Introduction

Notes

Introduction

1. Rev. 22:13 Revised Standard Version. 2. Examples of apocalyptic movements in non-Judeo-Christian religious traditions include Zoroastrianism in ancient Persia; Mahdism in premodern Islam; Maitreya faith in East Asia; the “cargo” cults of the South Pacific and the Ghost Dance movement of North America. See Kenelm Burridge, New Heaven New Earth: A Study of Millenarian Activities (New York: Schocken, 1969). Eschatologies in non-Western tradition are also discussed in detail in Mircea Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return: or, Cosmos and History, trans. Willard R. Trask (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971) (Originally published as Le Mythe de l’eternel retour: Archetypes et repetition). Japanese eschatological folklore is studied in Miyata Noboru, Shūmatsukan no minzokugaku (The Folklore of Eschatology) (Tokyo: Chikuma shoten, 1998), 27–84. 3. The Epic of Gilgamesh contains a flood myth that is considered to be from ca. the twentieth century BC. Also, the sacred Hindu Brahmanas written between the tenth and the sixth centuries BC include a myth detailing a devastating flood endured by Manu, ancestor of humanity. Discussion of flood myths can be found in Kusano Takumi, Seikimatsu: kamigami no shūmatsu monjo (Fin de Siècle: Apocalyptic Literature by the Gods) (Tokyo: Shin kigensha, 1997), 38–46. 4. Ikeuchi Megumi, Gendai arabu no shakai shisō (The Contemporary Arabic Social Thought) (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 2002), 151–161. 5. Anime can refer to animated content in any genre in films, on television, on the Internet, and in video games. 6. It is important to note that in the Japanese context the “postwar period” has not yet ended. Outside Japan, many understand Japan’s postwar period to have come to an end with the Occupation in 1952, or with the start of the period of high economic growth in 1955, or even with the opening of the Tokyo Olympic Games in 1964, which for many represented Japan’s return to the world community. For most Japanese, however, sengo—which literally means “after the war,” but specifically refers to the period following the end of WWII—has not ended and has no foreseeable end. 158 Notes

7. Junbungaku is usually understood to refer to modern literary works with artistic rather than commercial value, and is often regarded as the opposite of taishū bungaku, popular literature. 8. Saitō Tamaki, Bungaku no dansō (Dislocation in Literature) (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 2008), 10–17. 9. The economic impact of the recent best-selling trilogy by Murakami Haruki, 1Q84, is reported at over ¥10 billion (about US$100 million at an exchange rate of ¥100 to $1). The Evangelion series and its related derivatives, on the other hand, are reported to have had sales of over ¥150 billion (about $1.50 billion) between 1995 and 2008. It is notable that Evangelion has neither sequels nor prequels; the new film series of Evangelion are still based mostly on the original plot and characters.

Chapter 1

1. The terms millennium in Latin and chilias in Greek signify a period of one thousand years. According to the Judeo-Christian tradition, millenarianism (also millenarism) is the belief by a religious, social, or political movement in a coming major transformation of society, after which all things will be changed in a particular way. Millennialism is a specific form of millenarism based on a one-thousand-year cycle, especially significant for Judeo-Christian tradition. Apocalypse is considered to be a form of millennialism which accompanies the major destruction of the community, the world or the universe. See Yonina Talmon, “Millenarism,” in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan-Free Press, 1968), 349–350; and G. W. Trompf, “Millenarism: History, Sociology, and Cross-Cultural Analysis,” The Journal of Religious History 24, 1 (February 2000), 108. 2. Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages (London: Pimlico, 1993), 4–20. 3. Ibid., 4, 18–26. 4. Mircea Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return: Or, Cosmos and History, trans. Willard R. Trask (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), 143. 5. Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium, 19. 6. Frank Kermode, The Sense of An Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 25. 7. Kusano Takumi, Seikimatsu: Kamigami no shūmatsu monjo (Fin de Siècle: Apocalyptic Literature by the Gods) (Tokyo: Shin kigensha, 1997), 71. 8. Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium, 22. 9. Ibid., 89. 10. See historical examples of apocalyptic movements such as those by Franciscans, Brethren of the Free Spirit, Thomas Müntzer, and The Ranters in Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium. Notes 159

11. Lucian Boia, Sekai no shūmatsu, trans. Moriya Nobuaki (Tokyo: Papyrus, 1992) (Originally published as La fin du monde), 98. 12. Ibid, 100–101. 13. Nagayama Yasuo, Natsukashii mirai (A Good Old Future) (Tokyo: Chūō kōronsha, 2001), 9–10. 14. Boia, Sekai no shūmatsu, 130–131. 15. Ibid., 150–154. 16. Boia, Sekai no shūmatsu, 150; and Nagayama, Natsukashii mirai, 10–13. 17. Ōsawa Masachi, Fukanōsei no jidai (The Age of Impossibility) (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2008), 219–220. 18. Kermode, The Sense of An Ending, 7–8. 19. Trompf, “Millenarism: History, Sociology, and Cross-Cultural Analysis,” 108. 20. Kusano, Seikimatsu, 14–25; and Kermode, The Sense of An Ending, 3–6. 21. Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return, 1–34. 22. Kusano, Seikimatsu, 17–18. 23. Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return, 141–147. 24. Ibid., 142. 25. Ibid., 141–142. 26. Ibid., 141–143. 27. Ibid., 154–156. 28. Ibid., 156–157. 29. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, and Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), xxiv. 30. Fredric Jameson, “Postmodernism, or The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism,” in Postmodernism: A Reader, ed. Thomas Docherty (New York: New York University Press, 1993), 62. 31. Ibid., 66–79. 32. As cited in Lee Quinby, Anti-Apocalypse: Exercise in Genealogical Criticism (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1994), xxii. 33. Jacques Derrida, “Of an Apocalyptic Tone Recently Adopted in Philosophy,” trans. John P. Leavey, Jr., Oxford Literary Review 6 (1984): 3–37. 34. As cited in James Berger, After the End: Representation of Post-Apocalypse (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 8–9. 35. Ania Lichtarowicz, “Virtual kingdom richer than Bulgaria,” BBC News Online, Friday, March 29, 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1899420. stm. 36. Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?” The National Interest (Summer 1989): 3–18. 37. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (London/New York: Free Press, 2006). 38. Berger, After the End, xiii. 160 Notes

