuscripts, including appropriate citations and for obtaining necessary prior permission from the original publisher for reproduc- tion of figures, tables and text (in whole or in part) from previous publications. Publishers and editors do not accept any legal responsibility for errors, omissions, and copyright violations of authors and claims of whatsoever.

Cover page design by M. Mohamed Farook, GOMBRT.

Front cover 1 2 34 1. Coral reef of Gulf of Mannar (Acropora spp.) - Photo credit SDMRI, Tuticorin 2. Green Turtle - Photo credit Mr. Karthik Shanker ATREE 3. Pamban boat yard - Photo credit V. Naganathan 4. Thermal Powerstation - - do -

Back cover - Island view of Hare Island, Gulf of Mannar

Typeset & Printed at Rehana Offset Printers, Srivilliputtur - 626 125, Virudhunagar District, Ph: 04563 – 260 383 CONTENTS

1. Bibliography of Gulf of Mannar – Executive summary A.K. Kumaraguru 1

2. Conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity of Gulf of Mannar region - research and monitoring issues, priorities and future perspectives V.K. Melkani 6

3. Status, Problem and management strategies in Gulf of Mannar Coral reefs S. Baskara Sanjeevi, S. Ajmal Khan & T. Balasubramanian. 11

4. Research Need for Gulf of Mannar. S. Ajmal Khan, N.Rajendran and T.Balasubramanian 22

5. Status of Gulf of Mannar Coral reefs, India. K.Venkataraman and K.P. Raghuram. 29

6. Coral mining – A Bygone threat to Gulf of Mannar V. Naganathan and S. Ramesh 36

7. Role of Mangroves In Coastal Protection, Fishery Productivity And Resilience of Reefs In The Gulf Of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve Dr. K. Kathiresan 43

8. Present Status on Conservation and management of mangrove habitats in the islands of Gulf of Mannar Region, Tamilnadu P.Nammalwar and Dr. R.Ramesh 48

9. An account on the marine sponges of Gulf of Mannar Anita G. Mary and S.Lazarus 56

10. Studies on Marine Reptiles, Shore Birds and Sustainable Tourism in Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve - A perspective V.Kalaiarasan, J.Murali, S.Anand 62

11. Conservation of Marine Ornamental Fishery Resources along Gulf of Mannar through Aquaculture, S. Rajagopal and Dhanya Sethunarayanan 64

12. Coastal ecosystem restoration and bio-resource conservation J.K. Patterson Edward 72

13. Sea Turtles in Gulf of Mannar A. Murugan 75

14. Seahorses in Gulf of Mannar A. Murugan 77 Contents continued...

15. Environmental quality assessment of Gulf of Mannar Coast A.K. Kumaraguru 79

16. Marine Resources used in Pharmaceutical and nutracuetical applications: Problems and Conservation needs A.P. Lipton 85

17. Conservation Neeeds for The Coastal Bird Habitats of Gulf of Mannar S. Balachandran 88

18. Monitoring Gulf of Mannar coastal ecosystem through Remote sensing and Gis withhigher resolution satellite data 92 R. Uma Maheswari

19. Marine resource management through people participation: V. Naganathan 97

20 Participatory management of biological resources for conservation and livelihood security of coastal fishers in the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve M. Vijayakumaran, G. Dharani, N. V. Vinith Kumar and R. Venkatesan 102

21. Biodiversity studies by ierse using underwater equipments S. Lazarus and Anita G. Mary 107

22. Potential Bird Habitats of Gulf of Mannar coast – A study report V. Naganathan, S. Chandrasekaran; Dr.G. Christopher 110 VISHWANATH SHEGAONKAR, I.A.S., Environment & Forests Department SECRETARY TO GOVERNMENT Secretariat, Chennai - 600 009 Ph. : (O) 044-25671511 Fax : 044-25670560 E-mail : [email protected]

PREFACE

Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust is co-coordinating implementation of GEF-UNDP project on “Conservation and Sustainable Use of Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve’s Coastal Bio-diversity”. This is a pioneering and unique initiative of the government of Tamil Nadu with objectives to integrate bio-diversity conservation and sustainable utilization of resources in the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve area through meaningful co-ordination and support from various stake holders and to secure local community support for conservation through awareness, capacity building and providing alternative livelihoods. The Gulf of Mannar is no doubt a biologically rich area. Today the threats to its richness are increasing at faster rates which need to be controlled through an integrated management approach with support from all the stakeholders. In order to understand the richness and the problem profile of the area the Trust has bought out a detailed bibliography on scientific information on the Gulf of Mannar through active involvement of the centre for marine and coastal studies, Madurai Kamaraj University recently. The research work done by various individuals and institutions in the area has now been well documented. Based on the outcome of this documentation the Trust is now organizing a National Research Monitoring and Moderation workshop on 15th - 16th Dec. ‘06 at Madurai where distinguished scientists, experts other stakeholders will gather to deliberate on various issues on Research and Monitoring in the Gulf of Mannar region and jointly develop programmes and activities for field action by next year. The Trust has also compiled some research papers as a publication for use in this workshop wherein the future perspective of research, monitoring and management of this area are covered. The Trust Director and his team deserve appreciation for this effort. I wish the workshop all success.

(Vishwanath Shegaonkar) i C.K. SREEDHARAN, I.F.S. #1, Jeenis Road, Panagal Building Principal Chief Conservator of Forests Saidapet, Chennai – 600 015 Tel : 044 – 2434 8059 (O) : 044 – 2441 2062 (R) Fax : 044 – 2433 7307 Email : [email protected] MESSAGE

Conservation and sustainable use of coastal and marine resources is very important for security and well being of coastal communities. Coastal and marine ecosystem are extremely diverse and complex as well as highly sensitive to disturbances and threats which are continuously on increase due to growing populations and their need clubbed with fast growing economies. The Gulf of Mannar Region in South east coast of Tamil Nadu is equally under threat as many other parts of the Country. A new initiative for integrated conservation of this area with full involvement of local communities is being made in a collaborative project of GEF, UNDP, GoI and GoTN. In order to minimize and control the threats it is necessary to understand about the richness of the resources and the profiles of the threats so that the management interventions can be developed and implemented for enhanced conservation and sustainable use of the resources. As a first step Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust has bought out a detailed bibliography on the scientific information on the Gulf of Mannar which is of much use to the scientists, researchers, managers and the other agencies involved in the Gulf of Mannar area. I am glad to learn that the Trust is organizing a two day workshop at Madurai in order to deliberate on various issues related to priority areas and options for research and monitoring activities in the area and releasing a publication on compilation of some research papers focusing on the future perspective of biological, ecological and environmental research and monitoring activities in this area. I hope that scientists, experts and other stake holders will utilize this opportunity and provide inputs towards developing workable, short term and long term programmes on research and monitoring aspects in the Gulf of Mannar Region. I wish to extend my greeting to all the participants and wish the workshop all success.

(C.K. SREEDHARAN) ii Dr. SUKHDEV, IFS., #1, Jeenis Road, Panagal Building Principal Chief Conservator of Forests & Saidapet, Chief Wildlife Warden Chennai – 600 015 Tel : 044 – 2432 1738 (O) : 044 – 2230 1501 (R)

MESSAGE

Once a biological paradise, the Gulf of Mannar Region in south-east coast of Tamil Nadu is currently encountering a variety of threats which are robbing the richness of this area. Sincere and committed action on part of all the stakeholders and local communities is necessary to control and curb the threats and to use the resources judiciously so that the glamour, beauty and richness of the area is maintained on a sustainable basis.

Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust has made sincere beginning under the GEF-UNDP Project to secure coordination, cooperation the support of all stake holders towards achieving conservation and sustainable utilization of the resources of Gulf of Mannar Region. The Trust has documented the scientific information on the area by compiling various works done by individuals and institutions in the area in past more than hundred years. This bibliography is highly useful not only to scientists and researchers but also to administrators, managers and other stake holders working in this area.

I am very happy to learn that the Trust is conducting a National Research Monitoring and Moderating Workshop on 15-16 December 2006. This effort of the Trust is to share valuable information and experience of scientists, experts, researchers and others in order to prioritize future thrust areas of research and monitoring in the Gulf of Mannar. The Trust is also releasing a publication on compilation of some research papers related to the workshop theme.

I appreciate the effort taken by the Trust Director and his team to conduct this workshop in a befitting manner. I wish the workshop all success.

(SUKHDEV THAKUR) iii GULF OF MANNAR BIOSPHERE RESERVE TRUST

Dr. V. K. Melkani, I.F.S., 366, Solaikili Towers Chief Conservator of Forests and Trust Director Vandikaran Street Ramanathapuram - 623501 Ph: 04567-226335, Fax: 04567-229 228 E-mail : [email protected]

MESSAGE

Gulf of Manner region in the south east coast in Tamilnadu is a priority area for conservation because of its richness of species and ecosystems which support a large number of coastal people and others. Sustainable management of this fragile resource capital alone will hold the key for real prosperity and wellbeing of this area and the people. The threats to the richness of biodiversity of this area are increasing at alarming rates and if not curbed and controlled now will lead to a situation of no return. The conservation and sustainable utilization of the resources require an integrated approach in management of this area where all stakeholders understand and accept the limitations of resource availability and control their negative interactions with the resources and its over extraction. The GEF – UNDP initiative in active participation of the Government of India and Government of Tamilnadu in a project mode is making sincere attempts in securing co-ordination, co-operation and meaningful support of multisectorial stakeholders and local communities towards achieving conservation of rich biodiversity of this region and sensitizing all stakeholders to adopt to sustainable use of resources. The current situation of resource use and abuse, status of biodiversity, and other needed information’s through available data as baselines has to be developed and subjected to robust monitoring protocols both in short and long term perspectives in order to know whether over a period of time the situation is improving and to what extent? Similarly baselines on issues and themes will have to be developed wherever it is not available. The Trust has since compiled all the scientific information available on the area in hard and soft versions as the initial step. Now to expand the activity further the Trust is organizing a two day “National Research and Monitoring Moderation Workshop” on 15 & 16 December 2006 at Madurai. A compilation of some research papers is also being released during the workshop. This gathering of scientists, experts and other stakeholders will deliberate on various issues of concerns and areas of priority action on research and monitoring in Gulf of Manner region which shall pave way for developing short and long term activities, programmes and projects which will be in action by next year through Trust funds and also through collaborative approaches. I wish to extend warm greetings from Gulf of Mannnar Biosphere Reserve Trust to all the delegates.

V. K. Melkani iv GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Bibliography of Gulf of Mannar – Executive Summary

Dr. A.K. KUMARAGURU Professor and Head Centre for Coastal and Marine Studies, M.K. University, Madurai

Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Ecosystems and Biodiversity Reserve Gulf of Mannar is endowed with a rich Gulf of Mannar in the southeast coast variety of marine organisms because its of India extends from Rameswaram Island in biosphere includes ecosystems of coral reefs, the north to Kanyakumari in the south. It has rocky shores, sandy beaches, mud flats, a chain of 21 islands stretching from estuaries, mangrove forests, seaweed stretches Mandapam to Tuticorin to a distance of 140 and seagrass beds. These ecosystems support km along the coast. Each one of the islands is a wide variety of fauna and flora including rare located anywhere between 2 and 10 km from cowries, cones, volutes, murices, whelks, the mainland. The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere strombids, chanks, tonnids, prawns, lobsters, Reserve was set up on 18th February 1989 pearl oysters, seahorses, seacucumbers etc. jointly by the Government of India and the state The biosphere reserve and particularly the of Tamilnadu. The government of Tamilnadu in Marine National Park of the Gulf of Mannar G.O. M.S. No 962 dated 10th September 1986 also gains more importance because of the notified under section 35(1) of the Wildlife alarmingly declining population of the (Protection) Act 1972 the intention to declare endangered Dugongs. the 21 islands as Marine National Park for the purpose of protecting marine wildlife and its The Gulf of Mannar biosphere reserve 2 environment including depths of 3.5 fathoms has an area of about 10,500 km running along on the bay side to 5 fathoms on the seaward the mainland coast for about 170 nautical miles side. including the 21 islands in the gulf. The total area of the islands is about 623 hectares. The The compilation of all available Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of Gulf of scientific literature in the form of an annotated Mannar is about 15,000 km2 in which, bibliography of the Gulf of Mannar biosphere reserve has brought to light the existence of commercial fishing is carried out in about 2 nearly 3,000 publications up to date. This 5,500 km up to a depth of 50m. Gulf of covers the literature published from as early Mannar is considered as “Biologists’ paradise” as 1864 to the current year. A large number of for, it has 3600 species of flora and fauna. publications in the first half of the 20th The diverse nature of ecosystems in the Gulf century have brought out information on the of Mannar supports a wide variety of variety of fauna and flora found in the Gulf of significant species including 117 species of Mannar, their biology and ecology. A lot of corals, 641 species of crustaceans, 731 emphasis on the fish and fisheries research has species of molluscs, 441 species of finfishes been given only in the second half of the 20th and 147 species of seaweeds apart from the century. Emphasis is being given on seasonally migrating marine mammals like biochemical aspects of flora and fauna in the whales, dolphins, porpoises and turtles. The later part of the 20th century and at present. mangrove habitats in the Gulf of Mannar have 1 Bibliography of Gulf of Mannar – Executive Summary 9 different species of vegetation supporting a The existing literature indicates that variety of marine fauna including seabirds and chank fishery (Sacred Chank) and Pearl sea snakes. oyster fishery have dwindled in the last few Major Scientific Research decades and the reasons attributed to this decline are overexploitation and the The major scientific areas of research introduction of mechanized fishing including in the Gulf of Mannar include 1) Finfish fish- trawl fishing in the Gulf. ery 2) Shellfish fishery 3) Aquaculture and 4) Seaweed research. The finfish fishery includes Relatively few studies exist on the perches, carangids, barracudas, mackerels, endangered marine mammal dugong of the milkfish, mullets, tunas, sardines, scombroids, Gulf of Mannar. These studies done in the silverbellies, pomfrets, lethrinids, groupers, 1970s are based on a few captive animals kept sharks and rays. The shellfish fishery includes in the CMFRI facility. Available research oysters, mussels, clams, prawns, lobsters and publications on Dolphins include only data on crabs. Aquaculture research has been either stranding or of those caught in fishing concentrated on pearl oysters, edible oysters, nets. Many of the reports are based on dead crabs, prawns, milkfish, etc. Extensive animals washed ashore. This is the case with research has been carried out on the biology, Whales, which are stranded periodically, and ecology, biochemistry and production of porpoises that are washed ashore occasionally. seaweeds of the Gulf of Mannar. Dedicated Although the sea turtles were researches on these aspects of seaweeds have exploited for meat, until they were protected been going on in the Central Salt and Marine by law, not many research publications have Chemicals Research Institute (CSMCRI) and come out. The available reports indicate that the algal study unit of the Central Marine some of the islands in the Gulf of Mannar have Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI). In nesting grounds of these turtles. Extensive recent years a number of academic institutions research on sea cucumbers, which includes have also evinced interest in seaweeds mainly captive breeding, rearing and culture, has been to do research on bioactive compounds carried out by the CMFRI. Research especially on those with antibacterial publications on seahorses of Gulf of Mannar qualities. Researches on culture of organisms are only limited and they are about their of export value such as seacucumbers, fishery and trade. However, available seahorses and ornamental fishes have been information indicates that breeding and carried out by institutions including the State rearing in captivity have been carried out and Central fisheries departments and successfully. academic institutions. Studies on Mangrove ecosystem are Corals and coral reefs of Gulf of limited concurrent with the limited extent of Mannar form an important ecosystem, which their distribution. Some of the studies related support a variety of ornamental fishes and to mangrove plants are on using mangrove provide feeding and breeding grounds for a leaves for extracting Bioactive compounds. number of edible species of finfishes and Literature on seagrass ecosystem is also shellfishes. The available publications on limited. corals include taxonomy, identification and Studies on socioeconomic aspects of available locations. fishermen communities in the Gulf of Mannar 2 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 region include utilization of coastal resources seagrasses, finfish, shellfish and other marine such as seaweeds, shell collection and trade, organisms. Pollution studies in the Gulf of and selling fish in local markets by Mannar area are only limited and the areas fisherwomen. Some of the studies indicate the studied include only large towns such as financial problems encountered by fishermen Tuticorin and the pilgrim town Rameswaram. especially due to middlemen exploiting their Scientific Gap Areas catch. 1. Although information on the existence of Although separate publications on various species of corals are available, the destructive fishing practices are limited, a extent of their distribution needs to be number of papers give information about such assessed as done in the case of forests. practices, mainly about trawl net fishing near Long term monitoring of the corals is coral reef areas, trap laying for ornamental fish essential. collection on coral reefs, overexploitation of chanks, seacucumbers and pearl oysters by 2. Research on coral reef ecology skin diving and seaweed collection in coral particularly the interaction of other animal species with corals needs to be reef areas which are blamed for the carried out, in order to understand their destruction of fishery resources. contribution to fishery. A number of publications of the 3. Coral biology with particular reference to fisheries institutions include information on reproduction, spawning seasons and crafts and gears used in fishing. The gears patterns should be studied. include trawl nets, purse seines, cast nets, long lines, shore seines, crab nets and ornamental 4. Rehabilitation of corals in reef denuded fish traps. The crafts used are mechanized and areas, especially around all the 21 islands, non-mechanized types. The non-mechanized must be done. ones are small canoes used by smalltime 5. The impact of Sethu Samudram Ship fishermen in the lagoon area. The mechanized Canal Project (SSCP) on the coral reef vessels are either canoes fitted with in-board ecosystem needs to be studied especially engines or motor boats (launches) used for in the context of the southwest and trawl nets. northeast monsoons influencing the underwater current patterns. Remote Sensing and GIS 6. The concern raised by a few publications There are only a limited number of on bio-invasion due to the SSCP and the publications on application of remote sensing operation of foreign vessels in future in in either assessing the resources of the Gulf the region needs to be addressed. of Mannar or in monitoring coastal water Bio-monitoring of invasive and introduced pollution status. The Department of Ocean species also should be carried out. Development through its Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management Project 7. Although the endangered dugong has (DOD-ICMAM) has brought out a Resource drawn the attention of a number of Information System for Gulf of Mannar using scientists not much valuable research has GIS that gives baseline data on the been carried out to study in-situ the distribution of marine living resources such biology, behavior, ecology, reproduction as mangroves, coral reefs, seaweeds, and population structure of this rare and 3 Bibliography of Gulf of Mannar – Executive Summary endangered species and hence needs DOD to give baseline information, immediate attention. current underwater surveys should be 8. Exclusive surveys may be conducted to carried out to locate pearl oyster beds, assess the status of endangered and chank beds, seaweed grounds, sea grass threatened species such as sea turtles, sea beds and coral reef distribution. A resource horses, dolphins, dugongs, molluscs, map should be prepared based on such corals, etc. underwater surveys. 9. Although some information is available 16. The vast majority of scientific on the morphometry of the Dolphins based information available with us is based on on their carcasses, more efforts may be studies carried out in the northern part of spared to study their biology, ecology and the Gulf of Mannar encompassing the behavior in nature. chain of 21 islands. Information on the southern part of the Gulf is only limited 10. Research on sea turtles especially about and hence attempts must be made to cover their nesting grounds and breeding the southern parts also and identify any populations needs to be carried out. new grounds of living resources. 11. Although the technology of sea 17. Although pollution is known to be a cause cucumber culture has been demonstrated for concern in the Gulf of Mannar, a it needs to be extended to the field, so that thorough understanding of the situation is the fisherman can take it up as an lacking. Hence it is necessary to conduct alternate livelihood option since it has research to find out the impact of great export potential. pollution and the polluting sources, 12. The technology of pearl culture is including domestic, municipal and available but has not penetrated the field industrial discharges, on the marine very well and hence needs attention. living resources of the Gulf. A thorough 13. Sea grass ecosystem which is important coastal survey between Dhanushkodi and for the endangered dugongs needs to be Kanyakumari should be conducted to studied properly. It is also necessary that identify and map the pollution sources the availability, extent of distribution, using GIS. diversity and biomass potential of sea 18. A complete assessment of the destructive grass in the Gulf should be assessed. Long fishing practices and the number of term monitoring of the sea grass fisherfolk involved should be done and ecosystem may be considered. rectification measures should be adopted. 14. Although the extent of distribution of 19. A thorough understanding and estimates mangroves in the Gulf of Mannar is of the fishery resources harvested by limited, their ecology in terms of their various fishing sectors, such as support to fisheries, land protection and mechanized and non-mechanized vessels, significance as feeding and breeding and the people involved are required. grounds for sea birds, sea snakes and other 20. Socio-economic status of the Gulf of organisms needs to be studied. Mannar based dependent human 15. Although a GIS based Resource population should be studied to Information System is available with the understand their problems and the 4 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 prospects of using the human resource to forest cover of the islands in the Gulf of protect and conserve the marine resources. Mannar. The same technique may be used 21. Although training programmes are for surveying the coastal area also. conducted and extension activities carried 23. Research on the impact of climate change out periodically by scientific institutions and sea level alterations in the Gulf of in order to disseminate information and Mannar may be initiated. spread aquaculture technology such as 24. The total number of fauna and flora in the pearl culture, seaweed culture, sea Gulf of Mannar is said to be 3600 which cucumber culture etc., to local people needs to be updated and consolidated. including fishermen, not many success 25. A collection of information based on stories are reported mainly because of lack traditional knowledge may be useful. of follow up and encouragement both technically and financially. Therefore 26. Commercially viable short term efforts should be made to develop programmes such as crab fattening, entrepreneurship training facility. lobster fattening, and marine ornamental fish rearing may be introduced as 22. Remote sensing should be used, alternate livelihood options. including Aerial surveys and photography, to assess the current status of the 27. Fishery dynamics land stock assessment topography, geomorphology, and land and are to be done for the Gulf of Mannar.

5 Conservation and Sustainable utilization of biodiversity of Gulf of Mannar region - research and monitoring issues Conservation and Sustainable utilization of biodiversity of Gulf of Mannar region - research and monitoring issues, priorities and future perspectives

Dr. V. K. MELKANI, I.F.S. Chief Conservator of Forests and Trust Director GOMBRT - Ramanathapuram

Introduction today the conservation management of The Gulf of Mannar region (GOM) natural resources is just not mere or absolute along the coast line of India bordering protection of the area. Various other concerns- Ramanathapuram, Tuticorin, Tirunelveli and socio-economic, livelihoods, sustainable use Kanyakumari districts in south east Tamilnadu and development have immersed into it and a conservation management programme today has rich biological and ecological assemblages has to very holistically acknowledge and with very high levels of productivity. About seriously attempt to develop management forty percent of recorded marine biodiversity plans that includes all these concerns. of India is reported to be found here. The area Without genuine and active support of people, also exibits high degree of endemism. The communities and other stakeholders around Gulf of Mannar region distinguishes itself as the natural resource base the orthodox the first area not only in India but in entire conservation management strategy will not be south and south-east Asia where conservation the accurate and implementable strategy of management in focus and process was management. introduced [Gulf of Mannar National Park (GOMNP), 10,500 sq.km., 1986 and Gulf of GEF-UNDP-GOI-GOTN’s New initiative Mannar Biosphere Reserve (GOMBR), in Gulf of Mannar region 560sq.km.,1989]. Although the conservation The GOMBR has been selected as an mandate and process in the area has traveled international priority site based on criteria such through a journey of nearly two decades and as biophysical and ecological uniqueness, has been able to provide enhanced protection economic, social, cultural values and to scheduled species and parts of key scientific importance of national and global habitats, yet the change of mind sets of major significance. The IUCN Commission on stakeholders, understanding the carrying and National Parks and Protected Areas, with the delivery capacities of the area and limiting the assistance of UNEP, UNESCO and WWF has resource extraction to those levels have not identified the Reserve as being an area of firmly rooted in a true sense either in “particular concern” given its diversity and practices or in concepts. One of the main special, multiple use management status. reasons for this has been the lack of integrated In consonance with the Convention on management of the Reserve where in a Biological Diversity (CBD), significance of consensus in approach for managing the area the area and its growing threats and duly ap- in active participation, collaboration and preciating the initiatives of the Govt. of India co-operation of all stakeholders is genuinely and the Govt. of Tamilnadu, the GEF-UNDP acknowledged and practiced. Moreover, stepped into and a new collaborative project 6 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 on “Conservation and Sustainable Utilization and issues of biological, ecological, of Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve’s environmental and socio-economic realities, Coastal Biodiversity” was approved. This is current status of richness and problems, a unique and pioneering initiative of the Govt. resources use and the carrying and delivering of India and Govt.of Tamilnadu is partnership capacities of the resource base and remedial of GEF-UNDP to bring in a truly integrated measures to curb the threats, over extraction management of GOMBR. The 7 year project and use of resources beyond the capacities. (2002-2009) is a co-funded project wherein This information will act as baseline or bench of the total project cost of about Rupees one marks and if the remedial measures are hundred forty crores about Rupees forty crores followed up over a time frame both on short is from GEF-UNDP and the balance about and long term period the impacts of such Rupees one hundred crores is through initiatives on the improvements over the parallel financing from GOI, GOTN and other current situation with recoveries of habitats, partners. increase in richness of species and optimal use The overall objective of the project is of resources can be understood. Developing to conserve the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere the baseline information on biological, Reserve’s globally significant assemblage of ecological, environmental and socio-economic coastal biodiversity and to demonstrate in a indices is the first step to understand, large biosphere reserve with various uses and document and disseminate the current status, users, as to how to integrate biodiversity practices and happenings. This information conservation and sustainable coastal zone later on subjecting to short / long term management and livelihood development. The monitoring will reflect whether the project focus of the project is on empowering local initiatives are yielding desired results or there communities to manage the coastal ecosystem is need for mid course corrections on and its valuable resources in partnership with protocols, mechanism and the strategies government and other stakeholders and being followed to better the situation. making all accountable for the quality of the In order to prioritize the baseline resulting stewardship.The project will be scenario it is necessary to recognize the broad instrumental to strengthen specific nature of threats to target species, habitats, government and local level institutional present practices of resource use and capacities, to allow stakeholders to apply extraction (species choice, quantum, seasons sustainable livelihoods through an etc.) and related socio-economic factors independent statutory Trust to ensure propelling these threats, their predicament and effective intersectoral co-operation for implications on the resource base capital over sustainable conservation and utilization of a period of time are meticulously described GOMBR’s biodiversity resources. and documented. Research and Monitoring inputs and Among the various threats to outputs biodiversity conservation and the practices, Research and monitoring inputs to a efforts and quantity of resource extraction and project initiative which focuses on biodiversity use at present prevailing in GOM region and conservation and sustainable use of resources their root causes which need to be understood are basically the processes which aim at in order to curb and control and which have a understanding the parameters of core themes direct bearing on the research and monitoring 7 Conservation and Sustainable utilization of biodiversity of Gulf of Mannar region - research and monitoring issues priorities for the area an be summarized as Presently there is no established practice of below : monitoring in the area except some • habitat destruction, degradation and information of resource extraction through depletion (coral reefs, sea grass beds, landing sampling. There is no concise mangroves, sea beaches …). information on the carrying capacities of resource availability. The scientific information • over harvesting of resource ( no proper on GOM recently compiled by Gulf of Mannar control, improper practices of harvest and Biosphere Reserve Trust with active utilization ….). association of Dr. A.K.Kumaraguru et.al, • potential and increasing land based Center for Marine Coastal Studies, Madurai marine pollution through industrial Kamaraj University, Madurai has reveled affluents / sewage disposal into the Gulf about 3000 references of works undertaken by of Mannar area. individuals, institutions in the area, however, • developmental pressures in the CZM area most of the work is based on the needs and of GOM ( industries, other projects ….). priorities of those individuals and institutions. Some of the common root causes for the above Though the information available is useful, yet threats are - (not as per priority) the fundamental information’s are missing in many other core themes of biodiversity ™ lack of integrated management of Reserve. conservation and its management. Many ™ insufficient enforcement of regulations. status survey, done in past have become ™ insufficient management information. outdated and the ground realities have much ™ lack of community support for changed since then and as such fresh surveys conservation. will be necessary in order to clearly depict the ™ insufficient public awareness. current situation of habitat / species richness, compositions, population dynamics etc. ™ lack of alternative livelihoods. The priority areas for research which ™ lack of community management capacity. the project will be addressing through direct ™ lack of effective marine resource property funding and through collaborative arrange- regimes. ments are - ™ insufficient baseline information on 9 Biological base lines species, habitats & resource use. ƒ key species (sea-cow, turtles, dolphins, Priority research and monitoring concern whales, pearl oysters, present status, The GEF-UNDP-GOI-GOTN project population dynamics ….etc. ). initiative has an important focus on research ƒ key indicators (for identifying health and monitoring issues. As is clear from the of system- protection, harvest …etc.). root causes of various threats to biodiversity 9 ecological baselines conservation and sustainable use of resources ƒ key habitats (coral reefs, sea grass the insufficient information on management beds, mangroves, sea beaches, present concerns-lack of sufficient base line status, extent ….etc.). information on critical species, habitats, practices and extents of resource extraction 9 environmental baselines has to be given the priority under the research ƒ water quality ( physical, chemical, and monitoring components of the project. biological parameters ; implication on 8 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 health of human and other in the buffer zone of GOM. The concept and species….etc ). practice of participatory monitoring protocols ƒ dumping of waste ( locations, volumes will be required to be developed so that the of disposals….etc ). local communities become partners in ƒ other polluting activities. monitoring the project out puts and improvements over current situations by ƒ CZR & CZM issues. themselves in future. 9 socio economic baselines In fact developing a robust ƒ demography. monitoring protocol will meet the needs of ƒ economic status (income patterns) project implementation and impacts in a short ƒ practices of resource use. term and that of GOMBR and its management ƒ quantum of resource extraction. and the local communities and other stake- 9 Harvestable species (fish, mollusks…….. holders in the long term. The research and etc). monitoring activities will be attempted to be ƒ privileged and under privileged developed through collaborative programmes sections…..etc and related issues. in active association of scientists, experts from These are some of the themes where stakeholder institutions already taking up such baseline data / information will have to be initiatives in the area. One of the key focus of developed, documented and disseminated on these initiatives will be to support the informed priority. management of the Park and the Reserve for effective and enhanced monitoring and Monitoring evaluation efforts in future. Many research The areas where acceptable baseline activities and studies covering an array of information’s are available monitoring diverse themes and subjects and surveys of protocols (methods, frequencies and reporting) some of the important habitats have been taken can be initiated straight away. Required up in the area by various institutions and capacity building for the staffs / individuals individuals and it shall be necessary to ensure who will be engaged in such monitoring that the duplication of similar efforts is should simultaneously take place by resource avoided. institutions and the required equipments and Efforts are also needed to bring in facilities will have to be arranged. For the integration of research and monitoring so as areas where baseline information’s are to build synergy between research and lacking the same will be subjected to management; research and community; monitoring initiatives both for short and long management and community and among all term durations once the baseline information’s the three because such a synergy will make are developed. The field staffs of Forests, the efforts truely participatory and efficient Fisheries, Coast Guards etc. can be groomed and then alone it will be driven by need and to take up the task in coming years. Field the findings and recommendations will be guides and manuals in local vernacular will mutually acceptable and workable. be needed. The project is making serious efforts Research priorities for gap areas to elicit local people’s support for conservation The recently compiled “Scientific through the process of eco-development Information on GOM” has highlighted certain 9 Conservation and Sustainable utilization of biodiversity of Gulf of Mannar region - research and monitoring issues gap areas where future research inputs will be assess the positive trends and changes that may needed. The valuable information on the gap accrue due to project initiatives in the area areas of research is included in the executive where conservation and sustainable use of summary of the report which is a part of this resources is being focused in the mandates and publication. This will be of much use while mindsets of all stakeholders and all becoming deliberating on the future areas of research and jointly responsible for a changed scenario monitoring in GOM region. wherein the biological, ecological, The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere environmental, managerial and socio-economic Reserve Trust has conducted a revised concerns of biodiversity conservation and Logical Frame Work Analysis (LFWA) work- sustainable utilization of resource are shop at Madurai during 5th to 7th January 2006, understood, and their limitations are respected which was attended by many stakeholders. and negative legacies are not left for our The work shop also recommended some gap coming generations. areas where future thrust will be necessary. The need of the hour is to bring a These are sincere and meaningful integration of the • Impact of exotics stakeholders including the scientists, experts and institutions to facilitate co-operative, and • Impact of tourism collaborative sharing of roles, responsibility, • Community tenure/ Management systems experience, knowledge, know-how’s, • Evaluation of Fishing Practices of capacities and resources to synergise our communities ( Non-trawlers) efforts to facilitate integrated biodiversity • Policy research to understand impact on conservation and sustainable utilization and fishery resources due to trawling development of resources in GOM region in making it a “model” and front runner in • Impacts of different type of pollution concept, ethos and practice and is followed at • Impacts of collection of mollusks other places across the globe in times to come. • See weed collection- socio economic And that will be our true moment of pride, aspects and ecological impacts joy and jubilation. • Sea weed as an indicator of coral reef References cited ecosystem health 1. GEF-UNDP Project document. Conclusion 2. Scientific information of GOM - A.K. Serious attempts will be needed by Kumaraguru etal. 2006. experts in the field, renowned institutions to 3. Communications from Dr.Ravi Chellam, develop the indices in order to apply these to Programme Officer, UNDP, New Delhi.