39. Ibid., xiii. 40. Ibid., xx. 41. Catherine Keller, Apocalypse Now and Then: A Feminist Guide to the End of the World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), 16–17. 42. D. H. Lawrence, Apocalypse (London/New York: Penguin Books, 1996), Introduction. 43. Quinby, Anti-Apocalypse, Introduction. See also Lee Quinby, Millennial Seduction: A Skeptic Confronts Apocalyptic Culture (Ithaca/London: Cornell University Press, 1999). 44. Keller, Apocalypse Now and Then, 10. 45. Kazama Kenji, “Apocalypse Now,” Eureka: Poetry and Criticism 31, 2 (February 1999): 126–135. 46. Keller, Apocalypse Now and Then, 10. 47. Michele Marra, “The Development of Mappō Thought in Japan (I),” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 15, 1 (1988): 25–54. 48. Kazama, “Apocalypse Now,” 126–135. 49. Kusano, Seikimatsu, 58–69. 50. H. G. Wells, Taimu mashin, trans. Ishikawa Toshi (Tokyo: Kadokawa shoten, 2002) (Originally published as The Time Machine). 51. Miyadai argues that the leader and followers of Aum perpetrated the sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway because they could not endure endless life without the sense of an ending. See Miyadai Shinji, Owari naki nichijō wo ikiro: Aum kanzen kokufuku manyuaru (Live in the Endless Everyday: The Perfect Manual for Conquering Aum) (Tokyo: Chikuma shoten, 1998). Tsurumi’s book begins with the declaration that there will be no big ending in our life. See Tsurumi Wataru, Kanzen jisatsu manyuaru (The Complete Manual of Suicide) (Tokyo: Ōta shuppan, 1993) for further details.

Chapter 2

1. Kurano Kenji, ed., Kojiki (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1963), 13–209. See also Kawai Hayao, Shinwa to Nihon jin no kokoro (Myth and the Japanese Mind) (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2003), 21–104. 2. Tamura Yoshirō, Nihon bukkyōshi nyūmon (Introduction to the History of Japanese Buddhism) (Tokyo: Kadokawa shoten, 1969), 29. 3. Michele Marra, “The Development of Mappō Thought in Japan (I),” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 15, 1 (1988): 25–54. See also Hayami Tasuku, Heian bukkyō to mappō shisō (Heian Buddhism and Mappō Thought) (Tokyo: Yoshikawa kōbunkan, 2006), 196–199. 4. Sueki Fumihiko, Nihon bukkyōshi (The History of Japanese Buddhism) (Tokyo: Shinchōsha, 1992), 127–144. Notes 161

5. Hōnen, the monk who advocated a new type of Amidism in the early Kamakura period, declared in his writing that the time is the Last Dharma Age, and all people are evil. Two other monks who were active after Hōnen, Shinran, founder of the Jōdo shin sect, and Ippen, founder of the Ji sect, were Amidists. Eisai, founder of the Rinzai sect, and Dōgen, founder of the Sōtō sect, belong to the Zen branch. Nichiren, founder of the Hokke sect, belongs to the Tendai branch. All these reformers left the same understanding of the present situa- tion as matsudai (the defiled age), bonpu (people without enlightenment), and hendo (the marginal land). The word hendo implies the place far from the Pure Land and from the center of the Buddhist teachings. See Tamura, Nihon bukkyōshi nyūmon, 115–117. 6. Ibid., 115–117. Also see Sueki Fumihiko, Nihon shūkyōshi (The History of Japanese Religion) (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2006), 73–75. 7. Tamura, Nihon bukkyōshi nyūmon, 178–180. 8. Details are discussed in Sasaki Junnosuke, Yonaoshi (The Reform of Society) (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1972). 9. See detailed arguments in Steven Heine, “Tragedy and Salvation in the Floating World: Chikamatsu’s Double Suicide Drama as Millenarian Discourse,” The Journal of Asian Studies 53, 2 (May 1994); and Shinoda Masahiro, Shinjū ten no Amijima (The Love Suicides at Amijima) (Tokyo: Kamensha, 1970). 10. Miyata Noboru, Shūmatsukan no minzokugaku (The Folklore of Eschatology) (Tokyo: Chikuma shoten, 1998), 35–50. 11. Nagayama Yasuo, Nihon SF seishinshi (The History of Japanese SF thought) (Tokyo: Kawade shobō, 2009), 14–36. 12. Ibid., 36–43. 13. Ibid., 82–84. 14. Nagayama Yasuo, “Nijusseiki no owari kata” (How to End the Twentieth Century), Eureka: Poetry and Criticism 31, 2 (February 1999): 168–179. 15. Nagayama, “Nijusseiki no owari kata,” 171–173. 16. Camille Flammarion, “Sekai no matsujitsu” (The Last Days of the Earth), trans. Tokutomi Roka, Kokumin no tomo (The Nation’s Friend) 119 (May 1891): 32–34. 17. Camille Flammarion, Kono yo wa ika ni shite owaruka (How Will This World End?), trans. Takahashi Takeshi (Tokyo: Kaizosha, 1923) (Originally published as La fin de monde). 18. Nagayama, “Nijusseiki no owari kata,” 173–175. 19. Ibid., 179. 20. Sharalyn Orbaugh, “The Problems of Modern Subject,” and “The Nation and the Nationalism,” in The Columbia Companion to Modern East Asian Literature, ed. Joshua Mostow (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 24–41. 21. It is still a subject of debate whether the mass suicides in Okinawa were volun- tary or forced by the Japanese army, and in any case it would be very difficult to prove who gave the order. This controversy led to a long court trial over Ōe 162 Notes

Kenzaburō’s Okinawa nōto (Okinawa Notes, 1970) and Ienaga Saburō’s Taiheiyō sensō (The Pacific War, 1968). It is, however, clear that the suicides were catastrophic and destructive acts that indicated that people could not cope with the uncertain future of defeat. 22. The number of immediate deaths due to the Nagasaki bomb is estimated as 74,000 people, mostly civilians, mostly women, children, and the elderly. The number of immediate deaths due to the Hiroshima bomb, on the other hand, varies according to the source. The city of Hiroshima officially estimated that 140,000 people died between August 6, 1945 and the end of the year. 23. John Whittier Treat, Writing Ground Zero: Japanese Literature and the Atomic Bomb (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995), 8. 24. Sharalyn Orbaugh, Japanese Fiction of the Allied Occupation: Vision, Embodiment, Identity (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 16. 25. Ibid., 18. 26. Kuroi ame (Black Rain, 1966) by Ibuse Masuji, Utsukushii hoshi (Beautiful Planet, 1962) by Mishima Yukio, Daiyon kanpyōki (Inter Ice Age 4, 1959) by Abe Kōbō, Man’en gannen no futtobōru (The Silent Cry, 1967) and Kōzui wa waga tamashii ni oyobi (The Floodwaters Have Come Unto My Soul, 1973) by Ōe Kenzaburō are examples of fiction with apocalyptic themes from this time period. 27. Azuma makes a clear distinction between the terms “postmodernity” and “postmodernism” in Japan. The former generally refers to cultural changes since the1960s or 1970s, while the latter has both a more ideological mien and a more limited scope, referring to things like the critical trend led by Asada Akira and Karatani Kōjin, or the literary movement of Shimada Masahiko and Takahashi Gen’ichirō. See Azuma Hiroki, Otaku: Japan’s Database Animals, trans. Jonathan E. Abel and Kōno Shion (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 2009) (Originally published as Dōbutsuka suru posutomodan), 16–17. 28. Azuma, Otaku, 7–8. 29. Ibid., 107–108. 30. Ōsawa Masachi, Kyokō no jidai no hate (The End of the Fictional Age) (Tokyo: Chikuma shobō, 1996), 38–51. 31. Zenkyōtō is an abbreviation of zengaku kyōtō kaigi, meaning “the conference of all acidic dispute.” Zenkyōtō movements occurred between 1965 and 1970; in the earlier period they were successful, but they later degenerated into violent clashes between students and police with no clear goals. Anpo is an abbreviation of nichibei anzen hosho joyaku: Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan. The Anpo strife or movement refers to the anti-Anpo, anti-war movements that occurred twice: in 1959/60 and again in 1970. Like the Zenkyōtō movements, they were successful at first, but later were marked by violence without concrete goals. They remain the biggest political movements in Japanese history. Notes 163

32. Sōkatsu means to summarize, but the United Red Army came to use this word to encourage their members to self-criticize and to become revolutionary through violent acts. Sōkatsu became one of the justifications for the violence and murders engaged in by the organization. 33. Sawaragi Noi, “On the Battlefield of ‘SUPERFLAT’: Subculture and Art in Postwar Japan,” trans. Linda Hoaglund, in Little Boy: The Arts of Japan’s Exploding Subculture, ed. Murakami Takashi (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), 187–205. 34. The Asama Sansō Incident was a hostage crisis and police siege in a mountain lodge near Karuizawa, Nagano that lasted from February 19 to February 28, 1972. The rescue operation on the final day of the standoff was the first mara- thon live broadcast in Japan, lasting ten hours and forty minutes. The incident began when five members of the United Red Army broke into a holiday lodge below Mount Asama, taking the wife of the lodge-keeper hostage. On February 28, police stormed the lodge; two police officers were killed in the assault, but the hostage was rescued and the five perpetrators were taken into custody. The incident contributed to a decline in the popularity of leftist movements in Japan. For further information, see Sassa Atsuyuki, Rengō sekigun asama sansō jiken (The United Red Army: The Asama Sansō Incident) (Tokyo: Bungei shunjūsha, 1999) for commentary by the police side and Sakaguchi Hiroshi, Asama sansō 1972, 2 vols. (Tokyo: Sairyūsha, 1993) for commentary by a mem- ber of the United Red Army. 35. Ōsawa, Kyokō no jidai no hate, 40. 36. It is well known that Aum Shinrikyō’s leader Matsumoto Chizuo was influ- enced by both fiction (including animations such as Space Battleship Yamato and Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind) and esoteric Buddhism as well as the prophecies of Nostradamus. See Ōsawa Masachi, Kyoko no jidai no hate, 48–49, and Ōtsuka Eiji, Kanojotachi no rengō sekigun: sabukaruchā to sengo minshu shugi (Women in the United Red Army: Subculture and the Postwar Democracy) (Tokyo: Kadokawa shoten, 2001) for further details of the relationship between The United Red Army and Aum. 37. Space Battleship Yamato is usually considered a classical animation since it was released more than thirty years ago. However, it has recently experienced a resurgence in popularity; five animated films have been released from 1977 to 2009, and a live action film was released in Japan on December 1, 2010. 38. Ōsawa, Kyokō no jidai no hate, 75–76. 39. Ibid., 73–88. 40. For more detailed statistics, see http://sinsai.fdma.go.jp/search/abstract.php? TOSHO_ID=N0000025&DATA_ID=0001&LEGAL_ON=1. 41. Qtd. in Saitō Tamaki, Bungaku no dansō (Dislocation in Literature) (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 2008), 203. My translation. 42. Ōsawa, Kyokō no jidai no hate, 12. 164 Notes