10 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Status, Problem and Management strategies in Gulf of Mannar coral reefs

S. BASKARA SANJEEVI, S. AJMAL KHAN AND T. BALASUBRAMANIAN Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology Annamalai University, Parangipettai - 608 502, Tamilnadu

Introduction the tropical regions. They act as a barrier Coral reefs are distinct and unique against wave action along coastal areas thus habitats. Being lovely and exquisite objects, preventing coastal erosion. In addition, coral these are described as the nature’s splendour reefs protect mangroves and sea grass beds in and wonderful creation of Mother Nature, so certain areas, which are the breeding and also as the planet’s greatest attraction and nursing grounds of various economically important fauna. Coral reefs are also important beautiful presentations. Coral reefs, and their breeding, spawning, nesting, and feeding associated systems of mangroves and areas for many economically important seagrasses, are the world’s most biologically varieties of fishes and other marine organisms. diverse marine ecosystems. Besides quite a large number of edible species, brilliantly Some of the most interesting coloured animals. No wonder they have relationships and interactions between fascinated Man since time immemorial and organisms can be observed in coral reefs. An provided him with food, pleasure and example is the clown fish (Amphiprion) which protection from storms and other natural nestles amongst the stinging tentacles of large calamities. Constituting an important asset, anemones. This attractive fish protects itself they contribute much to the national economy from the anemones virulent nematocysts by through way of fisheries and tourism. In view coating itself with anemone mucus, thereby of these facts, coral reefs are variously mimicking its host, which cannot recognize it described as under water tropical rain forest, as a potential food source. The vivid colours of the clown fish, however, attract predatory fairy land underwater, biologist’s paradise, fishes, which are then caught more easily by testament of biodiversity, magnificent the anemone. Thus, while helping the anemone repository of resources, genetic garden, to get its food the clown fish itself is given submerged meadows, treasure house of wealth protection by its deadly host. and one among the most valuable and spectacular places on earth. Fishes such as the clown fish, due to their vibrant colours and strange habits, are The coral reefs characterize an popular as aquarium fishes and hence ecosystem of high biological diversity, constitute an important commercial resource having the greatest number of species of any of coral reefs. marine ecosystem. Coral reefs are considered as one of the most important critical resources Distribution of Corals for various ecological, environmental and Among the various countries having socio-economic reasons. They play an coral reefs in the world, Indonesia has the important role in global biochemical processes largest reef area followed by Australia and and in the reproduction of food resources in Philippines. India holds the tenth place among 11 Status, Problem and Management strategies in Gulf of Mannar coral reefs the countries blessed with coral reefs. Almost all the major reef types are Indonesian archipelago is considered as represented here. The fringing reefs are found epicenter of evolution of marine tropical in Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay (Tamil Nadu) diversity in particular coral diversity. in the east coast, platform reefs are found along However, precious corals do not live on coral the Gulf of Kachchh (Gujarat) and patchy reefs reefs. They live in colder and deeper waters, are present near Ratnagiri and Malvan such as in the Mediterranean Sea and Sea of (Maharashtra) coast of West coast. In Japan. Certain Corals grow as far north as the addition the fringing and barrier reefs are also Arctic Circle. Most of the coral reefs in South found in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Atolls Asia are in India, Maldives, Sri Lanka and are found in Lakshadweep. The absence of reef Chagos. in Bay of Bengal (North-East Coast) is Coral reefs are distributed along the attributed to the large quantity of freshwater major oceans of the World. The largest and silt brought by the rivers such as Ganges network of coral reefs occur, along the (West Bengal), Mahanadi (Orissa), Godavari southeast Asian region. The Great Barrier Reef and Krishana (Andhra Pradesh). Satellite off the Queensland coast of Australia is the imagery (Space Application Centre, largest aggregation of reefs in the world. It Ahmedabad) shows scattered patches of extends to a long distance of 1,931 km with corals in the intertidal areas and occasionally the width varying from 16 to 322 km. the at subtidal depths along the west coast of barrier reef, that lies off New Caledorria, has India notably at Ratnagiri, Malvan and Red a total length of 644 km and the enclosed Port (Rajakumar, 2005). lagoon has a maximum depth of upto 300 feet. The Great Sea Reef, lying north of the two Biological Diversity in Coral Reefs main islands of Fiji, Viti lever and Vanna Reefs are home to more species than lever has a length of 265 km. the fringing reef any other ecosystem in the sea. The total adjoining the shores of the Red sea is the number of reef species in the world is still longest stretch of single reef in the World and unknown, but up to 3,000 species can be found if straightened into a single line, would together on a single reef in south-east Asia and exceed 4,023 km (David Kingston & over 1,000 species on a single Caribbean reef. Ramadhas, 2006). Reefs contain a larger number of vertebrates Coral Reefs in India than rainforests. Indian subcontinent with its coastline The richest reefs, with the greatest extending over 8,100 km and with tropical and diversity of plants and animals are in the subtropical climatic conditions has very few region bounded by Indonesia, Malaysia, the coral reef areas. The reefs are distributed along Philippines and southern Japan. Of the 700 or the east and west coasts at restricted places. so coral reefs that are known in the world, 600 The total area of coral reefs in India is are found in this regions; over 400 are found estimated to be 2273.8 sq km. There are 4 in the Philippines and Japan, and about 350 in major coral reef areas in India: Gulf of Indonesia, although there are probably many Mannar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands (length more to be discovered in this areas. Up to 200 of coastline -1962km); Lakshadweep Islands corals may occur on a single reef in South East (length of coastline -132km); and the Gulf of Asia. The variety of species on a reef decreases Kachchh. eastwards across the Pacific. 12 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 A total of 208 species divided among marine province has been declared as Marine 71 genera are hitherto recorded from India, Biosphere Reserve, which was the first including Lakshadweep, the Gulf of Kachchh, Biosphere Reserve in Southeast Asia. It Palk Bay, Gulf of Mannar and Andaman and occupies an area of 10,500 sq km. (170 Nicobar Islands. Out of these, 155 species nautical miles). Considering the importance belonging to 50 genera are hermatypes and 44 of conservation of diversified fishery species divided among 21 genera are resources, a Marine National park has been ahermatypes. The Indian Ocean as a whole is set up during 1980 in this province known to harbour 88 genera of hermatypes, (Rajakumar, 2005). which means 56.8 percent of the total known Uses of Coral reefs hermatypic genera of the Indian Ocean, is Coral reefs benefit fisheries by present in Indian waters. supplying food for more and wide ranging The hermatypes constitute 77.8% of pelagic or inshore pelagic fishes. Many the coral fauna and the ahermatypes form species of seaweeds are collected from coral 22.2%. Among the hermatypes Acropora alone reefs. Corals deposit tremendous quantities of forms 20% and Montipora 13% and these two limestone. are numerically rich genera. The members of Large amounts of the coral limestone the suborder Astrocoeniina constitute 34.7%, also contribute to coral rubble and sand, which Fungiina 25.7%, Faviina 22.6%, are used for making building materials and Caryophylliina 8% and Dendrophylliina 9% cement. Jewellery and curios produced from of the coral fauna of India (hermatypes and corals produce a substantial revenue. Pears are ahermatypes combined). No genus is endemic produced from corals produce a substantial to India. The coral reefs of southeast India, revenue. Pears are produced from pearl Andaman and Nicobar Islands and oysters present in the reefs. Lakshadweep harbour Acropora community. Natural product chemicals are also The Gulf of Mannar has 21 islands, extracted from Gargonians. A number of formed of coral reefs. The largest island is the Prostaglandins occur in large quantities in the Musal Tivu, situated in the Pamban-Kilakarai common gargonacean Plexaura homemella. It region having an area of 129 ha. The coral reefs has a wide range of pharmaceutical in the Gulf of Mannar provide for a very applications in humans including one of interesting heterogenous group of fauna and assisting in the process of child birth, flora. The islands have representatives of termination of pregnancies and treatment of every animal phylum known except cardiovascular diseases. amphibians. About 3600 species of fauna and Reefs are known for an enormous flora have been identified from this region. diversity of species. As many as 4,000 There are 137 species of corals, 275 species species of fishes and about 800 species of of sponges, 180 species of marine algae and corals have been identified so far. It is seaweeds, 190 species of gastropods, 110 estimated that about 9 million species are species of bivalves, 96 species of associated with the coral reefs, apart from the Echinoderms, 125 species of teleost fishes, 11 microbial species. Therefore, reefs constitute species of whales and 14 species of turtles. a genetic treasure box. They host a number of Considering the importance of the coral bioactive substances that are increasingly used islands in this region, the Gulf of Mannar in pharmacology and medicine. 13 Status, Problem and Management strategies in Gulf of Mannar coral reefs Worldwide, reefs yield an income of Threats to Coral Reefs about US$ 375 billion per year of which US$ Coral reefs are endangered 100 billion is through food from reefs or reef worldwide. According to a report by the World environments. In some developing countries, Resources Institute, almost 60 per cent of all food from reefs provides about 25 per cent of reefs are endangered due to human activities, the total food supply and 60 per cent of the such as coastal development, overexploitation, total protein intake. destructive fishing methods, increasing The benefits of coral reefs are the following: sedimentation and eutrophication, and 1) Coral reefs protect the human being from pollution from domestic and industrial sewage. natural calamities, stabilize the shoreline Coral mining or dredging changes and protect soil erosion. Reefs in Gulf of Mannar region were 2) They also provide income and employment recorded as rapidly deteriorating as early as through tourism, recreation, and export of in 1971, due to high levels of siltation and fishes. rapid removal of coral combined with cyclone 3) Reef environment is an important place impacts. One island in the Tuticorin region has for many colourful sea animals such as disappeared below the surface due to coral fishes, starfish, and sea anemones. mining. Most of the other reefs in the Tuticorin 4) One square kilometer of healthy coral reef group are also mined. The fishing pressure is produces 20 to 35 metric tons of fishes also enormous including harvesting of sacred each year, enough to feed 400 – 700 chanks (Turbinella pyrum), sea cucumber, people. pipefishes, and sea horses. 5) Coral reefs can also produce substantial As demographic pressures continue to revenue through their use in jewellery and increase coral reefs are continuously being as curios. Precious coral is the one valued degraded in the absence of integrated coastal for jewellery. management plan. 6) The hard core (internal skeleton) that can Over exploitation be polished and brought out in beautiful The reef fishes are also caught in huge red, rose, or pink colours is used in quantities which will affect the system in many jewellery. ways. The overexploitation of shells and 7) The coral reef ecosystem may also harbour corals for ornamental trade and industrial use rich bed of seagrasses, on which dugongs, is another serious hazard. The over exploitation dolphins, etc., feed. They are also of reef fishery beyond the sustainable level enmeshed with symbiotic algae and has started and it is proceeding at an alarming seaweeds. The coral reef ecosystem is very rate. Some species have disappeared from heterogeneous indeed. certain reefs, or are very rare. Corals themselves constitute an important source of lime, which is used in Dynamite and cyanide fishing cement industries. Coral blocks are used as Due to lack of awareness and poverty, building blocks and also in road construction. the fishermen are forced to indulge in It has been estimated that the world’s reefs destructive fishing practices such as dynamite precipitate about 600 million tons of calcium fishing, using gelatin sticks to blow up the reef carbonate annually. and kill shoaling fishes. Thus huge quantities 14 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 of a variety of untargeted marine organisms soil erosion and also trap soil particles. are thrown on the shore as debris. That way Further, mangrove forests may help to protect there will be serious threat to the biodiversity, coast and nearby reefs from the fiery effects which directly and indirectly affect the of storm, typhoons and tsunami. Cutting down livelihood of the people depending on it. mangroves may damage nearby coral reefs by However, ironically those who depend on the permitting mud or silt to settle on corals and coral reefs for their livelihood do much freshwater to spread onto the reef. damage. Anchoring of boats Pollution Fishing and tourist boats frequently Human and animal wastes, industrial anchor on coral reefs while they carry out their wastes, fertilizers, and other chemicals are daily activities. Dropping anchors, dragging finding their way into the oceans and poison them across the coral and the movement of coral reefs and also cause harmful algal anchor chains of bigger boats destroy coral overgrowth. Increasing human populations in colonies. coastal regions is also harming coral reefs by Bleaching of corals introducing infectious microorganisms through sewage contamination that cause coral Coral bleaching is the whitening of diseases such as white band and black band coral colonies due to the loss of symbiotic diseases leading to widespread destruction of algae zooxanthallae from the tissues of reefs. polyps. This loss exposes the white calcium carbonate skeletons of the coral colony. Sedimentation Corals naturally lose less than 0.1% of their Increasing sediment in coastal areas zooxanthallae during processes of regulation from rivers created by erosion blocks the and replacement. However, adverse changes penetration of sunlight needed for photo- in a coral’s environment can cause an increase synthesis of algae, which is essential for the in the number of zooxanthallae lost. corals to survive. Worldwide degradation of Ocean warming estuaries, salt marshes, and mangrove forests that usually filter sediment coming from Corals are adapted to a moderate upland and by erosion has also greatly range of temperatures. When the water increased the amount of sediment delivered becomes too warm, the corals bleach as the to marine habitats including reefs. Heavy Zooxanthellae leave the corals. The coral’s terrigenous sedimentation coming from rivers growth will slow down or it will die if the due to bad land management, is suffocating bleaching is too prolonged. corals. Crown-of-Thorn star fish Cutting of mangrove trees Acanthaster planci is a carnivorous Mangrove play important role in asteroid spiny starfish that eats quite a lot of alleviation of stressors to coral reef corals. Normally it occurs at low density and ecosystems. The stressors are sedimentation, consumes the coral during night time storm and wave energy, atmospheric (nocturnal). It sticks out its stomach and wraps temperature, CO2 level, ultraviolet and solar it around a piece of living coral and digests radiations. Mangrove forests act as filters the live coral. At times there are plagues of between the land and coral reef. They prevent (hundreds or thousands of) crown-of-thorns 15 Status, Problem and Management strategies in Gulf of Mannar coral reefs starfishes and these may devastate the entire patch reef, fringing reef and atolls. Due to high coral reefs. spectral resolution (23m) LISS-III data were Tourism found to be more useful for coral reef mapping and monitoring. Digital image Tourism is the largest industry in coral processing is widely used for coral reef reef rich countries attracting visitors. Tourism mapping (Ramachandran, 2005). can damage reefs in many ways. Tourist related activities in the coral reef areas include Monitoring methods for Coral Reefs surfing, jet skiing, cruises, yatching and Monitoring is the gathering of data fishing. and information on coral reef ecosystems or Tsunami on those people who dwell coral reef resources. Monitoring should be repeated on The tsunami, however, has been a regular basis, preferably over an extended kinder on the fragile Gulf of Mannar period of time. Ideally a coral reef manager biosphere, shadowed by Sri Lanka. Though the change in coastal morphology was will perform a detailed baseline survey that striking, with the ecosphere showing includes many measures or parameters that “geomorphic changes,” the reefs have been may or may not change over time. These only “partly affected by the breakage of some include: of the branching corals and uprooting of table ¾ Mapping the extent and location of major corals.” The hardier “boulder corals,” which habitats, particularly coral reefs; also act as wave-brakes, have suffered less ¾ Understanding the status of coral commu- damage. nities, fish populations and fishing prac- Remote sensing application of Coral Reef tises; In Gulf of Mannar, the coral reefs have ¾ Measuring the size and structure of the hu- been used as a source of calcium carbonate man population using these resources; and building blocks. In general, coral reefs in ¾ Understanding government rules and Gulf of Mannar can be categorised as regulations on coral reefs and conserva- “degrading”, and hence, monitoring and tion; and management of these valuable marine ¾ Determining the decision making process resources are of prime importance. IRS LISS- in local communities. II (1988), IRS LISS-III (1998) satellite data The coral reef manager has to select and ARC-INFO and ARC-VIEW GIS software which variables (things to measure) to be have been used for coastal geomorphology, seafloor, shoreline, coastal land use/land cover included into a monitoring program. and coral reef mapping of Gulf of Mannar. A major goal of a coral reef High resolution sensor data of IRS monitoring program is to provide the data to LISS -II has been used to map the coral reefs support effective management. As more in the Gulf of mannar on an much larger scale Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are (upto 1:25000) under the DOD programme on established, it is becoming increasingly Critical habitate Information system. important to monitor whether they are Supervised classification of LISS -III digital achieving their management goals.Monitoring data is used to identify the different species of can assist with the effective management of coral reefs apart from the classification odd coral reefs through the following tasks : 16 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 1. Resource assessment and mapping in the Ecological monitoring coral reef area should be managed; Ecological and socio-economic pa- 2. Resource status and long-term trends of rameters are often closely linked; therefore the resources and changing pattern over ecological monitoring and socioeconomic time to be monitored. monitoring should be done in the same place 3. Status and long-term trends of user groups at the same time. For example, monitoring of especially the stakeholders of the coral fish populations should be directly linked to reefs, and the use towards the management surveys of fish markets, fishermen and their to be monitored, catches. Similarly ecological parameters de- scribe the natural state of the coral reef, which 4. Impacts of large-scale disturbances like will have impacts on socio-economic factors coral bleaching, crown-of-thorns starfish such as income and employment. (Acanthaster planci or commonly known as COTS) outbreaks and tropical storms Biological parameters measure the that affect the coral reefs, status and trends in the organisms on coral reefs and focus on the major resources. These 5. Impacts of human activities especially parameters can be used to assess the extent of utilization of coral reef resources. This damage to coral reefs from natural and human includes fishing, land use practices, disturbances. The most frequently measured coastal developments, and tourism. ecological parameters include: 6. Performance evaluation & adaptive 1. Percentage cover of corals (both live and management based on the success of dead) and sponges, algae and non-living management goals and assist in adaptive material; management. 2. Species or genus composition and size 7. Education and awareness must be given structure of coral communities; to the user communities, government, other stakeholders and management staff 3. Presence of newly settled corals and about monitoring and the effective juveniles; control of blast fishing 4. Numbers, species composition, size (biomass) and structure of fish 8. Building resilience into MPAs - how to populations; design MPAs so they are more resilient to large scale disturbances such as coral 5. Juvenile fishes, especially target species; bleaching or outbreaks of COTS; populations of organisms of special interest such as giant clams, COTS, sea 9. Contributing to regional and global urchins etc.; networks through establishment of linking with other coral reef managers 6. Extent and nature of coral bleaching; and around the world and assist others to 7. Extent and type of coral disease. manage their coral reefs. Physical parameters to be measured Types of monitorings on and around the reefs. This provides a physical description of the environment There are two main types of monitoring: surrounding reefs which assists in making ¾ Ecological monitoring; and maps, as well as measuring the change in the ¾ Socio-economic monitoring. environment. Parameters include : 17 Status, Problem and Management strategies in Gulf of Mannar coral reefs 1. Depth, bathymetry and reef profiles; in this Gulf is composed of 21 small Islands 2. Currents; (each of 0.95 ha to 130 ha located between 3. Temperature; 8°46’ – 9°14’ N lat. And 78°9’ – 79°14’ E long.), which extend to a distance of 140 km 4. Water quality; from Tuticorin to Mandapam. The biosphere 5. Visibility; and includes the microecosystems of coral reefs, 6. Salinity rocks, seaweeds and seagrasses, each Socio-economic monitoring supporting its own characteristic community structures and zonations. The area of the Gulf This aims to understand how people use and interact with coral reefs. It is not of Mannar under the Indian EEZ is about possible to separate human activities and 15,000 sq.km., where commercial fishing ecosystem health, especially when coral reefs takes place in about 5500 sq. km. (upto 50 m are important to the livelihoods of local depth). community members. Socio-economic The Gulf of Mannar is highly monitoring can measure the motivations of productive with an estimated average benthic resource users as well as the social, cultural, gross production of 7.3 g c/m2/day. and economic conditions in communities near Phytoplankton production in surface waters is coral reefs. Socio-economic data can help the 89-91 g c/m3/year. Out of 365 species of managers to determine which stakeholder and phytoplankton catalogued from India, more community attributes provide the basis for than 42 species contribute from India, more successful management. than 42 species contribute to the major The most frequently used socio-economic phytoplankton production in the Gulf of parameters include: Mannar. Occasional blooms of Noctiluca, 1. Community populations, employment Ceratium, Trichcodesmium, Gymnodinium levels and incomes; and rare occurrence of Goyaulax 2. Proportion of fishers, and where and how (Alexandrium) have been reported. There are they fish; 180 species of benthic algae in the gulf. Thirty three species of seaweeds comprising 16 green 3. Catch and price statistics for reef algae, 10 red algae and 7 brown algae and their fisheries; associated fauna occur in dense concentration. 4. Decision making structures in The estimated annual seaweed yield from an communities; area of 17,125 ha in the gulf is 22,000 t. The 5. Community perceptions of reef average zooplankton biomass is 16.12 cc in management; 10 minute haul. 6. Tourist perceptions of the value of MPAs A large number of taxonomic, and willingness to pay for management biological and ecological studies on coral reefs, etc. mangroves, seaweeds, seagrasses, sponges, Sensitive Habitates and Resources of Gulf corals, gorgonids, polychaetes, crustaceans, of Mannar bivalves, gastropods, echinoderms and fishes The Gulf of Mannar marine Biosphere of the Gulf of Mannar have been made by the Reserve (GMMBR) is a predominantly coral Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute reef ecosystem. The so called Mannar Barrier (CMFRI) (Devaraj, 1998). 18 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Conservation and sustainable management 7. Anchoring of boats in the coral reef area of the marine living resource of the Gulf of should be prohibited. Mannar Biosphere Reserve 8. Banning reef walking, untreated sewage Conservation and development issues disposal, dredging and anchoring of boats in respect of the Gulf of Mannar Marine on the coral Islands–setting up of Biosphere Reserve study is limited. Fishing permanent anchors to minimize damage. and other anthropogenic activities are posing 9. Removal of mangrove plants from the reef considerable threats to many coastal and area should be banned thereby sensitive habitats along the Gulf of Mannar. preventing massive siltation. Planting of The 1991 CRZ notification and the proposed mangroves in the appropriate places with Biodiversity Act are expected to intervene in the involvement of local community in the the free access to coastal resources. The reef area should be undertaken. declaration of the Gulf of Mannar as a Marine 10. Collection of schedule animals from the Biosphere Reserve requires a new set of reef area should be banned. governance of this ecosystem, while at the same time, ensuring sustainable livelihood 11. Ministry of Environment and Forests opportunities to the coastal communities should create awareness among the (Devaraj, 1998). fisherman and the public not to overexploit the coral reef resources and also not to Management of Coral reef ecosystems catch the banned marine organisms. The The following measures could be taken to importance and benefits of the coral reefs protect the coral reefs. should be taught to them. 1. Legislation must be enacted to protect the 12. Environmental education programs in coral reefs from the anthropogenic schools and villages are also extremely activities. important to help local people to 2. Over exploitation of reef resources for the understand the importance of reef ornamental trade needs to be controlled. resources. 3. Reef mining should be controlled and About 100 countries are bordered by sufficient time be given for the corals to coral reefs; almost all developing countries are grow and build up. faced with management problems including 4. Fishing using dynamite, cyanide poison increasing demographic pressures. Half a and other explosives in the reef billion people live close to the corals and half environment should be banned. a billion people live within 100 km of a coral 5. A through survey should be done to reef, and some 100 thousand take all they need select healthy reefs for setting up protected for life from coral reef resources. areas and discharge of pollutants to such In India there is lack of awareness areas should be restricted. about the value and importance of coral reefs 6. Stringent action should be taken to save among government agencies and local this fragile ecosystem. Remote sensing of communities, although some academic coral reef is also becoming an increasingly institutions have conducted reef research. useful technique to monitor the changes Thus, there is a need for more coordinated in reef and it can be used extensively. approach to coral reef management. 19 Status, Problem and Management strategies in Gulf of Mannar coral reefs 1. To provide complete protection to the possibility of gradual dissolution of corals due breeding and feeding grounds of the to the enhanced level of carbon dioxide endangered and vulnerable fauna and flora warrants global level monitoring and timely and to gradually eliminate the disruptive effort at international level to safeguard such and destructive factors, adversely a precious and unique ecosystem of the world affecting the system. (Kingston & Ramadhas, 2006). 2. To maintain the National Park habitat as Integrated Coastal Reef Area Management gene pool reserve for marine aquatic Many reefs have been destroyed species. because of bad land management, such as 3. To restore and protect natural vegetation deforestation for agriculture or urbanization. and to stabilize the island by promoting As for the reef area itself, the best solution is natural regeneration or by resorting to to define zoning for activities (e.g. snorkelling, artificial regeneration. diving, jet skiing, navigation, fishing) or 4. To create awareness on the need for allow no activities at all (e.g. strict reserves). conservation and management of the Marine protected areas (parks and reserves) marine ecosystem on scientific lines for are interesting ecologically and also for proper socio-economic development of tourism development. Regulations preserve the region. the reefs but parks are also one way to sensitize and educate interested tourists. 5. To promote judicious and optimal utilisation of the landscape in the islands Replanting inland forests and and the sea waters within the National riverside vegetation, agroforestry (mixed Park Zone for research, education and planting of crops and trees) and replanting recreation purposes consistent with coastal mangroves and shoreline vegetations ecological principles of habitat are of help in preventing erosion and management. subsequent siltation of coral reefs. Schools, environmental groups and community Approximately 20% of the shrimp organizations can undertake replanting. catch of Tamil Nadu is constituted by the shrimp caught from GOM region. However, Tourism can damage reefs in many such a precious natural marine fishery resource ways. Long coastal stretches are plastered with is presently facing problems due to hotels and the sewage is discharged straight anthropogenic activities. In Thoothukkudi, the into the sea. Fortunately the number of annual exploitation of ramose coral is marine parks and marine protected areas has approximately to the tune of 0.55 lakh tones increased worldwide including in developing and 1.07 lakh tones for massive corals. Also, countries. Large international programs like due to the impact of shore based Industries, the international year of the Reef (IYOR) or thermal power plants and sewage discharge, the international year of the ocean (IYO 1998) Thoothukkudi coral resources are in peril. have contributed largely in increasing the Suitable measures have to be implemented and awareness of these issues among the local adopted to safeguard such unique ecosystem populations (Rajakumar, 2005). which supports a diversity of marine fisheries Legislations and Action Plans for flora and fauna. Protecting Coral Reef Ecosystem Apart from such local problems, the ¾ The Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 20 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 1991 of Government of India regulates in the present and in the future. They are onshore development activities, which being degraded at an alarming rate by affect coastal environments and strictly various preventable activities including human prohibits the collection and trade of interference. Such valuable ecosystems are to corals. be monitored periodically for the better ¾ Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 takes care management plans either ecological of protected areas and certain marine assessment or with the help of remote sensing species including corals. data for better assessment and management of coral reef ecosystem. ¾ Coral reef conservation is also included in the Environmental (Protection) Act Reference cited 1986. 1. Devaraj, M., 1998. Conservation and sustainable management of the marine living ¾ The National Conservation Strategy and resources of the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Policy Statement on Environmental Reserve. In: Rajeswari, M., Anand, K., Development (1992) and in the Action Dorairaj and Parida, A. (eds.) Proceedings of Plan of the Ministry of Environment and the technical workshop on Biodiversity of Gulf Forests. The conservation and of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve, 22-31. management of coral reef resources are 2. Rajakumar, R., 2005. Coral reefs. ENVIS within the mandate of the Ministry of Publication Series, 2. 52 pp. Environment and Forests, the focal point 3. Ramachandran, S., 2005. Application of for the Indian Coral Reef Monitoring Remote sensing and GIS to coastal ecosystem Network and the National focal point of management. In: Kathiresan, K. and S. Ajmal International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) Khan (eds.) Coastal Biodiversity in Mangrove (Rajakumar, 2005). Ecosystems: UNU-INWEH-UNESCO International Training Course, 373-391. Conclusion 4. David Kingston, S. and V. Ramadhas, 2006. Coral reef ecosystems are of great Coral reef fishery resources of India and their importance and of immense value to mankind conservation. Fishing Chimes, 26(3): 55-56.

21 Research need for Gulf of Mannar Research need for Gulf of Mannar

S. AJMAL KHAN, N. RAJENDRAN AND T. BALASUBRAMANIAN Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology Annamalai University, Parangipettai - 608 502, Tamilnadu, India

Introduction with dense and diversified corals than the The Gulf of Mannar (GOM) is northern side. situated between Lat. 8° 47’ - 9° 15’ N and Biodiversity and Productivity of Gulf of Long.78° 12’ - 79° 14’ E along the south east Mannar coast of Indian. The coral reefs of Gulf of The Gulf of Mannar has diverse Mannar are distributed on the shelves of 21 habitats that support many species which are islands, lying between Rameswaram and ecologically and economically significant. Kanyakumari. The Gulf of Mannar is one of About 117 corals, 641 crustaceans, 731 the Marine Biosphere Reserves (GOMMBRE) molluscs, 441 finfishes and 147 seaweed in India covering an area of 10,500 sq. km. species have been reported apart from the This area is commonly known as “Biological migratory marine mammals and reptiles Paradise” because of their rich biodiversity. (Kumaraguru et al., 2006). They play an important role by providing habitats for seaweeds, seagrasses, corals, pearl Forty nine species of diatoms out of oysters, sacred chank, fin and shell fishes, 51 species of phytoplankton were observed to mangroves so also endemic and endangered be common in the plankton samples of the Gulf species. Nearly 3,600 species of flora and of Mannar and Palk Bay. The data suggested fauna are reported so for here. The 21 islands that the Palk Bay is having a larger stock of of Gulf of Mannar were declared as Marine autochthonous diatoms which are mostly National Park in 1986 for the purpose of neritic, whereas the Gulf of Mannar has more protecting marine wild life and its oceanic diatoms (Raghu Prasad and environment by Government of India and State Ramachandran Nair, 1960). According to Government of Tamil Nadu (Upreti and Kannan et al. (1998) a total of 126 species of Shanmugaraj, 1997). phytoplankton occur here among which diatoms constituted the major component Many early studies have concentrated followed by the Dinoflagellates which on corals and the distribution of reefs in this constituted the second largest group with 16 area (Foote, 1888; Brook, 1893; Thurston, species. Though the blue-greens formed the 1895; Matthai, 1924; Gravely, 1927a,b; third dominant group, they were represented Sewell, 1932, 1935). Extensive study and by only 7 species. All the other groups were research on the corals and their distribution represented by one species each. have also been carried out from 1960s onwards. As a result, the occurrence of 94 It is believed that the Gulf of Mannar scleractinian coral species belonging to 37 was once covered with thick mangrove genera have come to light in the Gulf of forest. Due to the manmade activities the Mannar and Palk Bay (Gopinadha Pillai, 1971, forest cover has declined rapidly. According 1973). Also it was found that the southern to the recent reports 10 species of mangroves side of the Gulf of Mannar island is covered occur in the islands of Gulf of Mannar 22 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 including the endemic species of the coralline Pomacanthoides, Chaetodontopsis, sand namely Pemphis acidula (Kathiresan and Chaetodon, Linophora, Abudefduf, Rajendran, 1998). Thallasoma and Zanclus. Two species of eels A total number of 35 species of Gymnothorax undulatur and G. punctatur were heterotrophic bacteria (THB) belonging to 11 found densely populated around the reef flat genera were identified. They included 22 (Reddiah, 1970). species of ammonifying bacteria, 16 species The monthly average productivity in of nitrate-reducing bacteria, 2 species of free the Gulf of Mannar was 74.460 gC/m3 living N - fixing bacteria (Azotobactor), 24 (surface and bottom samples). There were two 2 species of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria and peaks of primary productivity, one in April – 26 species of phosphatase-producing May and another in October. Monthly bacteria. Among the 35 species of THB tested, average of the standing crop of phyto- 16 species showed proteolytic activity, 10 plankton in terms of plant pigment units species displayed lipolytic activity and 9 (Harvey Units) ranged from 9,000 H U/m3 3 species exhibited amylolytic activity (Table (October) to 58,000 H U/m (April) (Raghu 20) (Kannan et al., 1998). According to Prasad and Ramachandran Nair, 1963). Kannapiran et al.(1999) 37 microbial strains Primary productivity of coral reefs in Manauli from the three biota were isolated with (Manoli) island, was estimated by the diurnal predominance of Bacillus spp. followed by changes of oxygen in the sea water flowing Pseudomonas spp., Spirillium spp., and Vibrio over the reefs. Manauli reefs are autotrophic spp. Of the three biota studied, the coral reef with annual net production of 2500 gC/m2 harbours higher percentage of magnetotactic (Gopinadha Pillai and Ramachandran Nair, bacteria followed by the mangroves and 1969). estuaries. The mean density of zooplankton in Burton (1937) recorded more than 90 the Gulf of Mannar was 71 ind./1. The species of sponges from the Gulf of Mannar copepods, nauplii and tintinnids generally and most of them were found on the reef flats. formed the bulk of the zooplankton standing Fauvel (1930) recorded 119 species of crop with a mean value of 23.4%, 24.8% and annelid fauna with a good number of 28.0% respectively. Gastropod larvae, polychaetes. Sathyamurthy (1952) recorded polychaetes etc. were found to occur 450 species of molluscs. Boring bivalves were commonly but not in large numbers (Raghu identified as one of the dominant reef Prasad and Ramachandran Nair, 1963). dwellers causing considerable destruction to Standing crop of the macroalgae from the reef systems. A total of 22 species of the total area of 17,125 ha was 22,044 tonnes boring bivalves belonging to 11 genera and 6 (wet weight), consisting of 1,709 tonnes of families viz. Mytilidae, Veneridae, agarophytes, 10,266 tonnes of alginophytes Petricolidae, Aloidae, Gastrochaenidae and and 10,069 tonnes of other seaweeds. The Pholadidae were reported from the Indian commercially important species viz. Gelidiella coast (Appukuttan, 1973). acerosa contributed 74 tonnes; Gracilaria sp., A variety of beautifully coloured 974 tonnes; Hypnea sp., 798 tonnes; fishes inhabit the reef corals. The fishes Sargassum sp. 9,381 tonnes and Turbinaria belong to the genera Holocentrus, Lutjanus, sp., 714 tonnes (Kalimuthu et al., 1990). 23 Research need for Gulf of Mannar What is to be done in Gulf of Mannar taxonomy is very well appreciated in the Biosphere Reserve? international arena. While the usefulness of Even though the research work in the this is beginning to be perceived with Gulf of Mannar are limited and it has to be terrestrial faunal groups like birds, it is only studied well in all the aspects and find out the now that we have begun even to appreciate its present status of the ecosystem for the better value in taxonomy of marine phyla. Much of management and conservation. Hence, the the identification of the biota now depends on following aspects have to be given top morphological characters and meristic counts. priority under the management programmes Moreover the taxonomic expertise is for the Gulf of Mannar. collapsing now- d-day. The limitations inherent in morphology based identification 1.Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve system and the fast dwindling pool of Information System taxonomists signal the need for new approach The exact number of organisms the document the diversity of organisms occurring in the Gulf of Mannar should be occurring in the Gulf of Mannar. DNA based given in the information system. The number approaches to taxon diagnoses which exploit of organisms living here as per the published diversity among DNA sequences can be used information varies from 1000 species to 3600 to identify marine organisms and resolve species. List of organisms available here with taxonomic ambiguities including discovery of their IUCN status should be given. In keeping new/cryptic species. A workshop conducted with the international trend, all the species in Munich, Gernmany by April 2002 should be digitized and put in the portal so advocated the use of DNA markers for that the information will be available to any taxonomic identification of biological species, researcher with the click of the mouse. where a gene fragment of desired variability Besides all the research work done in the area can be sequenced and analyzed for all species. so also major initiatives should be available Working on species specific markers, so many in the system(A to Z of the biosphere) investigators proposed and initiated DNA a) After the sixties, greater proportion of bar-coding based on mitochondrial research made was only on commercially cytochrome c oxidase(COI)on global scale. important organisms. As all the organism play Now DBA barcoding is being employed in an important role in the food chain and large variety of organisms ranging from yeasts commercially important organisms can not to human beings. Several workers have thrive in the absence of other organisms, validated the effectiveness of DNA bar-codes research should be done on all the groups of in fish identification. That way it is a must for organisms occurring in the GOM(Gulf of a precious place as GOM. Mannar). In particular all the minor phyla 3. Biodiversity of sea weed and sea grass should be given more importance. Associated associated fauna so also corals and marine life with corals (corallicolous besides mangroves besides assessing the change in corallophilous organisms) should be associated fauna due to introduction of completely mapped in the biosphere area. Kappaphycus alvarezhi 2. Bar-coding of species occurring in Gulf The major international initiative on of Mannar Biosphere biodiversity as Census of Marine Life (CoML) The value of bar-coding as a tool in has recognized the sea grass and sea weeds as 24 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 key stone habitats. These give protection, marine biodiversity studies, even groups which shelter and food to quite a large number of are widely used in EIA studies are far from organism. These should be carefully studied being taxonomically well – known. TS, hence, and recorded as they provide food for quite a has been proposed not only to detect the large number of organisms. Information on community stress but also to estimate the phytal fauna in the Gulf of Mannar is biodiversity in conservation biology, when woefully meagre and therefore this aspect detailed routine surveys are unfeasible (Vane– should be studied in depth. Extensive Wright et al., 1991; Harper and Hawksworth, cultivation of Kappaphycus alvarezhi may 1994 and Cabeza and Moilanen, 2001). In this change the diversity of associated fauna. It backdrop, taking into account the utility of TS should be carefully assessed. in biodiversity research and taxonomy and 4. Taxonomic sufficiency for Gulf of lacunae existing in India with respect to this Mannar Biosphere Reserve aspect and its relevance in the GOM in the light of Sethusamudram Ship Canal Project, This study assumes significance in the the present suggestion is made. The outcome backdrop of Sethusamudram Ship Canal of this study will be valuable information on Project. To find out the impact of dredging in the diversity of organisms associated with the Gulf of Mannar, base line data have to be corals, mangroves, sea grasses and sea weeds collected before large scale dredging is under- besides information on taxonomic level (TS) taken. Moreover to find out the impact of which will be useful in finding out the impact dredging very quickly and at the shortest pos- on diversity of organisms in due to dredging sible time, Taxonomic sufficiency (TS) has to for deepening the Sethusamudram Ship be done. Canal. Taxonomic sufficiency (TS) has 5. Research on biodiversity and utilisation gained prominence in biodiversity research of stomatopods in GOM and preparation and Environmental Impact Assessments. TS of value added products as additional is the identification of animal taxa to livelihood options for women empowerment taxonomic levels higher than species without significant loss of information in detecting Man is showing growing interest in changes in faunal assemblages which are the sea and its inhabitants for varied reasons, exposed to environmental perturbations (Ellis, the most important one being to meet his 1985). In the recent past, TS has been animal protein requirements. The sea with vast advocated for conservation issues as a tool to conventional and non-conventional food estimate the diversity in larger areas and in organisms hold enough raw materials to do poorly explored environments. TS, therefore, away with proteino-amino deficiency that is is a convenient and easy way to assess the afflicting the great majority of people. effects of perturbation on community Stomatopods constitute an important structure thereby reducing costs involved in non-conventional resource in the whole of precise taxonomic analyses while allowing India, GOM not withstanding. The uses of voluminous data for spatial and temporal stomatopods are manifolded. They are very replication of samplings. (Williams and good protein supplements and used as an Gaston, 1994; Balmford et al., 2000). The need important ingredient in compounded feeds of of TS (Boero, 2001) stems from the wide prawns. Fish meal plants also manufacture spread demise of taxonomic expertise in squilla meal which serves as an important raw 25 Research need for Gulf of Mannar material for the manufacture of poultry feed. studies. Also based on biological investigations, When landed in large quantities. mantis minimum size to be exploited should be shrimps are used as a manure. Mantis shrimps determined for the entire mollusk species used contain about 35 %flesh and the protein now. content of flesh is high (45% of dry weight). 7. Stock enhancement programmes on Now it has been appreciated as a very good endangered organisms in GOM food item and relished world over. In India also it is utlised for food purpose in many Some of the organisms as sea horses places. Apart from all these, mantis shrimps and sea cucumbers are protected by the can also form a rich source of chitin, chitosan Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. As some of the and their derivatives which have a wide range laboratories have developed the technology for of applications in various fields as mass scale production of these organisms, photography, Chromatography, paper, film, stock enhancement programmes should be fibres, food and agriculture and also as textile undertaken in GOM. Its utility should be coagulant , medical adhesive and coatings. At carefully evaluated as GOM can show the way present chitosan which is used in for other protected sites. For developing photography is being imported at a cost of 115 viable technology for other endangered US$ per pound, while the raw material organisms also these laboratories should be available in India is not being properly used. encouraged through way of funding support. Inspite of the availability in very large 8. Investigation on mangroves numbers and the versatile manifold uses, Extensive survey has to be made on mantis shrimps have not received the the coverage and species diversity of attention they deserve. Therefore this resource mangrove vegetation in 21 islands.Endangered should be utilized properly in GOM. The mangrove species to be identified and restore biodiversity should be studied in depth besides the species in the natural system. Mangrove the resource position. It should be plantation to be done in the places which are popularized in the GOM area and training suitable in 21 islands. The endemic species of could be imparted to the fisherwomen on the coral sand Pemphis acidula to be cultivated preparation of value added products for extensively. empowering them. 9. Investigations on coral monitoring using 6. Investigations on the stock size of remote sensing mollusks for rational utilization in shell- Extensive survey of coral reefs has to craft industry be made in the 20n islands with special The use of mollusks in shell-craft emphasis on the coverage and diversity. industry is in vogue since so many years. Endangered coral species to be identified and Sourveneirs prepared here are sent to various research to be done on the rehabilitation of markets in India. Whether the exploitation of the species. Technology for coral these organisms for use in shell- craft transplantation has to be developed for species industry is sustainable should be pondered level besides the reproductive behaviour of over very carefully. What is the way out? The coral species has also to be studied. Remote stock position of various molluscs should be sensing technology can be applied for studied very carefully and the exploitation quantifying the area of coral reefs and should be in live with the results of such associate ecosystem and for regular monitoring. 26 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 10. Gobal warming/ sea-level rise on Gulf References cited of Mannar Biosphere 1. Appukuttan, K.K., 1973. Distribution of coral Global warming is a very serious boring bivalves along the Indian coasts. J. mar. problem threatening the biodiversity in the biol. Ass. India, 15: 427-430. marine realm in general and GOM in 2. Balmford, A., Lyon, A.J.E., and Lang, R.M., particular. Sea level changes in the GOM and 2000. Testing the higher taxon approach to their influence on biodiversity should be conservation planning in a mega diverse group: the macro fungi. Biological conservation, 93, studied. 209-217. 11. Starting of diving school to train 3. Boero, F., 2001. Light after dark: the researchers on underwater studies on partnership for enhancing expertise in corals and other organisms and local taxonomy. Trends in Ecology and Evolution youngsters for gainful employment 16, p. 266. This is the need of the year. While this 4. Brook, G., 1893. The genus Medrepora. will help the researchers effectively in their Catalogue of the Madreporarian Corals in the British Museum of Natural History, 1: 1-212. investigations, youngster in the local area can also be taught diving with modern gadgets to 5. Burton, M., 1937. Porifera of Krusadai Island. undertake investigations and analysis of data Bull. Madras Govt. Mus., 1(2): 1-58. with computer aided tools. Now youngsters 6. Cabeza, M. and Moilanen, A., 2001. Design in Philippines are hired throughout the world of reserve networks and the persistence of to undertake studies on corals. Why not biodiversity. Trends in Ecology and Evolution., 16, 242-248. Indians in particular youngsters in Gulf of Mannar Biosphere are where there is a very 7. Ellis. D., 1985. Taxonomic sufficiency in good need to suggest alternate employment for pollution assessment. Mar. Poll. Bulletin., 16, p. 459. them. 8. Fauvel, P., 1930. Annelida, Polychaeta of the Conclusion Madras Govt. Museum. Bull. Madras Govt. Gulf of Mannar is a gift of God to Man Mus., 1(2): 1-79. in particular Indians. It is a veritable 9. Foote, R.B., 1888. Notes on Rameshwaram environment and a paradise. This wonderful island-I. Madras Christian College Mag., environment we have inherited from our (July): 828-840. forefathers and we have the solemn and 10. Gopinadha Pillai, C.S. and P.V. Ramachandran sincere duties to pass on the same to the Nair, 1969. Productivity studies on some grandchildren of our children. With respect to hermatypic corals by means of both oxygen research and studies on this beautiful measurements and C method. Proc. First Inter. Symp. Corals and Coral reefs (C. Mukundan environment, we can remain in isolation. and C.S.G. Pillai, eds.). J. mar. biol. Ass. India, Internationally the studies on corals have 43-58. progressed far ahead than us. We must also 11. Gopinadha Pillai, C.S., 1971. Composition of carry out world class studies to remain on par the coral fauna of the southeastern coast of with others countries with respect to India. In: D.R. Stoddart and C.M. Young (eds.), protection and conservation of biodiversity Regional Variation in Indian Ocean Coral and resources in the Gulf of Mannar. For our Reefs. Symposia of the Zoological society of won good let us do it. London, 28: 301-325. 27 Research need for Gulf of Mannar 12. Gopinadha Pillai, C.S., 1973. Coral resources Bibliography. Centre for Marine and Coastal of India with special reference to Palk Bay and Studies, Madurai Kamaraj University, Gulf of Mannar. Proc. Living Resources of the Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India, 656 pp. Seas Around India. (CMFRI) Cochin, 21. Matthai, G., 1924. Report on the 700-705. Madreporarian corals in the collection of the 13. Gravely, F.H., 1927a. Scleractinia. Bull. Indian Museum, Calcutta. (1). Mem. Indian Madras Govt. Mus. 1(1): 41-51. Mus., 8: 1-59. 14. Gravely, F.H., 1927b. Littoral fauna of 22. Raghu Prasad, R. and P.V. Ramachandran Nair, Krusadai island in the Gulf of Mannar. 1960. Observation on the distribution and Echinodermata. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus., occurrence of diatoms in the inshore waters of 163-173. the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. Indian J. 15. Harper, J.L. and Hawksworth, D.L., 1994. Fish., 7(1): 49-68. Biodiversity: measurement and estimation. 23. Raghu Prasad, R. and P.V. Ramachandran Nair, Philosophical transaction Royal Society 1963. Studies on organic production-1. Gulf London Biological Sciences, 345, 45-58. of Mannar. J. mar. biol. Ass. India, 5(1): 1-26. 16. Kalimuthu, S., N. Kaliyaperumal and J.R. 24. Reddiah, K., 1970. The Appa Island and its Ramalingam and V.S.K. Chennubhotla, 1990. fringing reef in the Gulf of Mannar. J. mar. Present status of seaweed exploitation and biol. Ass. India, 12: 57-63. seaweed industry in India. Mar. Fish. Infor. 25. Sathyamurthy, S.T., 1952. The Mollusca of Serv. Tech. and Ext. Ser. (CMFRI) Cochin, 47: Krusadai Island. Amphineura and Gastropoda. 7-8. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus., 1(2): 1-265. 17. Kannan,L., K. Kathiresan and A. Purushothaman 26. Sewell, R.B.S., 1932. The coral reefs of 1998. Biodiversity of microbial flora (bacteria India. Geogr. J., 79: 449-465. and phytoplankton) of the coral reefs of the Gulf of Mannar. Biosphere Reserves and 27. Sewell, R.B.S., 1935. Studies on coral and Management in India. In: R.K. Maikhuri, K.S. coral formation in Indian Waters. Men. Asiat. Rao and R.K. Rai (eds.), Himavikas Soc. Beng., 9: 461-540. occassional publication No. 12: 207-220. 28. Thurston, E., 1895. Rameshwaram island and the fauna of Gulf of Mannar. Bull. Madras 18. Kannapiran, E. , A. Purushothaman, L. Kannan nd and S. Saravanan, 1999. Magneto bacteria Govt. Mus., (2 Edition): 108-112. from estuarine, mangrove and coral reef 29. Upreti, A. and T. Shanmugaraj, 1997. Gulf of environs in Gulf of Mannar. Indian J. Mar. Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve. 47pp. Sci., 28: 332-334. 30. Vane-Wright, R.I., Humphries, C.J. and 19. Kathiresan, K. and N. Rajendran, 1998. Man- Williams, P.H., What to protect? Systematics grove associated communities. Proceedings of and the agony of choice. Biological the Technical Workshop on Biodiversity of Conservation. 1991, 55, 235-254. Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve, 31. Williams, P.H. and Gaston, K.J., 1994. 156-164. Measuring more of biodiversity: can 20. Kumaraguru, A.K., V. Edwin Joseph, higher-taxon richness predict wholesale N.Marimuthu and J. Jerald Wilson, 2006. species richness? Biological Conservation. Scientific Information on Gulf of Mannar – A 1994, 67, 211 – 217.