43. D. W. Brackett, Holy Terror: Armageddon in Tokyo (New York: Weatherhill, 1996), 1–8. Matsumoto Chizuo is also known as Asahara Shōkō. 44. It is significant that Murakami Haruki combines reportage of the Aum incident with non-fictional interviews in his Andāgraundo (Underground) (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1997) and Yakusoku sareta basho de (In the Promised Land) (Tokyo: Bungei shunjūsha, 1998), whereas he juxtaposes the Kobe Earthquake with fiction in Kami no kodomotachi wa mina odoru (After the Quake) (Tokyo: Shinchōsha, 2000). 45. Representative new religions from 1945 to 1970 are Sōka Gakkai, Risshō Kōseikai, and the Perfect Liberty. See Shimazono Susumu, “Aspects of the Rebirth of Religion,” in Religion in Japanese Culture, ed. Tamaru Noriyoshi and David Reid (Tokyo, New York and London: Kodansha International, 1996), 170–174. 46. Examples of new New Religions other than Aum Shinrikyō are Agon no Shū, the Unification Church, and ōK fuku no Kagaku. See Shimazono Susumu, “Aspects of the Rebirth of Religion,” 174–177. 47. Shimazono Susumu, “Shin shin shūkyō no tokuchō” (The Characteristics of new New Religions), in Shin shin shūkyō to shūkyō būmu (New New Religion and the Boom of Religion) (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 1997), 23–50. 48. Ōsawa, Kyokō no jidai no hate, 35–36. 49. Ibid., 77–79. 50. Matsumoto was not a joke candidate; he was very serious about this election, and had been totally confident of winning the election by gaining sixty thousand votes. See Ōsawa, Kyokō no jidai no hate, 196–198. 51. Ōsawa, Kyokō no jidai no hate, 198. 52. Ibid., 35. 53. Murakami Haruki, Andāgraundo (Underground) (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1997), and Murakami Haruki, “Blind Nightmare: Where are we Japanese going?” in Underground: The Tokyo Gas Attack and the Japanese Psyche, trans. Alfred Birnbaum and Philip Gabriel (London: Vintage, 2002) (Originally published as Andāgraundo), 197–199. 54. Ōsawa, Kyokō no jidai no hate, 21–28. 55. Ibid., 29. 56. Benedict Anderson, Sōzō no kyōdōtai, trans. Shiraishi Saya and Shiraishi Takashi (Tokyo: NTT shuppan, 1997) (Originally published as Imagined Communities), 18–28. 57. Betsuyaku Minoru, “Chūkei no sōshitsu” (The Loss of the Middle Ground), in Uma ni notta Tange Sazen (Tange Sazen on the Horse) (Tokyo: Libroport, 1986), 10–13. 58. Azuma Hiroki, “Yūbinteki fuantachi” (Postal Anxieties), in Yūbinteki fuantachi# (Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, 2002), 61–64. Notes 165

59. Raito noberu (light novel) is a genre of novels born in contemporary Japanese popular culture. They are entertainment novels primarily targeting teenagers and young adults, usually published as bunkobon, and often illustrated by popular manga artists. In recent years, light novel stories have been popular choices for adaptation into manga, anime, and live-action films. In 2007, it was estimated that the market for light novels was about ¥20 billion ($166.7 million at ¥120 to the dollar) with about 30 million copies published annually. 60. Sekai in the word sekaikei is usually written in katakana. See Azuma, Otaku, 124. The definition of the term sekaikei is still under debate, but generally speaking there is a broader and a narrower definition. The broader definition considers sekaikei to consist of Japanese fictional works from the late 1990s and 2000s that describe the self-consciousness of youth (especially young men), and that make use of “otaku-type” genre codes such as robots, battling beauties, detectives, and school romances. The narrower definition refers to popular cultural works of animation, manga, games, and light novels in late 1990s and 2000s Japan that feature the combined theme of apocalyptic crisis and school romance, with situations in which the “foreground” (love between the always male protagonist and the heroine) is directly connected to the “background” (apocalyptic crisis and the end of the world) without the medi- ation of the “middle ground,” such as communities and societies. I use the narrower definition of sekaikei in this project. 61. TV series Neon Genesis Evangelion, directed by Anno Hideaki and produced by GAINAX (Tokyo: TV Asahi, October 4, 1995–March 27, 1996). 62. Kasai Kiyoshi, Introduction in Shakai wa sonzai shinai: sekaikei bunkaron (There is No Society: the Theory of Sekaikei Culture), ed. Genkai shōsetsu kenkyūjo (Tokyo: Nan’undō, 2009), 5–6. 63. Azuma, Otaku, 86. 64. Alexandre Kojève, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel (New York: Basic Books, 1969). 65. Azuma, Otaku, 86. 66. Ibid., 87. 67. Otaku is generally understood to refer to people with obsessive interests, particularly in popular culture products such as anime, manga, or video games. In recent years, however the word “otaku” has been used in broader contexts, leading critics to try to refine its meaning. Critic Okada Toshio defines otaku culture as the active of enjoyment of a popular culture work with artistic, sophisticated views and detailed study. Psychiatrist and critic Saitō Tamaki considers the essence of the otaku culture to be sexuality—specifically a sexuality that can find real appeal in two-dimensional animated characters. Azuma Hiroki claims that otaku culture is profoundly related to Japanese pop-culture trends since 1960s. Here in my study, I will rely primarily on the common 166 Notes