28 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Status of Gulf of Mannar Coral reefs, India

K. VENKATARAMAN AND K.P. RAGHURAM Marine Biological Station, Zoological Survey of India 130, Santhome High Road, Chennai - 600 026, India E-mail : [email protected]

ABSTRACT The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve (GoMBR) is located between 8o 49' to 9o 15' N latitude and 78o11' to 79o15' E longitude on the southeast coast of India. The status surveys on coral reefs were initiated in 1998 in GoMBR. In the present study (2002-2003) among the three groups viz. Mandapam, Keelakarai and Tuticorin, Keelakarai group showed higher percentage of live coral cover than Mandapam and Tuticorin. The results of the present study showed the following order of dominance of live coral in the coral reefs: coral massive (CM) > coral branching (CB) > coral foliose (CF) > coral encrusting (CE) > Acropora branching (ACB) and > Acropora tabular (ACT). Massive corals (CM) dominated the coral reefs of all the islands with 15.2% and 13.7% cover in 2002 and 2003 respectively. In GoMBR, five species of genus Acropora, one species of Montipora and Pocillopora were recorded. In addition to the above study, the status and diversity of branching corals in the GoMBR were also analyzed from the results. The Line Intercept Transect showed 1.9% and 1.7% of acropora coral branching (ACB); 10.7% and 9.1% coral branching (CB) in 2002 and 2003 respectively. In the present study, genera such as Acropora, Montipora and Pocillopora were found to be severely affected probably due to illegal coral mining, destructive fishing practices and induced sediment settlement caused by seaweed plucking. Selective mining of Pocillopora damicornis has depleted their population. Keywords: Status Survey, coral reefs, branching corals, Gulf of Mannar, India.

Introduction little over 3,250 research papers have been The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere published on various aspects such as Reserve (GoMBR) consists of 21 islands ecology and taxonomy of flora and fauna, forming a chain between 8o 46’ and 9o 14’ N biochemistry, reproductive biology as well as latitude and 78° 9' and 79o 14’ E longitude from fishery of GoMBR (Venkataraman et al., 2002; Mandapam in the north to Tuticorin in the 2004 a, b). south (Fig 1). These islands are bordered with Methods fringing reefs. The total area covered by the Depending on the proximity to a biosphere is 10, 500 km2. The coral reefs are major town, the 21 islands of GoMBR were very rich in faunal and floral wealth and are categorized into three groups namely considered one of the world’s most diverse Mandapam, Keelakarai and Tuticorin, each marine ecosystems. So far 82 species of consisting of seven islands (Fig. 1). An hermatypic corals belonging to 27 genera are average of seven to ten, random 20 m line reported from GoMBR (Venkataraman et al., intercept transects (LIT) were laid at the 2003). Various studies have been carried out permanent monitoring sites of each island of on the coral reefs and their associated fauna GoMBR (English et al 1997). A total of 170 and flora of GoMBR from 1898 onwards. A transects were laid each year. Surveys were 29 Status of Gulf of Mannar Coral reefs, India

Fig. 1. Map showing three major towns and 21islands of Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve not conducted in Velanguchalli and survey on Tuticorin group of islands showed Poovarasampatti islands which are submerged 15.2% CB, 5% CF, 13% CM, 25% DCA and and Kasuwar and Van Islands where the 19.3% S in 2002 and in 2003, 10.25% CB, shallow reefs are completely eroded and 3.5% CF, 11% CM 27% DCA and 22% sand devoid of any life form. The percentages life (Fig 2). form categories were calculated following the The average percentage of the life method of English et al (1997). form categories of total survey conducted in Results the Gulf of Mannar islands in 2002 showed: The results of the surveys conducted 1.9% ACB, 10.8% CB, 7.06% CF, 15.2% CM, in three island groups such as Mandapam, 16.1% DC and 12.7% S and during 2003 Keelakarai and Tuticorin during 2002 and 1.76% ACB, 9.2% CB, 7% CF, 14% CM and 2003 are given in Fig 2. The transect results 17.4% DC (Fig 3). on Mandapam group of islands showed 2.5% The survey results of the percentage acropora branching (ACB), 7% coral of live coral cover for all the islands of branching (CB), 5.5% coral foliose (CF), 14% GoMBR studied was as follows: 47% and 20% coral massive (CM), 20% dead coral (DC), in shingle; 24% and 37% in Krusadai; 34% 2.5% macro algae (MA) and 10% sand in 2002 and 45% in Pullivasal; 28% and 34% in whereas, in 2003, 3.6% ACB, 7% CB, 11.3% Poomarichan; 40% and 37% in Manouliputti; CM, 25% DC and 8% Sand. However, the 33.5% and 28% in Manouli; 26% and 26.5% Keelakarai group of island showed 3.3% ACB, in Hare; 58% and 62.6% in Mulli; 55% and 10.2% CB, 18.7% CM, 19.7% DC and 7.5% 60.4% in Valai; 41% and 46% in Thalayari; Sand in 2002 survey, and in 2003 transect 55% and 38.2% in Appa; 40% and 44.4% in survey showed 1.7% ACB, 10.3% CB, 5.3% Palliyarmunai; 45% and 46.8% in Anaipar; CE, 18.9% CM, 20.4% DCA and 5.4% S. The 39.8% and 39% in Nallathanni; 38.15% and 30 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006

Fig. 2. Comparison of life form categories of three different groups of GoMBR in 2002 and 2003

2002 2003

Fig. 3. Average life form categories in 21 islands of GoMBR during 2002 and 2003 31 Status of Gulf of Mannar Coral reefs, India 29% in Puzhuvinichalli; 54.5% and 33% in prominent. However, during 1998-2002, mean Upputhanni and 2% and 3.5% in Karaichalli live coral cover in Mandapam group was 36% Islands in the years 2002 and 2003 followed by 16% in Keelakarai and 11% in respectively. Tuticorin group of islands (Venkataraman et During the present study branching al 2004 a). From the results of the present study coral species such as Acropora, Montiopora it is apparent that there is an increase in and Pocillopora were found to be rare when percentage of live coral cover in Keelakarai compared to massive corals (Venkataraman, and Tuticorin group of islands when compared 2004 a). Branching corals such as Acropora to the results of 1998-2000. The present study formosa, A. rudis, A. austera, A. florida, A. included four islands from Tuticorin group samoensis, Montipora digitata and Pocillopora such as Nallathanni, Puzhiuvainichalli, damicornis were recorded in the present study Upputhannnionly and Karaichalli, where the live coral cover was present. The reason for (Table 1). increased percentage of live coral cover in Discussion Keelakarai group in 2002 and 2003 may be The mean percentage of live coral attributed to the regeneration of corals. cover of Mandapam, Keelakarai and Tuticorin Comparison of 2002 and 2003 live cover groups was 33.2%, 49% and 33.8% in 2002 studies showed a slight decrease in branching and the percentage was 32.5%, 49.7% and forms in all the islands. This may be due to 25.8% in 2003 respectively. The variation of selective illegal mining of corals such as live coral cover for 2002 and 2003 was not Pocillopora damicornis (Fig. 4). Branching

Table 1. List of branching species recorded in the present study (1. Shingle, 2. Krusadai 3. Pullivasal, 4. Poomarichan, 5. Manouliputti, 6. Manouli, 7. Hare, 8. Mulli, 9. Valai, 10. Talairi, 11. Anaipar, 12. Palliyarmunai, 13. Appa, 14. Nallathanni, 15. Puzhuvinichalli, 16. Upputhanni, 17. Karaichalli, 18. Kasuwar, and 19. Van).

32 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006

Fig. 4. Illegal mining live Pocillopora damicornis in the Keelakarai group of Islands, Gulf of Mannar corals were meagerly observed in Tuticorin Mandapam group of islands densely covered group of islands. This may be due to intense with massive, foliose and branching forms. human pressure on the coral reefs such as shore During northeast monsoon, due to wave seine operation and trap fishing, which were action most of the shallow reefs are filled with visually observed during the study period. The silt and sand, which also kills many of the reefs of Kasuwar and Van Islands have turned shallow reef live corals. Coral genera such as in to rubbles and dead corals (Venkatarman et Favia, Favites, Goniastrea and Platygrya with al., 2004 a) due to intensive illegal coral large polyps, are capable of removing sand mining by the locals for commercial purposes. particles deposited on them (Pillai, 1971). During the present study only massive corals Corals with tiny polyps such as Acropora and (CM) dominated all the islands of GOMBR Montipora require clear water for better reefs with 15.2% and 13.7% cover in 2002 survival (Pillai 1971, 1975). Species such as and 2003 respectively. Montipora digitata and Pocillopora damicornis The following are the live cover of were observed most common in all the islands branching forms observed: 1.9% and 1.7% of Gulf of Mannar. ACB; 10.7% and 9.1% CB in 2002 and 2003 Management of the Biosphere Reserve respectively. From the results it is apparent that The Tamil Nadu State Forest coral branching (CB) such as Monitpora Department implements the management digitata and Pocillopora damicornis were action plan for GoMBR through its wildlife found more as live coral cover than Acropora wing. An office of Wildlife warden is species (ACB). This may be due to various functioning at Ramanathapuram (district head reasons such as coral mining, siltation due to quarters and major town close to GoMBR) to seaweed plucking, breakage due to walking manage this area, to protect the reserve and to on the reefs by locals for harvest of marine reduce the pressure from the coastal resources, wave action and trap fishing. Yet population depending on the resources of this another reason for less live cover of reserve by implementing a GOI/UNDP/GEF branching corals may be due to blast fishing project through the Gulf of Mannar Trust in the Gulf of Mannar reefs (personal formed by the Tamilnadu State. In order to observation made from 1998-2003). Pillai maximize the benefits to the local community, (1971) observed most of the shallow reefs of to generate a sense of stewardship in the 33 Status of Gulf of Mannar Coral reefs, India fishing industry, to achieve effective NGO’s are doing research in and around enforcement and to minimize habitat damage, GOMBR. However, the problems of GoMBR the state fisheries act is also in the process of coral reefs are more critical than ever before. amendment. Other gaps in the management of The following recommendations such as GoMBR area are lack of awareness among the implementation of long-term monitoring local public, limited scope for reducing the programme on coral reefs, capacity building ever-increasing population pressure and lack programmes for scientists and managers, of trained work force for marine protected area education and awareness for local management which are expected to be communities, database on coral reef for culminated using GoMBR Trust out puts. management, promotion of reef restoration Conclusions and Recommendations and improvement of socioeconomic status of the coastal population may improve the There was no status study prior to situation in GoMBR in the future. 1998 of the GoMBR. These studies were initiated by GCRMN South Asia node only Before 1960, the reefs of GoMBR during 1997, which helped Zoological Survey were reported to be in pristine condition due of India, Marine Biological Station and to low level of exploitation of reef resources. Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai to carry The studies conducted during 1998 revealed out status studies in GoMBR and the first most of the coral reefs as degraded may be status studies on the coral reefs of GoMBR due to over exploitation as well as mortality was conducted during 1998-2000 due to 1998 bleaching. During the present (Venkataraman 2000, Venkataraman et al study (2003-2004) the reefs of Keelakari group 2003, Venkataraman et al 2004 a). Present were observed to be recovering from 1998 studies on status survey (2002-2003) revealed bleaching and Mandapam and Tuticorin GoMBR reefs showing slight increase in live groups are still to recover from the 1998 coral cover especially in Keelakarai group of bleaching. Tuticorin Islands (Karaichalli, islands and on the other hand Tuticorin reefs Kasuwar and Van) are suffering due to facing permanent damages. Indiscriminate siltation, erosion and illegal coral mining. illegal coral mining, sedimentation, erosion Coral reefs in the GOM Islands are and other major threats such as land based under increasing pressure. Factors such as pollution (sewage discharge near reef, urbanization, coastal population growth, domestic waste disposal) thermal power plant industrial development, export of coastal releases heat, ash etc., may be the direct cause resources, lack of trained persons and for the less live coral cover. Though there are awareness, habitat degradation, and over government initiatives to conserve and exploitation of resources due to mechanized manage the GoMBR coral reefs through and non mechanized fishing are the known UNDP-GEF funded Gulf of Mannar Trust and threats to the survival of life support system other research projects funded by Ministry of of the GoMBR. There is less effective Environment and Forests, Government of implementation of the management plan to India to study the coral reefs of Gulf of Mannar, mitigate the threats to this ecosystem. there seems to be very little awareness among Networking among the scientific, government the local community who are dependent on and non-governmental personnel in GoMBR the reef resources for their day-to-day is essential to execute what is really needed. livelihood. Many research institutions and Long-term monitoring of the status of the coral 34 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 reefs and socioeconomic status of the people India. Jour mar biol Ass India 11(2): 62-72. depending on the reefs are the need of the hour. 3. Pillai CSG 1975. An Assessment of the Effects The data gathered on the above lines should of Environmental and Human interference on form the basis of the management action plan. the Coral Reefs of Palk Bay and Gulf of Collaboration with International organizations Mannar along the Indian coast. Seafood Exp on reef and resource management should be Jou, 7(12): 9-22. taken up on priority basis. 4. Venkataraman K, Srinivasan M, Satyanarayana Acknowledgements Ch and Prabakar D 2002. Faunal diversity of Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, We thank the Director, Zoological Conservation Area Series, 15: 1-77. survey of India, Kolkata, for the facilities 5. Venkataraman K, Satyanarayana Ch, Alfred provided to carry out the work, special thanks JRB, Wolstnholme J 2003. Hand book on hard are due to Ms. Veena Upadhyaya Joint corals of India. Zoological Survey of India Secretary, Ministry of Environment and 284 pp. Forests, New Delhi and Dr. Clive Wilkinson, 6. Venkataraman, K., Jeyabaskaran R, Global Coordinator, GCRMN for their Satyanarayana Ch, Raghuram KP (2004 a) encouragement. Status of coral reefs in Gulf of Mannar References cited Biosphere Reserve. Rec Zool Surv India 103: 1. English S, Wilkinson C, Baker, V, 1997. 1-15. Survey manual for Tropical Marine Resources, 7. Venkataraman K, Jeyabaskaran R, Raghuram Published by Australian Institute of Marine KP and Alfred JRB (2004 b) Bibliography and Science 390 pp. checklist of coral and coral reef associated 2. Pillai, CSG 1971. The distribution of corals organisms of India, Rec Zool Surv India, Occ on a reef at Mandapam (Palk Bay), South Paper No 226: 1-468.

35 Coral mining - A bygone threat to Gulf of Mannar Coral mining - A bygone threat to Gulf of Mannar

V. NAGANATHAN, I.F.S.1 AND S. RAMESH 1Eco Development Officer, GOMBRT - Ramanathapuram

Introduction constitutes a live scientific laboratory of Gulf of Mannar, a unique marine national and international value. It has 3,600 ecosystem often referred to as ecological species of plants and animals that make it the paradise, extends from Rameswaram in the biologically richest coastal region in India. It north to Tuticorin in the south. According to a is, course, specially known for corals, of which government survey, there are 21 uninhabited there are 117 species belonging to 37 genera islands, from Mandapam to Tuticorin (Frontline dated 28.03.2000). covering 682.76 hactares. The Gulf of Mannar Coral reefs, the rain forests of ocean falls in the Indo-Pacific region, considered the Coral reefs are a distinctive shoreline world’s richest in marine biological resources. habitat of stunning visual appeal found only Nearly 1.03 lakhs tonnes of different types of between latitudes 30?N and 30?S. A unique fishes, prawn, crap and tiger prawn are caught in this Gulf yearly. This fetches annual combination of conditions allows them to revenue of rupees 80 crores. Forty four support an extremely complex biological villages containing 1.5 lakhs fishermen community. The myriad shapes and crevices families rely on productivity of these marine of the hard coral structure offer a shelter to resources (MSSRF document). The fish animals. Corals grow only where sea surface production is more in this region than any other temperatures are above 20?C, the seabed is coasts in India only because of the presence kept silt-free by prevailing currents and waves, of complex biological communities coral reefs, and there is intense surface sunlight. Corals seaweeds, sea grasses and mangroves. The do not survive in sediment-laden water, such Gulf has been chosen as a biosphere reserve as near the river discharge. Most living corals primarily because of its biological and do not grow at depths of more that 50m, ecological uniqueness. The region has a although some grow at depths of 100m. The distinctive socio-economic and cultural Indian and Pacific Oceans have the most profile shaped by its geography. It has an extensive corals reefs. ancient maritime history and was famous for The true reef – building corals are the production of pearls, an important item of animals that collectively deposit calcium trade with the Roman Empire as early as the carbonate to build ornate and sometimes large first century A.D. colonies. The polyps of most species remain Fishing has historically been the retracted by day, but at night they protrude primary livelihood of the coastal communities their tentacles and sweep the sea for the here and continues to sustain them, although passing plankton on which they feed with their the damage to the coral reefs constitutes a polyps all protracted corals have a markedly serious threat to this particular livelihood floral appearance. The uniqueness of shapes resource. The region has been and continues and colours and the variety of life on a coral to be famous for its production of chank reef make the reef an experience that is hard (Indian conch). The Gulf of Mannar thus to match on land or elsewhere in the sea. Coral 36 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 reefs are considered the most biologically turbidity is low and sunlight is abundant. productive and diverse of all-natural Hence their occurrence is confined is confined ecosystems, sometimes supporting as many as to the 30?C either side of the equator. These 3,000 species. The great number of holes and coral reefs play vital role in coastal area crevices in a reef provide abundant shelters protection, in mitigating the effect of cyclones for fishes and invertebrates, and are and serve as nursery grounds for fish and other important fish nurseries. In addition, highly economic species. The most exploited species specialized creatures have become dependent for ornamental limestone are Porites, Favia, for their survival on the reef environment. It Favites, Goniasteria, Symphillia. The human provides a solid substrate for many impact on coral reefs is through dreading, bottom-living organisms (clams, sponges, reclamation, mining and sedimentation. These tunicates, sea fans, anemones and algae) to activities reduce illumination, physically settle and grow. interface with feeding and respiration and Coral reefs are the most productive finally destroy the whole system. In India marine ecosystems with annual gross about 33 genera and 120 species of corals production rates in the range of 200 – 5000 g belonging to Acroporidae, Portidae and c / m2 / year. Pelagic fish production from coral Faviidae, Acroporous, Seiatopora, reefs can be quite high, up to 20 tonnes / km2 Stylopora, Alnepora, Herpolitha, Fungia, / year and heavily fished coralline shelves are Podabassia, Cabophilla, Diploastera have able to produce sustained harvests of 4-6 been recorded (MSSRF research document tonnes / km / year. This ecosystem thus extract). deserves to be protected and judicious Coral mining in Tuticorin exploitation of the resources is the need of the In Gulf of Mannar, there are 21 hour. Coral reefs are fast degrading due to their Islands bordered by fringing coral reefs commercial viability and hence a through extending from Rameshwaram in the north and understanding of the ecological process and Tuticorin in the south. The coral reefs provide eco-structure is required before any practical shelter to numerous marine organisms. Coral management options could be adopted. reefs hold the highest number of species in Coral reef ecosystem contains a the ocean (Kudla, 1995) and the highest number of specialized species representing the number of families, orders or any higher most of the marine organisms and is classification on the entire planet (Throne- considered as most diverse in nature. Milter & Catena, 1991). This diversity Generally they are grouped into fringing reefs, benefits us directly through harvestable food, barrier reefs and atolls. The great number of medicines, ra materials and coastline holes and cervices in the reef provide protection, and indirectly by sustaining the abundant shelter for fishes and invertebrates. ecological process that provides these These sites are specific to particular resources. Coral reefs are also high productive organisms and sometimes, same site may be ecosystem and support large population of shared by nocturnal and diurnal species. The organisms, whether measured in numbers or reefs corals with their symbiotic algae are the biomass (Williams & Hatchar, 1993; Poulkin main procedures of organic matter. & Roberts, 1994). For these reasons, coral The coral reef show their luxuriant reefs are considered of great economic growth in shallow clear water where the importance. Developing tropical countries, 37 Coral mining - A bygone threat to Gulf of Mannar especially small island states, depend heavily Gulf of Mannar to extract coral blocks for on coral reef resources for food from reef house construction. This is evident that some fisheries. Environmental degradation from of the old, decaying two storied houses with increasing worldwide exploitation of coral their plaster worn off revealing the coral blocks reefs has provoked international concern over with which they are built are a common the fate of reefs as a global resource (Roberts, enough sight on the Gulf of Mannar coast. 1993; Ginsburg, 1994; Sebens, 1994). Even the roads were paved with bleached coral Today resource harvest from Indian blocks. During 1970, the industrial reefs-is it fish food, mining of coral blocks, development was set in Tuticorin, leading to collection of debris or collection of seashells high demand for coral reefs that can be is only for sustenance of the reef dependent utilized for lime production, acetylene gas population. In Tuticorin, southern end of the production and cem production. With the Gulf of Mannar, coral mining in several advent of industrial revolution in Tuticorin, villages operates severely when wildlife coral reef mining started progressing at an protection act, 1972is in operation. Before this immeasurable rate. After smelling the enactment, the rate of coral mining was slow. utilization of coral reefs, several industries At present, the rate of coral mining in Tuticorin plunged in to this business. About 200 years coast is on peak. Here in the Tuticorin coast, ago, coral mining was stared with tortoise pace there are 5 islands which have been under without knowing its tangible and intangible severe threat-economically, ecologically and benefits. But now the market demand and the environmentally. Nearly 12 villages are price of the reefs have raised the pace of coral fishing dependent in the Tuticorin coast of the mining in the Gulf of Mannar at unpredictable Gulf of Mannar. Among which three villages rate. Knowing the ecological value and were involved in coral reef mining activities economic value of the coral reefs, people for their livelihood. Ecosystem dependence started thinking of this activity as their main for survival is a universal phenomenon, in livelihood to earn their regular income as other which ecosystems like coral reefs rank high profession like fishing would fetch uneven among coastal populations. Traditional income due to seasonality, fluctuation in fishermen without much access to modern market demand and unpredictable low fish facilities solely depend on such ecosystem for catch. This is why coral mining is severe in survival. Corals play a vital part in southern part of the Gulf of Mannar than maintaining the productivity of coastal areas northern part. For the time being fortunately acting as breeding ground, nursery and as by the stay order issued by Hon’ble Supreme habitat for many economically important Court, New Delhi vide Item No.32, Court species. They prevent coastal erosion and No.2, case No.892636 dt.17.08.05, the coral control the violent, whirling wind which mining activity has been legally restricted and causes severe damage to fishermen’s property. the mining activity is also totally stopped in Nearly 3000 population from seven villages Tuticorin coast. depend on coral reefs for their sustenance. Ecological impact of coral mining Their main livelihood was only coral mining. The coral miners know that coral History of coral reef mining mining is an illegal and it would definitely Earlier coral reefs were mined affect the reef ecosystem and finally the extensively along the Tuticorin coast of the livelihood of fishing communities. This 38 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 ecosystem is an important coastal habitat in monsoon. But in reality, due to coral mining, tropical regions, directly or indirectly the extend and circumference of the coral reef supporting subsistence and commercial fringed island wean away day by day. Fifteen fisheries. However, they are under threat in years ago, the Vaan Thivu which was 50 m developing countries where they are being circumference now is reduced to 6 m only disturbed by a variety of human activities. The because of coral mining being done by near distribution of this ecosystem world invariably by villagers. With in five years, this island affect the coastal productivity and in turn the wuld disappear in the Gulf of Mannar map livelihood of those who depend on it for leaving no sign of its presence in the sea. survival. With most coral reefs situated in the Method of coral mining developing world, their importance as a resource is tremendous. The lack of People from Tharuvaikulam, knowledge among fishermen about the role of Tirespuram and Vellpatti assemble in the early corals in coastal productivity will make them morning in the seashore where vallams are insensitive to the fragile ecosystem and anchored. The people who have “vallams” unknowingly they are using destructive engage five members as their crew to mining fishing methods to accelerate fish catch operation. All should bring their fork, efficiently and to save time and effort. crow-bar and basket. They leave at 6am in the Earlier, dynamite fishing was very popular in morning and reach the island where they do this region and this method was adopted to mining operation, depending upon the blow away coral reef areas, and fish selection of island. People from population in this coral reef areas get trapped Tharuvaikulam and vellapatti go to “Vann” due to its unconsciousness after dynamite and “Karaishalli” islands which have easy blasting. Due to dynamite blasting, not only access to these villagers. Sometimes they may coral reef ecosystem gets affected but also the go to “Pandian” islands which is far off from nurseries, breeding grounds as well as the fish their villages. If they select those islands which productivity get reduced. Coral miners say have easy access to their villages, they will “the reduction in fish production is not due to reach with in one hour. The select the plce coral extraction but the entry of modernized where coral reefs are abundant and there is fishing methods like trawler method which are low tide level. After identifying the coral reefs, equipped with devices that can smash they jump into the sea and scrap the sea bed impediments in their path like corals or rocks with the help of fork and scoop off the finger and have very fine nets that trawl the sea floor, corals to the basket that is kept between their causing severe damage to the marine legs. This method is continued till they fill the ecosystems. Added to this, they say central portion of the vallam which loads about “according to the 1993 Marine Fishing seven gejams (One-half gejam – One tonne). Regulation Act, trawlers can only fish beyond Earlier dynamite blasting was adopted for a distance of three nautical miles from the coral reef mining especially for extraction of shore. The allegations from the traditional coral blocks that were used for house fishing sector are that trawlers routinely construction. But this method has been violate this rule as the best fish catch is found dropped out due to low demand of coral blocks within that range”. Another group of fishermen and enforcement of Wildlife protection Act, opines that the drop in fish production year 1972. After declaration of the Gulf of Mannar by year is under the influence of vagaries of as National Park and as biosphere reserve, the 39 Coral mining - A bygone threat to Gulf of Mannar act of doing coral mining is an illegal and an below poverty line. They do not have their offense as punishable under the Act. But the own house. They live in small huts constructed coral miners do continuing their operations on the Beach sand. They have no basic without any respect and obedience to the WPA, amenities like sanitation, drinking water etc. 1972. They have no other options like fishing as it Coral mining gaas a livelihood and needs initial investment to purchase net and sustenance even to hire vallam also. Their only option Nearly 100 vallams from Thirespuram was to do coral digging which needs no money go to near by islands for extraction of corals. power but physical power. So they easily trap They collect nearly 4 ½ tonnes in a single in the hands of money lenders who are vallam. On an average they collect 4 tonnes actually involved in encouraging coral which fetch around Rs.800 for a single crew. mining operations. The money lenders who Every member in the crew gets Rs.100 as daily are really agents of this business sanction wage. A single crew consists of five members money as advance to vallam owner to start including vallam owner. Every week they have mining operations. The vallam owner hires to work for six days and Sunday is off. Out of four members as his crew and does mining Rs.800/-, the vallam owner takes Rs.200 plus operations. He gives money to his crew 100 as diesel charges. Remaining money members as wages and if any member wants a would be shared between four members. So, lump sum amount, he goes to agent. This every single member gets nearly Rs.100-125 / condition of indebtedness makes him day as his wage. His monthly income comes necessary to work for the amount he received. around Rs.2600-6000. This income makes him This is a kind of banded labour situation. So satisfying his needs and wants. The Vallam is the vallam owner. Also those have received owner earns around Rs.4800 – 6000. The money as advance or credit will never sell their annual income of the coral mining labourers collections to other agents. If they had sold comes around Rs.31,000 – 36,000. The vallam their collections to some other agents, they owner earns around Rs.56,000 – 72,000. But would be severely beaten up. Every crew in in my perception, the labourers will get around the vallam collects corals and dumps in the Rs.200-500 per day the vallam owner Rs.500 sea shore as heaps. These collections will be / day. That is why they were involved in coral collected and transported to Sunnambu kalavai mining activities without any thinking of for processing where it is burnt using conservation to dome other profession like charcoal, and aftet burning, they are polished fishing as it is ingrained and infused into their and made into small cubes. Then it is packed blood that this would be the better option to in to the containers and transported to big lead their life. The vallam owner gets advance industries of Madurai and Chennai where it is money from the agent and does coral mining utilized to produce acetylene gas as well as for six days. In the last day of every week the cem production. agents will settle the money based on their Nearly 220 vallams were operating in mining for six days. In the last day of every these three village were doing coral mining week the agents will settle the money based operations. Every vallam was collecting about on their collections.Here out of five members, 4 ½ tones per day. For one week, a single four will be considered as labourers on daily vallam collected about 26 tonnes and 104 wage basis. Except vallam owner, others are tonnes of corals were collected in a single 40 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 month. On an average, 1248 tonnes of corals marine ecosystems. Now people are not were collected every year in single vallam. In continuing with coral mining activities toto, 2, 74,560 tonnes of corals were removed because of the learning from recent Tsunami from the southern part of the Gulf of Mannar. as well as due to the existence of stay on coral The agents involved in coral mining incur mining by the Honourable Supreme Court vide small investment as wages to the miners and Item No.32, Court No.2, case No.892636 sold the coral reefs at the rate of Rs.1000/- dt.17.08.05. tonnes. So he gained more margin as he has Even then the agents involved in coral no need of incurring storage cost, and no raw mining are forcing the fishermen involved in material cost involved as it was illegally coral mining to indulge in mining and also exploited through coral miners. attempting to get legal clearance to continue As this business involves no with destructive coral mining in future. If this production cost risk, he encouraged these three situation continues and the agents get some villagers to do coral reef collection and made order favouring their industrial activity, it them accustomed to this livelihood as it would be really devastating for the coral sustained their life through regular earning i.e. eco-system existing in and around Tuticorin. Rs.100-125 with in four hours of work. To ensure non-involvement of fisherfolk in Trapped in the net of indebtedness, they have destruction of nursery eco-system of fish no second thought of changing their livelihood resources in Gulf of Mannar Biosphere despite the illegality of their present Reserve Trust should take encouraging efforts livelihood. in providing necessary infrastructural support Economy of Coral Extration to fishermen in converting their vocation to Table 1. Quantity of coral extraction and Revenue per day Sl. Name of the Number Quantity of Rate Revenue No. Village of Vallam extraction / Per ton (Rs.) Day (tonnes) (approximate) (approximate) (approximate)

1. Vellapatti 20 90 1,000 90,000

2. Thirespuram 100 4500 — 45,00,000

3. Tharuvaikulam 100 4500 — 45,00,000

220 9090 1,000 90,90,000 Conclusions deep sea fishing. Intensive awareness As far as coral mining is enclosed, the programmes have to be organized to fisherfolk rate of coral mining increases day by day. As to educate them about the importance of coral per the survey made in the three prominent eco-system as well as the role in protecting villages, people from Vellapatti have reduced the coral bio-diversity in addition feasible the rate of coral mining as they have switched alternative livelihood opportunities for the over to crab fishing due to awareness about affected group should be supported and the corals and its role on fish productivity and pressure on coral mining has to be totally 41 Coral mining - A bygone threat to Gulf of Mannar removed for ever. In addition district health, hazards & history, Rosenstiel school administration has to take special efforts in of Marine and Atmospheric scientce, Uni.of directing the lime industry to change their raw Miami, Miami. material to lime forms found in terrestrial area. 2. Poulin, N.V.C. and C.M. Roberts, 1994 (Eds.). Providing soft loans for purchase of boats and Tropical reef fisheries, Series in Fish biology, nets to the affected fishermen will act as Chapman & Hall, London. effective remedy for switching their vocation 3. Reaka-Kudla, M.L., 1995. The global biodiversity on coral reefs: Understanding and to harmless legally permitted fishing practices. protecting our resources, (ed) Reaka-Kudla, Unless the concern for conservation is M.L., Wilson, D.E.,& Wilson, E.D., National ploughed and nurtured in the minds of Academy / Joseph Henry Press. fisherfolk involved in various destructive 4. Roberst, C.M. 1993, Coral Reefs: health, activities in Gulf of Mannar, achieving the hazards and history, Trends Ecol.Evol., 8 : goal of conservation and sustainable use of 425-427. marine resources in Gulf of Mannar will only 5. Sebens, K.P., 1994, Biodiversity of caoral be a dream. In the recent times the initiatives reefs: What are we losing and why? taken by Trust in organizing Gulf of Mannar A.M.Zool., 34: 113-115 dependent fishing villages as responsible 6. Throne-Miller, B. and J.G.Catena, 1991, the conservation groups through formation of eco- living ocean, Islands Press, WashingtonDC. development committees is a viable action 7. Williams, D.M. and A.I.Hatcher, 1993, towards establishing better conservation Structure of fish communities on outer slopes network at village level in the Gulf of Mannar of inshore, mid-self and outer-self reefs of the coastal areas. It is hoped that this effort will Great Barrier Reefs, Mar-Ecol.Prog.Ser., 10: 239-250 convince fisher public in understanding their 8. MSSRF Research document extract marine bio-diversity, its biological and ecological importance and their duties and 9. MSSRF Tamil Pamphlet: Alternative liveli- hood of fishing communities of the Gulf of responsibilities in conserving this resource. Mannar. References cited 10. An Ecosystem in Peril: an article published in 1. Ginsburg, R.N., (Ed.), 1994, Proceedings of the Frontline magazine dated: 28.03.2003, the colloquium on global aspects of coral reefs: pp:65-73

42 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Role of mangroves in coastal protection, fishery productivity and resilience of reefs in the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve

Dr. K. KATHIRESAN Centre of Advanced Study in Marine Biology Annamalai University, Parangipettai - 608 502, Tamilnadu, India

ABSTRACT Mangrove forests are biologically diverse, ecologically vigorous and exceedingly valuable systems. Many efforts have been made in the last 2-decades for conservation and management of the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve. However, there is no adequate scientific data available on biodiversity status, merits and demerits of the action taken on conservation of mangrove resources of the area. Hence, it is necessary to assess the current situation for taking action in identified gap areas of mangrove ecology, biodiversity, restoration and coastal protection.