understanding of otaku as people who indulge in consuming pop cultural products, especially fictional items such as manga, anime, games, and figures. 68. Azuma, Otaku, 10. 69. “Risuto Katto, shō-chū-kō sei ni kyūzō” (The Increase in Wrist-Slashing among Elementary, Junior High, and High School Students), Mainichi shinbun, August 15, 2007. 70. Ōsawa Masachi, Fukanōsei no jidai (The Age of Impossibility) (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2008), 4–5. 71. Ibid., 81–83. 72. Ibid., 192.

Chapter 3

1. Ōe Kenzaburō, Man’en gannen no futtobōru (Football in the First Year of Man’en) (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1988). Trans. John Bester as The Silent Cry (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2002). 2. Susan J. Napier, Anime from Akira to Princess Mononoke (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 195. 3. Critic Karatani Kōjin discusses allegorical nature in The Silent Cry in detail in “Ōe Kenzaburō no aregorī ” (Allegory in Ōe Kenzaburō) in Teihon Karatani Kojin shu (The Collected Works of Karatani Kōjin) (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2004), 5: 106–141. 4. Michiko N. Wilson, The Marginal World of Ōe Kenzaburo: A Study in Themes and Techniques (Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1986), 50. 5. Man’en is the name of a reign-year cycle in the pre-Meiji system of dates and Man’en gannen in the title of the novel means the first year of Man’en, that is, 1860. 6. Wilson, The Marginal World of Ōe Kenzaburo, 49. 7. Kojima Nobuo, Hōyō kazoku (An Embracing Family) (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1988). 8. Etō Jun, Seijuku to sōshitsu: “haha” no hōkai (Maturation and Loss: Collapse of Motherhood) (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1993). 9. Katō Norihiro, “Man’en gannen kara no koe” (The Voice from the First Year of Man’en), in Man’en gannen no futtobōru (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1988), 465–468. 10. The Abolition of the Han System and Establishment of the Prefecture System was an act of the new Meiji government in 1871 to replace the traditional feudal domain (han) and to introduce a centralized government authority (prefectures). This was the most significant reform of the Meiji Restoration in that all daimyo (feudal lords) were now required to return their authority to the Emperor. Notes 167

11. S’s death is highly ambiguous, and is best described as a Christ-like sacrifice which ultimately ended the conflict between the two groups. According to the story, the Japanese and the Koreans were all fighting when S entered the fray unprotected and without fighting. He was thus beaten to death in the general mêlée without being specifically targeted by either side. 12. William Currie, Sogai no kozu: Abe Kobo, Beketto, Kafuka no shosetsu, trans. Anzai Tetsuo (Tokyo: Shinchōsha, 1975), 7–38. 13. Abe wrote the screenplay for the movie version of Suna no onna (Woman in the Dunes, 1964), which was directed by Teshigahara Hiroshi. 14. Susan J. Napier, The Fantastic in Modern Japanese Literature: The Subversion of Modernity (London, New York: Routledge, 1996), 199. 15. Yomiuri shinbun nijusseiki shuzaihan, ed., Nijusseiki reisen (The Cold War in the Twentieth Century) (Tokyo: Chūō kōron shinsha, 2001), 77–85. 16. Michael Klesius, “To Boldly Go,” Air and Space (December 18, 2008). http:// www.airspacemag.com/space-exploration/To-Boldly-Go.html. 17. Abe Kōbō, Inter Ice Age 4, trans E. Dale Saunders (New York: Tuttle, 1970) (Originally published as Daiyon kanpyōki), 170. 18. Ibid., 153. 19. Abe Kōbō, Daiyon kanpyoki (Tokyo: Shinchōsha, 1970), 243. My translations. 20. Isoda Kōichi, Commentary in Daiyon kanpyoki, 276–278. 21. Abe, Inter Ice Age 4, 226–227. 22. Thomas Schnellbächer, “Has the Empire Sunk Yet? The Pacific in Japanese Science Fiction,” Science Fiction Studies 29, 3 (November 2002): 382–396. 23. Ibid., 389. 24. Christopher Bolton, Sublime Voices: The Fictional Science and Scientific Fiction of Abe Kobo (Cambridge: The Harvard University Asia Center, 2009): 76–129. 25. Abe, Inter Ice Age 4, 228. 26. Ōe says that he writes for Japanese audience, especially for people of his own generation. See Kazuo Ishiguro and Ōe Kenzaburō, “The Novelist in Today’s World: A Conversation,” Boundary 2, 18, 3 (Autumn 1991), 116.