Introduction global cycle of carbon, nitrogen as well as Mangroves are trees and shrub sulphur and acts as reservoirs of waste species that grow at the interface between land materials (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001; and sea in tropical, subtropical latitudes where Kathiresan and Rajendran 2005; Kathiresan the plants exist in conditions of salinity, tidal and Qasim 2005). Considering the importance, water flow and muddy soil. The vegetation status of mangrove resources in the Gulf of Mannar islands is discussed here. creates unique ecological environments that host rich assemblages of species. The 1. Mangroves in Gulf of Mannar mangrove ecosystems in Tamil Nadu alone It is believed that the Gulf of Mannar comprise 893 biological species (Kathiresan, was once covered with thick mangrove 2004). This biological diversity is due to its forests. Their remnants as relics are seen even structural complexities of the mangrove now (Krishnamurthy et al., 1987). Iyengar habitats that provide ecological niches for a (1927, see Krishnamurthy, 1987) also observed variety of organisms. The mangroves are a luxuriant and diversified vegetation on critical for sustaining biodiversity. As a Krusadai island with Avicennia officinalis, detritus-based ecosystem, leaf litter from the Excoecaria agallocha, Bruguiera cylindrica, mangroves provides the basis for adjacent Ceriops tagal and Lumnitzera recemosa. Rao aquatic and terrestrial food webs. It also serves et al. (1963 a, b) noticed only small patches as breeding, feeding and nurseries grounds for of mangrove on Pamban, Rameswaram and most of the commercial fishes and crustaceans other islands in the Gulf of Mannar. Later on which thousands of people depend for their records also registered only stunted stands of livelihood. Besides supporting coastal fishing Avicennia marina, Excoecaria agallocha stock, the mangroves also benefit human Rhizophora conjucata (R. apiculata), C. tagal, economic development by stabilizing A. alba, Bruguiera conjucata (B. cylindrical) shorelines affected by tropical storms, etc. (Blasco 1975; Krishnamoothy et al, 1987). hurricanes and natural calamities. The Gopal and Krishnamoorthy (1993) have mangrove system plays a major role in the mentioned only four mangrove species, which 43 Role of mangroves in coastal protection, fishery productivity and resilience of reefs in the Gulf of Mannar occur in the Gulf of Mannar: R. conjucata, 1.2. Biodiversity of mangroves: A.alba, C. tagal and E. agallocha. According About 11 species of mangroves are to Perichiappan et al. (1995) there are 13 widely distributed in the islands of Gulf of species of mangrove and other halophytes Mannar (Daniel, 1997; Kathiresan and recorded from 8 islands of Mandapam group. Rajendran, 1998). Most of the mangrove Daniel of Botanical survey of India (1997) species are under threat (Table 2). Other recorded mangrove plants to be present in all biological species reported so far are only islands of the Gulf of Mannar, except incomplete (Table 3). Annaipar, Appa, Karaichalli, Nallathanni, Table 2. Describes the status of Mangroves of Gulf Puluvinichalli, Valimunai and Van islands. The of Mannar (Kathiresan andRajendran, Mandapam group of islands showed that 1998) maximum number of species viz., Aegiceras corniculatum, Avicennia marina , Bruguiera No Name of mangroves Status (based on IUCN) cylindrica, Excoecaria agallocha Lumnitzera 1 Aegiceras Critically endangered,exist racemosa, Rhizophora apiculata. Excoecaria corniculatum only in Kurusadai island agallocha occurs only in the Mandapam 2 Avicennia Vulnerable, stunted growth groups of islands; Avicennia marina is marina in all islands except in luxuriant in the Mandapam group of islands Mandapam groups of islands and is only shrubby in other islands and Kundukal island 3 Bruguiera Endangered (Daniel,1997). cylindrica 1.1. Extent of mangroves 4 Excoecaria Critically endangered, exist Of the 21 islands, 11 are colonized agallocha only in the Mandapam with luxuriant mangrove ecosystems with groups of islands 5 Lumnitzera Endangered total area of 1095.94 hectares. Area wise racemosa extent of mangroves is given in Table 1. 6 Rhizophora Critically endangered, exist apiculata only in Kurusadai island Table 1. Natural mangrove vegetation along the 7 R. mucronata Critically endangered, exist coast of the Gulf of Mannar islands only in Kurusadai and Mandapam groups of islands No. Name of the area Island area (in hectares) Table 3. Biodiversity status of the region 1 Kurusadai island 65.80 Biological group No. of species Author, year 2 Pullivasal island 29.95 Total heterotrophic 3 Pommarichan island 16.58 bacteria 35 Kannan et al., 1998 4 Manoliputti island 2.34 Phytoplankton 126 -do- 5 Manoli island 25.90 Seaweeds 36 Kathiresan and 6 Hare island1 29.04 Rajendran,1998 7 Mullai island 10.20 Mangroves 8 -do- 8 Valai island 10.15 Annelides 6 Ramaiyan et al.,1996 9 Talaiari island 75.15 Gastropods 60 -do- 10 Appa island 28.63 Bivalves 20 -do- 11 Nalla Thanni island 110.00 Crabs 38 -do- Shrimp 4 -do- Total 1095.94 Finfish 60 -do- 44 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 1.3. Gap area to be focused: biology, reproduction and vegetative Proper survey of mangrove resources propagation. in the islands is not yet carried out. Data are 4. Fishery resources not at all adequate on the vegetation Mangroves support coastal fish characteristics such as species composition, resources.There is possibly an interaction distribution, height and density; biodiversity among the fishes of mangroves, coral reefs and status of each species, their habitat seagrass communities. A recent study reveals characteristics such as soil texture, composition, that mangroves enhance the biomass of coral salinity, pH, nutrients and trace elements; their reef fish in the Caribbean. Current rate of environmental characteristics such as rainfall, mangrove deforestation are likely to have wind speed, evapo-transpiration, tidal severe deleterious consequences for fishery characteristics etc ; and, threat factors in those productivity and resilience of reefs (Mumbe mangrove-colonized islands. In absence of et al., 2004). these data, conservation and management of the mangrove resources is difficult. 4.1. Gap area to be focused: 2. Mangrove restoration The function of island mangroves on coral reef fishes has to be understood. The forestry sector has taken up mangrove regeneration work in the areas from 5. Coastal protection functions of 1994 onwards in Manoli, Manoliputti, Hare mangroves Island and Thalayari Island. The mangroves do function as a 2.1. Gap area to be focused: ‘bio-shield’ against sea waves, coastal erosion and natural calamities (Kathiresan and There is a need to evaluate the Rajendran, 2005). They help in island restoration activity to bring out the reasons for building and in protecting the coral reefs and success and failure of the work carried out so seagrass systems from turbidization of coastal far. Impact of the mangrove plantation to waters. The absence and/or deforestation of adjacent territorial trees such as coconut, mangroves causes erosion of island periphery palmyra and other trees in islands requires to that enhances the water turbidity, attenuates be understood. the light penetration and photosynthetic 3. Biodiversity conservation process and that negatively affects the seagrass The Gulf of Mannar Marine and coral reef system. Biosphere Reserve is unique to have very rare 5.1. Gap area to be focused: mangrove species. One such is Pemphis The vital functions on coastal acidula which is endemic to Peninsular India protection have not been properly understood and restricted to coral sand of open sea-face for the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere of Manauli, Manauliputti, Poomarichan Reserve. This is highly warranted in the islands, Hare islands etc. context of a prediction that another giant wave 3.1. Gap area to be focused: is likely to strike off the Indian Ocean region Pemphis acidula grows only in coral within 30 years (Borrero, 2006). sand soil. This unique habitat specificity Suggestions requires research on its physiology. The rare The following suggestions are made species has to be studied for their floral for mangrove resources and their conservation 45 Role of mangroves in coastal protection, fishery productivity and resilience of reefs in the Gulf of Mannar in the Gulf of Mannar areas: of the Gulf of mannar Biosphere Reserves 1. To collect data on the ecological and and Management in India (eds. R.K. Maikhuri, K.S. Rao & R.K. Rai),MoEN, New Delhi, biological aspects of mangrove resources; 207-220. 2. To understand the functions of the 7. Kathiresan, K, 2004. Biodiversity in mangrove mangroves on island building, protection ecosystems of India Tamilnadu Biodiversity and fishery enrichment; strategy and action plan: Estuarine Biodiversity 3. To assess the mangrove restoration (Ed. R. Annamalai), Tamil Nadu Forest activities; Department, Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennaipp. 18-61. 4. To propose techniques for restoration and 8. Kathirean, K. and Brain L. Bhingam. 2001. rehabilitation of mangroves especially for Biology of mangroves and mangrove cosystem Pemphis acidula in potential and/or Advances in Marine Biology, (Academic degraded areas; Press) 40: 81-251. 5. To impart education, awareness creation, 9. Kathiresan, K.and Rajendran, N. 1998. technology transfer through training for Mangrove - associated communities. conservation and management of Biodiversity of Gulf of Mannar Marine mangrove resources; and, Biosphere Reserve, (eds. Rajeswari M. Anand, K. Dorairaj & A. Parida) MSSRF, 6. To provide guidelines on further Madras, 156-164. improvement of mangrove ecosystems. 10. Kathiresan, K. and Rajendran, N. 2005. Acknowledgements Mangrove ecosystems of the Indian Ocean The author is thankful to authorities region. of Annamalai University for providing facili- 11. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 34: ties and to the Ministry of Environment and 104-113. Forests, Government of India for financial 12. Kathiresan, K. and Rajendran, N. 2005a. support. Coastal mangrove forests mitigated tsunami. 13. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 65 : References cited 601-606. 1. Blasco, F., 1975. The Mangroves of India. 14. Kathiresan, K. and Qasim, S.Z. 2005. French Institute of Pondicherry. All India Biodiversity of Mangrove Ecosystems. Press, Pondicherry, 175 pp. 15. Hindustan Publishing Corporation (India), 2. Borrero, Jose (2006). Proceedings of National New Delhi, 251 pp. Academy of Sciences USA,5th December. 16. Krishnamurthy, 1987. The Gulf of Mannar 3. Daniel, P. 1997. Inventorization of the Biosphere Reserve. Ministry of Environment angiosperms of Gulf of Mannar Biosphere and Forests, Govt. of India, Project Document- Reserve (eds. R.K. Maikhuri, K.S. Rao & R.K. 5, 105pp. Rai), MoEN, New Delhi. 17. Krishnamurthy .K, Choudhury, A, and 4. Gopal, B. and Krishnamurthy, K. 1993. Untawale AG 1987, Mangroves in India. Wetlands of South Asia: D.F. Whigham et al. Status report, Govt.of India, Ministry of (editors)Wetlands of the World. 1: 345- 414. Environment and Forest, New Delhi. 150pp. 5. Iyengar, M.O.P., 1927. Krusadai Island flora. 18. Mumby, Peter, J., L. Pescod, Claire, Renken, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. New. Ser., 1:185-188. Henk, C.C. Wabnitz Colette and J.E. Arias 6. Kannan,L., Kathiresan, K and Purushothaman, Gonzales, 2004. Mangroves enhance the A. 1997. Biodiversity of microbial flora biomass of coral reef fish communities in the (bacteria and phytoplankton) of the coral reef Caribbean. Nature, 427(6974): 533-536. 46 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 19. Perichiappan, A. Ajith Kumar,T.T. Sankar, G. Gulf of Mannar. A monograph submitted to and Muniyandi, K. 1995. Occurrence of MoEN, Govt. of India, 133 pp. mangroves in the islands of Gulf of Mannar. 21. Rao,T.A., Agarwal, K. and Mukherjee, A.K. In: National Symposium on Algal Potential 1963a. Ecological studies on the soil and and its Exploitation, December 27-29, vegetation of Krusadai group of islands in the Madurai, 39p. Gulf of Mannar. Bulletin of Botanical Survey 20. Ramaiyan, V., Kasinathan, R., Ajmal Khan, S., of India, 5: 141-148. J.K. Peterson and Rajagopal, S. 1996. Studies 22. Rao,T.A., Agarwal, K. and Mukherjee, A.K. on the biodiversity of invertebrates (Annelids, 1963b. An ecological account of and Turbellarians,Bivalves, Gastropods and vegetation of Rameswaram islands. Bulletin Crustaceans) and vertebrates (Fishes) in the of Botanical Survey of India, 5: 301-323.

47 Present status on conservation and management of mangrove habitats in the islands of Gulf of Mannar region Present status on conservation and management of mangrove habitats in the islands of Gulf of Mannar region, Tamilnadu

Dr. P. NAMMALWAR1 AND Dr. R. RAMESH2 1Project Leader, Institute of Ocean Management, Anna University, Chennai - 600 025 2Director, Institute of Ocean Management, Anna University, Chennai - 600 025

Introduction The mangroves grow luxuriantly in The mangrove ecosystem being the alluvial soil substrates, which are fine textured, interphase between terrestrial forests and loose mud or silt, rich in humus and sulphides aquatic marine ecosystems it includes and they develop in low lying and broad diversified macro habitats such as mangrove coastal plains where the topographic gradients dominant forests, litter laden forest floors, are very small and tidal amplitude is large. mudflats, adjacent coral reefs and contiguous Their distribution is limited by temperature water courses which may be rivers estuaries, and they prefer moist atmosphere and bays, inter-tidal waters and channels and freshwater inflow, which brings in abundance backwaters. Thus, this ecosystem offers nutrients and silts from terrestrial source. The innumerable microhabitats for large number mangroves occur in sheltered shores as waves of species. In recent years nature and currents damage the mangrove seedlings. conservation of mangrove reserves and Repeatedly flooded but well drained soils habitats has assumed great significance in support good growth of mangroves, but developing countries in the context of the role impeded drainage is detrimental. of conservation in socio-economic In India mangroves are distributed in development and the recognition of its about 6,470 sq.km that constituted 7% of the functional role. The other values attached to world mangroves and 8% of total Indian this aesthetic and cultural. Coastline. The area-wise distribution of Mangroves are the salt tolerant forest mangrove forests in India has been reviewed. ecosystems distributed mainly in tropical and Status of mangroves along the Arabian Sea has sub-tropical inter-tidal regions of the world. been reviewed. There are three different types They consist of coastal wetlands; swamps, of mangroves in India viz., deltaic,backwater- forestland within and water spread areas. In estuarine and insular categories. The deltaic the mangroves along the coastline various mangroves occur on east coast (Bay of species of marine organisms get themselves adapted to grow under the influence of both Bengal) where the mighty rivers make deltas. salt and brackish water. Mangrove resources/ The backwater-estuarine type of mangroves areas are used as a breeding and nursery exist in the west coast (Arabian sea) which is grounds for many aquatic organisms. The characterized by typical funnel shaped importance of mangrove resources which estuaries of major rivers (Indus, Narmada and provides high potential for fisheries and Tapti) or backwaters, creeks and neritic inlets. collection of seeds of cultivable and The insular mangroves are present in Andaman economically important fin fishes and and Nicobar Islands where many tidal shellfishes for aquaculture in addition for estuaries, small rivers, neritic islets and reducing coastal erosion. lagoons which support a rich mangrove flora. 48 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Of the Country’s total area under the racemosa, Ceriops decandra and Aegiceras mangrove vegetation 70% was recorded on the corniculatum. Mangroves also occur near east coast, and on the west coast 12%. The Vedaranyam, Kodaikarai (Point Calimere), bay islands (Anadaman and Nicobars) account Muthupet, Chathram and Tuticorin. for 18% of the Country’s total mangrove area. Depletion of mangrove covers in The mangroves have a vast existence on the some of the islands of Gulf of Mannar by the east coast of India due to nutrient rich alluvial onslaught of other interest groups might not soil formed by rivers- Ganga, Brahmaputra, only threaten the habitat for many species of Mahanadhi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery fisheries and birds but would result in eco- and perennial supply of freshwater along the logical imbalance. Hence taking proper steps deltaic coast. But, the deltas with alluvial on that people’s participation support, which deposits are almost absent on the west coast is very essential for the conservation and of India, only funnel shaped estuaries or management of mangroves, should mitigate backwaters are present. the pressure on the mangrove cover. Due to In India mangroves comprise the conflicts, use with the coastal zone related approximately 59 species of higher plants from island ecosystems of Gulf of Mannar and 41 genera belonging to 29 families. Of these, surrounding habitats are being increasingly 32 species belonging to 24 genera and 20 tampered with on behalf of activities such as families are present along the west coast. The commercial fishing, navigation, energy species viz., Sonneratia caseolaris, Suaeda exploitation, national defense, recreation and fruticosa, Urochondra setulosa have been quarrying for industrial needs. Thus reported only from west coast. The eastcoast conservation of habitats will thus turnout to of India and Andaman and Nicobar islands be the most biologically non-destructive show high species diversity. There are 45 means of reaching “Zero habitat loss”. Public species in 27 genera of mangroves in the bay opinion, participation in protecting nature and islands. The species like Ceriops decandra, endangered species run high. Hence, the Xylocarpus spp., Lumntizera littoria and Nypa status on mangrove habitats in the island fruticans, Phoenix paludosa, Cerbera ecosystem of Gulf of Mannar region will help manghas are limited to east coast. The in the formation of future suitable monitoring common species in India coastline are strategies for conservation and management. Rizophora mucronata, Ceriops tagal, Distribution of mangroves in India Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Lumntizera The world’s total mangrove area racemosa, Sonneratia apetala, acanthus which spans over 30 countries including those ilicifolius, Avicennia marina, A.officinalis, for the various island nations is about 1,00,000 Excoecaria agallocha and Acrostichum sq.km. The total area of the Indian mangroves aureum. Totally 37 species of exclusive estimated at 6,81,976 hectares of which nearly mangroves and about 25 associated species 45% occurs in Sunderbans and the islands in occur in the coastal and inland regions. the Bay of Bengal. Other important mangroves In Tamilnadu mangroves exist on the are killai and Pichavaram and Gulf of Mannar Cauvery deltaic areas. Pichavaram has well- islands in Tamil Nadu, state of Kerala, developed mangrove forest dominant with Karnataka, Gulf of Kutch and Andaman and Rizophora spp., Avicennia marina, Excoecaria Nicobar islands. The Andaman –Nicobar agallocha, Brugaiera cylindrical, Lumnitzera islands contain some of the least distributed 49 Present status on conservation and management of mangrove habitats in the islands of Gulf of Mannar region and best preserved mangroves. The Andaman- roots and vertical pneumatophores are Nicobar islands have about 1,190 sq.km. area characteristic adaptations. The composition of of mangroves. Here, the forests are the mangrove species changes with depth, gregarious type, dominated by single species. salinity, wave action, intertidal exposure etc. The Sunderbans formed in the vast delta Diversity in the structural formation and complex of the Ganga and Brahmaputra river zonation of mangrove forests can be witnessed systems are usually described as the largest along the latitudinal gradients and probably single natural mangrove block having an area also along the longitudinal gradients that of 4,170 sq.km. in W.Bengal. It is note worthy reflect climatic, especially rainfall gradients. that today, in Kerala, there is no dense Across the latitudinal gradients, air mangrove forest in spite of its generally very temperature and across the longitudinal heavy rainfall as compared to other states of gradients, water, soil fertility appears to be the the west coast of India. It is contrary to most important factors in determining the general rule that the maximum development growth patterns of mangrove populations. of mangroves is in the regions with heavy Influence of mangroves on flora and fauna rainfall. Tidal currents and freshwater supply assemblage influence the physio-chemical factors in the Mangrove systems are among the mangrove estuarine systems to govern the most productive natural ecosystems on the distribution and zonation of mangrove species, earth. The sources primary productivity are the of which temperature and salinity of the mangrove vegetation themselves, algal ecosystem appear to be important factors. colonies associated with the mangrove root On the basis of the height of the surfaces and the moist forest floor and the vegetation, 3 categories of forest stratification phytoplankton communities in the associated can be observed in a normal mangrove eco- bay and lagoons. Algae observed in the system. The widest trunk with spreading inter-tidal regions of mangroves are very rich crown is found in species of Sonneratia and and diverse in both quality and quantity. The Avicennia and less spreading crown found in benthic algae of the mud surface are species of Bruguiera and Rizophora, which represented by the green filamentous species constitute the top canopy of the forest. The of Entromorpha, Rizocolonium, Monostroma Second category is contributed by shrubs and and ulva. The mangrove environment provides small trees represented by species of Ageceros, living space for a dependent biota of more than Exoecaria and Ceriops. Small shrubs and ferns two thousand species of flora and fauna of such as of Acanthus, Aegiolitis and resident, semi-resident or migratory mode of Acrostichum occupy the third one. Globally, lie. The mangrove associated fauna, being a mangrove ecosystems are though to contain composite of terrestrial, estuarine and marine about sixty species of true mangrove trees and organisms constituting representatives of shrubs and more than 20 additional species almost all invertebrates phyla and fishes have frequently associated with the mangrove flora. to face numerous interactions between animals They exhibit a remarkable capacity for salt of terrestrial and aquatic biotopes. As such, tolerance and hence they are physiological the mangrove fauna with its lower species halophytes. The leaves possess halophilous diversity but relatively large number of properties with thick cuticle, large mucilage individuals is highly characteristic in nature. cells etc. The formation of buttress and stilt The primary food source for aquatic organisms 50 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 in most mangrove-dominated estuaries occurs salinity, tides, rainfall and winds; each having in the form of particulate organic matter its own effect. Temperature influences the (detritus) derived chiefly from decomposition development and survival of the mangroves of mangrove litter fall. The annual litter fall in the early stages. Salinity determines the normally ranges from 10,000 to 14,000 kg dry distribution and zonation of the species within weight per hectare. Dissolved organic the ecosystem since each species has got its compounds of mangrove region provide an salinity tolerance.Tides act jointly with salinity additional source of nutrition. The predators in the dispersion and zonation; and the tidal feed on the detritus feeders and form amplitude determines the landward extension important food source for both aquatic as well of the mangroves. Rainfall is important in the as terrestrial wild life in addition to forming zonation of mangroves on flat coasts and the food resource for human beings. productivity of the mangrove ecosystem is Mangrove support rich faunal elated to the frequency and volume of fresh- resources. Among invertebrates, more than water supply by rainfall. Wind is important in 500 species of insects and Arachnida, 229 regulating the seasonality of litter fall, which species of crustacea, 21 species of molluscs, is the major pathway of energy from 50 species of nematodes, and 150 species of terrestrial, to aquatic system. Mangrove planktonic and benthic organisms are known colonize on variety of substrata that include from Indian mangroves. Vertebrate fauna are silty and clayey mud, calcareous mud, quartz represented by 300 species of fish, 177 sand, calcareous sand or mixture of these. species of birds, 36 species of mammals and Occasionally they may colonize coastal coral 22 species of reptiles. Recently, 41 species of reef as well as cracks and hollows of rocky invertebrates and 52 species of fishes of substrata. They prefer sediments that have Indian mangroves have been assessed and four been brought by rainwater or transported by species of invertebrates and only one species tidal currents. The mangrove soils are of fish have been categorized as endangered. generally slightly acidic. The anaerobic It has been estimated that yield of condition in the soils helps sulphate-reducing mangrove-cum-estuarine dependent fisheries bacteria to produce hydrogen sulphide. The of India to the tune of 30,000 tonnes of characteristic black or grey colour of the soil crustaceans per annum. Roughly about 60% is due to reduction of ferric compounds to of Indian coastal marine fish species are ferrous sulphides. dependent on the mangrove estuarine In general atmospheric mean complex. Some of the most common fishes of temperature of most mangrove habitats in the mangroves are species of Liza, Mugil, Bay of Bengal varies from 29- 33oc while Polynemus, Ilisha and Etroplus. Prawns are surface soil temperature ranges from 30- 34oc represented by species of Penaeus and and surface water temperature from 28-33oc. Metapenaeus while mollusk resource are Salinity of mangroves fluctuates considerably species of Crassostrea, Meretrix, Telescopium ranging from 3 to 33 ppt. The pH of the water and Cerethedia. fluctuates from 6.5 to8.0 and dissolved Environmental characteristics in the oxygen content usually very low ranging from mangrove habitats 1.7 to 3.8 mg/l. However in the seaside, it may There are five important factors that reach even 10mg/l. The primary productivity influence mangroves, namely, temperature, of the mangrove water is very high. The 51 Present status on conservation and management of mangrove habitats in the islands of Gulf of Mannar region productivity rates from 0.2 t 0.8g C/ml/day in mangrove trees. Seeds of Cerebra odlun are northern Andaman, slightly higher values from poisonous and fish poisons are extracted from 0.5 to 1.0g C/m3/day in the shallow mud flats it. Mangroves are good breeding and feeding and mangroves of Car Nicobar and higher ground for variety of fishes and prawns. It productivity rates from 2.0 to 3.6mg/C/m3/day provides nutrition for various aquatic organisms in and around the mangroves of Port Blair. In through recycling of plan and animal remains. recent years, the mangrove environment is Of course, mangroves give protection to the getting polluted with different kind of coastline and minimize the disaster due o effluents and other contaminants from the cyclones. Aquaculture practices in the factories and industrial wastes. Heavy metals mangrove sites of many countries are pose a serious problem due to their flourishing even now. Protection of birds environmental persistence and toxicity to sanctuaries and endangered species of wild life aquatic organisms even at lower concentration. (crocodiles and tigers) is the other important Hence, it is very important to monitor heavy aspects of mangroves. Mangrove ecosystems, metal pollution by taking suitable managerial with their variety of subhabitats, offer range measures to protect the valuable mangrove of recreational opportunities such as boating, resources: Increase human pressure for hunting, bird watching, wild life observation, domestic needs and development of industries education trips for specimen collections, are virtually destroyed large areas of virgin photography etc. A part from these, fishery mangroves all over world. Reclamation of activities (culture and capture) in many coastal mangroves for housing, agriculture and salt regions of the tropics are highly dependent evaporation site, grazing of cattle, removal for upon the mangrove-dominated estuaries. fuel, sewage discharge with high BOD, Aquaculture in mangroves signifies a case of discharge of industrial effluents an excessive necessity rather than suitability. In specific release of pesticides and aquaculture practices cases of aquaculture in the mangrove have threatened most of the mangroves and ecosystem economic and social benefits may some are in h verge of extinction. The outweigh management problems. A major part degraded area need to be restocked and fresh of primary production enters the mangrove mud –flats need to be afforested with suitable food-web a dead organic ecosystem or mangroves. Silvicultural techniques like transported into adjoining water body in a regeneration, restoration and afforestation of degraded form and the estuaries and mangroves can be the only answer to these backwaters fringed by mangroves have long problems. been used for rearing or flattening of bivalves, prawns and fishes. Like any other types of forests, mangroves form the national wealth of a Mangrove ecosystems of Gulf of Mannar nation. Timber produced from mangrove is of islands, Tamil Nadu great value. Wood Rhizophora is used for boat A survey on the distribution of building, which is resistance to termites and various species of mangroves in Shingle, boring animals. Mangrove trees are used as krushadi, Poomarichan, Manoli- putti, manoli, wood or for charcoal. Mangroves are main Here, Muli, Poovarasanpatti, Anaipar, source of tannin industry once but now Upputhanni, kasuwar, Valai, appa, gradually replaced by synthetic tannin. A black Nallathanni, Karaichalli, Vantivu, Talayari, dye is also extracted from the bark of Valimunai, Puluvinichalli, Vilanguchalli and 52 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Rameswaram islands of Gulf of Mannar was and the need to pool together the existing conducted during January 1995- December data from all sources by farming an 1997. The various species of mangroves such information network of all agencies in the as Avicennia marina, Rhizhopora mucronata, country. Bruguiera cylindrical, Ceriops decandrus, ii. Priority for the mangrove conservation/ Luminitzera recemosa, Exoecaria agallocha biodiversity to be given to the important and Suaeda spp., are distributed in these genes, species and habitats. selected islands surveyed. It may be revealed iii. Improve the methodologies for different that Krushadai, Manoli and Poomarichan programme, evolve more effective policy islands are found to be more productive in and target with priority. mangroves vegetation when compared to other iv. Practice of the conservation/biodiversity islands of Gulf of Mannar. Survey on fish and programme with precise definition and prawn seed resources was undertaken in the clear targets. mangrove areas of selected islands and v. Recognition of the traditional rights of Rameswaram (Pamban) to find out the coastal communities to use the natural influence of mangroves on the seed abundance resources in their surrounding natural of fish and prawns in the non-mangrove areas habitats for their livelihood while ie., marine habitat of the above islands was formulating and implementing regulations carried out for comparative studies. and conservation measures on priority Management strategies for conservation of basis. mangroves vi. Application of anthropogenic objectives In India mangroves are under pressure of maintaining biodiversity of mangroves due to increasing population, development of so that it is possible value to the mankind. ports, saltpan and aquaculture, dumping of vii. Integration of all elements of management, industrial wastes and affluent, development of from planning and design to fertilizer plants and exploitation for implementation, that is, construction and petrochemical activites. Conservation of installation, operation and maintenance, mangrove areas for aquaculture and monitoring and feedback and evaluation residential purposes is also leading to loss of over time. his important ecosystem. Based on the above viii.Integration of management resources of observations, a concentrated and co-coordinated the agencies and entities involved. effort is necessary to undertake management Recommendations measures to conserve these natural resources. With view to prevent further destruction of 1. Priority should be given to the little known mangrove forest, it s felt that an integrated the species of mangroves for propagation. first step towards achieving this goal. The 2. Preparation of distributional maps of each conservation of mangrove habitats has attained species could be considered. great significance in developing countries in 3. Preparation of a list of endangered and context of its functional role in ecological and threatened genera and species of genetic, socio-economical sustainable development. ecological, economical and social i. Need for rapid expansion in taxonomy in significance with their status and order to interpret, manage, conserve and perceived threats to them with a view to use biodiversity/mangrove sustainability make them target species for conservation. 53 Present status on conservation and management of mangrove habitats in the islands of Gulf of Mannar region 4. Development of mangrove nursery banks 2. Annon, 1998. Biodiversity of Gulf of Mannar for propagation purposes. Marine Biosphere Reserve. Proceedings No. 24. M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, 5. Identification of suitable sites to pave the Chennai. 185pp. way for planting green mangrove 3. Annon, 2000. Asia- Pacific Co-operation on coverage/ Propagation. research for conservation of mangroves. 6. Environmental monitoring in existing Proceedings of an International Workshop, mangrove areas of the islands of Gulf of Okinawa, Japan., 150pp. Mannar should be considered. 4. Blasco, F. 1975. The mangroves of India. 7. Conservation efforts to be prioritized French Institute, Pondicherry. 1-175pp. based on the available expertise and 5. Bhosale, L.J. 1986. The mangroves. Proc.natl. information depending on species Symp. on biology, utilization and representation, richness, uniqueness, conservation of mangroves, University of endemism and threat to a gene pool. Kolhapur, Kolhapur, 558pp. 8. Mangrove species of global significance 6. Banerjee and D. Gosh. 1998. Species diversity and distribution of mangroves in both in ecological and economic value India. In: An Anthology of Indian mangroves. need to be identified in the region and ENVIS Publication, Centre of Advance Study threat such species need to be looked into. in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, 9. Threats to the mangrove resources and the Parrangipettai, Tamil Nadu 20-24pp. root causes for it need to be identified for 7. Deshmukh, S.V. 1991. Mangroves of India: each level both at micro and macro level. Status report. (eds.) Deshmukh, S.V. and This should include both anthropogenic R. Mahalingam, A global Network of and natural factors. Mangrove genetic Resource Centres Project Formulation Workshop, Madras, India, 15-25. 10. The impact of environmental and human 8. Deshmukh, S.V. and Balaji (eds.), 1994. interference (Pollution, Sea erosion, over Conservation of mangrove forest genetic exploitation and pathogenic conditions) resources: A training manual. IITO CRSARD on marine flora and fauna of Biosphere project, M.S.Swaminathan Research of Gulf of Mannar need to be assessed. Foundation, Madras, India. 487 pp. 11. Institutional mechanisms must be ensured 9. Gopinathan, C.P. and G.S.D. Selvaraj. 1996. on the management of resources, The Mangroves- importance, conservation and environmental factors affecting the management. In: Marine biodiversity resources and social obligation and conservation and management (eds.), N.G. mobilization needed for the conservation Menon and C.S.G. Pillai. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Cochin. 4-15pp. and sustainable utilization of resources. 10. Jagtap, T.G., V.S. Chavan, and A.G. Untawale, 12. The Institutional set up between the 1993. Mangrove ecosystems of India: A need government agencies, research institutes, for protection. Ambio, 22(4): 252-254. local bodies, non-governmental 11. Kepetsky, J.M., 1985. Mangroves, fisheries organization and environmentalists need and aquaculture. Fao fish. Report 338 (suppl.): to be strengthened. 17-36. Bibliography 12. Krishnamurthy, K., A. Choudhury and A.G. 1. Annon, 1990. Conservation of mangroves in Untawale, 1987. Status reports on Mangroves India – Report Govt. of India, Ministry of of India. Ministry of Environment and forests, Environment and Forests, New Delhi 75pp. Govt. Of India, New Delhi, 150pp. 54 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 13. Kathiresan, K., 1995. Strategies of 19. Nammalwar P. 2000. Development of GIS conservation of a mangrove. J. Annamalai Based information system for critical coastal, University, Part B 37: 23-32. marine habitats. Collection of qualitative and 14. Kathiresan K. and N. Rajendran 1998. quantitative data on fisheries in Gulf of Mannar Mangrove associated communities. In: – Report submitted to Department of Ocean Proceedings No. 24 (eds.) Rajeswari M., Development Govt. of India, New Delhi. Anand K. Devaraj and A. Parida. 148pp. M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation 20. Nammalwar P., V.Sundararaj, K.Pukazhendhi Chennai. 156- 164pp. and T.D.Babu. 2006. Conservation strategies 15. Kathiresan. K, and S.Z. Qasim. 2005. and sustainable use of marine biodiversity for Biodiversity of mangrove ecosystems. coastal socio-economic development in India. Hindustan Publishing Corporation (India), Proceedings of the National Symposium on New Delhi. 251pp. Conservation and Valuation of Marine Biodiversity. Zoological Survey of India, 16. Natarjan. R. 1998. The mangroves: A Natural, Chennai. (In press). Renewable Economic Reserve Needs conservation In: An Anthology of Indian 21. Purushan, K.S. 1991. Prospects of fish mangroves. ENVIS Publication, Centre of production from mangrove ecosystems. Fish. Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Chimes., 11(3): 24-26 Annamalai University, Parrangipettai, Tamil 22. Swaminathan, M.S., 1991. Conservation and Nadu.1-6pp. sustainable utilization of mangrove forests 17. Nammalwar P. 1998. Studies on Mangrove genetic resources. M.S.Swaminathan Research ecosystem of Gulf of mannar islands and their Foundation 130 pp. influence on larval and seed recruitment of 23. Untawale, V.G., 1987. Conservation in Indian Economically useful fishes and prawns- mangroves a National Perspective. In: A Report submitted to Ministry of Environment special Collection of Papers to Felicitate Dr. and Forests, Govt. of India, New Delhi. 16pp. S. Z. Qasim on his sixtieth birthday (eds.) Rao, 18. Nammalwar P. and K. Muniyandi. 2000. T.S.S., R. Natarajan, B.N. Desai, G. Narayana Mangrove ecosystem of Gulf of Mannar, Tamil swamy, and S.R.Bhat, 85-104. Nadu. In: Souvenir 2000. Issued at the National 24. Untawale, A.G. 1998. Management of Symposium on Eco-friendly mariculture mangroves for energy needs. In: An technology packages- An update, Mandapam Anthology of Indian mangroves. ENVIS Regional Centre of Central Marine Fisheries Publication, Centre of Advanced Study in Research Institute, mandapam Camp, Tamil Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Nadu. 53-57pp. Parrangipettai, Tamil Nadu. 53-56pp.