Chapter 4

1. Murakami Haruki, Sekai no owari to hādo boirudo wandārando (Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World) (Tokyo: Shinchōsha, 1985). 2. Bungakukai special edition, Murakami Haruki bukku (Murakami Haruki Book) (Tokyo: Bungei shunjūsha, April 1991), 42. 3. Murakami Haruki, “Machi to sono futashikana kabe” (The Town and its Uncertain Wall), Bungakukai (Tokyo: Bungei shunjūsha, September 1980): 46–99. 168 Notes

4. Murakami has long used the image of walls as a metaphor for authority, the powerful, and the system, and he has declared that he sides with “the egg that breaks against it.” Refer to his Jerusalem Prize remarks on February 15, 2009. 5. Ted Daniels, Introduction in Millennialism: An International Bibliography (New York: Garland Publishing, 1992), xxv–xxvi. 6. Matthew Strecher, Dances with Sheep (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002), 41. 7. Ibid., 42. 8. Ibid., 45–46. 9. Ibid., 46. 10. Kaze no tani no Naushika (Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind) (1984), dir. Miyazaki Hayao (DVD, Buena Vista Home Entertainment, 2003). 11. Miyazaki Hayao, Kaze no tani no Naushika (Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind), 7 vols (Tokyo: Tokuma shoten, 1987–1994). 12. For a thorough and insightful analysis of Nausicaä as an example of apocalyptic narrative, see Susan J. Napier, Anime from Akira to Princess Mononoke (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 202–204. 13. Ōtsuka Eiji and Sasakibara Gō, Kyōyō to shite no manga, anime (Comic Books and Animations as Culture) (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 2001), 153–157. 14. Kiridōshi Risaku, Miyazaki Hayao no sekai (The World of Miyazaki Hayao) (Tokyo: Chikuma shoten, 2001), 305. 15. Ōtsuka and Sasakibara, Kyōyō to shite no manga, anime, 156–157. 16. Ōtomo Katsuhiro, AKIRA, 6 vols (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1984–1993). 17. AKIRA (1988), dir. Ōtomo Katsuhiro (DVD, Bandai Visual, 2002). 18. Actor Leonardo DiCaprio announced the production of a live-action version of AKIRA in 2008, and the film was scheduled to be released 2009. However, the project was abandoned due to the resignation of the director. 19. Susan J. Napier, The Fantastic in Modern Japanese Literature: The Subversion of Modernity (London, New York: Routledge, 1996), 219. 20. Ibid., 217. 21. Susan J. Napier, “Panic Sites: The Japanese Imagination of Disaster from Godzilla to Akira,” Journal of Japanese Studies 19, 2 (Summer 1993): 327–351. 22. Sawaragi Noi, Nihon, gendai, bijutsu (Japan, Contemporary, Art) (Tokyo: Shinchōsha, 1997), 12–26. 23. Azuma Hiroki, Otaku: Japan’s Database Animals, trans. Jonathan E. Abel and Kōno Shion (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 2009), 15. 24. Ōsawa Masachi, Kyokō no jidai no hate (The End of the Fictional Age) (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobō, 1996), 49–50. 25. Napier, The Fantastic in Modern Japanese Literature, 217. 26. “Next World: Future Super-Human,” Chikyū doramachikku (The Dramatic Earth) (Tokyo: NHK, July 22, 2010). Notes 169

Chapter 5

1. The first two films, Shin seiki Evangerion gekijō-ban: Shito shinsei (Evangelion: Death and Rebirth) and Shin seiki Evangerion gekijō-ban: Air/magokoro wo, kimi ni (The End of Evangelion) were directed by Anno Hideaki and distributed by Tōei in 1997. The third film, Shin seiki Evangerion gekijō-ban: DEATH (TRUE)²/Air/magokoro wo, kimi ni (Revival of Evangelion) combines the first two films and was directed by Anno and distributed by ōT ei in 1998. 2. The TV series has so far been aired in twenty-five countries. 3. Detailed information on the success of the new series can be found at http:// www.evangelion.co.jp/. 4. Tokyo-1 is the original Tokyo, now in ruins. The new capital of Japan, located in Nagano Prefecture, is called Tokyo-2; the government relocated there after the destruction of Tokyo-1. Tokyo-3 also serves as the location from which Nerv’s Evangelion units are launched during Angel attacks. 5. Near the end of the film version it is explained that every human being also has an AT field, which is the wall that separates the mind of one individual from another. These AT fields become important later in the story. 6. Ōtsuka Eiji and Sasakibara Gō, Kyōyō to shite no manga, anime (Comic Books and Animations as Culture) (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 2001), 80, 189. 7. Kasai Kiyoshi, “Sekaikei to reigai jōtai” (Sekaikei and the Exceptional Condition), in Shakai wa sonzai shinai: sekaikei bunkaron (There is No Society: the Theory of Sekaikei Culture), ed. Genkai shōsetsu kenkyūjo (Tokyo: Nan’undō, 2009), 21–28. 8. In Jewish legend dating to the Middle Ages, before Eve, Adam had another wife named Lilith. In this myth, Adam and Lilith, not Adam and Eve, are the sources of all human life. 9. Inter-subjective relationships are shared psychological relationships between people. In Shinji’s case, his only such relationship is with his captain, Katsuragi Misato, with whom he lives. As explained earlier, Katsuragi is a mother/big sister figure for Shinji. However, she dies before the Human Instrumentality Project is executed. 10. Uno Tsunehiro, Zero nendai no sōzōryoku (Imaginations in the 2000s) (Tokyo: Hayakawa shobō, 2008), 83. 11. Hoshi no koe –Voices of a Distant Star (2002), dir. Shinkai Makoto (DVD, Comics Wave, 2006). Voices of a Distant Star was highly acclaimed because it was written, directed and produced entirely by one individual on his Macintosh computer (friends provided the voices and the soundtrack). This animation won important awards in 2002, such as The Award for Image Design in the Entertainment Category in the Digital Contents Grand Prix, and The Highest Award of Public Offering Category at the 2002 Tokyo International Animation Fair 21. 170 Notes

12. Takahashi Shin, Saishū heiki kanojo (Saikano: The Last Love Song on This Little Planet), 7 vols. (Tokyo: Shōgakukan, 2000–2001). Manga Saishū heiki kanojo was originally serialized in Shōgakukan’s Big Comic Spirits magazine. Later, the manga story turned into the TV animation in 2002, original video animation in 2005, and the live-action film in 2006. 13. Akiyama Mizuhito, Iriya no sora, UFO no natsu (Iriya’s Sky, Summer of the UFOs), 4 vols. (Tokyo, Media Works: 2001–2003). The series was once nomi- nated for the Seiun Award, a Japanese science fiction award for the best SF, though it was originally published as light novels targeted at teenagers. Later, it turned into original video animation in 2005, two video games for the Nintendo DS in 2007, and a manga series in the teen boys’ magazine Dengeki Maō in 2007. 14. Kasai, “Sekaikei to reigai jōtai,” 21. 15. According to Azuma’s argument, male otaku culture can be divided into four generations: the first generation was born around 1960 (those who watched Space Battleship Yamato); the second generation was born around 1970 (those who watched Mobile Suite Gundam); the third generation was born around 1980 (those who watched Neon Genesis Evangelion); and the fourth generation was born around 1990 (those who are accustomed to the Internet). In this section on sekaikei fiction, the main target audience is usually considered to be the fourth generation of male otaku. 16. Ōsawa Masachi, Fukanōsei no jidai (The Age of Impossibility) (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2008), 81–83. 17. Uno Tsunehiro, Zero nendai no sōzōryoku (Imagination in the 2000s) (Tokyo: Hayakawa shobō, 2008), 83. 18. Saitō Tamaki, Shakaiteki hikikomori (Social Withdrawal) (Tokyo: PHP, 1998), 3–8. 19. “Seven hundred thousand hikikomori,” Yomiuri shinbun, July 24, 2010. Statistics on the number of hikikomori varies depending on the source, but it is widely believed to be increasing. 20. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (Japan), “Wakamono koyō kanren dēta” (Youth Employment-Related Data), 2012. http://www.mhlw.go.jp/top- ics/2010/01/tp0127-2/12.html. 21. Charles Hugh Smith, “Japan’s Economic Stagnation is Creating a Nation of lost Youths,” Daily Finance (June 8, 2010). http://www.dailyfinance.com/ story/careers/japans-economic-stagnation-is-creating-a-nation-of-lost-youths/ 19580780/. 22. Genda Yūji, “Jobless Youths and the NEET Problem in Japan,” Social Science Japan Journal 10, 1 (2007): 23–40. 23. Amae is the word referring to the Japanese psychological construct of passive object love in Freudian terms, typically of the kind between mother and infant. Notes 171

See Doi Takeo, The Anatomy of Dependence, trans. John Bester (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2001) (Originally published as Amae no kōzō). 24. Saitō Tamaki, Shakaiteki hikikomori (Social Withdrawal) (Tokyo: PHP, 1998), 206–207. 25. Neoteny refers to the retention of juvenile or larval features in adults. A detailed discussion of the relationship between neoteny and humanity can be found in Ashley Montague, Growing Young (Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey, 1989). The term is often used to refer to Japanese contemporary art and subculture products. Anime such as Astro Boy, Doraemon, and Chibi maruko chan and works by internationally renowned artists Nara Yoshitomo and Murakami Takashi are examples of Japanese cultural neoteny. See further details in Uchida Mayumi and Kojima Yayoi, ed., Neoteny Japan: Takahashi Collection (Tokyo: Bijutsu shuppansha, 2008). 26. As discussed in the Introduction, sengo literally means “after the war,” and refers to the period between World War II and the present. Carol Gluck discusses Japanese postwar longevity in “The End of Post War: Japan at the Turn of the Millennium,” Public Culture 10, 1(1997): 1–23. 27. Mori Hiroshi’s novel The Sky Crawlers series has six volumes including a collection of short novels. The first volume, The Sky Crawlers, was published in 2001, and the last volume, Sukai ekuripusu (The Sky Eclipse), in 2008. The film The Sky Crawlers is based on the story in the first volume. 28. “Eiga Sukai kurora” (The Sky Crawlers: The Film), Yomiuri shinbun, August 1, 2008. 29. Mori Hiroshi, Sukai kurora (The Sky Crawlers) (Tokyo: Chūō kōronsha, 2004), 245–246. My translation. 30. Azuma Hiroki, Kuwontamu famirīzu (The Quantum Families) (Tokyo: Shichōsha, 2009). 31. Ibid., 359. My translation. 32. Uno, Zero nendai no sōzōryoku, 280. 33. In the ending of The Quantum Families, there are two bold lines saying, “Hard- Boiled Wonderland is not righteous/ we live in the End of the World.” 34. Azuma Hiroki, Gēmuteki riarizumu no tanjō (The Birth of Gaming Realism) (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 2007), 287.