55 An account on the marine sponges of Gulf of Mannar An account on the marine sponges of Gulf of Mannar

ANITA G. MARY AND S. LAZARUS Institute for Environmental Research and Social Education, 14/C3, Nesamony Nagar Nagercoil - 1, Kanyakumari District, Tamilnadu, India. E-mail : [email protected]

Introduction Kanyakumari, Chinnamuttom, Arokiapuram It is estimated that there are 15000 and Hare, Manauli and Kurusadi islands in species of sponges living in the marine and Gulf of Mannar. freshwater habitats worldwide (Hooper and Materials and Methods Van Soest, 2002). Among the various orders The materials for the present study of sponges, the siliceous sponges constitute were collected at a depth of 2-25m by the bulk with about 90 % of the total number wading, SCUBA diving, dredging and beach of species. Thus, species belonging to this combing. Classification and specimen order are distributed well in the inshore areas identification were done following Hooper and of the sea and hence are commonly used for Van Soest (2002). The specimens were chemical studies world over. preserved in 70% alcohol and deposited in As evidenced in the latest estimates, IERSE museum. the Indian sponge fauna is known only at a 40% level. Comparatively very little systematic Results work has been done on the shallow water Out of the 13 orders of the class marine sponge fauna of peninsular India along Demospongiae, 6 orders are represented in the the east coast (Madras & Chilka Lake) which present study. It is generally seen from any were investigated to some extent by Dendy collection of demosponges from the world (1887) and Ali (1954, 1956). The major studies oceans that the number of species of the order dealing with the deep sea sponge fauna of the Poecilosclerida is highest. However in the Bay of Bengal are those of Dendy and Burton present collection, a total number of 50 (1926) and Burton (1928). The fauna of the species belonging to 6 orders, 16 families, and Chilka Lake in Orissa state was investigated 28 genera, were collected out of which orders by Annandale (1914, 1915). A total record of Dictyoceratida and Haplosclerida dominates 275 species from 8 orders, 38 families and 136 with 14 species, followed by Poecilosclerida genera were recorded by Thomas (1985). More with 11 species, Halichondrida with 8 species, effort is needed to enumerate the sponge fauna Dendroceratida with 2 species and fully and this is urgently required for all the Hadromerida with one species. Number of lower invertebrates as they are not properly families, genera and species encountered are studied or documented yet. given in Table 1 and the distribution details in The main objective of the present Table 2. work is to record the distribution of marine Discussion sponges available in the southeast Indian coast which was undertaken for three years since This study shows that Gulf of Mannar October 1999 as a part of the first author’s contains a diverse sponge fauna comprising PhD thesis. The basic data for the present study of more species of the order Dictyoceratida were collected from the following centres: and Haplosclerida along the shallow reef 56 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Table 1. Number of orders, families, genera & species in the present collection S.No Order Family Genus Species 1. Hadromerida 1 1 1 2. Poecilosclerida 4 5 11 3. Halichondrida 3 5 8 4. Haplosclerida 2 4 14 5. Dictyoceratida 4 11 14 6. Dendroceratida 2 2 2 Total 16 28 50

Table 2. Distribution details of the sponges collected for the study

Sl.No. Order & Species Locality Re-mark

1. Hadromerida: Cervicornia tubulodigitata Hare and Kurusadi Clionaidae (Dendy, 1905) Island x 2. Poecilosclerida Antho (Acarnia) mannarensis Arokiapuram Microcionidae (Carter, 1880) xx 3. “ Clathria (Clathria) indica Kanyakumari, (Dendy, 1889) Chinnamuttom, - Arockiapuram & Kurusadi island 4. “ Clathria (Thalysias) vulpina Kanyakumari, (Lamarck, 1813) Chinnamuttom, - Arokiapuram 5. “ Clathria (Thalysias) sp. aff. Chinnamuttom, procera (Ridley, 1884) Manauli Island - 6. “ Clathria (Thalysias) aff. Kanyakumari, arborescens (Ridley,1884) Chinnamuttom, Arockiapuram, xx Hare Island & Kurusadi island 7. “ Clathria (Thalysias) spiculosa (Dendy, 1889) Arockiapuram xx 8. “ Clathria (Wilsonella) sp. aff. Chinnamuttom, mixta Hentschel, 1912 Manauli Island xx 9. “ Clathria sp. 2 Kanyakumari xx 10. Raspailiidae Endectyon (Hemectyon) Manauli island fruticosum (Dendy, 1887) - 11. Myxillidae Myxilla (Ectyomyxilla) arenaria Chinnamuttom Dendy, 1905 - 12. Mycalidae Mycale (Zygomycale) parishii Kanyakumari and (Bowerbank, 1875) Arockiapuram - 13. Halichondrida Axinella ceylonensis Kanyakumari, Axinellidae (Dendy, 1905) Chinnamuttom and - Hare Island 57 An account on the marine sponges of Gulf of Mannar Table 2. Continued...

Sl.No. Order & Species Locality Re-mark

14. Halichondrida Axinella manus, Dendy 1905 Kanyakumari, Axinellidae Chinnamuttom and - Arokiapuram and Kurusadi island 15. “ Axinella sp. Chinnamuttom xx 16. “ Dragmacidon agariciformis, Kanyakumari, Dendy, 1905 Arokiapuram xx 17. “ Dragmacidon sp. Chinnamuttom xx 18. “ Auletta lyrata (Esper, 1794) Kanyakumari, Chinnamuttom and - Arockiapuram 19. Dictyonellidae Stylissa carteri (Dendy, 1889) Manauli island x 20. “ Stylissa sp. Hare Island x 21. Halichondriidae Haliclona (Haliclona) sp Kanyakumari xx 22. Haplosclerida : Callyspongia (Cladochalina) cf. Kanyakumari, Callyspongiidae diffusa Ridley, 1884 Chinnamuttom and - Arokiapuram 23. “ Callyspongia(Cladochalina) Kanyakumari xx subarmigera (Ridley, 1884) 24. “ Callyspongia (Toxochalina) Kurusadi Island xx folioides (Bowerbank, 1875) 25. “ Callyspongia (Chladochalina) sp Kanyakumari, Chinnamuttom xx 26. “ Callyspongia (Callyspongia) sp.2 Chinnamuttom xx 27. “ Callyspongia (Callyspongia) sp.3 Kanyakumari, Hare Island xx 28. “ Siphonochalina minor, Hare and Kurusadi islands x Dendy, 1916 29. Niphatidae Gelliodes incrustans Kanyakumari - (Dendy, 1905) 30. “ Gelliodes carnosa Dendy, 1889 Kanyakumari, Arokiapuram xx and Kurusadi island 31. “ Amphimedon sp.1 (? obtusispiculifera) (Dendy,1905) Kanyakumari x 32. “ Amphimedon sp. 2 Chinnamuttom, Kurusadi island x 33. “ Amphimedon sp. 3 Chinnamuttom x 34. “ Amphimedon sp. 4 Kanyakumari x 35. Dictyoceratida Luffariella sp. Kanyakumari, Chinnamuttom Thorectidae and Arokiapuram x 36. “ Hyrtios cf. erectus Keller, 1889 Kanyakumari and Arockiapuram - 37. “ Fascaplysinopsis reticulatus Hentschel, 1912 Manauli island x 38. “ Semitaspongia sp. Kanyakumari x 39. “ Smenospongia sp. Kanyakumari, Chinnamuttom, Arokiapuram and x Manauli island

58 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Table 2. Continued...

Sl.No. Order & Species Locality Re-mark

40. Spongiidae Spongia aff. ceylonensis (Dendy, 1905) Kurusadi island - 41 “ Spongia sp. Hare and Manauli island xx 42 “ Leiosella cf. foliacea Lendenfeld, 1889 Chinnamuttom x 43 “ Hyattella intestinalis Kanyakumari, (Lamarck, 1813) Arockiapuram, Hare island - 44 “ Hyattella cf. sinuosa (Pallas, 1766) Arokiapuram xx 45 “ Hyattella aff. sinuosa (Pallas, 1766) Arockiapuram, Hare island xx 46 “ Hyattella tubaria Kanyakumari, Chinnamuttom, Lendenfeld, 1889 Hare island xx 47 Dysideidae Dysidea cf. crassa (Dendy, 1905) Kanyakumari xx 48. “ Lamellodysidea herbacea (Keller, 1889) Kanyakumari, Hare island x 49. “ Euryspongia sp. Arokiapuram x 50. Dendroceratida: Spongionella nigra, Dendy, 1905 Kanyakumari, Arokiapuram Dictyodendrillidae & Manauli island x

* x - New record to India; xx-New to the study area habitats. The most abundant species in this and Maharashtra) by Dendy (1916) and study are: Clathria, Callyspongia and Clathria (Thalysias) procera was reported Hyattella followed by Amphimedon, from the Gulf of Mannar by Dendy (1889) and Dragmacidon and Axinella. Thomas (1985). Dragmacidon agariciformis Out of the 50 species collected, 10 was reported as Thrinacaphora agariciformis sponges such as Myxilla (Ectyomixilla) by Dendy (1905) and as Axinella agariciformis by Thomas (1985) from the Gulf of Mannar. arenaria, Endectyon (Hemectyon) fruticosa, Clathria (Clathria) indica was reported by Mycale (Zygomycale) parishii, Clathria Burton and Rao (1932), Dendy (1905) and indica, Clathria procera, Axinella ceylonensis, Thomas (1985) from the southeast coasts of A. manus, Gelliodes incrustans, Hyrtios erecta India (Tamil Nadu and adjacent coasts of Gulf [formerly Heteronema erecta] and Spongia of Mannar). Clathria (Thalysias) vulpina was ceylonensis [formerly Spongia officianalis] reported from the southeast coasts of India were reported earlier from the Gulf of Mannar (Burton 1937, Burton and Rao 1932, Thomas and Palk Bay by Dendy (1889), Burton (1937), 1985). Thomas (1985) and from the Ceylon coast by Although the present survey lacks Dendy (1905). Of these, Cervicornia, data on the sponge diversity in deeper zones, Amphimedon, Fascaplysinopsis, it appears that the rocky beds along the Semitaspongia, Smenospongia, Leiosella, southeast Indian coasts harbours an extensive Lamellodysidea and Euryspongia are reported sponge and other invertebrate fauna. Hence it for the first time from the Indian coasts. is hoped that further explorations would bring Clathria (Thalysias) spiculosa was out new records from these and other reported from the northern west coast (Gujarat adjacent areas. 59 An account on the marine sponges of Gulf of Mannar Acknowledgements Ser (5), 5 (30): 437-457, pls. 18-19, ser. (5), 6 The first author thanks (31): 35-61; 129-156, psl. 4-8. Dr.Kaliaperumal, former Officer-in-Charge, 11. Dendy, A. 1887. The sponge fauna of Madras. Regional Centre of CMFRI, Mandapam camp A report on a collection of sponges obtained in the neighbourhood of Madras by Edgar for making arrangements to collect samples Thurston Esq. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., Ser. 5, 20: from the three islands of Gulf of Mannar. 153-165, pls. 9-12. Grateful thanks are due to Dr.Rob Van Soest, 12. Dendy, A. 1889. Report on a second Zoologiche Museum, Amsterdam for collection of sponges from the Gulf of Mannar. confirming the identification of the species Ann. & Mag. N. Hist. Ser. 6, 3: 73-99, pls.2-5. listed here. 13. Dendy, A. 1905. Report on the sponges References cited collected by Prof. Herdman at Ceylon in 1902. 1. Ali, M.A. 1954. Studies on Sponges. M.Sc. Rep. Govt. Ceylon Pearl Oyster. Fish. Gulf. Thesis. University of Madras. Mannar. Royal Soc. Suppl. 18: 57-246. 2. Ali, M.A. 1956. Addition to the sponge fauna 14. Dendy, A. 1916. Report on the calcareous sponges collected byt Mr. James Hornell at of Madras. J. Madras Univ., B 26: 289-301. Okhamandal in Kattiawar in 1905-1906. Rep. 3. Annandale, N. 1911. Some sponges associated Govt. Baroda mar. Zool. Okhamandal. Ser. 2, with gregarious molluscs of the family 17: 79-91. vermetidae. Rec. Indian Mus., 6: 47-55. 15. Dendy, A. and M. Burton 1926. Report on 4. Annandale, N. 1914. VI Further notes on the some deep sea sponges from the Indian sponges of lake Baikal. Records of the Indian Museum collected by the R.I.M.S. “Investi- Museum. 10(2): 137-148. Pl. 1X. gator”. Part I. Hexactinellida & Tetraxonida 5. Annandale, N. 1915. Indian Boring Sponges (Pars). Rec. Indian Mus., 28: 225-248. of the family Clionidae. Rec. Indian Mus.,11: 16. Esper, E.J.C. 1797. Sponges, In: Die 1-24. Pflanzenthiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur 6. Bowerbank, J.S. 1875. Contributions to a mit Farbenerleuchtet, nebst Beschreibungen. general history of the Spongiadae. Part VII. Zweyter Theil. (Raspe: Nurnberg): 1-303, Pls. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of L-LXI. London, 1875: 281-296. 17. Hentschel, E. 1912. Kiesel und 7. Burton, M. 1928. Report on some deep sea Hornschwamme der Aru-und kei- Inseln. sponges from the Indian Museum collected by Abhandlungen herausgegeben von der the R.I.M.S. “Investigator” part II Tetraxonida senckenbergischen naturforschenden (concluded) and Euceratosa. Rec. Indian Mus. Gesellschaft, 34 (3): 293-448, pls. 13-21. 30: 109-138. 18. Hooper J.N.A., and R.W.M. Van Soest, 2002. 8. Burton, M. 1937. Supplement to the littoral The Systema Porifera- A Guide to the fauna of Kurusadi Island. Bull. Madras Govt. Classification of Sponges. Kluwer Academic/ Mus. 1: 1-58. Plenum Publishers, New York. 1810 pp. 9. Burton, M. and H.S. Rao, 1932. Report on 19. Keller,C. 1889. Die Spongienfauna des rothen the shallow-water marine sponges in the Meeres (I. Halfte). Zeitschrift fur collection of the Indian Museum. Rec. Indian. Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 48: 311-405, pls. Mus. 34: 299-356. XX-XXV. 10. Carter, H.J. 1880. Report on specimen dredged 20. Lamarck, J.B.P., De Monet, Comte De. 1813. up from the Gulf of Mannar and presented to Sur les polypiers empates. Suite du memoire the Liverpool Free Museum by Capt. W.H. institule: Sur les polypiers empates. Suite des Cawne Warren. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. London. esponges. Archives du Museum national d’ 60 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 histoire naturelle. Paris 20 (6): 294-312. 23. Ridley, S.O. 1884. Spongiida. Report on the 21. Lendenfeld, R. Von 1889. A monograph of Zoological collections made in the Indo- the Horny sponges. (Trubues & Co: London): Pacific Ocean during the voyage of H.M.S. 4, 1-936, pls. 1-50. ‘Alert’ 1881-1882. 366-482, 582-630. 22. Pallas, P.S. 1766. Elenhus Zoophytorum 24. Thomas P.A. 1985. Demospongiae of the Gulf Sistens generum adumbrationes generaliores of Mannar and Palk Bay. Recent Advances in et specierum cognitarum succinctas Marine Biology (Ed. P.S.B.R. James) Today description cum selectis auctorum synonymis and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New (P. Van Cleef: The Hague): 1-451. Delhi. 5: 205-365.

61 Studies on Marine Reptiles, Shore birds and sustainable tourism in Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve-A perspective Studies on Marine Reptiles, Shore birds and sustainable tourism in Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve - A perspective

V. KALAIARASAN1, J. MURALI2, S. ANAND3 1WWF-India Tamilnadu State Office 2Regional Education Consultant, WWF-India 3WWF-India Tamilnadu State Office

Marine Reptiles problems. In some areas, shoreline Marine reptiles are belonging to four modifications have reduced sediment supplies orders namely 1. Chelonia, 2. Crocodilia 3. that feed natural protective structures such as Sauria and 4. Serpentes. Of which the sand spits and barrier beaches, which in turn crocodilia and Sauria represents each one threatens coastal wetlands with erosion. species namely salt water crocodile Control and regulation of water levels like (Crocodylus porosus) and Marine Iuguana setting shrimp farms at the coastal areas led (Amblyrhynchus crisatatus). The order to a degree on shoreline modification reduce chelonia represents seven species and order the extent, diversity, function, and value of serpents represents 60 species. wetlands in the near shore. Though policies and programs are in place to prevent The salt water crocodile Crocodylus large-scale loss, conversion and degradation porosus has reported in India however it’s of coastal wetlands continues, resulting in distribution is now restricted up to Andhra many wetlands being fragmented and pradesh in the east coast in mainland. Sea limiting critical habitat for waterbirds. In the snakes are found only in tropical and Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Region, 21 islands subtropical regions Indian and Pacific Oceans provide most of the significant nesting and Out of seven species chelonia only five dry-land roosting habitat for migratory species are reported in India. waterbirds such as gulls, terns, cormorants, In GOMBR, Green turtle and Olive pelicans, flamingoes and herons. The islands Ridley turtle frequently reported and Hawks much distant from the mainland but relatively bill turtle strays in the coast occasionally. close to good sources of prey, waterbirds Similarly 20 speices of sea snake known from experience lower risks of predation, less Indian coast only 12 species were reported. competition and fewer impacts from human To maintain healthy ecosystem and disturbance. In the Gulf of Mannar, however, population, it is important to monitor the islands most protected from disturbance and marine reptiles, associated threats and evolve predators are often remote and vulnerable to suitable measures for long-term conservation storm-driven waves and climate-induced of reptiles. water level changes. Another possible threat Shore Birds is invasion by exotic species is a major Many species of waterbirds have been concern for island ecosystems, particularly visiting the Gulf of Mannar Bioshpere Reserve invasion of exotic plant species that have the during October to March. Gulf of Mannar potential to change the character and Bioshpere Reserve is not an exception to composition of islands over a short period of habitat loss and other related conservation time. Hence it is important to conserve bird 62 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 diversity of Gulf of Mannar through regular levels of impacts in the destination areas. monitoring of population and identifying Over-fishing and poor resource management threats and prepare long-term conservation in the GOMBR have led to a drastic decline strategies. in the fishery, forcing many communities in the region to turn to new sources of livelihood. Evolving sustainable Tourism strategy and Policy makers and the Government hope that livelihood options for community based community based tourism will generate marine resources management in and revenue and employment while also around the Gulf of Mannar Marine protecting the natural areas upon which local Biosphere Region people depend. Unfortunately, little is known Tourism activities were prevailing in at this time about the ability of tourism to live the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere up to this promise. In the above context the (GOMBR) region much before this area was major aim of this research is to determine the declared as India’s first Marine Biosphere potential of tourism to act as a measurable Reserve. Even after the declaration nothing has force in promoting biodiversity conservation changed to regulate the tourism activities in as well as sustainable economic development order to reduce the negative impacts of in the GOMBR region. This research will tourism on the biodiversity and livelihood provide a case study for outlining the concerns of this region. Market demand for networks, institutional supports, and stake- coastal tourism, improvements in transportation, holder relationships that act as the basis for popularity about the tourism attractions of developing a more sustainable, small-scale GOMBR brings more and more domestic as community owned tourism ventures around well as foreign tourists every year. Their the GOMBR. This will generate a theoretical presence has definite impacts on the framework, which examines the linkages, biodiversity, livelihoods, socio-cultural networks, and changing relationships among settings of this region. Tourist’s capacities to Protected Areas, local communities, and the spend, attitude towards local culture, tourism industry. The framework will assist knowledge on ecological sensitivity of the in evaluating the degree of local control and dynamic ecosystem are determining the participation in the tourism policy process.

63 Conservation of marine ornamental fishery resources along Gulf of Mannar through aquaculture Conservation of marine ornamental fishery resources along Gulf of Mannar through aquaculture

S. RAJAGOPAL AND DHANYA SETHNARAYANAN Centre of Advanced in Marine Biology Annamalai University, Parangipettai - 608 502, Tamilnadu, India E-mail : [email protected]

Introduction of ornamental fishes both in freshwater and Ornamental fishes are the most marine habitats. The domestic market is worth fascinating creatures of the aquatic of Rs.25 crores with an annual growth rate of environment. These fishes occur in a variety 20%. There are 4 regular large size farms, 300 of shapes, sizes and extraordinary full time breeders and 600 part time breeders combination of colours and aptly named as and more than 200 species of freshwater ‘living jewels’ or ‘delicate darlings’. It is ornamental fishes are bred in the country anybody’s dream to encompass them in an (Ramachandran, 2002). aquarium for adding beauty and appearance The marine ornamental fishes are still to the households. Watching ornamental fishes untapped in India and their market is in its is reported to relieve the tensions, worries and infancy. With considerable resources calms the mind of the observer. distributed over the coral islands of Ornamental trade is a multi-billion Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, dollar industry. The total world ornamental Gulf of Kutch, Maharashtra, Cochin to trade is estimated as US$4.5 billion with an Vizhinjam in Kerala, Gulf of Mannar and Palk annual growth rate of 8% (Mohanta and Bay in Tamilnadu, there is enormous scope Subramanian, 1999) involving 2% coldwater for developing marine ornamental fish trade and 98% tropical fishes. The marine as a major industry. Unlike freshwater fishes, ornamental trade is valued as US$ 200-330 marine ornamental industry is solely reliant million per year. Ornamental fishes are on wild caught fishes and a very small collected and transported mainly from proportion of 1-10% of the fishes and 1% coral Southeast Asia and from several island nations species are being captively bred in in Indian and Pacific Oceans. The United commercial quantities all over the world. States, United Kingdom, Netherlands, France Status of ornamental fish resource along and Germany were the most important Gulf of Mannar countries of destination comprising 99% of all Few reports are available on the imports of marine ornamental fish. Among the resources of ornamental fishes in the Gulf of fish groups Pomacentridae dominated the Mannar area. Mahadevan and Nayar (1965) trade followed by Pomacanthidae, listed about 100 species of ornamental fishes Acanthuridae, Labridae, Gobiidae, belonging to 30 families from Gulf of Mannar Chaetodontidae, Callionymidae, Micro- and Palk Bay. Muralitharan (1999) recorded desmidae, Serranidae and Blennidae (Wabnitz 129 reef fishes coming under 73 genera and et al., 2003). 34 families caught in fish traps from Gulf of India is blessed with rich biodiversity Mannar. Venkataramani et al. (2004) reported 64 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 113 species of ornamental fishes belonging to methods like blast fishing and poisoning are 24 families. Kumaraguru (2005) reported 115 practiced. These methods not only stupefy the species of coral fishes belonging to 28 fishes but render them vulnerable to diseases. families and 53 genera from Gulf of Mannar Moreover the above practices also lead to and Palk Bay. Vibha et al. (2005) recorded 25 habitat destruction and mortality of other commonly occurring marine ornamental fishes inhabitants. from traps used in Gulf of Mannar. Decimation of seagrass beds and coral Threats to ornamental fish resources in cover all over the world has caused great Gulf of Mannar concern among the ecologists. Coral reefs Marine ornamental fishes along Gulf support vast diversity of fishes which depend of Mannar are mainly caught by shore seines, on reefs for their survival, food and living trawl nets and traps (koodu). Target fishing is space. Of the 538 species belonging to twenty also done for certain groups of fishes. Apart reef fish families of Indo-Pacific, from these methods, destructive fishing approximately 11% of the species possess an

List of commonly available ornamental fishes in Gulf of Mannar

Sl.No. Group Species

1. Pomacentridae Amphiprion sebae, Pomacentrus caeruleus, Neopomacentrus nemurus, N. pavo, Dascyllus trimaculatus, Abudefduf vaigiensis 2. Chaetodontidae Chaetodon collare, C. vagabundus, C. octofasciatus, C. lunula, C. lineolatus, C. auriga, Heniochus acuminatus 3. Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus annularis, Pomacanthus semicirculatus 4. Labridae Labroides dimidiatus, Thalassoma lunare, Halichoeres hortulanus 5. Acanthuridae Acanthurus mata, A. leucosternon, Acanthurus triostegus, Zebrasoma viliferum 6. Gobiidae Istigobius ornatus 7. Pseudochromidae Pseudochromis fuscus 8. Syngnathidae Hippocampus kuda, H. trimaculatus, H. spinosissimus, H. fuscus, Syngnathoides biaculeatus, Hippichthys spicifer, H. cyanospilos 9. Balistidae Balistapus undulatus, O. niger 10. Scaridae Scarus gobban,S. ferrugineus 11. Tetraodontidae Canthigaster margaritata, Arothron immaculatus 11. Haemulidae Plectorhtnchus orientalis, Diagramma pictum 12. Zanclidae Zanclus cornutus 13. Lutjanidae Lutjanus decussates, L. fulviflamma 14. Holocentridae Sargocentron rubrum 15. Muraenidae Gymnothorax favagineus 16. Scorpaenidae Pterois russelli 17. Ephippidae Platax teira 18. Siganidae Siganus javus

65 Conservation of marine ornamental fishery resources along Gulf of Mannar through aquaculture obligate association with the living corals a significant supplement to, and substitute for, (Jones et al., 2004). Trawlers operating in the wild aquatic organisms. Aquaculture of coral reefs break the corals during fishing. marine, brackish and freshwater species has Seagrasses also exhibit high production and grown steadily at ~9% per year during recent biodiversity of associated fauna (Heck and decades, resulting in global aquaculture Thoman, 1984; Bostrom and Bonsdorff, production exceeding 45 million tones, worth 1997). Shore seines operated along the more than US$ 63 billion, in 2004 (FAO 2006). shallow coastal waters uproot and drag In the case of marine and brackish water seagrasses to the shore. Thus destruction of species, the number of taxa farmed increased suitable habitats which offer shelter, food and from 150 in 1984 to more than 260 in 2004. breeding grounds for majority of the marine Marine and coastal habitats are the ornamental fishes results in gradual decrease richest storehouse of biodiversity. Human of natural fish stocks. beings are dependent on biodiversity for their The entire marine ornamental trade, sustenance, health, well-being and enjoyment both domestic and international, is purely from of life. Humans derives food, medicines and natural waters. All size groups of these fishes industrial products from biological diversity. are targeted for trade which includes Aquaculture has vast potential for conserving brooders and juveniles. Continuous removal natural resources. of fishes from the natural habitats leads to 1. The increased production of species depletion of wild stocks. A typical example of through aquaculture reducing the fishing such a group is the syngnathids comprising of pressure. pipefishes and seahorses. Five species of 2. The cultured organisms can also be used seahorses (Balasubramanian, 2002; Murugan, to reseed the depleted natural stocks in 2004) and pipefishes (Dhanya, 2003) are aquatic systems as a means of biodiversity reported from Gulf of Mannar of which all conservation. species of seahorses and one species of Role of aquaculture in augmenting pipefish is exploited deliberately for ornamental fishes for trade ornamental as well as medicinal purposes. Indiscriminate fishing combined with habitat Aquaculture provides a scenario in destruction has jeopardized them in the wild. which species can be completely cultured in In view of the drastic decline of wild captivity. In-captive breeding and mass scale populations, syngnathids are listed under rearing of marine ornamental fishes is an Schedule I and protected by the Indian alternative to limit the dependence on the wild Wildlife Act, 1972. for these fishes. Breeding programs ensure a constant year round supply of marine Role of aquaculture in biodiversity ornamental fishes meeting the market demand. conservation About 100 marine species (including Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic invertebrates) traded are routinely bred in organisms in inland and coastal areas, captivity all over the world (Dawes, 1998) involving intervention in the rearing process including 21species of fishes being to enhance production and the individual or commercially produced (Schiemer, 2001). corporate ownership of the stock being Currently clown fishes, gobies and dotty backs cultivated. Aquaculture is the fastest growing are captively cultured (Schiemer, 2001) and food-production sector in the world, providing other species like basslets, comets, jawfishes, 66 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 blennies and seahorses are on the verge of suitable live feed organisms for the growing being commercialized (Tucker, 1998). larva. Moreover marine ornamental fishes Successful breeding of marine exhibit a variety of breeding and spawning ornamental fishes is complicated compared to strategies such as egg scatterers (butterfly freshwater fishes. Two major bottlenecks fishes and angel fishes), egg depositors preventing captive production of ornamentals (clowns and damsels), mouth brooders are reliable and foolproof technology for (cardinalfishes)and pouch brooders in-captive breeding and identification of (pipefishes and seahorses). Utmost care should

List of potential marine ornamental fishes for breeding programs S.No Group Species 1. Clown fishes Amphiprion sebae, A. ocellaris, A. percula, Premnas biaculeatus (Pomacentridae) 2. Damsel (Pomacentridae) Pomacentrus caeruleus, Neopomacentrus nemurus, Dascyllus trimaculatus 3. Chromis (Pomacentridae) Chromis caerulea 4. Sergeant (Pomacentridae) Abudefduf vaigiensis 5. Butterfly fishes Chaetodon collare, C. octofasciatus (Chaetodontidae) 6. Angel fishes Centropyge multispinus (Pomacanthidae) 7. Cardinal fishes Apogon nigripinnis, A. multitaeniatus, A. aureus, A. quadrifasciatus (Apogonidae) 8. Wrasses (Labridae) Labroides dimidiatus, Halichoeres marginatus, Thalassoma lunare 9. Gobies (Gobiidae) Istigobius ornatos, Valenciennes sp. 10. Dottybacks Pseudochromis fuscus (Pseudochromidae) 11. Triggers (Balistidae) Balistapus undulatus, Odonus niger 12. Tangs (Acanthuridae) Acanthurus mata, Zebrasoma viliferum 13. Puffers (Tetraodontidae) Canthigaster margaritata 14. Catfish (Plotosidae) Plotosus lineatus 15. Snappers (Lutjanidae) Lutjanus sebae, L. fulviflammus, L. quinquelineatus, L. decussates 16. Finger fish Monodactylus argenteus (Monodactylidae) 17. Batfish (Ephippidae) Platax teira 18. Butterfish Scatophagus argus (Scatophagidae) 19. Rabbit fish (Siganidae) Siganus javus 20. Orange chromide Etroplus suratensis (Cichlidae) 21. Pipefishes (Syngnathidae) Syngnathoides biaculeatus, Trachyrhamphus serratus, Hippichthys cyanospilos, Ichthyocampus carce 22. Seahorses (Syngnathidae) Hippocampus kuda, H. trimaculatus, H. kelloggi, H. spinosissimus

67 Conservation of marine ornamental fishery resources along Gulf of Mannar through aquaculture be taken in every step from maintaining of distribution of the species. The number of brooders till grow out of the larvae. Marine released prawns reached a peak of 5.213 ornamental breeding presents a challenge. But billion in 1991 and remains at about 600 successful breeding programs will be a boon million per annum, providing annual landings to ornamental fish industry and biodiversity of around 720 t. Catches of released prawns conservation. The following fishes have been have contributed more than 90% to total identified for undertaking breeding landings in the Haiyangdao Fishing Ground programme. in the north Yellow Sea (Wang et al., 2006). Repopulating the endangered species The golden arowana, bala shark, pygmy through stock enhancement programme loach and tiger barb are examples of species conserved through aquaculture (Ng and Tan, Aquaculture has proved to be an 1997). Though most of the ranching programs important tool for the biodiversity conservation. pertain to food fishes, ‘live rocks’ and many The application of aquaculture technology conch species (Trochus spp.) are produced in through responsible restocking, stock hatcheries and seeded out to reefs (Baquero, enhancement and sea ranching programs 1999; Watson, 2000). (Blankenship and Leber, 1995) are being employed in various countries to increase Aquaculture appears to be the best production of capture fisheries (Bell et al., method for conserving and replenishing the 2005). Sea-ranching implies releasing eggs, endangered marine ornamental fishes like larvae or juveniles into the natural pipefishes and seahorses. The life history of environment to increase recruitment of marine these fishes makes them vulnerable to fish. In fact it was initiates as early as in 17th overexploitation. They are pouch brooders century with transplanting fish and with limited brood size. Unlike other fishes, construction of fish reefs in Japan (Honma, capturing a brooder not only kills the animal 1993). Sea ranching programmes have been but the whole brood it carries. Though performed to rebuild or restore depleted capture has been restricted by law, stocks, support recreational fishery, and repopulation of wild stock takes much time. support commercial fishery. Releasing of In captive breeding and sea ranching programs hatchery-reared juveniles have been carried constitute an alternative method for out for a variety of species, and in many enhancing the wild stocks. Though few countries, to bring back a stock that is locally brooders have to be collected initially from extinct, to rebuild a stock that has collapsed the wild, a portion of the captively reared as a viable fishery or to augment a natural young ones can be developed as brooders in population for a “put and take” fishery (Travis due course. et al., 1998). Role of ornamental fish breeding in rural In 1994, Japan released a total of 70.7 development million juveniles of 33 different marine fish Aquaculture has an important role in species (Anon., 1995), and an additional 357.5 the development of many national economies million crustaceans, 17,827.6 million shellfish and plays a key role in rural development. It and 72.9 million others, such as sea-urchin provides livelihood options in rural areas of (Echinoidea). Hatchery reared Penaeus the developing world. The term “rural chinensis seeds were ranched in China for 20 aquaculture” has recently been used to years within and outside the natural distinguish the farming of aquatic organisms 68 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 by small-scale households using mainly Acknowledgement extensive type husbandry for household The authors are thankful to the consumption and or income (Edwards and authorities of Annamalai University for the Demaine, 1997). facilities provided and Dr. T.Balasubramanian, Cultivation of mussels by self help Director and Dr. S. Ajmal Khan, Professor for groups along Kerala Coast is well established. their encouragement and support. Similarly small self help groups of women folk References cited living along coastal fishing villages can be formed with the involvement of Gulf of 1. Anon., 1995. Saibai Gyogyo Syubyo Seisan, Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust and they can Nyusyu-Horyu Jisseki (Zenkoku) Heisei 5 Nendo: pp. l-109 (in Japanese; English title: be trained to produce some marine Annual Technical Report of the Japan Sea ornamental fishes which can be bred easily. Farming Association 1994). With a small set up for live feed culture, mass 2. Balasubramanian, R., 2002. Studies on scale rearing of ornamental fish is feasible if seahorses with special reference to they are properly trained and encouraged. A Hippocampus kelloggi (Jordan and Snyder part of the income generated from fish culture 1902), Southeast coast of India. Ph.D thesis, can be used by them for their living and the Annamalai Univetsity, 124pp. rest for further investments. This will be an 3. Baquero, J., 1999. Marine ornamentals trade: alternate employment opportunity for the quality and sustainability for the Pacific region. fisherfolk which will uplift their economic South Pacific Forum Secretariat, Suva, Fiji, status. During each culture few numbers of and the Marine Aquarium Council. http:// the produce can also be sea ranched as www.Aquariumcouncil.org/docs/ restocking for future. Final%20Marine%20 Ornamentals %20Rpt- Conclusion ver%20June%204.htm. 50pp. Aquaculture has successfully proved 4. Bell, J.D., Rothlisberg, P.C., Munro, J.L., Loneragan, N.R., Nash, W.J., Ward, R.D. and over the last few decades as an alternate means Andrew, N.L., 2005. Restocking and stock of fish production and supplements the enhancement of marine invertebrate fisheries. capture fisheries in fish supply. Aquaculture Advances in Marine Biology, 49: 1-370. has also emerged as a vital tool for 5. Blankenship, H. L. and Leber, K. M., 1995. A conservation of biodiversity by means of responsible approach to marine stock captive breeding, culturing and sea ranching enhancement. American Fisheries Society programs. In fact it is the best way to Symposium, 15: 167–175. conserve marine ornamental fishes. Through 6. Bostrom, C. and E. Bonsdroff. 1997. captive breeding programs complete Community structure and spatial variation of dependence on wild for ornamental fish benthic invertebrates associated with Zostera supply can be reduced. Apart from preventing marina (L.) beds in the northern Baltic Sea. the capture of endangered organisms by law, Journal of sea research, 37: 153-166. captive breeding and sea reaching help in 7. Dawes, J., 1998. International experience in replenishing the wild populations. Moreover ornamental marine species management. Part women fisherfolk self help groups can be I: perspectives. Ornamental Fish International trained and encouraged to pursue marine Journal, 26, February 1999. http:// ornamental fish culture as an alternate source www.ornamental-fish-int.org/marine species1. of employment in the coming years. htm. 69 Conservation of marine ornamental fishery resources along Gulf of Mannar through aquaculture 8. Dhanya, S., 2003. Survey, biometrics and 17. Mohanta, K. N. and S. Subramanian. 1999. embryonic development of the pipefish Ornamental fish farming: a multibillion dollar Syngnathoides biaculeatus (Bloch, 1785) of industry. Seafood Export Journal, 30(2); Palk Bay. M.Phil Dissertation, Annamalai 29-31. University, 61pp. 18. Muralitharan, J., 1999. Biodiversity of reef 9. Edwards, P. and H. Demaine. 1997. Rural ichthyofauna of Gulf of Mannar along the aquaculture: overview and framework for Southeast Coast of India. Ph.D Thesis. country reviews. FAO Regional Office for Asia Annamalai University, 171pp. and the Pacific (RAP), RAP Publ. 1997/36 19. Murugan, A., 2004. Biology and culture of the RAP/FAO Bangkok. 61 pp. seahorse Hippocampus trimaculatus (Leach, 10. FAO, 2006. FISHSTAT Plus. Universal soft- 1814). Ph.D Thesis, Annamalai University, ware for fishery statistical time series. http:// 176pp. www.fao.org/fi/statist/FISOFT/ 20. Ng, P. K. L. and H. H. Tan. 1997. Freshwater FISHPLUS.asp fishes of Southeast Asia: potential for the 11. Haylor, G. & Bland, S. 2001. Integrating aquarium fish trade and conservation issues. aquaculture into rural development in coastal Aquarium Science and Conservation, 1:79-90. and inland areas. In R.P. Subasinghe, P. Bueno, 21. Olivotto, I., M. Cardinali, L. Barbaresi, M.J. Phillips, C. Hough, S.E. McGladdery & F.Maradonna and O. Carnevali. 2003. Coral J.R. Arthur, eds. Aquaculture in the Third reef fish breeding: the secrets of each species. Millennium. Technical Proceedings of the Aquaculture, 224: 69-78. Conference on Aquaculture in the Third Millennium, Bangkok, Thailand, 20-25 22. Ramachandran,A. 2002. Indigenous February 2000. pp.73.81. NACA, Bangkok ornamental fishes and their prospects for and FAO, Rome. export. In: Breeding, farming and management 12. Heck, Jr K. L. and T. A. Thoman. 1984. of Ornamental fishes, Cochin University of Abundance, biomass and production of Science and Technology, pp 1-47. mobile epibenthic faunas in Zostera marine 23. Schiemer, G., 2001. Captive-bred marine fish. (L.) meadows, western Sweden. Ophelia, 23: Aquarium fisheries Magazine, March 2001, 65-90. 41-45. 13. Honma, A., 1993. Aquaculture in Japan. 24. Tlusty, M., 2002. The benefits and risks of Japan FAO Association, pp. l-98. aquacultural production for the aquarium trade. 14. Jones, G. P., M. I. Mc Cormick, M. Srinivasan Aquaculture, 205: 203-219. and J. V. Tagle. 2004. Coral decline threatens 25. Travis, J., Coleman, F.C., Grimes, C.B., fish biodiversity in marine reserves. PNAS, Conover, D., Bert, T.M., Tringali, M., 1998. 101(21): 8251-8253. Critically assessing stock enhancement: an 15. Kumaraguru, A. K., 2005. Marine ornamental introduction to the Mote Symposium. Bull. Fishery resources, conservation and Mar.Sci. 62, 305–311. management. In: Proc. Work. Advances in 26. Tucker Jr., J. W., 1998. Marine fish culture. Marine Biodiversity Research, Conservation Kluwer Academic Press, Norwell. and Management, CAS in Marine Biology, 27. Venkataramani,V.K., P. Jawahar, R.Santhanam Annamalai University. and T. Vaitheeswaran. 2004. Marine 16. Mahadevan, S. and K. N. Nayar, 1965. Ornamental fishes of Gulf of Mannar. Underwater ecological observations in the Gulf Fisheries college and Research Institute, of Mannar of Tuticorin. J.mar. biol. Ass. Tamilnadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences India, 7(1): 197-199. Univeristy, Thoothukudi.195pp. 70 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 28. Vibha Kumari, M. A. Nabeel and S. Rajagopal. 30. Wang, Q., Z. Zhuang, J. Deng and Y. Ye. 2006. 2005. Assessment of Marine Ornamental Fish Stock enhancement and translocation of the Resources along Gulf of Mannar. Project shrimp Penaeus chinensis in China. Fisheries Document. Tamilnady State Council for Research, 80: 67-79. Science and Technology, 37pp. 31. Watson,I., 2000. The role of ornamental fish 29. Wabnitz. C, M. Taylor, E. Green and T. Razak. 2003. From Ocean to Aquarium, the Global industry in poverty alleviation. Natural trade in marine ornamental species. UNEP Resources Institute, Kent, UK, Project No. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, p. 64. V0120, 66p.

71 Coastal Ecosystem restoration and bio-resource conservation Coastal Ecosystem restoration and bio-resource conservation

J. K. PATTERSON EDWARD Sugandhi Devadason Marine Research Institute 44, Beach Road, Tuticorin - 628 001, Tamilnadu, India E-mail : [email protected]

Introduction and ingress of seawater during tidal surge. The coastal areas consist of 20% of Mangroves also play a major role in the the earth’s surface. Half of the world’s protection of the beaches from erosion. The population live within a distance of less than relevance of mangroves is in the limelight at 200 km from the coast, and 37 percent live no present after the Indian Ocean tsunami. more than 60 km away from the coast. Coastal Seagrasses areas have got rich biological importance as Seagrasses are true marine flowing they support various life forms. They have an plants with roots and stem. They are adapted important role of nutrient cycling in the to marine environment and submerged growth marine environment. They also support the with well developed anchoring system to most productive ecosystems of the world such withstand the severe wave action. The as coral reefs, mangroves, seagrasses, and seagrasses remain a harbour for epiphytes and estuaries, which provide opportunities for a acts as a nursery for fish, gastropods, worms considerable part of the world’s population to and crustaceans. They also form a favourite find food and livelihood. feeding ground for the endangered marine Coastal ecosystems mammal Dugong dugon and the green turtles. Coral reefs Estuaries Reefs are the most diverse and Estuaries play an important role in beautiful of all marine habitats with rich the productivity of nearshore coastal biodiversity. These large wave resistant environments. They are the transition zones structures are formed through millions of years between rivers and the sea and provide by slow growing corals. The coral reefs not habitat for a unique assortment of flora and only provide a sanctuary to a myriad of fauna. These brackish water ecosystems are marine life but also play a key role in critical for the survival of many species of protecting the coastline from erosion and other birds, mammals, fishes and other wild life. natural calamities. Millions of people depend Threats to coastal ecosystems on the reef areas for fishery and recreational The present scenario for many of activities for their livelihood. these coastal ecosystems and resources are of Mangroves great concern as their status is declining due Mangroves are having both ecological to various human activities. Modern human and economic importance and are one civilization and coastal zones make poor among the most productive ecosystems. They companions. Most activities of people (e.g., act as breeding, feeding and nursery ground fishing, deforestation, nutrient enrichment, for many estuarine and marine organisms. burning of fossil fuels, and use of toxic Mangroves protect the shore against cyclones chemicals) damage coastal ecosystems either 72 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 directly or indirectly (Knowlton, 2001). In India has about 7860 km coastline and addition to direct human interferences, global the various coastal ecosystems act as habitats climate change and natural disasters such as for millions of life forms. The damage / stress storms, cyclones and tsunamis pose serious to these ecosystems would lead to the decline threat. The impacts of disasters, whether / extinction of many valuable resources. The natural or man-made, not only have human coastal zone is the vital ecological bridge dimensions, but also environmental ones as between the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, well. The coastal ecosystems are already and restoration and conservation are essential experiencing multiple problems and many to maintain the biodiversity and ecological coastal resources are in highly stressed balance. conditions due to threats mainly from human Proper long-term action plan with an and nature. integrated approach in restoration and Anthropogenic stresses conservation of coastal ecosystems would not Unsustainable and destructive fishing only help in the promotion of sustained practices, land based domestic and industrial livelihood but also in the effective coastal pollution, sedimentation, coral mining, protection. An accurate and objective physical damage due to boat anchors and assessment of the true status of coastal uncontrolled tourism and aquaculture are some resources is not possible, because of a serious of the threats, which vastly damage the coastal lack of long-term monitoring data (Pearson ecosystems. 1981, and Robertson 1992). It is stated that 70% of the world’s coral reef will be Natural stresses functionally lost within 40 years, unless Global warming, coastal erosion, effective management is implemented fresh water run off, predators, diseases, (Wilkinson and Buddemeier, 1994). A natural disasters such as cyclones, storms and number of lessons were learnt from the 2004 tsunamis are causing stress to coastal Indian Ocean Tsunami with respect to coastal ecosystem. At the present level of industrial ecosystems and its resources. revolution, it is expected that the global Gulf of Mannar warming would cause greater damage in the near future. The coastal areas of Gulf of Mannar include all major ecosystems such as coral Need for restoration and conservation of reefs, mangroves, seagrasses and estuaries. coastal ecosystem Thousands of people depend on these There is worldwide concern over the ecosystems for livelihood. The population damage caused to the coastal ecosystems by growth has resulted in more crowded fishing both man made and natural changes. The grounds with less catch, which ultimately force various human activities in and around the seas the people into destructive fishing and other have led to serious degradation of the coral illegal practices. The present average live coral reefs, mangroves, seagrasses, and estuarine cover in Gulf of Mannar is 35.47% ecosystems. This huge stress on the marine (Mandapam Group – 36.97%, Keezhakkarai and coastal environment has led to the Group – 43.58%, Vembar Group – 31.99% and concept of biosphere reserve, which was put Tuticorin Group – 29.34%). About 32 sq.km forward by UNESCO as early as 1971, in its reef area has been damaged because of Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. mining and destructive fishing. Considering 73 Coastal Ecosystem restoration and bio-resource conservation the dependence of local people on this as coral reefs, seagrasses, and mangroves in ecosystem, it is important and need of the hour Gulf of Mannar, which would be much to restore the damaged reef areas which would helpful for effective conservation and help in sustained fishery production and management practices. Involvement of local enhanced coastal protection. The erosion in research institutions with necessary scientific island shores would also be minimized. capacity in monitoring would help in long term sustainability. Research priorities in Gulf of Mannar It is essential to consider an integrated Impact of climate change approach when considering coastal ecosystem The climate change would be the most restoration and bio-resource conservation. serious threat to coastal ecosystem and species in the near future. Studies should be Basline information initiated to assess the impact of climate change At present, the baseline information on habitats and fisheries in Gulf of Mannar. on the status of coral reefs around the 21 Steps to mitigate the impacts should also be islands is available, but the data is lacking for considered. mangroves and seagrasses. Further, Acknowledgements information on the present status of all The author is thankful to the fishery resources is lacking. All endangered authorities of SDMRI for facilities and the species and commercially important fishery Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. resources should be given priority in the of India and CORDIO for support. collection of baseline information. References cited Restoration 1. Knowlton, N., 2001. The future of coral reefs. The restoration of 32 sq.km degraded Proc. National Academy of Sciences, Vol.98 reef areas around the 21 islands with native (10): 5419-5425. coral species would help to enhance the reef 2. Pearson, R.G. 1981. Recovery and diversity and biomass and also to increase the re-colonization of coral reefs. Mar. Ecol. Prog. fishery production. This could be achieved in Ser. 4: 105-122. 4-5 years time in phases. The Indian Ocean 3. Robertson D.R., 1992. Patterns of lunar and tsunami made aware the local people the value early recruitment in Carrebean reef fishes at of reefs. By building positive experiences from Panama. Mar. Biol. 114: 527-537. tsunami, it is time to initiate reef restoration 4. Wilkinson C. R. and Buddemeier, R.W., 1994. for the benefit of coast and people. Global climate change and coral reefs: Implications for people and reefs. Report of Longterm monitoring the UNEP-IOC-ASPEI-IUCN Global Task A long term action plan should be Team on Coral Reefs. IUCN, Gland, drawn up to monitor all critical habitats such Switzerland, p124.

74 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Sea Turtles in Gulf of Mannar

A. MURUGAN Sugandhi Devadason Marine Research Institute 44, Beach Road, Tuticorin - 628 001, Tamilnadu, India

Five species of sea turtles, olive Exploitation for meat and eggs by humans, ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), green developmental activities on the beach includ- (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys ing artificial illumination, Casuarina imbricata), loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and plantation, predation by wild animals and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) are beach erosion are the other factors affecting distributed along the Indian coast. Except the the sea turtles. loggerhead, all other species have been But, no detailed study has been reported to nest along the Indian coast. Olive carried out so far on sea turtles in Gulf of ridley is the most common and abundant and Mannar area especially on distribution, is unique for its mass nesting along the Orissa nesting beaches, foraging grounds and their coast. All five species have been reported migratory behaviour except the works carried along the Tamil Nadu coast and are listed out in 1980s. These aspects are considered under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife vital for the efforts to conserve turtle resources. (Protection) Act 1972. The once reported sea turtle nesting in the The Gulf of Mannar is unique for beaches of Gulf of Mannar islands have coral reef, sea grass and seaweed ecosystem. become a foregone era. The nesting and In 1960s, exclusive sea turtle fishing was foraging habitats are to be given top priority carried out in Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay in the conservation agenda. The existing region and live turtle trade existed with Sri nesting beaches have to be identified and Lanka. An estimated 3000 to 4000 turtles were protected through community conservation landed annually between Rameswaram and measures. Also, local community participation Mimisal during that period and green turtle in the conservation of sea turtles is represented three fourth of the catch considered very important. The use of Turtle (Rajagobalan, 1984). A survey in 1977 by Excluder Device (TED) is to be encouraged. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute The mythical belief among the coastal folk that (CMFRI) mentioned about turtle nesting in sea turtles cure many ailments needs to be Puluvinichalli, Nallathani, Anaipar, neutralized through effective propaganda, Valiamunai, Appa, Valai, Mulli, Hare, Manoli, awareness programmes and by involving them Manoli-Putti and Pullivasal Islands (CMFRI, in the conservation activities. 1977). In the Kanyakumari to Trichendur References cited stretch, the core nesting area existed between 1. Chacko, P.I., 1942. A note on the nesting habit Manapad and Periathalai (Bastian Fernando, of the olive loggerhead turtle, Lepidochelys 1983). olivacea (Eschscholtz) at Krusadai. Current The turtles migrating to Indian waters Science, 12: 60-61. are on the decline in recent years owing to 2. Kuriyan, G.K., 1950. Turtle fishing in the sea many threatening factors. The main around Krusadai Island. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. detrimental factor is the incidental catch. Soc., 49: 509-512. 75 Sea Turtles in Gulf of Mannar 3. Jones, S. and A. Bastin Fernando, 1967. The Conservation Action Plan. GOI-UNDP Sea present status of the turtle fishery in the Gulf Turtle Project. Kartik Shanker and B. C. of Mannar and Palk Bay. Proc. Symp. Living Choudhury (Eds.). Wildlife Institute of India, Res. Of Seas around India, Special Dehradun, 12-14. Publication on Taxonomy and Biology of 9. Bhupathy, S. and S. Saravanan, 2002. A Blue-green algae. report on the status of sea turtles along the 4. CMFRI, 1977. Report on the survey of the Tamil Nadu coast. In: Proceedings of the islands of Gulf of Mannar for the setting up of National Workshop for the development of a a Marine National Park. National Sea Turtle Conservation Action Plan. 5. Agastheesapillai, A. and R. Thiagarajan, 1979. GOI-UNDP Sea Turtle Project. Kartik Shanker Biology of the green turtle Chelonia mydas and B. C. Choudhury (Eds.). Wildlife Institute (Linnaeus) in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. of India, Dehradun, 70-73. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India, 21: 45-60. 10. Murugan, A., 2003. Status of Sea Turtles in 6. Bastian Fernando, A., 1983. Nesting site and India with emphasis on Andaman and Nicobar hatching of the hawksbill turtle along Islands. Proceedings of the Southeast Asia Sea Tirunelveli coast of Tamil Nadu. In: CMFRI Turtle Associative Research (SEASTAR) special issue on management and conservation 2000: 63-70. of sea turtles. Mar. Fish. Infor. Ser., T & E Ser., 11. Murugan, A., 2003. Sea turtle conservation in 50: 33-34. India: existing laws, implementation problems 7. Silas, E.G. and A. Bastian Fernando, 1984. and possible solutions – A case study from Gulf Turtle poisoning. In: Sea turtle research and of Mannar, Southeast coast of India. In: conservation-some problem areas. Bull. Cent. Proceedings of the Southeast Asia Sea Turtle Mar. Fish. Res. Inst., 35: 62-70. Associative Research (SEASTAR) 2000: 1-4. 8. Rajagopalan, M., E. Vivekanandan, K. Balan 12. Murugan, A., 2005. Sea Turtles in and around and K. Narayana Kurup, 2002. Threats to sea Tuticorin coast, Tamil Nadu: Facts and turtles in India through incidental catch. In: problems. In: Proceedings of the national Proceedings of the National Workshop for the seminar on Reef Ecosystem Remediation. development of a National Sea Turtle SDMRI Research Publication No.9: 250-252.

76 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Seahorses in Gulf of Mannar

A. MURUGAN Sugandhi Devadason Marine Research Institute 44, Beach Road, Tuticorin - 628 001, Tamilnadu, India

Seahorses are teleosts or bony fishes reduced after its inclusion in Indian Wildlife and are classified as members of the class (Protection) Act. But, due to increase in Osteichthyes, order Syngnathiformes and international demand, it is said to be exploited family Syngnathidae. The family illegally. The distribution, biology and Syngnathidae includes seahorses, pipefishes, taxonomy of seahorses in Gulf of Mannar are pipehorses and seadragons and consists of not yet clear completely and a wide about 215 species included in 52 genera. The information gap on the fundamental aspect of seahorse taxonomy is complicated and many seahorses still exists in this region. Also, the discrepancies still exist. However, the extent of exploitation and the trade in Gulf of morphometric and genetic analysis indicated Mannar are not well documented and the the existence of 32 species of seahorses available information is scattered. The field worldwide. survey in 1995 indicated that Tamil Nadu Seahorses are exploited in millions for fisher’s annual sales involved at least 1.3 medicines, aphrodisiacs, tonic foods, aquarium million seahorses or 3,040 Kg (Vincent, 1996). fishes and curios. It is mainly used in In the adjacent Palk Bay, the specific fishing Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCM). The of seahorse, Hippocampus kuda has largest known importing countries are China, commenced in June 1992 and about 300 to Hong Kong and Taiwan. The total global 400 Kg of dried seahorses were exported to consumption in 1995 alone has been estimated Singapore through unknown channels. Along at more than 56 metric tonnes i.e. 20 million Ramnad coast, the dried seahorse is used as a seahorses. The seahorse fishery is global and medicine to arrest whooping cough in children destructive. The 1996 and 2000 IUCN Red List (Marichamy et al., 1993). of Threatened Animals includes most of the As such, the baseline data on Indo-pacific seahorse species. The seahorses, which is fundamental for planning characteristic feature of the seahorses like any successful conservation programmes, does sparse distribution, low mobility, site not exist for Gulf of Mannar area. Hence, specificity, low fecundity and mate fidelity detailed study on seahorse taxonomy, biology, make it vulnerable and may result in the trade, distribution and abundance, which are recovery of the exploited population difficult. very much lacking in Gulf of Mannar, are India is one among the largest essential considering the importance given to exporters of seahorses along with the the conservation and management of Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. They are biological diversity of Gulf of Mannar. exploited for the lucrative export market value. References cited The seahorse, distributed in Gulf of Mannar 1. Marichamy, R., A. P. Lipton, A. Ganapathy and Marine Biosphere Reserve along Southeast J. R. Ramalingam, 1993. Large scale coast of India, has been exploited both as exploitation of seahorse (Hippocampus kuda) by-catch and target fishing. Target fishing got along the Palk Bay coast of Tamilnadu. Mar. 77 Seahorses in Gulf of Mannar Fish. Infor. Serv., T&E Ser., No.119, January, 4. Balasubramanian, R., 2003. Studies on february-1993: 17-20. Seahorses with special reference to Hippocampus kelloggi (Jordan and Snyder 2. Vincent, A.C.J., 1996. The international trade 1902), Southeast Coast of India. Ph.D. in seahorses. TRAFFIC International, Thesis. Annamalai University Cambridge, UK. 163pp. 5. Murugan, A., 2004. Biology and culture of 3. Lipton, A.P., 2000. Fishery for Marine the seahorse Hippocampus trimaculatus Medicinal Species in India: problems and (Leach, 1814). Ph.D. Thesis. Annamalai responses. In: Moreau, M.A., H. J. Hall and University. A.C.J. Vincent (Eds.). Proceedings of the First 6. Murugan, A., 2005. Seahorse, the much International Workshop on the Management exploited species: An overview. In: and Culture of Marine Species Used in Proceedings of the national seminar on Reef Traditional Medicines. Project Seahorse, Ecosystem Remediation. SDMRI Research Montreal, Canada: 75-77. Publication No.9: 213-219.

78 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Environmental quality assessment of Gulf of Mannar coast

Dr. A.K. KUMARAGURU Professor and Head Centre for Coastal and Marine Studies, M.K. University, Madurai

Introduction connection with this analysis, microbial count The Gulf of Mannar is one of the coral in terms of Total Viable Count (TVC) and reefs rich areas of India situated in the estimation of Heavy metals in marine waters southeast coast of India. The reefs are present and their accumulation in the value added around a chain of 21 islands. These islands marine product such as fish were also form a 140 km stretch from Rameswaram to considered essential. Tuticorin. These islands are protected under Material and Methods wild life act and come under the Gulf of Study sites Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve. The coral reefs need the following for their perfect A complete list of locations and growth. They are constant salinity, warm sample sites and the distance at which samples water between 27 and 30 °C, clear and clean were taken are given in Table-1. water and sufficient nutrient levels. There have The samples were taken all along the been a lot of developmental activities all along Gulf of Mannar coast including the southern the coast of Gulf of Mannar in the last few part which has not been studied very well decades causing coastal seawater extensively by earlier workers because of contamination. Therefore a preliminary pilot which there is only limited information study regarding the quantitative estimation of available for this region. physical and chemical components of Gulf of The water, sediment and animal Mannar waters was considered necessary. In samples were collected from the sites given

Table 1. Locations and Sampling sites in the Gulf of Mannar Distance No. Location along the coastline Sample collection site from Shore in meters

1 Rameswaram Agni theertham 250 2 Pudhumadam MKU Marine Study Centre 250 3 Keelakkarai Fish Landing Centre 250 4 Erwadi Fish Landing Centre 250 5 Tuticorin 1 Thirespuram Boat Yard 300 6 Tuticorin 2 Beyond Thermal Power Station 500 7 Tuticorin 3 Beyond SPIC 500 8 Arumuganeri Beyond DCW 500 9 Tiruchendur Off Temple Complex 400 10 Koodankulam Off Residential Campus 350 11 Kanyakumari Off Gandhi Mandapam 500

79 Environmental quality assessment of Gulf of Mannar coast in Table-1. The physical and chemical nature similar levels of Dissolved oxygen. However, of these Gulf of Mannar waters such as Biochemical Oxygen Demand was high in atmospheric and surface water temperature, Tuticorin waters. Salinity, Dissolved oxygen, Alkalinity and pH, and nutrient parameters such as Calcium, Nutrient parameters Magnesium, Nitrate, Nitrite, Phosphate and The calcium concentration in the Silicate were analyzed using Standard selected locations did not vary much (Table methods (Grasshoff et al.,1999). 3) and the highest level of magnesium Results concentration was observed in Keelakkarai Physico-Chemical Parameters (1,277 mg/l) whereas the lowest level was found in Rameswaram waters (1,008 mg/l). The observed physical parameters of The nitrate level was more in Keelakkarai the Gulf of Mannar waters are listed in (32.3 µg/l). This may be due to the mass Table-2. Table 2. Physico-chemical parameters of Gulf of Mannar waters

S.No. Location Temperature Salinity pH Alkalinity DO BOD (°C) (‰) (ppm) (mg/l) (mg/l)

ATM SWT CO3 HCO3

1 Rameswaram 30 29 28 8.6 12 94 5.44 2.60 2 Pudhumadam 30 29 30 8.8 18 86 5.94 2.54 3 Keelakarai 32 30 29 8.9 22 80 5.56 2.45 4 Erwadi 31 30 30 8.9 14 98 6.01 2.43 5 Tuticorin 1 Thirespuram 30 30 32 8.7 14 100 5.78 2.75 6 Tuticorin 2 TPP 32 31 33 8.5 16 96 5.60 2.60 7 Tuticorin 3 SPIC 32 30 34 8.1 20 95 4.50 2.65 8 Arumuganeri 32 30 33 8.1 19 98 4.20 2.75 9 Tiruchendur 30 29 32 8.6 16 98 5.62 2.80 10 Kudankulam 32 29 33 8.1 14 95 5.60 2.55 11 Kanyakumari 32 29 33 8.2 15 90 5.90 2.55

Bold faced numbers indicate minimum and maximum values. The highest atmospheric temperature bathing of pilgrims in this water and the recorded was 32°C and the lowest was 30°C. contribution from nearby domestic and mu- Due to rains, land run-off and sewage input, nicipal sewage discharge. Nitrate level was salinity level at Rameswaram showed the low in Kanyakumari waters (20.2 µg/l). The lowest level of 28 ‰. The highest level of nitrite values were low in all the locations salinity was observed in places where land (Table-3). The silicate level was high in drainage was limited. The pH level was Tuticorin waters and low in Erwadi waters. similar in all the selected locations except in The phosphate concentration was recorded as Erwadi and Keelakkarai. The concentration of high in Keelakkarai station (Table-3). alkalinity due to Carbonate and Bicarbonate Compared to the reference levels all nutrient are listed in Table-2. All the study sites showed parameters were well within limits. 80 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Table 3. Nutrient levels in Gulf of Mannar waters

S.No. Location Ca Mg Nitrite Nitrate Silicate Inorganic (mg/l) (mg/l) (µg/l) (µg/l) (µg/l) Phosphate (µg/l)

1 Rameswaram 460 1008 0.02 24.8 12.8 12.2 2 Pudhumadam 480 1075 0.01 25.6 10.6 22.5 3 Keelakarai 440 1277 0.02 32.3 16.4 25.5 4 Erwadi 410 1142 0.02 24.6 10.2 22.1 5 Tuticorin 1 Thirespuram 430 1137 0.03 21.9 16.5 13.7 6 Tuticorin 2 TPP 425 1130 0.02 21.0 17.0 16.0 7 Tuticorin 3 SPIC 436 1195 0.02 21.0 19.6 25.0 8 Arumuganeri 446 1172 0.02 20.6 17.4 22.0 9 Tiruchendur 420 1082 0.03 22.3 10.5 25.3 10 Kudankulam 432 1144 0.01 21.1 18.5 20.0 11 Kanyakumari 428 1165 0.01 20.2 18.3 22.0

Reference levels 400 1350 0.5 mg/l 3 mg/L 0.07 mg/l

Bold faced numbers indicate minimum and maximum values.

Microbial status Table 4. Microbial Status (Total Viable Count - Total Viable Counts (TVC) of TVC) in the Gulf of Mannar bacteria are listed in Table- 4. Rameswaram S. Location Sediment Water (Agnitheertham) sediments showed high No. (cfu/g) (cfu/ml) amounts of total viable count (TVC) of 2.29 X 104 cfu/g and Tuticorin (Thirespuram) 1 Rameswaram 2.29 X 104 2.08 X 104 sediments showed colonies that were too 2 Pudhumadam 1.67 X 103 1.20 X 103 numerous to count. In water samples, Tuticorin 3 Keelakarai 2.05 X 104 1.97 X 104 (Thirespuram) had high TVC count of 17.00 4 Erwadi 1.35 X 103 1.13 X 103 X 104cfu/ml followed by Rameswaram (Agnitheertham) 2.08 X 104cfu/ml. The 5 Tuticorin 1 4 reason for this high TVC is the heavy inflow (Thirespuram) TNTC 17.00 X 10 of sewage into the marine environment in these 6 Tuticorin 2 TPP 3.40 X 103 3.40 X 102 locations. 7 Tuticorin 3 SPIC 1.20 x 102 1.50 x 102 Vibrio cholerae and Vibrio 8 Arumuganeri 1.00 x 102 1.20 x 102 parahaemolyticus were also isolated from the 9 Tiruchendur 1.13 X 103 1.45 X 103 marine waters and sediment samples by using 10 Kudankulam 1.20 x 102 1.50 x 102 Himedia TCBS agar. The viable Counts of 11 Kanyakumari 1.10 x 103 1.25 x 103 Vibrio spp., are listed in Table- 5. Tuticorin (Thirespuram) waters recorded high counts of cfu- Colony forming Unit;TNTC- Too numerous Vibrio cholerae (2.84 X 102 cfu/ml) followed to count (Highly Polluted !). by Tiruchendur waters (4.6 X 10 cfu/ml). Bold faced numbers indicate minimum and Higher TVC of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in the maximum values. 81 Environmental quality assessment of Gulf of Mannar coast Table 5. Microbial status, Vibrio spp., in the Gulf of Mannar S.No. Location Sediment cfu/g Water cfu/ml Vibrio Vibrio Vibrio Vibrio cholerae parahaemolyticus cholerae parahaemolyticus

1 Rameswaram 2.5 X 102 2.9 x 10 2.2 X 10 2.1 X 10 2 Pudhumadam 1.5 x 10 2.2 x 10 1.6 x 10 1.5 x 10 3 Keelakarai 1.5 X 102 2.9 x 10 2.6 X10 2.8 x 10 4 Erwadi 1.8 x 10 2.5 x 10 2.2 x 10 2.1 x 10 5 Tuticorin 1 (Thirespuram) 3.2 X 102 2.9 x 10 2.84 X 102 3.9 x 10 6 Tuticorin 2 TPP 3.3 X 10 2.1 x 10 2.0 x 10 2.1 x 10 7 Tuticorin 3 SPIC 3.0 x 10 2.0 x 10 2.1 x 10 2.0 x 10 8 Arumuganeri 1.9 x 10 2.2 x 10 2.0 x 10 2.1 x 10 9 Tiruchendur 1.2 X 102 2.8 x 10 2.6 X 10 2.8 X 10 10 Kudankulam 1.0 x 10 1.5 x 10 1.0 x 10 1.0 x 10 11 Kanyakumari 1.0 x 102 1.8 x 10 3.6 x 10 1.8 x 10

Bold faced numbers indicate minimum and maximum values. range of 4.8 X 10 cfu/ml was found in tissue samples observed as maximum were at Tiruchendur waters. In sediment samples, 3.3 Tuticorin (4.226 and 0.219 ppm respectively) X 102 cfu/g was recorded as Vibrio cholerae and in the seawater also it was at Tuticorin in Tuticorin. (0.084 ppm). Heavy metals in seawater, marine Accumulation of Manganese in fish sediments and in fish tissue samples indicated maximum level of The concentration of Heavy metals in 0.795 ppm at Tuticorin and its maximum level seawater, sediment and whole fish tissue in the seawater was recorded at Erwadi as samples analyzed are listed in Tables 6,7 and 0.061 ppm. The fish tissue sample collected 8 respectively. The detectable limits of these at Tuticorin and the sediment sample collected metals are given in Table-9. The level of at Tiruchendur showed maximum Nickel Cadmium observed in seawater and fish concentration as 0.287 ppm and 0.302 ppm tissue samples were maximum at Tuticorin as respectively. Maximum level of Lead and Zinc 0.051 ppm and 0.012 ppm respectively in sediment and tissue samples were recorded whereas in the sediments the maximum at Tuticorin and similarly the maximum level observed was near Tuticorin TPP as 0.062 in seawater was also observed at Tuticorin. ppm. The maximum levels of Chromium were observed in Tuticorin sediments and tissue Accumulation level of mercury in fish samples as 0.871 and 12.82 ppm respectively tissues and sediment samples observed in whereas the seawater of Erwadi showed the Tuticorin were 0.020 and 0.094 ppm. Lower maximum level as 0.009 ppm. Similarly, the level of the metal in sediments were recorded level of copper in marine sediments and fish at Tiruchendur and Erwadi as 0.005 ppm. 82 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Table 6. Heavy metals in the seawater of Gulf of Mannar

S.No. Location Heavy metal concentration in ppm. Cd Cr Cu Mn Ni Pb Zn Hg

1 Rameswaram 0.001 0.003 0.013 0.051 0.025 0.225 0.260 BDL 2 Pudhumadam 0.002 0.002 0.012 0.050 0.025 0.300 0.225 BDL 3 Keelakkarai 0.001 0.004 0.033 0.014 0.025 0.348 0.260 BDL 4 Erwadi 0.008 0.009 0.064 0.061 0.171 0.226 0.690 BDL 5 Tuticorin 1 Thirespuram 0.051 0.003 0.084 0.061 0.156 0.803 1.202 BDL 6 Tuticorin 2 TPP 0.031 0.003 0.065 0.055 0.175 0.506 0.750 BDL 7 Tuticorin 3 SPIC 0.025 0.002 0.062 0.050 0.155 0.515 0.650 BDL 8 Arumuganeri 0.031 0.003 0.040 0.055 0.170 0.505 0.575 BDL 9 Tiruchendur 0.018 0.004 0.022 0.003 0.094 0.778 0.952 BDL 10 Kudankulam 0.001 0.001 0.010 0.002 0.009 0.220 0.215 BDL 11 Kanyakumari 0.001 0.001 0.015 0.002 0.010 0.200 0.200 BDL

Reference Level 0.00011 0.00005 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.00003 0.01 0.00003

BDL = Mercury was in Below Detectable Limit. Bold faced numbers indicate minimum and maximum values.

Table 7. Heavy metals in marine sediments of Gulf of Mannar.

S.No. Location Heavy metal concentration in ppm. Cd Cr Cu Mn Ni Pb Zn Hg

1 Rameswaram 0.013 0.325 0.650 2.550 0.070 0.250 0.850 BDL 2 Pudhumadam 0.015 0.350 0.725 2.550 0.060 0.275 0.750 BDL 3 Keelakkarai 0.014 0.582 1.124 2.551 0.074 0.519 0.959 BDL 4 Erwadi 0.059 0.627 1.273 2.144 0.098 0.302 1.062 0.005 5 Tuticorin 1 Thirespuram 0.028 0.871 4.226 7.227 0.293 0.580 1.160 0.094 6 Tuticorin 2 TPP 0.062 0.725 0.581 6.560 0.215 0.480 1.420 BDL 7 Tuticorin 3 SPIC 0.056 0.650 0.421 6.320 0.201 0.420 1.050 BDL 8 Arumuganeri 0.058 0.560 0.386 6.315 0.295 0.475 1.420 0.005 9 Tiruchendur 0.027 0.858 0.381 7.110 0.302 0.424 1.130 0.005 10 Kudankulam 0.012 0.075 0.105 2.515 0.060 0.215 0.700 BDL 11 Kanyakumari 0.014 0.090 0.125 2.250 0.055 0.275 0.750 BDL

BDL - Below Detectable Limit. Bold faced numbers indicate minimum and maximum values. 83 Environmental quality assessment of Gulf of Mannar coast Table 8. Heavy metals accumulation in Fish samples of Gulf of Mannar S.No. Site Heavy metal concentration in fish (ppm) Cd Cr Cu Mn Ni Pb Zn Hg 1 Rameswaram 0.003 0.354 0.025 0.030 0.054 0.010 0.350 BDL 2 Pudhumadam 0.002 0.350 0.030 0.025 0.050 0.025 0.215 BDL 3 Keelakkarai 0.005 0.530 0.085 0.050 0.110 0.060 0.415 BDL 4 Erwadi 0.006 0.610 0.090 0.040 0.150 0.070 0.450 BDL 5 Tuticorin 1 Thirespuram 0.012 12.82 0.219 0.795 0.287 0.135 0.875 0.020 6 Tuticorin 2 TPP 0.005 6.50 0.210 0.600 0.300 0.125 0.800 0.015 7 Tuticorin 3 SPIC 0.005 5.05 0.215 0.590 0.290 0.120 0.750 0.010 8 Arumuganeri 0.006 6.50 0.200 0.550 0.295 0.125 0.650 0.015 9 Tiruchendur 0.007 0.760 0.107 0.054 0.257 0.071 0.508 BDL 10 Kudankulam 0.002 0.350 0.025 0.025 0.050 0.020 0.190 BDL 11 Kanyakumari 0.002 0.550 0.030 0.030 0.050 0.025 0.198 BDL Fish = Mugil cephalus; BDL- Below Detectable Limit Bold faced numbers indicate minimum and maximum values

Table 9. Detectable limits of Heavy metals in the study hence might indicate only diluted levels S.No. Types of Detectable of materials from the point of discharge Heavy metal limit (ppm) into the sea. Therefore all the physico-chemical and nutrient parameters 1 Cadmium (Cd) 0.003 appear to be normal. 2 Chromium (Cr) 0.006 3 Copper (Cu) 0.006 5. A complete survey of the coastline of Gulf 4 Manganese (Mn) 0.002 of Mannar, from Dhanushkodi to 5 Nickel (Ni) 0.010 Kanyakumari, should be done to find out 6 Lead (Pb) 0.042 the discharge points of land runoff and 7 Zinc (Zn) 0.002 sewage/industrial effluents. 8 Mercury (Hg) 0.005 6. Seasonal variations in physico-chemical Conclusion & Recommendations for parameters, microbial status, and heavy further studies metals load need to be analyzed extensively in both polluted and This pilot study revealed unpolluted sites. 1. Heavy metals load increased from 7. An in-depth study is essential to Rameswarm coast towards Tuticorin understand regional and seasonal coast. variations in marine water quality in the 2. Microbial contamination was found to be Gulf of Mannar. This should include high at Tuticorin and Rameswaram. monitoring the pollution load from the 3. Polluted sites were identified in 2 regions point of entry to a distance inside the sea – One between Erwadi and Tuticorin and so as to find out how dilution plays a role the other between Tuticorin and in dissipating the contaminants. Based on Tiruchendur. such a study remedial measures can be 4. All samples in the study were collected taken or suggested to different agencies/ 250 to 500 meters from the shore and authorities. 84 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Marine Resources used in Pharmaceutical and Nutracuetical applications : Problems and Conservation needs

A. P. LIPTON Centre for Marine Science and Technology Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Rajakkamangalam - 629 502

Introduction Corals The Indian coastline supports almost Corals find place in siddha medicine 30% of its human population, dependent on for treating cough, nervous disorders and the rich exploitable coastal and marine tuberculosis. Coral reefs are biologically resources. The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian productive & diverse of all natural ecosystems. Sea have rich fishing grounds in the South Reefs are equivalent to tropical rain forests Asian region and contribute to rank as the 7th for their rich biodiversity and are objects of largest marine fishing nation in the world. The beauty and utility. In the Gulf of Mannar and marine biodiversity of India is represented by Palk Bay about 96 species in 26 Genera are diverse fish species including medicinal reported. Coral mining, siltation and other species. The Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu factors like coral bleaching and human interventions (Dynamites) have reduced the adds further values to the marine habitat and coral resources to a greater extent. rich biodiversity. The reliance of increasing population on the ocean for food, R & D Needs pharmacological products, recreation, • Need for data on coral beds transport and mineral extraction/oil • Biodiversity of reef and its associated flora exploration has subjected marine biodiversity and fauna are to be studied in detail to pressures that are changing the structure of • Documentation marine communities. • Culture of corals Seaweeds • Studies on coral bleaching and possible Seaweeds are reported to have remedies multi-faceted medicinal and pharmaceutical Gorgonids properties. More than 14 different seaweeds Gorgonids, being objects of attraction are reported in Indian Traditional medicine are collected as curios. They are of medicinal mostly for intestinal disorders. They are used importance Prostaglandin was initially as vermicides and prepared in the form of extracted from gorgonids. In Traditional salad, extract or porridge. Recent experiments medical practice, gorgonids are used for in the author’s lab indicated the immune painless child birth – as water extract. In enhancing ability of seaweeds such as Ulva India, commercial exploitation of gorgonids fasciata and Hypnea musciformis. Survey of started in 1975. They were exported as bulk sea weeds along the Gulf of Mannar is quantities to other countries. The Gorgonids accomplished by the CMFR Institute. A are represented by about 22 species harvesting time-table was also prepared by the belonging to seven families and 15 genera. A Institute for sustained utilization. detailed survey conducted by CMFRI along 85 Marine Resources used in Pharmaceutical and Nutracuetical applications : Problems and Conservation needs the Gulf of Mannar area indicated that the Molluscs catch of gorgonids declined due to over The molluscs belonging to exploitation. gastropods, bivalves, cephalopods are Problems represented by about 3270 species belonging to 591 genera. The bivalves are known to be Some research information indicates used as medicines such as antacid, to treat loss very low growths of sea fans (~2cm/year). of appetite, liver and spleen disorder, skin While harvesting the gorgonids (‘targeted disorders. The gastropods such as sacred exploitation), they are removed totally from chanks Xancus pyrum, are commercially the substratum – meaning total destruction of exploited. Declining chank population is noted the colony. The present status of our in the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay and Kerala information on the growth, regeneration and coasts. The recent demand for chank shells, reproduction of gorgonids is scanty. As they flesh and operculum led to the increased have non-isometric growth pattern, it difficult exploitation. Chank flesh is rich in protein and to get the estimations of growth.Conservative minerals and the values compared favorably pruning of gorgonids could be a better with those of fishes. Although, there are replenishment strategy and much work is still restrictions, exploitations by modified trawl needed in this aspect. nets along Rameswaram coasts in Tamil Nadu have been reported. Such intense bottom trawl R&D Needs activities also led to depletion of population • Urgent need to assess the availability of of chanks in the traditional chank bed areas. different species of gorgonids (space & Apart from the two well distinguished time) sub-species of the chank viz., Xancus pyrum • Multidisciplinary work on useful var. acuta and Xancus pyrum var. obtusa, chemicals and their bioactivity Xancus pyrum var. comorinensis and Xancus pyrum var. irupiravi were also noted.. The Marine Sponges fecundity of the sacred chanks ranges from 99 The sponges find attention in to 275 (average 222) per chank/ year. The traditional medicine to treat goiters. Ashes of sacred chank, Xancus pyrum is a slow sponges are mixed with vegetable oil for such growing species with an MSD-wise growth is treatments. In living sponges, the secondary about 8.0 mm/year. It is possible to breed them metabolites are synthesized to protect in laboratory conditions, grow the babies to themselves and to maintain homeostasis. The the suitable size for sea ranching. wider biosynthetic capability of sponges could Sea cucumbers, starfishes, sea urchins and be attributed to their biological association related organisms with other symbionts and about 38% of the About 12 species of sea cucumbers sponge body comprised of microorganisms. are commercially exploited. The falling catch Sponge extracts has shown multi various per unit effort and the size reduction indicate bioactivities ranging from simple anti biotic over fishing of sea cucumbers and needs activity to complex cyto toxic and anti-cancer further research in breeding and sea ranching. activities. Sponges are dislodged by trawling The sea urchin gonads are in high demand as operations. There also need to culture sponges source for carotenoid pigments. However, and to detect the bioactivity profiles. systematic account on the availability of sea 86 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 urchins and their gonadal â-carotene content mean number of juveniles per brood was are to be evaluated. 262.33± 59.49 (range 162 to 317). Juveniles The sea grass ecosystem attained a length of 101.10 mm and wet weight of 1.94±0.25g in 90 days of rearing. In the The sea grass ecosystem and the captive conditions, stocking at the rate of 3 major role in nutrient dynamics are yet to be juveniles /L was found to be better for assessed. The first documented identification nursery rearing along with the combined diet of a bioactive marine bacterial metabolite was of Artemia and Mysids. The tagging and the highly brominated pyrrole antibiotic, recapture studies highlighted that the natural isolated by Burkholder and co-workers from growth rate of seahorse (H. kuda) in their a bacterium obtained from the surface of the normal habitat is 4.15 mm/month. Caribbean Sea grass. Till now much research attention is not given for sea grass ecosystem. Urgent R&D needs • Biodiversity inventory of marine Seahorses medicinal fishes along the Gulf of Mannar Seahorses are sought in great coast of India is essential. numbers, for use in traditional medicines, as • Biodiversity inventory of Marine aquarium fishes and as curios. The results of microbes and their propagation and new the investigations by the author’s team culture methods. revealed seven species of seahorse compared to the earlier Hippocampus kuda complex. • Seasonal productivity and its relationship These include: Hippocampus fuscus, to biodiversity. H. histrix, H. kelloggi, H. kuda, H. mohnikei, The effect of anthropogenic H. spinosissimus, and H. trimaculatus. The influences in coastal waters.

87 Conservation needs for the coastal bird habitats of Gulf of Mannnar Conservation needs for the coastal bird habitats of Gulf of Mannnar

S. BALACHANDRAN Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai - 400 023, India E-mail : [email protected] & [email protected]

Introduction Pillaimadam and Dhanuskodi lagoons, under The coastal wetlands (lagoons, the Bird Migration Project of the BNHS were saltpans, islands, estuaries) along the Gulf of taken as the baseline data to assess the size of Mannar (GOM) provide feeding grounds for the populations during the 1980s. Similarly, hundred thousands of migratory waterbirds the data generated through rapid surveys consist of waders, ducks, terns, gulls and undertaken between 1990 and 1992 under the flamingos migrating from high arctic regions, same project at various wetlands in and around west and central Asia. These coastal habitats GOM were used to determine the bird and the neighbouring inland wetlands population of 1990s. These baseline data are including paddy fields not only form the compared with the current estimates made major wintering grounds for the migratory through the ongoing field project in the GOM. birds but also provide nesting and breeding Past and current status of coastal birds at sites for thousands of heronry birds such as Dhanushkodi and Mandapam group of storks, ibises, egrets, herons and pelicans. The islands threatened Spotbilled Pelican Pelecanus philippensis which nests at nearby heronries Past status (Chitrangudi , Big Tank and Sakkarakottai Biddulph (1957) made the annotated Tank) also frequents the coastal habitats of checklist of birds of Rameswaram. The bird GOM to collect fishes for their chicks. Some migration studies carried out by the Bombay coastal birds of GOM also utilize the Natural History Society has updated the surrounding inland wetlands for various checklist and well documented the status of activities Hence, the importance of GOM in coastal birds of the Rameswaram and the other maintaining the global population of Mandapam group of islands during the late migratory and resident waterbirds is not 1980’s. Over 70,000 coastal birds migrated to dubitable. This paper describes the current this area from the high arctic and temperate status of the coastal birds of GOM and zones of the central Russia and Persian Gulf. compares with the past status documented Over 7,000 waders and terns were ringed through the bird migration studies carried out during three migratory seasons between 1985 by the Bombay Natural History Society at and 1988. The highest number of Greater GOM between 1985 and 1989. Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber recorded during the late1980’s was around 14,000 Materials and Methods (Balachandran, 1990 & 1995). The other The fortnightly migratory waterbird species found in over ten thousands were the population documented during the three Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis, migratory seasons between 1985 and 1989 at Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaultii the Manali and Hare islands of Gulf of and Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea. Mannar, Kundugal Point of Pampan, The Little Stint Calidris minuta was the other 88 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 common species for which the number seen were 650 during February. Over 70% recorded was around 8,000. The numbers decline was noticed for this species during the counted for Redshank Tringa totanus and last two decades. The variations in numbers Greenshank Tringa nebularia and Grey counted for two other common species Plover exceeded one thousand. The Caspian and Sterna caspia, Indian Whiskered uncommon waders to India such as Red Knot, Chlidonias hybrida terns were not Great Knot, Sanderling, Crab Plover Dromas pronounced. However, the species which were ardeola Large Sand Plover Pluvialis regularly sighted in hundreds during the 1980’s squatarola, Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis such as Gullbilled Gelochelidon nilotica and fulva,, Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus, Ruddy Sandwich Sterna sandvicensis terns are rarely Turnstone Arenaria interpres and Bar-tailed seen as is in the case of Large-crested Tern. Godwit Limosa lapponica were recorded in Smaller Waders several hundreds. The other widespread uncommon species recorded in few hundreds The three common small waders to the were Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata and GOM during the 1980s namely Lesser Sand Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus,. A maximum Plover, Curlew Sandpiper and Little Stint had 42 Pied Oystercatchers Haemotopus shown drastic decline during the last 20 years. ostralegus were recorded in October 1985. During 1985-1988, in three seasons each of these three species were caught and ringed Present Status over two thousand. But the total number of Now the total population of coastal this species wintering in this region is not never exceeded 15,000 during the present exceeding the ringing totals of 1985-1988. Out study. The only species seen above 5,000 was of them the most affected was the Little Stint the Greater Flamingo. Besides Greater for which the numbers never crossed 300 Flamingo, the numbers exceeded over during the current season. The maximum thousand in only three species namely Lesser number counted for the Lesser Sand Plover Crested Tern, Lesser Sand Plover and was 3200 and for Curlew Sandpiper was 850. Brown-headed Gull. The Greater Sand Plover number was also too Greater Flamingo less when compared to the number (700) The numbers counted for this species recorded in the 1980’s as it is now around 50. during 2005-2006 season was 5500 during Medium sized waders January and February at Dhanushkodi Lagoon. Among the Tringa Sandpipers, the When the Dhanuskodi Lagoon was dry this decline in Greenshank was so evident. Though species was seen in few thousands at the the number of Greenshank never crossed neighbouring inland wetlands Chakarakottai thousand during 1980’s once during a bird Tank and Big Tank in Ramanathapuram town, census at Dhanushkodi in December 1992, this Terns species was sighted in unusual numbers of Among the tern species recorded from around 3000. But this time its numbers not the Gulf of Mannar, the maximum number crossed even one hundred. The other species counted for the most common species the declined heavily was the Terek Sandpiper, for Lesser Crested Tern was 2800 during which the maximum number seen was 32. January 2006 around Manali and Hare islands. Manali Island was one of the best habitats for At Dhanuskodi Lagoon maximum numbers this species which used to be seen in several 89 Conservation needs for the coastal bird habitats of Gulf of Mannnar hundreds during 1980s. Even this species used to be heard quite often during night has oversummered on this island in small become rare. The breeding subspecies of the numbers. Though Common Redshank’s Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrnus number has also gone down heavily still they seebohmi numbers is also no exception for the are seen in a few hundreds in all the habitats heavy decline. of GOM. Marsh Sandpiper being a mudflat Ducks preferring species its numbers were low during earlier and now also. The numbers of the three migratory ducks (Northern Pintail Anas acuta, Garganey Larger Waders Anas querquedula and Common Teal Anas The larger waders such as Eurasian crecca) recorded which normally seen in a few Curlew, Grey Plover were now seen around thousands at Pillaimadam Lagoon (near one hundred, which were recorded in several Mandapam) during the 1980’s have become hundreds during the previous study in the in hundreds. Earlier only Pintail frequented 1980’s. The number of Whimbrel seen was the Manali Island in a few occasions. less than 20, for which the numbers during However, now they frequent the island mostly 1980’s was slightly over one hundred. for resting in hundreds (up to 800) from Uncommon Waders to India December to February. The uncommon waders to India such Gulls as Red Knot, Great Knot which were found Among the three species of common to occur regularly in three to five hundreds in Gulls of the GOM , the decline was more several hundreds. Now during this study pronounced in Brown-headed Larus period the numbers recorded for these two brunnicephalus gull. In the other two species were less than 50. Similarly species namely Pallas Gull Larus ichthyaetus Sanderling Calidris alba numbers never and Hueglin Gull Larus heuglenei the decline crossed 70, which was much less than the was 15%. ringing total of 130 during 1985-1988 and the population of around 1000, Though the Other coastal bird habitats numbers counted for Bar-tailed Godwit and Saltpans along the Gulf of Mannar Ruddy Turnstone were around one hundred The saltpans at Valinokkam located still the numbers were far behind that of 20 between Dhanushkodi and Tuticorin also years back. The Pied Oystercatcher number supported over 1500 Greater Flamingos and recorded was 12, for which the maximum the other waders 5000 each during early 1990s. counted was 42 in the previous study. The Greater Flamingo occurring at Resident Waders Dhanushkodi can also frequent the Out of the five resident wader species Valinokkam saltpans when the water level in around the GOM, the Yellow-wattled Lapwing the lagoon is not conducive for them to Vanellus malabaricus was not recorded forage. It is possible because, the aerial during this study. The Greater Stone Plover distance between the lagoon and the saltpan Esacus magnirostris which was regularly seen is c. 60 km. At Tuticorin, a shallow salt marsh in a few pairs in all the habitats, has become found inside the major fertilizer factory so rare only one pair was seen in Manali premises at Spic Nagar, regularly supported Island.The Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus Greater Flamingos in several hundreds. The 90 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 salt pans in and around Tuticorin also dumping sites for the dug out sand during supported large population of migrant dredging for the massive ‘SethuSamuthram shorebirds during till early 1990s. The preset Shipping Canal’ project. status of coastal birds at these saltpans are not Recommendation known as no surveys were undertaken after 1992. Awareness about the migratory birds From October 2005 onwards, the Role of migratory birds in the coastal three relatively small saltpans around ecosystem and especially in maintaining the Kanyakumari., the southernmost tip of India local fishery have started attracting Greater Flamingos in Long-term monitoring of bird several hundreds. It is interesting to mention population along with their feeding ecology that the Greater Flamingos stayed in these Documentation of macrobenthic wetlands throughout the year except July and organisms, the major food components of the August. These salt pans also attract several coastal waders thousands of migratory waders, terns, ducks. Conclusion Inland wetlands Among the coastal bird habitats of the Sakkarakottai Tank and Big Tank east coast of India, the Manali and Hare These two twin irrigation tanks islands, and the Dhanuskodi laoon are the most together identified as an Important Bird Area favoured habitats of sand-flat preferring are located in the Ramanathapuram town. waders such as Crab Plover, Oystercatcher, Greater Flamingo frequents these tanks up to Bar-tailed Godwit, Sanderling, Red Knot, 2000 in numbers in certain periods generally Great Knot. Similarly this area also supported from October to February subject to the water the larger congregation of marine terns namely level. The other coastal birds which utilize Lesser Crested and Sandwich terns. Overall both Gulf of Mannar and these tanks are Black- all the coastal waders at GOM are on the tailed Godwit , Greenshank, Marsh Sandpiper, decline, it is necessary to investigate the local Black-winged Stilt Himantpous himantopus, causes for the decline, for undertaking and Common Redshank conservation measures. Occurrence of larger Threats to the coastal bird habitats congregation of coastal birds will help to The decline in of population in the last maintain the biodiversity of GOM as they play two decades at Dhanushkodi Lagoon was important role in recycling the nutrients back probably due to habitat degradation. Due to to the ecosystem. siltation the flooding of this lagoon is not References cited happening regularly and most of the period it 1. Balachandran, S. (1990): Studies on the coastal is dry. As the lagoon is flooded for a shorter birds of Mandapam and the neighbouring period between November and January it is islands (Peninsular India). Ph.D. Thesis, habitable for the flamingos and coastal Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, waders only during this period. Now, the India. major bird congregation area of Dhanuskodi 2. Balachandran, S. (1995): Shorebirds of the lagoon, which falls in the Coastal Regulation Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park, Tamil Zone (CRZ) is proposed to construct the Nadu. Journal of the Bombay Natural History administrative block and being used as the Society 92 (3): 303-313. 91 Monitoring Gulf of Mannar coastal ecosystem through remote sensing and GIS with higher resolution satellite data Monitoring Gulf of Mannar coastal ecosystem through remote sensing and GIS with higher resolution satellite data

Dr. UMA MAHESWARI Biodiversity Programme Officer GOMBRT - Ramanathapuram

Introduction diverse and productive of all ecosystems in The coastal zone is a unique the marine environment. They are among the geological, physical, and biological area of most complex, biologically diverse, and vital economic and environmental value. beautiful of all marine ecosystems. Coral reefs India has a peninsular coast of 3554 nautical are beautiful vibrant underwater cities, home miles and has had maritime trade with to over a hundred thousand different species various countries of the world since time of sea creatures. There are about 128 species immemorial. India is one of the 12 mega- of corals (42 endemic) were reported (Pillai, centers of biological diversity. Two of the 1986, CMFRI,1998) The dominant genera major realms and three basic biomes were Pocillopora, Acropora, Montipora, Favia, including 10 biographic regions are Favites, Gonipora Gonisatrea, Platygyra, represented in our country. The Gulf of Echinopora, Glaxea, Porites, Turbinaria, Mannar biosphere Reserve is one of the six Leptoria, Pavona and Pachyseris. areas chosen on the basis of the significance Mangrove ecosystem and diversity of threats, on the one hand and the richness of biological wealth on the other. Mangroves are a group of woody salt Coastal and marine areas contain some of the tolerant trees that are adapted to grow in the world’s most diverse and productive intertidal zone. In contrast with other trees that biological systems. They include extensive grow on land, mangroves grow in saline / salty area of complex and specialized ecosystems, waters. They grow closest to the ocean and such as enclosed seas and tidal systems, have prop roots which are submerged under estuaries, salt marshes, coral reefs, seagrass water during high tide but are exposed during beds and mangroves that are sensitive to low tide, sticking out of the muddy substrate. human activities, impacts and interventions. It is believed that the Gulf of Mannar was once As rapid development and population growth covered with thick mangrove forests. Their continue in coastal areas, increasing demands remnants as relics are seen even now are placed on the natural resources and on the (Krishnamurthy et al., 1987). Iyengar (1927) remaining natural habitats along the coasts. also observed luxuriant and diversified vegetation on Krusadai island They are highly The Gulf of Mannar is currently under serious threats the study is aimed to productive ecosystems which provide design a database to help the decision-makers essential nursery grounds for a variety of & stakeholders in effective monitoring and marine organisms They provide food and managing the biological wealth of this area. shelter for many organisms both above and below the water (Odum and Odum, 1955). Coral ecosystem They also serve as protection against soil Coral reefs are among the most erosion and storm damage and act as a buffer 92 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 zone that filters pollutants and prevents them They occur in the intertidal and subtidal from reaching the sea. regions of the sea and also in brackish Seagrass ecosystem backwater environment. They grow on dead corals, rocks, stones, pebbles, other substrates Seagrasses are marine angiosperms and as epiphytes on seagrasses. (flowering plants) which resemble grasses in Studies were made by several growth and form (as most have ribbon-like, workers on marine algal flora, their grassy leaves), but none is a true grass. They distribution and resources from some of Gulf are unique as they are the only marine of Mannar islands. (Chacko et al., 1995; Varma flowering plants. Like terrestrial angiosperms, and Krishna Rao, 1962; Desai, 1967; Uma they have leaves, stems and flowers, as well Maheswara Rao, 1972; Krishnamurthy and as roots. Seagrasses growing in large areas are Joshi, 1970). A total number of 147 species of called seagrass beds. Seagrass beds are algae comprising 42 species of green algae, valuable and overlooked habitats, providing 31 species of brown algae; 69 species of red important ecological and economic algae and 5 species of blue-green algae components of coastal ecosystems worldwide. occurred in the Gulf of Mannar islands. These underwater plants trap sediment and hold them in their roots and thus help to Gulf of Mannar as a critical habitat stabilize coastal sediments and shorelines. Gulf of Mannar is now facing severe Seagrass beds also serve as spawning and threats due to destruction of critical habitats nursery grounds for various species of fish and like corals, seaweeds and seagrass through invertebrates. (McRoy and Mc Millan indiscriminate and intensive trawling, coral 1977).The list of seagrass species of Gulf of mining, dynamite fishing, commercialized Mannar Biosphere Reserve is as follows: fishing of specific fauna such as sea fans, Enhalus acoroides, Thalassia hemphrichii, chanks, sea cucumber and sea horses, Halophila ovata, Halophila ovalis, Halophila poaching of threatened and endangered stipulacea, Halophila decipiens, Halophila species like dugongs and turtles and discharge beccarii, Potomogetonaceae, Halodule of effluents from various industrial activities. uninervis, Halodule uninervis(broad leaved Under such grave circumstance the Gulf of form),Cymodocea serrulata,Cymodocea Mannar was aptly chosen as a critical habitat rotundata, Syringodium isoetifolium on the basis of the serious threats on one hand Seaweed ecosystem and its richness of biological wealth on the other. Seaweeds or marine algae form one of the important marine living resources. They Methodology are primitive plants without any true root, stem The major objective of the study is to and leaves. They come under the Division of create an Information System on the resources Thallophyta of plant Kingdom. Seaweeds of Gulf of Mannar in order to help the belong to four groups of algae namely decision – makers in effective monitoring and Chlorophyceae (green algae), Phaeophyceae managing the biological wealth of this area. (brown algae), Rhodophyceae (red algae) and Remote sensing, GIS and RDBMS along with Cyanophyceae (blue-green algae) based on the the field surveys have been used in type of pigments present in them and other developing the Critical Habitat Information morophological and anatomical characters. system for this region. Satellite data and GPS 93 Monitoring Gulf of Mannar coastal ecosystem through remote sensing and GIS with higher resolution satellite data data were used as primary sources of reefs and sea grasses respectively and here information, GIS and RDBMS were used to 14% of corals are alive. Shingle island has 2.0 analyze and develop complete information sq.km of coral reefs and 0.21 sq.km of system with their capabilities. seagrasses, in which 46% coral are alive. The water quality parameters will be Krusadai islands has 1.5 sq.Km of coral reefs and 3.0 sq.km of seagrasses in which 33% of analyzed by using the methods in APHA corals are live. Previous studies in remote sensing and GIS Among Keelakarai group of islands, The significance of need-based- Valai and Talayari islands have 14.0 sq.km of research, the important of accurate planning corals in which 16% are alive. Seagrasses and the necessity to take fast and objective cover an area of about 8.0 sq.km. Next to that decisions stimulated researchers, scientist, Mulli island has 7.0 sq.km of corals, in that planners and academicians to use the latest 25% of coral are alive. Seagrasses cover an technologies. Remote Sensing (RS) and GIS area about 2.0 sq.km. Poovarasanpatti and being relatively new on the scientific Valimunai islands have 6.0 sq.km and 11.5 horizon that have been used in a number of sq.km of corals are alive. Anaipar islands have studies for a variety of purposes. The sheer 5.0 sq.km of coral reefs and 14.0 sq.km of number of studies that are being carried out seagrasses. In this islands 37% of coral are using RS and GIS is an ample guidance for alive. Appa islands has 5.0 sq.km of coral reefs the potential of RS and GIS techniques. with only 2% of live corals and 8.0 sq.km of seagrasses. In the previous study (2000) the Digital data IRS 1D LISS –III of June 1998 Among Vembar group of islands, Pulivinchalli islands has 7.0 sq.km corals of was used to map the coral reefs, seaweeds and which 38% are alive. Seagrasses cover an area seagrass in Gulf of Mannar. The Digital data about 1.5 ssq.km . Next to that Upputhanni was enhanced spatially to get accurate island has 3.0 sq.km of corals, in that 26% of classification of coral reefs. The digital data corals are alive. Seagrasses cover an area about were classified using Isodata classifier with 2.5 sq.km. Nallathanni island has an area of 70 classes initially. After ground truth 2.0 sq.km and 5.0 sq.km. Nallathanni island verification the digital data was again has an area of 2.0 sq.km and 5.0 sq.km of coral classified using supervised classification with reefs and seagrasses respectively. Here 38% 100 training sites. The classified out puts are of the corals are alive. shown in Table 1. The areas of coral reefs, Among Tuticorin group of islands, Mangroves and seagrasses around the islands Kasuwar islands has 6.0 sq.km of corals in of Gulf of Mannar calculated using remote which 5% are alive. Seagrasses covers an area sensing data about 3.0 sq.km in this islands. Next to that Among Mandapam group of islands, Van island has 2.5 sq.km of corals, in that 7% Musal island has 18.0 sq.km of corals in which of corals are alive. Seagrasses covers an area 52% are alive. Seagrasses cover an area about about 5.0 sq.km. Villanguchalli island has 1.0 9.5 km. Next to that Manoli and Manoliputti sq.km of coral reefs and 1.5 sq.km of islands have 15.0 sq.km of corals, in that 25% seagrasses respectively. In this island 8% of of coral are alive. Seagrasses cove an area corals are alive. Karaichalli island has 0.31 about 5.0 sq.km. Pullivasal and Poomarichan sq.km of coral in which 4% are alive. This islands have 4.0 sq.km and 5.0 sq. km of coral island has 1.0 sq.km of seagrasses cover. 94 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Table 1. Coral reef and seagrass area around the island Island Coral Seagrass No of DGPS No. of Live coral reef area observed live coral cover area (sq.km) Points(corals) points (%) Shingle 2.0 0.21 13 8 46 Krusadai 1.5 3.0 40 13 33 Pullivasal and Poomarichan 4.0 5.0 105 24 14 Maloli and Manoliputti 15 5.0 160 81 25 Musal 18 9.5 59 29 52 Mulli 7 2.0 30 16 25 Valai and Talayari 14 8.0 33 17 16 Appa 5 8.0 36 9 2 Poovarasanpatti and Vallimunai 6 11.5 40 33 50 Anaipar 5 14 27 18 37 Nallathanni 2 5.0 42 27 38 Puvivinichalli 7 1.5 29 13 38 Upputhanni 3 2.5 42 34 6 Karaichalli 0.31 1.0 29 14 4 Vilanguchalli 1 1.5 23 6 8 Kasuwar 6 3.0 33 5 5 Van 2.5 5.0 18 3 7

Future plan to improve the status of the degraded areas. Those areas can be previous works by using higher resolution considered for implantation in future. satellite data · Since the water quality parameters is an · In the previous survey in 2001 the IRS – important parameter for the future plan to 1D data was used for mapping of the save the ecosystem of Gulf of Mannar the floral ecosystem. But currently are water quality parameters must be analyzed available of the higher resolution data and the spatial display must be in GIS use. from IRS-P6 (Resource sat) with the two · In the Gulf of Mannar the sediment sensors such as deposits will be identified by using the AWiFS data – which has a higher Bathymetry mapping. And we can also do resolution (56m) than the earlier WiFS a comparative analyses of sediment data, with additional two bands covering deposit in past 1970’s using the Naval green to shortwave infrared region. Hydrograph cart with the present chart. LISS – IV which has the resolution of 5.8 This is an important process because if m in multispectral mode. the sediment is deposited in the corals it · Since LISS–IV data has higher resolution; will affect the whole ecosystem. a species level diversity of coastal eco- · The demarcation of the Potential Fishing system could be achieved using digital Zone, which is the most important future image processing techniques. to the fisherfolk. We can mark the fishing · A higher scale map of coastal ecosystem zone in the deeper area, and the could be produced using LISS-IV data, information will be given to the fishing which can used to identify small scale folk about the details where the fishing 95 Monitoring Gulf of Mannar coastal ecosystem through remote sensing and GIS with higher resolution satellite data site is located. It will also help the unlimited resource exploitation or unmanaged fisherfolk not to disturb the ecosystem of global trade. Even under ideal conditions, it Gulf of Mannar in reserve. would take more than a lifetime for some of · A GIS based Coastal Zone Information the World’s mangrove forests, seagrass beds System can be developed using the higher and seaweeds to recover. Unless immediate resolution data. effective measures are taken to protect them, Recommendations they may disappear from the face of the Gulf of Mannar forever. · The Gulf of Manner Biosphere must be protected from the human interference in References cited order to save the unique ecosystem. 1. Pillai,C.S.G. 1986. “Recent Corals from the · The mining of the coral in and around the southeast coasts of India”, In:P.S.B.R. James, reefs of tuticorin group of islands have (ed) Recent Advances in Marine Biology, pp. 107-198. already banned by Wild Life Act 2002 2. CMFRI, 1998. “In: Intial Environmental · Use of the GIS based information system Examination of Sethusamudram ship Canal for sensitive ecosystem is essential Project Report”, Compiled by CMFRI. Report · Regular updating of the water quality submitted to NEERI, Nagpur. parameter gives us an idea about the level 3. Krishnamurthy et al., 1987. “Mangroves in of pollution in the water of Gulf of India, Status Report, Ministry of Environment Mannar and Forests,”Govt. of India, Project do · Continuous updating of the database is cuments, 5, pp.105. recommended, in order to help the 4. Iyengar 1927. “Krusadai Island flora”, decision makers in effective monitoring Bull.Madras, Govt.Museum, 1, pp.53-87. and managing the biological wealth of the 5. Odum and Odum, 1955. “Trophic structure and islands. productivity of a windward Coral Reef community on Eninetol Atoll”, Ecol. Monogr., Conclusion 25:pp.291-320. Current sectoral approach to the 6. McRoy and Mc Millan 1977., “Ecology and management of marine and coastal resources physiology of seagrasses, Seagrass Ecosystem: have generally not proven capable of Scientific perspective”, New York.pp.53-87. conserving the marine and coastal biological 7. Chacko et al., 1955. A guide to the field study diversity. New models are needed to move of the fauna and flora of Krusadai Island, Gulf planners towards multiple use, systems of Mannar. Contr.Mar.Bio.St.Krusadai Island, oriented and community based management 3: 1-16. approach. Such a management plan should 8. Varma and Krishna Rao, 1962. Algal resources take into account the threats to the ecosystems, of Pamban area. Indian J.Fish., 5: 205-211. root causes of threat, cost-effective 9. Desai, 1967. Seaweed resources and interventions to address the root-causes. The extraction of alginate and agar.Proc.Semi.sea salt& plants, CSMCRI, Bhavnagar 99 : implementation plan should be more strategic 343-351. to enhance capacity building, sustainable 10. Uma maheswara Rao, 1972; Coral reef flora multiple use of biodiversity and develop of Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay. Proc. SVmp. protection strategies for priority habitats and Corals and Coral Reefs.pp.37-48. species. We can no longer continue to take 11. Krishnamurthy and Joshi, 1970. A checklist of mangrove forests, seagrasses and seaweed fo Indian Marine algae. CSMCRI, bhavnagar. Pp granted, or assume that they can support 1-36. 96 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Marine resource management through people participation

V. NAGANATHAN, I.F.S. Eco Development Officer, GOMBRT

India has a long coast line of as much grasses grow in continuous patches called sea as 8000 km of which nearly 1050 km long grass beds or meadows. The sea grass beds coast is found in Tamil nadu of the many coral are valuable and overlook habitats providing reef rich environments found in Indian waters. important ecological and economic Tamil nadu coast also possess a coral rich components of coastal eco-system worldwide. marine environment in its south eastern These under water plants trap sediments and marine space. Such distinct area is called by hold them in their roots and also help in name Gulf of Mannar which is acclaimed to stabilizing the coastal sediments and shore be the first marine biosphere reserve not only lines. This rich bio-diversity is facing serious in the country but also in south and south east threat due to bottom trawling and over Asia. harvesting. Gulf of Mannar with all the 21 islands Gulf of Mannar is found in the along the 140 km stretch between Tuticorin tropical region of the world and also provides and Rameswaram (Lat.8 55 – 9 15’ N and space for existence of unique halophytic Long.78 0’-79 16’ E) has been rightly mangrove eco-system. Nearly 13 spp. of considered as a Marine Biosphere Reserve. mangroves are found to be existing in Gulf of Biosphere Reserve are being very important Mannar. Of which Pemphis acidula is subject of concern in the Global waters. Gulf identified to be endemic to this area. Mangrove of Mannar harbors a unique diversity of more hesitation are specialize to growing hostile than 3600 spp. of marine organisms. Coral saline conditions that to in estuaries, creeks, reefs are considered as one of the most salty coast. Mangrove support an eco-system productive and diverse eco-systems on earth. that is comprised of plants, animals and This rich bio-diversity is found threatened in microorganisms that have adapted to life in most part of the world due to environmental the dynamic environment of the tropical pollution, coral mining, over fishing in reefs, inter-tidal zone. This eco-system is responsible dynamiting, trawling, boat anchoring and also for adding organic nutrients into the marine due to natural forces such as floods, cyclones eco-system to facilitate better primary etc. productivity in the areas nearby. This eco- Gulf of Mannar is also known for its system is also under severe threat due to sea grass diversity which amounts to 12 spp. indiscriminate felling, clearing for salt pan Of which Enhalus acuroidus is considered to activity etc. be endemic to this area. Sea grass ecosystems Gulf of Mannar marine biosphere being a diverse habitat inhabiting hundreds of reserve harbors various other eco-system such organisms right from invertebrates to sea as island, rocky shore, sandy shore, sand tunes, anemones, sea horses, sea turtles and finger coastal etc. which adds richness to its links of various fish spp. Sea grass is a diversity. It also provides space for many marine angiosperm and is unique and the only endangered marine organisms for their flowering plant in marine eco-system. Sea survival feeding, breeding and existence. But 97 Marine resource management through people participation it is fact that all the richness existing in the as provide responsibility of managing the area are entering in to history because of marine resources in their area to the fisher unscientific harvesting methods, over population of the area. This proposition would harvesting than the production potential of the look less imperative as the coastal length is area, destruction of breeding and feeding vast and the fisher population is diversed in habitat of marine organisms and also due to nature. But this option is achievable if the severe localized pollution. The conservation task of creation of fisher village level local of Gulf of Mannar biodiversity through organization with the whole hearted support holistic management will only be possible of residents of village. Such village level through attempting various efforts through organization with Government support and various agencies and departments sincere efforts to bring back the richness of simultaneously. Forest department, Fisheries Gulf of Mannar can make it possible to department, Customs department, Coast manage the marine resources of their area in a Guard, Coastal security and Navy are some of more effective way. the enforcing departments involved in law The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere enforcement to ensure legal way of Reserve Trust is a unique and pioneering exploitation of marine resources from the area. initiative taken by GoI and GoTN in But simple law enforcement will not bring collaboration with GEF-UNDP to establish holistic scientific management possibility in integrative people based marine resource place in Gulf of Mannar area without the management in Gulf of Mannar. Trust support of local fisher population. methodology is a new strategy adopted by Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve is Government to facilitate better functioning extending to a distance of 320 miles along the and liberty to the implementing agency. coast starting from Dhanuskodi to The Trust is chaired by the Chief Secretary Kanyakumari. The more productive zone of and strengthened by various partner Gulf of Mannar which harbors 21 islands and department secretaries to make this body a surrounding shallow water habitat is more effective co-ordinating agency to extending up to Tuticorin coast. This coastal ensure conservation of Gulf of Mannar length itself is inhabited by around 3 lakhs Marine bio-resources. The Mission of this fishermen who are on day to day basis Trust is “ To build and nurture the Trust as a dependent on Gulf of Mannar for earning their vibrant organization of international repute livelihood. The coastal zonation is peculiar with a key role and focus on facilitating in vocation categorization, communal improved coordination, concern and care variation and in other factors. Hence it is among other and often conflicting agencies necessary to understand the complexity in and organizations for sustained conservation, handling the Gulf of Mannar dependent fisher preservation, protection and sustainable scientific marine resource management. This utilization of the ecosystem services and would be possible only when the concerned resources from the rich, unique and fragile fisher population is made aware of the coastal and marine ecosystems of the Gulf of importance of the marine bio-diversity Mannar Biosphere Reserve in order to ensure existing in their area. It is also important to sustainable coastal zone development in the educate the illiterate fisherfolk in appreciating area which is compatible with the ethos of the bio-diversity boundary of the area as well biodiversity conservation” and livelihood 98 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 security of coastal people of Gulf of Mannar factors people participation at the village for all times to come. level. The Trust has taken four factors as 1. Participatory protection. the important pillars for strengthening 2. The inhabitants of coastal village are conservation possibilities in Gulf of well aware of the sources of damaging Mannar. They are factors which causes severe threat to the 1. Protection of Gulf of Mannar National Gulf of Mannar marine bio-resources. park and endangered marine organisms They are well aware of the list of found in Gulf of Mannar through fishermen involved in dynamiting, strengthening law enforcement destructive netting practices, bottom departments. trawling, seaweed cultivation, illegal 2. Systematic research in areas related to collection of endangered organisms etc. ecology, biology, environment, The local level Eco-development management and socio-economy to committee if strengthened and empowered ensure better understanding in the above in use of law enforcement machinery mentioned areas to evolve feasible existing with various departments, the strategies and mechanisms for damaging factors can be totally removed improvement as well as for monitoring. from the area with ease. It would be 3. Awareness and education to fisher possible only by the support from the population and all other stakeholders to Government made special authority to the ensure better understanding of the local level Eco-development Committees. resources of Gulf of Mannar as well as The first attempt of engagement of fourty to convince them about the immediate anti-poaching watchers from the fishermen need for restricting unscientific, villages through Eco-development destructive practices carried out in Gulf committee is fetching considerable result in of Mannar. It is also necessary to getting information regarding the illegal promote eco-friendly and scientific activities happening in an area. If the non-destructive practices in all information network is strengthening and activities carried out in Gulf of Mannar. law enforcement is activated the protection machinery will be effective. Each EDC may 4. Eco Development in all the Gulf of be entrusted with protection of a defined Mannar dependent coastal villages space of Gulf of Mannar with available located in 10 km impact zone from shore natural boundaries to ensure better inland. The attempt is to establish fisher protection. village level local organization specially built on the interest of Gulf of Mannar Participatory Research conservation by taking support from the The fisher population existing in the members from all the families of the coast of Gulf of Mannar are well aware of fisher village. the marine resources found in their area of All the above factors can be address operation much better than the scientific through various agents, departments, institutions studying the area. Their field organizations and others. But it would be knowledge about the availability of certain more effective if all the above mentioned organisms, eco-systems, whether and other 99 Marine resource management through people participation marine factors is exemplary. They are well people mobilization, awareness creation and aware of the distribution of coral reef, field co-ordination is an attempt to tap and distribution of sea grass, availability of chunk utilize the locally available manpower to cre- beds, and availability of pearl beds in their area ate awareness among the fisher public and also of movement. They are also well informed to educate them with their own people. Chil- about the migration pattern of sea turtles, sea dren in fisher villages can also be educated cow, dolphins, whales and other mega with regard to the destructive fishing practices organisms found in marine area. There field through the identified capable local fisher knowledge about the area can be utilized for youth to spread the message of immediate need better planned research in the area for quicker for restricting destructive fishing practices to results. The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere achieve the role of conservation. Reserve Trust initiative in training fisher youth Participatory Eco-development in Scuba diving is very useful in utilizing the services of fisher population in underwater The coastal villages were having studies. For periodical studies in the better local organization in the last century. identified quadrates, intercept lines, blocks The village head and the village regulations can be carried out in the required routine were respected by the local public. Later, manner with the skilled scuba diving team the local level organization and its powers available with the fishing villages. The got eroded. Now no such local level educated youth from fishermen villages can empowered organization is existing to be trained to the requirement of the research ensure co-ordination among various groups organization as well as to the requirement of in the society. It is high time to activate Trust to undertake regular monitoring research local level organization set up through programmes in Gulf of Mannar area. This will Eco-development to enable better control provide monitory support to the fisher system at village level to ensure regulated population and will also help in getting better activities in marine space to avoid co-operation in conservation of marine destructive measures taken by few vested resources through people participation. interest groups. The GOMBRT’s effort to create Village Marine Conservation and Eco Participatory Awareness and Education Development Committees (VMC & EDCs) The coastal village fisher population in all the 222 coastal villages Gulf of is less illiterate and most of them do not cross Mannar. Two members in each family of 5th standard in their studies. But even in this project village are enrolled as members in situation few fisher youth are overcoming the VMC & EDC. Among the members seven family based poverty threats and getting representatives are elected by the VMC & educated up to SSLC and more. Their EDC to act as executive committee education and capability can be utilized for members. The sub-zonal officer of the convincing the local people in understanding concerned village is the ex-officio Member- the importance of Gulf of Mannar marine secretary for the Committee. The financial bio-diversity and also getting their support in transactions are handled by member- taking immediate action for ensuring secretary and the president of VMC & EDC. conservation of the degrading resources of The GOMBRT provides an initial support their area. The GOMBRT attempts to engage to VMC & EDC based on the threat category 60 field project workers for undertaking to which the village belongs to. The threat 100 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 categories are classified based on the by VMC & EDC to create alternative criteria’s given below: livelihood option to reduce pressure on Gulf 1. High Threat (HT) – poaching of Sea of Mannar resources. In addition VMC & Turtles, mining of Corals, Chanks & Sea EDC can very well be groomed to act as the Cucumbers collection, Sea Weeds empowered local organization to take full collection, Destructive Netting practices, responsibility of scientific management and Dynamiting, Destructive Fishing, Island monitoring of marine resources in the dependents, Other Illegal Activities. jurisdiction of VMC & EDC. Without the whole hearted support of 2. Medium Threat (MT) - Increased crafts people, conservation and sustainable use of & gears, Increased fishers, Increased any natural resources will only exist as a fishing coolie, Increased immigration, dream. The systematic organization of people Supporting illegal activities. who are stakeholders for marine resources, in 3. Low Threat (LT) - Non fishing shore VMC & EDC with enough inputs on the villages, Seasonal fishing. importance of conservation measures will only This local organization can help the help in ensuring real scientific management co-ordinating various activities which are of marine resources in Gulf of Mannar. required for addressing the factors which are GOMBRT initiative in building local level damaging the Gulf of Mannar marine conservation organization will really help in environment. The financial support extended achieving the goal of Gulf of Mannar by GOMBRT can also be effectively utilized conservation for sure.

101 Participatory management of biological resources for conservation and livelihood security of coastal fishers Participatory management of biological resources for conservation and livelihood security of coastal fishers in the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve

M. VIJAYAKUMARAN, G. DHARANI, N.V. VINITH KUMAR AND R. VENKATESAN National Institute of Ocean Technology, Pallikaranai, Chennai - 601 302

Introduction being given to encouraging community-based Gulf of Mannar Biosphere management. Reserve(GOMBR) is one of the world’s The declaration of the area as richest regions of marine biodiversity biosphere reserve has introduced strict covering an area of 1,050,000 hectares (78o11' restrictions and monitoring on fishing to 79o15' E longitude and from 8o49' to 9o15' activities like ban on bottom trawling and use N latitude). GOMBR has 21 islands with of other destructive gears. Many fishers were estuaries, beaches, forests of the near shore involved in mining of dead corals for lime environment, including a marine component. production which is now banned. Animals like Its core area is surrounded by a 10-km buffer sea cucumber, sea horse and many moluscs zone, which further extends inland and whose shells were used for shell craft offshore for approximately 10 km. 47 villages industry were being exploited traditionally in along the coastal part of the biosphere reserve the area. The collection, possession and gives livelihood support to about 200,000 trading of these animals or their products (live people. or dead) are banned under the Wild Life Fishing is the primary livelihood of (Protection) Act 1972. This has added more the coastal communities here. However, there stress to the livelihood support of the fishers is a declining trend in the fish production in who are otherwise affected by decline in fish the area with reduced catch/effort ratio due to production. over-exploitation and habitat degradation Any attempt to effectively preserve caused by destructive fishing practices like the biodiversity should involve the people who bottom trawling, exploitation of berried are traditionally exploiting the resources for females and juveniles etc. Coral mining and centuries for their livelihood. Sustainable pollution are some of the other major reasons exploitation and conservation of biodiversity for the degradation of fish habitats. in the region require participatory management To protect and preserve the pristine by traditional users of the resources. This biodiversity of the region with unique endemic approach requires a concerted approach to species, the Global Environmental Facility create awareness among the coastal (GEF) provided support to the establishment community on the need to protect the unique of the biosphere reserve. The Gulf of Mannar habitats and biodiversity. Alternate livelihood Biosphere Reserve Trust was formed for the support programmes should be evolved for coordination of the management plan for the exploiting the fishery resources without biosphere reserve in consultation with harming the long term goal of protecting the government agencies, private entrepreneurs, biodiversity and sustainable exploitation of and local people’s representatives. Priority is resources. Few such productive programmes 102 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 that can be taken up by the coastal fishers with fishery. These juveniles cannot be exported the technical support of Government research as there are size limitations for export of Institutions and NGOs are described below. different species of lobsters from India. These Seaweed farming undersized lobsters can be grown to market size when its value would be more than Farming of the exotic seaweed, doubled depending on size, species and Kappaphycus alverezii is successfully being season. The technology for growing lobsters done by self help groups including women self in sea cages have been perfected by the NIOT help groups in the Palk Bay and at many places and has been successfully transferred to along the south east coast of India. The coastal fishers at many places along the Tamil department of Ocean Development, under the Nadu coast including Erwadi, which falls Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of under the GOMBR area. NIOT could provide India has elaborate plan to spread farming of all the technical back up for the programme to this species all along the Indian coast with be funded by the GOMBRT. participation from state governments, NGOs and industry. Extreme caution should be exercised when taking up this programme as it should As the GOMBRT has decided not to not encourage fishers to target juvenile introduce farming of this species in the region lobsters for fattening in cages. Only those it can take up farming of indigenous seaweeds undersized lobsters in their regular catch like Gracillaria sp. for which technology for should be grown in cages. Just moulted farming and exploitation has already been lobsters which would not fetch any price also developed by the Regional Centre of the could be kept in cages for about two weeks to Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, make it ready for live transport. Mandapam camp. It can take the help of technology development institutes like the In all places where NIOT has initiated National Institute of Ocean Technology sea cage culture of lobsters, large numbers of (NIOT) for developing cost effective and rafts small juvenile lobsters have been attracted to with long durability for deployment in the sea the cage site, sometimes even entering the and effective mooring systems for the same. cages. This stock has been utilized for stocking by the fishers. The scope of this Selected SHGs could be trained and project is limited as large number numbers of assisted in undertaking seaweed farming, with juveniles are not available for stocking. subsidized infrastructure in the beginning and Though research is going on in India as well continuous monitoring by govt. institutes and as in other countries to produce spiny lobster trained NGOs. Necessary agar making plants seeds, it may take a long time before hatchery also can be planned by other SHGs in the area. reared seeds could be made available for Lobster farming and fattening lobster farming. Spiny lobsters are one of the most In a study in Western Australia, it was sought after commodities in the export estimated that up to 40 million puerulii (just market and live lobsters command a high price. metamorphosed baby lobsters) could be GOMBRT is an important lobster fishing collected for aquaculture without affecting the region along the south east coast of India and fishery as more than 95% of the settled puerulii as in all other regions in the country, a large die before recruitment to the fishery. By number of juvenile lobsters are caught in the utilizing the data on puerulus settlement, 103 Participatory management of biological resources for conservation and livelihood security of coastal fishers accurate prediction of the ensuing lobster tranquibarica are predominant in the crab fishery is being done in Western Australia for fishery in the GOMBR and both these are more than 12 years. The quota for lobster being exported live to south East Asian fishing is decided based on this prediction and countries from India. Crabs weighing 500g the Western Australian lobster fishery is and above and fully mature female crabs being described as the best managed fishery (300-350g) fetch good price when exported in the world. alive. Crabs weighing 150 to 250g can be used A similar could be initiated in the for soft shell crab production which too has GOMBR to study the settlement of puerulii great export potential. and collection of puerulii for lobster farming. About 20 to 30% of the crabs caught The puerulii collected could be used as seed are just moulted “water crabs” (crabs whose bank for lobster farming in the area. This shell is soft) and do not fetch good price as it involves extensive oceanographic studies like its flesh content is low. Such crabs can be held ocean currents, water mixing, temperature in earthen enclosures or in pens in mangrove gradients and appropriate fabrication and as well as in brackish water bodies till their deployment of puerulus collectors. Expertise shell hardens. This process would take 20 to from Western Australia could be sought for 30 days depending on the condition of the crab this programme and NIOT can coordinate and at the time of catch. Value addition up to 3 manage this project if approved by GOMBRT. times can be obtained by such fattening of water crabs. The fishers should be taught on the Farming of crabs below the prime size necessity to avoid catching egg bearing of 500g in earthen enclosures, pens in lobsters. Even though the export of egg brackish water or in mangrove enclosures also bearing lobsters is banned, those caught with can be a very good programme for improving eggs are being exported by removing the eggs the livelihood security of coastal fishers. from the pleopods. As a conservation measure, Appropriate areas in the GOMBR have to be along with lobster fattening programme, few selected and the farming system for the area cages could be utilized for keeping egg should be identifies. Till now the farming and bearing lobsters in cages till they release fattening of mud crabs was completely phyllosoma larvae. The GOMBRT could dependant on natural collection. But the Rajiv initially buy the egg bearing lobsters from the Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture (RGCA), fishers and release it back after marking. The Thirumullaivasal and a private hatchery in fishers should be asked to release such Chennai are now producing mud crab seeds lobsters back into the sea if they catch it a in hatchery. Hence the scope of mud crab second time. Such conservation measures are farming has increased. successfully being adopted in U.K. and NIOT has successfully introduced Canada. mud crab farming and fattening in brackish Mud crab farming and fattening water pens and mangrove enclosures in the Like lobster farming, mud crab mainland as well as in the Andamans. The farming and fattening have good scope to be NOIOT technology involves a two tier culture taken up as a livelihood security programme system where farming of juvenile crabs are for coastal fishers in the GOMBR. Two done in pen/mangrove enclosure while species of mud crabs, Scylla serrata and Scylla fattening is done in floating FRP cages with 104 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 cell type individual compartments in the same vary from a few square meters to over 20 pen or enclosure. Organizations like the square km. Artificial Reefs help to increase Central Institute of Brackish water coastal productivity in the long run by Aquaculture (CIBA), the RGCA and private providing hard bottom habitat for the growth farmers in Andhra Pradesh and Kerala (in of sessile organisms and establishing food paddy cum prawn fields) also have chains. They increase the chance of post demonstrated crab farming/fattening in many larval settlement of many invertebrates and places. GOMBRT can introduce this fish larvae and also the survival of juveniles. programme with the technical back up from ARs have been found to be effective in any one of the agencies mentioned above. aggregating a variety of fish species and in Sea cage culture of fin fish holding them by providing suitable habitats. While a majority of the fish shoals around the Cage culture of marine fin fish is yet ARs for shelter and/or feed, a few moving to take up in India as policy has yet been stocks of high value fishes are attracted by the framed for leasing of sea for fish culture. Further, cage culture requires large scale rich benthic fauna, crustaceans, molluscs, production of the required fin fish seeds in echinoderms, etc. Aggregation of fishes hatcheries. The only marine finfish whose seed depends upon the complexity of reef structures has been produced in hatchery is the sea bass, like its size and density and bigger modules Lates calcarifer. The technology for the are found to be more effective. The holes, production of seeds of this fish was developed crevices, vertical relief, and ledges of the by CIBA and later transferred to RGCA. Both artificial reef structures increase habitat space these central Government Institutes are now for marine organisms. capable of producing sea bass seeds after Apart form providing new fishing initial set back suffered due to tsunami grounds for small scale artesian fisheries and damage to their hatcheries. The RGCA has sport fishing, AR could play an important role also taken up grouper seed production in in conservation of biodiversity and fishery Andamans is expected to come out with resources in near shore areas severely affected hatchery produced grouper seeds in the near by destructive fishing activities like trawling future. and use of other destructive gears. It will be a deterrent for trawling and would help in Sea cage culture of fishes can be taken reducing fishing pressure. Studies have up involving coastal fishers in GOMBR. The indicated that a properly designed and first step should be selecting suitable sites for managed AR would considerably increase the cage farming which involves many income of coastal fishers through enhancement oceanographic assessments. The GOMBRT of marine living resources. can initiate this programme with technical support from the institutions like NIOT, CIBA, As the fishing activities are being RGCA and the Department of Fisheries, Tamil restricted and coral mining has been banned, Nadu. installation of ARs at selected locations along GOMBR could be an appropriate method to Deployment of artificial reefs increase fish production as well as value Artificial reefs (AR) are devices addition to the catch as it would increase installed at the sea bottom to provide habitat production of targeted, high value fish by for marine organisms. The extent of ARs may using non-destructive fishing gears. ARs can 105 Participatory management of biological resources for conservation and livelihood security of coastal fishers be installed even in areas where fishing GOMBR assumes top priority as it is one of (trawling) ban is in existence as it will not the rare ecological zones with many endemic involve any destructive fishing methods and species of plants and animals. At the same time would enhance the livelihood security of the it gives livelihood support to more than coastal artesian fishers who are affected by 200000 coastal poor people around it. Any the ban. successful measure to protect the biosphere Installation of ARs can be thought off reserve should involve the traditional users of in buffer zone also to increase fish production the reserve and should provide alternate as well as to transplant reef building corals. livelihood support to the people who could be Conclusion affected by enforcement of strict regulatory Conservation of biodiversity in measures.

106 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Biodiversity studies by IERSE using underwater equipments

S. LAZARUS AND ANITA G. MARY Institute for Environmental Research and Social Education 14/C3, Nesamony Nagar, Nagercoil - 1 Tamilnadu, India

The marine environment harbors a possible only by direct observation in the variety of flora and fauna far exceeding that natural environment without making any of the terrestrial environment, in certain cases. disturbance to the fauna and flora and Although scientists have documented some of damage to their living environment. For this, them systematically many are yet to be SCUBA diving is the best method and it should explored and identified properly. The be made known to all who are interested in taxonomic studies so far made on marine flora the study of marine biodiversity. and fauna were mainly based on commercial In India, SCUBA diving is not very catches, stranded materials and some collected popular and the studies made so far using through exploratory cruises in certain selected SCUBA equipments are limited to Tuticorin areas. The reasons for the inadequacy of study and the Andaman seas by the Central Marine materials have been the non-availability of Fisheries Research Institute and by some suitable equipments and technologies for the NGOs. In order to solve this problem, the observation and collection of study materials Institute for Environmental Research and by scientists underwater. Social Education (IERSE) a scientific NGO based at Nagercoil has formed a Reef Research The invention of Self Contained Team (RRT) by appointing Post Graduate and Underwater Breathing Apparatus (SCUBA) in Doctorate degree holders holding International the 1950s has solved this problem to some Diving Certificates. It has a “SCUBA Cell” extent and the biodiversity of marine with all modern types of SCUBA diving environment has been studied in detail in many equipments. So far IERSE has done a number parts of the world where SCUBA diving is of underwater studies in south India popular. Although it was originally invented including Gulf of Mannar and Lakshadweep for exploring the oceans, now it is mainly in as detailed below. Through these studies the hands of ecotourists who use it as a IERSE could record a number of fishes and recreational tool to enjoy the beauty of the invertebrates which are new to Indian waters marine underwater. and describe the sea bottom and its For conserving the nature and its plant biodiversity in a scientific manner so as to help and animal life one should have an idea about conservation. In addition to this the IERSE the various categories of plants and animals could publish the following 10 research living in an ecosystem. For this purpose papers in national and international journals cataloging becomes necessary and this is of repute within a period of 5 years. 107 Biodiversity studies by IERSE using underwater equipments Underwater studies conducted by IERSE using SCUBA

Sl. Project Name Study Area Period of Outcome No Study

1 Community development Kovalam-Vizhinjam July Identified the areas suitable for through diving based southwest coast of 2001- diving and snorkeling and tourism at Kovalam India January documented the invertebrate and beach 2002 ornamental fish fauna of the area and published a snorkelers guide to Kovalam beach.

2 Monitoring of the shallow Gulf of Mannar includ- August- Studied the underwater habitats of water fauna of Gulf of ing Hare, Kurusadi and October the Gulf of Mannar and reported Mannar Manauli islands 2001 the sponge and gorgonid biodiversity

3 Ecology and biodiversity Gulf of Mannar and February Observations were made at of Indian coral-reef fishes Southwest coast of India 2002 - Tuticorin, Tirunelveli and from Kanyakumari to April Kanyakumari coasts in Tamil Goa 2003 Nadu, Vizhinjam and Kovalam in Kerala; Natrani and Grand islands off Murdeshwar in Karnataka and off Panaji in Goa. Recorded 182 fish species representing 32 families of which 18 species are new records to Indian waters.

4 Reef-fish monitoring off St.George Island May-July Underwater studies using SCUBA Goa 2003 were made and the reef fish behaviour was studied and documented.

5 Underwater survey of the Muttom, Tamil Nadu May-June Studied the rocky reef fauna of rock reefs off Muttom, 2005 Muttom and reported the tsunami Tamil Nadu: Possible impact found on the sessile Tsunami impacts invertebrates.

6 Capacity building for Goa and Lakshadweep August Trained five Indian young scien- Environmental assessment islands to tists in underwater research using December SCUBA and studied the impact of 2005 tsunami on the sponges, corals and octocorals of Goa area and Lakshadweep islands

108 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Diving / Snorkeling based publications by Marine Fish Biodiversity along the west coast IERSE of India through Underwater Visual Censuses (submitted for publication) 1. SLUKA, R.D. and S. LAZARUS 2002. Snorkeler’s guide to Kovalam Beach. pp 12 11. SLUKA, R.D., A.G.MARY, S.LAZARUS. First description of two fringing reefs from the 2. SLUKA, R.D. and S. LAZARUS 2002. central west coast of India. Coral Reefs Humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus rare (under review). on the west coast of India. J. mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. 85: 1293-1294 *Not based on diving 3. MARY, A.G. and LAZARUS, S., 2004. Research and Management Protocol Gorgonids off the southwest coast of India. Indian coral reefs are subjected to J.mar. biol. Ass. India, 46 (1): 32-43. numerous threats, both natural and 4. EDWARD, J.K.P., S. KULKARNI, R. JEYA anthropological. Coastal fishermen are BASKARAN, S. LAZARUS, A.G. MARY, K.VENKATARAMAN, S. P. DAS, dependent upon these reefs for their livelihood. J.TAMELANDER, A. RAJASURIYA, Despite the importance of these reefs, little is K.JAYAKUMAR, A.K. KUMARAGURU, known about the abundance and distribution N.MARIMUTHU, R.D. SLUKA AND of many prominent reef taxa. Amazingly, there J.WILSON, 2005. The Effects of the 2004 has been no underwater exploration in most Tsunami on Mainland India and the Andaman of our coastal habitats. Previously everything and Nicobar Islands, Chapter 7, Status of coral that was known about the biodiversity of most reefs of Indian ocean-2005, AIMS, Australia. of our study region was gleaned through p.85-97. bycatch of fishing vessels. Comprehensive 5. SLUKA, R. D., S. LAZARUS AND studies on the fauna and flora in relation to A.G.MARY, 2005. Underwater survey of rocky the various habitats of the coral reefs of Gulf reefs of Muttom, Tamil Nadu: possible tsunami of Mannar is still lacking. Almost all research impacts. Wave in Bay, ENVIS, Publication in this region have been conducted in the Series 3/2005: 53-59. shallow-water habitats. So, gather information *6. LAZARUS, S., and A.G. MARY, 2005. that has never before been collected Aquatic biodiversity and its management issues. CMFRI Special publication no: 84. following transect and other suitable p.63-64 methodologies using SCUBA and other 7. MARY, A. G., R. D. SLUKA AND underwater study equipments by engaging S.LAZARUS, 2005. Distribution and scientists trained in diving. The application of systematics of the octocorals of the southwest the collected data to conservation will be quite Indian coast. (Zootaxa-In Review). straight forward though by no means easy. It 8. SLUKA, R.D. and S.LAZARUS 2002. has to be done with the full support of the Community development and conservation stake-holders. So communicate the results and through alternative use of fish resources in potential benefits of non-destructive use of South India.(submitted for publication). these resources to the local community through 9. SLUKA, R.D. and S.LAZARUS 2002. culturally relevant media.

109 Potential Bird Habitats of Gulf of Mannar coast – A study report Potential Bird Habitats of Gulf of Mannar coast – A study report

V. NAGANATHAN1, S. CHANDRASEKARAN AND Dr. G. CHRISTOPHER 1Eco Development Officer GOMBRT - Ramanathapuram

Introduction II. Objectives General description This survey is a sequel to the report The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere of Tamil Nadu Forest Department on “Avi Reserve covers an area of 10,500 Km2on the faunal diversity of Gulf of Mannar (GoM) by south-east coast of India across from SriLanka. V.Naganathan, IFS, Wildlife Warden, GOM It is one of the world’s richest regions from a with an intention to: marine biodiversity perspective. The biosphere a. Update and finalize a checklist on birds reserve comprises 21 islands with estuaries, as on 2005 mudflats, beaches, forests of the near shore b. Identify the potential habitats preferred by environment, including marine components birds likc algal communities, sea grasses, coral reefs, c. Identify red spots (highly disturbed/ salt marshes and mangroves. Among the Gulfs poached) 4,000 plants and animal species, there are the d. Collect details on supplementary foraging globally endangered species sea cow ([)ugo/ and nesting areas around the declared lgdllgOI1)and six mangrove species endemic sanctuaries in Ramanathapuram district to peninsular India. The inhabitants are mainly e. Survey of declared sanctuaries as on 2005 Marakeyars, a local Community principally and assess the impact on them due to engaged in fisheries. There are about 125 anthropogenic and climatic factors. villages along the coastal part of the biosphere reserve which support some 100,000 people f. Suggest measures to protect areas of (200,000 seasonally as of 2001). Major importance! potential habitats and ecosystem type Major ecosystem types avai g. Look into any other aspects that may go to lable are Coral reefs, mudflats, beach, island, help in preserving the avifauna of this belt. shallow water, mangrove etc.. of coastal / III. Study Area marine component. The study area encompassed two Major habitats & land cover types districts namely Tuticorin and Ramnad and Sea grass beds dominated by included the islands lying in that area family like lIydroharitaceae and viz.,Nallathanni, Appa, Vazahai, Talayari, Potanomogetonaceae etc., and species Kurusadai, Pullivasal, Poomarichan, Manoli Halodele uninervis Cymodocea rotunda, and Hare (Musal) islands. C.serrulata etc.: coral reefs; mangroves Team 1 surveyed the islands around including Rhizophora muctunata Avicennia Mandapam and the declared sanctuaries in alba, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops tagal, Ramnad districts. Lumnitzara racemosa etc., also common in the Team 2 surveyed the coastline stretch. Location 08°47' to 09° IS’N; n° 12' to between Ramnad and Kilakarai and the islands 79° l4’E is the’ location of Gulf of Mannar. of Appa, Vazahai and Talayari 110 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 Team 3 surveyed the areas around IV. Survey Methodology Tuticorin and coastline between Tuticorin and Since this national park comprised of Kilakarai and islands of Nalatanni. different terrain due to the presence of water Wherever required, a detour was bodies, coastal strips, villages and towns, the taken to survey adjacent lakes and water encounter method was followed with suitable bodies lying in the line of travel by the team. modifications as and when required. Tradi- The list of surveyed sites are given below: tional method like transect count or point count 1. Thermal Power station - Tuticorin could not be employed due to the unique to- pography and inability to apply these meth- 2. Coast Guard Land near Mandaparn Range ods under such conditions. office The modifications resorted to were: 3. Munaikadu Backwaters - Mandapam a. Wherever big group or congregation of 4. Kothandaram temple Lagoon birds was seen, block count as suggested 5. Mandapam Camp to Keelakarai - Road- in Asian Waterfowl Count (AWC), was side resorted to and 6. Keelakarai to Melasel vanoor - Roadside b. At traditional nesting sites quadrant 7. Appa island - Kcelakarai method was used to estimate nests 8. Thirespuram, Mottakopuram, Siluvaipatti The survey group was divided into - Tuticorin three teams of two each, to facilitate a 9. Sippikulam, Keelavaippar. Melmaanthai- comprehensive survey covering the entire South Ramnad district stretch of GoM and ensure coverage of 10. SPIC -Tuticorin different habitats lying in the biosphere 11. Kurusadai island -Mandapam reserve. Also, the importance of buffer zones 12. Pl1llivasaJ & Poomaricaan island - and peripheral areas closer to habitations was Mandapam also covered under the survey, which was one of the main objectives. 13. Manoli island - Mandapam 14. Thalayari, Valai island - KeeJakarai Team 1 surveyed islands of Kursadi, Pullivasal, Poomarichan, Manoli and Hare; I5. Naripaiyur Taravai Tank-Ramnad District Kothandarramar lagoon; sanctuaries of 16. Sathangudi diversion, Mariyur Alam, chitrangudi and kaanjirankulam; adjacent 6 Valinokkam salt area & Idampadal tank villages where water bodies were present like 17. Nallathanni island - Tuticorin group Kadambodai, Mallal; Taliyarinendal. 18. Harc island - Mandapam Team 2 covered the coastal strip of 19. Kadugusanthai Kanmoi - Ramnad District Ramnad to Kilakarai and islands of Appa, 20. Vinayakar Koil tank - Rammd Vazhai and Talyari from Kilakarai and the 21. Big Tank - Ramnad Melselvanoor sanctuary. 22. Mallal tank - Ramnad Team 3 covered the thermal station, SPIC factory at Tuticorin and the coastal strip 23. UttiragosamangaiTank from Tuitcorin to Kilakarai including 24. Thaliyerenthal Tank waterbodies in this area like Sippikulam, 25. Kadambodai Tank Melmandhai, Kilavaipar Lagoon, Kadugu- 26. Chitrangudi tank sandhai, etc. and the Island of Nallathanni. 111 Potential Bird Habitats of Gulf of Mannar coast – A study report v. Findings and Observations of backwater ecosystem facilitating bird 1. The notable aspect of this survey was habitation. Ringing method has to be tried to the addition of 10 new species of birds’ to the find out the migratory pattern of visiting bird already existing 217 species reported in the nesting and roosting birds of the established book (Avifaunal diversity of GoM published sanctuaries seem to have moved to more by Tamil Nadu Forest Department) as listed greenerpastures around. That could be the below : reason for sudden increase in bird population

Common Name Scientific Name Location at which seen

Chestnutbittern Ixobrychus PillayarKoil Cinnamomeus Pillayar Koil tank,Ramnad, Nakta or Comb duck Sarkidiornis melaotos Kadugusandhai Lesser black backed Larus fuscus Manoli island Slender-billed gull Larus genei Kothandaramar Lagoon Rufuous tailed finch lark Ammomaneus phoenicurus Tuticorin thermal plant Southern grey shrike Lanius meridionalis Sippikulam Yellow-fronted pied woodpecker Dendrocopus mahrattensis Chittarangudi, and Kanjirankulam Indian courser Cursorious coramandellcus, Sippikularn Long-legged buzzard Buteo rutinus Aayakudi – Melselvanu Black-throated diver’ Gavia arctica Near kilakarai

2. The following areas seem to hold high potential for birds.

Area Species seen

Thermal power station, Tuticorin Flamingoes. Gulls and Waders Kilavaipar grasslands Indian courser& Harriers Kadugusandhai Kanmai Comb ducks & other duck species Mariyur alam Waders and Gulls Kothandaramar Lagoon Flamingoes, Gulls, Terns and Waders Munaikaadu Birds of Prey and Waders Manoli and Hare islands Gulls, Terns and Waders Periyakanmai, Ramnad Breeding of Pelicans and waterfowls Mallal Tank Bareheaded geese and other ducks Talayariendal Breeding colonies of grey herons and egrets

At thermal power station, Tuticorin, and species at place of well-watered tracts like Mariyur alam, Kothadaramar lagoon, Manoli Uthiragosamangai, Mallal, Kadambodai. and Hare Islands, the congregation of birds Theriruveli, Ramnad Big Tank etc., and was seen in thousands. Places like Kilavaipar population.The Melselvanoor are becoming lagoon, Muniakaadu were important inview heronry in the last few years. 112 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 3. The survey identified the following hot spots

Sl.No Area Threats

01. Kilavaipar Lgoon Expansion of salt units – Threat to grasslands species Kadugu Santhai Poaching Kothandaramar Lagoon Poaching Manoli, Hare (Musal), Pullivasal, Poomariechan, Disturbance due to fishing and fishermen, collection Kurusadai Island. of seaweed etc. Mallal Tank Poaching by nomads Thalyarinenthal Tank Poaching by nomads Kilakkarai Islands Disturbance due to fishing and fishermen, Tuticorin Islands Disturbance due to fishing and fishermen

4. Survey of the declared sanctuaries at Lesser known areas like Kadambodai Chitrangudi and Kanjirakulam and Theriruveli had good number of ducks, These sanctuaries are completely especially garganeys and common teals, which dried due to failure of monsoon specifically were not seen elsewhere. At Theriruveli, a at theses places whereas, in other parts of huge roost of fruit-bats was seen in the Ramnad, there was copious rainfall. Even the Acacia trees of the lake. Similarly, at the small quantity of water collected during scanty Vinayagar Koil tank in Ramnad city on a mist rains in the sanctuary had evaporated soon. filled day big group of large egret, chestnut There has been no nesting or roosting activity bittern, grey herons and median egrets were of waterfowl in both these sanctuaries for last seen. four years due to successive failure of In the areas around Ramnad, the team monsoon. The water from the Vaigai channel encountered an unusually high number of rosy is not reaching these villages though they reach pastors and pied crested Cuckoo is the bird up to 15 km upstream. However both these known as the harbinger of monsoon. sanctuaries abound in wood land birds. The VI. Discussion only concern was the over spread of Prosopis juliflora, which has started smothering native The additions to the existing list vegetation and undergrowth. However, the indicate the true potential of the biosphere and yellow-fronted pied woodpecker an addition also the habitat potential of the unprotected to list of birds was seen here. areas since many are reported from such areas. In fact, the sighting of chestnut bittern 5. Other observations on a mist-filled day at’ 8:00 am was a Surprisingly throughout the four-day revelation into the behavioral pattern of the survey, there was no sighting of lesser crepuscular species. Not only the bittern, but flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor). also the median and large egrets along with Osprey was seen at Munaikaadu and white- breasted water hen were seen foraging Manoli island. Similarly Peregrine falcon was under the extended cover of the mist until also seen at the same spot. Osprey was also 9:00-a.m,which was not a usual phenomenon sighted at Thermal Station, Tuticorin. in this area, Similarly in a salt pan on the way 113 Potential Bird Habitats of Gulf of Mannar coast – A study report to Kilakarai, we encountered a big group of fly ash from the Thermal power station. The exclusively large egrets at around II :00 a.m. shallow pools thus formed, seem to attract The sighting of comb duck with more foraging waterfowl.However, the juveniles by Christopher & Sasikumar at optimum level of accumulation of fly ash has Kadugusandhai corroborates the earlier to be ascertained to retain this spot as a observation of Wildlife warden regular habitat. Otherwise, this area will be Mr.Naganathan in the same area. Also, this lost with huge collection of fly ash over a goes to explain the fruitful result one could period of time. The team from Ramnad to achieve by sustained observation of an area Kilakarai has encountered a long legged over a period of time. buzzard at a village called Ayakudi near Melselvanur and the other team that went Sighting of lesser black backed gull around Uthrakoshamangai also encountered (Larusfiscus) may be of importance only to a Kestrels and few buzzards. Thus the un-spoilt few as this is most widely seen species in countryside alternating with cultivation and coastal areas of South. .The suspicion over its scrub-grass land ecosystem offers a beautiful presence ‘as well its identity: as expressed habitat for such birds of prey. The importance in-Grimmette al in their handbook, need not of inter tidal zone and mudflats created due to be taken too seriously as even literatures of the influence of tides, was witnessed at the RSPB (Slightly smaller than a herring gull, islands near Mandapam. In between, Manoli the lesser black~ backed gull has a dark grey and Hare islands, the vast stretch of mudflats to black back and wings, yellow bill and exposed during low tides attracted a huge 13 yellow legs) tend to distinguish them from congregation of gulls and terns. At this spot, Herring gull as Salim Ali does. lesser black:] backed gulls, caspian terns, and The slender billed gull with pale black headed gulls were seen in thousands pinkish under parts was immediately along with a biggest flock of crab plovers, recognized in spite of being among a huge numbering around 300. The lesser sized gulls congregation of gulls at Kothandaramar and terns viz. brown headed gulls, gull billed lagoon. In fact, 12 Kothandaramar lagoon is terns, and whiskered terns were seen again in an ideal spot to watch the different species of thousands but as a separate group elsewhere gulls and terns apart from a huge flock of in the same locality. The associating patterns greater flamingoes. The team reported around ofthese waterfowls offer an interesting study 5000+ flamingoes The sighting l)f woodland for the future. A solitary Peregrine falcon birds such as rufous tailed lark, southern grey seemed to have taken a refuge at Manoli like shrike and yellow-fronted pied woodpecker its counter part at Munaikaadu. The islands emphasizes the potential of dry scrub land around Mandapam have a quite a number of which are considered as waste land. The woodland species of birds like sun birds, blue meticulous observation of the team at tailed bee eaters, warblers, shrikes, etc. In Melmandhai has resulted in sighting of Indian Manoli, grey herons were nesting and courser, an unobtrusive bird. Its presence along juveniles were seen in good numbers. These with that of harriers in the nearby grasslands islands are being used as resting places by explains the importance of such an ecosystem. local fisher-folk at times and areas around the Another interesting observation by the shallow reef where corals are found; the local team from Tuticorin to Kilakarai was the people indulge in collection of sea grass and formation of ideal habitat by the collection of algae. 114 GOMBRT Publication 5, 2006 The sighting of seventeen bar headed the elusive Peregrine falcon (P. calidus), geese, a Himalayan migrant, is from Mallal clearly underlines the fact that this biotope is tank near Ramnad along with pintails and very rich and to confront them at frequent shovellers. The nearby Thaliyerendal village intervals in a four day survey is remarkable. has a huge Peepal tree in which grey herons VII. Suggestions and egrets were breeding and the total The following suggestions are specific to number of nests was around 30. Similarly the protection of potential habitats. villages like Kadambodai, Uthrakoshamangai and Theriruveli where small tanks exist; ducks 1. Areas which may not fall under and waterfowls were seen in good numbers. national park, also hold quite a good number However, sporadic poaching by nomads as of waterfowl or resident species and as such well as others seems to be common. these areas require frequent monitoring; protection; creation of watch and ward staff, The established heronries of etc, such areas are: Chitrangudi and Kanjirankulam were bereft of water and totally devoid of waterfowl as a a. Mallal tank result. This is the state of affairs for the last b. Talaiyariendal tank four years. Both the sanctuaries have c. Kadugusandhai witnessed a wild growth of Prosopis juliflora d. Melmandhai suppressing under growth and endemic 14 flora. The villagers, who do not have any e. Kothandaramar lagoon gainful vocation, expressed their desire to f. Kilavaipar weed out this species, which can be used as g. Thermal Plant areas fuel upplement or sold to earn livelihood. 2. A complete hydrological study at However, their zeal to protect the birds remains Kothandaramar lagoon may be carried out to intact in spite of the continuous drought ascertain the site fidelity as flamingoes conditions but unless some remedial measures congregate in this area only. from the socio-economic angle are taken, the conditions may not be same in the future. 3. Grasslands and scrub jungle habitats at Kilavaipar and Sippikulam to be ear marked However, the sanctuaries abound in for effective protection in view of the woodland birds and it is not surprising that presence of certain highly endangered species one can declare this a woodland bird like Indian courser. sanctuary! To be correct, the addition of yellow fronted pied woodpecker was seen in The suggestions given below are to reduce both the sanctuaries. If the water from Vaigai, the anthropogenic factors responsible for which is reaching up to 15 km from here, could disturbances be diverted to these sanctuaries, probably, they 1. Traditional sites like Chitirankudi and will once again regain their splendor. The Kanjirankulam are totally dry and no activity non-sighting of lesser flaming on anywhere is of waterfowl seen for the last four years. To a question to be answered. Since algal bloom maintain their position and also enlist the is common and at some places it is abundant. support of villagers who are otherwise Probably a site fidelity test may prove the favorably disposed, rehabilitation and answer to this. The sighting of almost 13 reclamation 16 measures are to be taken/ species of raptors (birds of prey), including thought of before it is too late. 115 Potential Bird Habitats of Gulf of Mannar coast – A study report 2. Patrolling the islands around Mandapal1l 5. Reporting violation of Wildlife / at regular frequencies to be introduced to save wildlife traffic act as and when encountered the fragile ecosystem around them. Also, and to popularize such acts among staff and providing alternate vocational activities to public. local people to wean them from collection of Suggestions for more scientific studies sea produces is required to maintain the health 1. Similar surveys to be conducted at of marine flora and fauna. Measures to determined intervals to have meaningful improve the overall efficiency and level of database – 17 knowledge are listed below: 2. Ringing of birds at known sites of 1. Education to lower level staff who congregation like, Kothandaramar Lagoon, matter most (As they are at the site most of Manoli islands. Even ringing of birds like the time) Rosy Pastor, bar headed geese may help to 2. To remunerate the mat fixed intervals know more about migration datapattern. (to avoid arrears in salaries) so that one may avoid dropouts; lack of interest; inaction; and 3. The format for day-to-day monitoring falling a prey to poachers. of birds in the GoM may be the one used for AWC and supplied by BNHS. This can be 3. To provide with regular census conveniently filled up by any staff with a little format for effective monitoring of wildlife working knowledge. The data can be collated movement and occurrence. later and tabulated. 4. To provide an effective communication 4. The regular census format for further network for patrols in remote areas and high surveys may be as detailed below: seas.

5. Species seen Time Activity Co-inhabitants Habitat type Remarks

This form can be combined with AWC form. hearted initiatives from all the participants and 5. Committed and interested NGO’s may be field staff at various places in Gulf of Mannar. enlisted to participate in surveys and studies The results are the compilations of so that unbiased and independent independent observations of each team. We observations/suggestions could be mustered wish that the findings and observations are for implementation in the management plan. taken as part of the work and not as anyone’s personal view. We also hope that suitable VIII. Acknowledgements measures are taken to redress shortcomings This survey was made possible and efforts taken to make this unique biome because of the enthusiasm and the whole still richer in avifauna. 116