Chapter 6

1. Gojira (1953). Dir. Honda Ishirō. Tōhō, 2003, DVD. 2. For critical works about Godzilla in the 1950, see Charles Derry, Dark Dreams: A Psychological History of the Modern Horror Film (New York: A.S. Barnes, 1977), 68–74; Susan Sontag, “The Imagination of Disaster,” in Against Interpretation (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1978), 209–225; and 172 Notes

Donald Glut, “Godzilla, the New King,” in Classic Movie Monsters (Metuchen, N. J.: Scarecrow Press, 1978), 374–412. 3. William M. Tsutui, Gojira to Amerika no hanseiki (The Half Century of Godzilla and America) trans. Kamiyama Kyoko (Tokyo: Chūōkōronsha, 2005) (Originally published as Godzilla on My Mind: Fifty Years of the King of Monsters), 21. 4. Daigo Fukuryūmaru was a Japanese tuna fishing boat which was exposed to and contaminated by nuclear fallout from the American Castle Bravo thermo- nuclear device test on the Bikini Atoll, on March 1, 1954. 5. Susan J. Napier, “Panic Sites: The Japanese Imagination of Disaster from Godzilla to Akira,” Journal of Japanese Studies 19, 2 (Summer 1993), 327–351. 6. Tsutsui, Gojira to Amerika no hanseiki, 51. 7. Katō Norihiro, Sayōnara gojiratachi – sengo kara tōku hanarete (Farewell to Godzillas: Far Away from the Post War) (Tokyo: Iwanami shoten, 2010). 8. Chon Noriega, “Godzilla and the Japanese Nightmare: When ‘Them!’ Is U.S.,” Cinema Journal 27, 1 (Autumn 1987), 67–68. 9. Azuma Hiroki, “The Disaster Broke Us Apart,” Shisō chizu beta, volume 2 (Autumn 2011), 220. 10. Since the meltdown at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, all Japanese nuclear power plants have been taken off line for inspection. However, the shortage of electricity in the Kansai area during the oppressive heat of the summer led to the resumption of operations at two units of the Ōi Nuclear Power Plant in July 2011. As of May 2013, Ōi Units 3 and 4 are Japan’s only operating nuclear power plants. The Ōi Nuclear Power Plant is located in the town of Ōi, Fukui Prefecture. 11. Komatsu Sakyō, Nihon chinbotsu (Japan Sinks), 2 vols (Tokyo: Shōgakkan, 2005). 12. Komatsu Sakyō and Tani Kōshū, Nihon chinbotsu dai ni bu (Japan Sinks: Chapter 2), 2 vols (Tokyo: Shōgakkan, 2008). 13. Komatsu Sakyō, “Interview on Japan Sinks,” February 2007, http://www. bookservice.jp/layout/bs/common/html/interview/int0702.html. 14. Susan J. Napier, Anime from Akira to Princess Mononoke (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 199. 15. Napier, “Panic Sites,” 334–335. 16. Azuma, “The Disaster Broke Us Apart,” 221. 17. Komatsu, “Interview on Japan Sinks.” 18. Fujimura Ryūji and the Tōyō University Fujimura Ryūji Laboratory, “Reconstruction Plan Beta: The Cloud City,” Shisō chizu beta, volume 2 (Autumn 2011), 228–229. Notes 173

Conclusion

1. Mori Hiroshi, Sukai kurora (The Sky Crawlers) (Tokyo: Chūō kōronsha, 2002), 124–125. My translation. 2. It is often claimed that Japan is the only country to have experienced nuclear war; this is incorrect: World War II was the human species’ first (and to date, only) nuclear war; Japan remains the only country to have suffered a nuclear attack, while the United States is the only country to have deployed nuclear weapons during war, but many countries now possess nuclear weapons stockpiles. 3. Here, MacArthur compares Japan to the metaphorically forty-five-year-old Euro-American West. While this statement (delivered several weeks after his triumphant departure from Japan, on the occasion of his firing by President Truman) was not intended to be hostile, it is nonetheless revealing, wrapped up as it is in issues of racism/scientific racism, religion, colonialism, and pater- nity. Unpacking all its possibilities is far beyond the scope of this book, but suffice it to point out that it underscores the father–son relationship between the (metaphorically) forty-five-year-old MacArthur/America and the twelve- year-old son, Japan. MacArthur’s absence, that is, his departure from the still Occupied Japan, and his subsequent firing, made it forever impossible, in Freudian terms, for Japan to reach maturity by overcoming this father. 4. Keith Vincent, “Nihonteki miseijuku no keifu” (The Genealogy of Japanese Immaturity), in Nihonteki sōzōryoku no mirai: kūru japanorojī no kanōsei (The Future of Japanese Imagination: The Possibility of Cool Japanology), ed. Azuma Hiroki (Tokyo: NHK shuppan, 2010), 21–22. 5. Uno Tsunehiro, Zero nendai no sōzōryoku (Imagination in the 2000s) (Tokyo: Hayakawa shobō, 2008), 225–227. 6. Miyadai Shinji, Owari naki nichijō wo ikiro: Aum kanzen kokufuku manyuaru (Live in the Endless Everyday: the Perfect Manual for Conquering Aum) (Tokyo: Chikuma shoten, 1998), 168–170. 7. Vincent, “Nihonteki miseijuku no keifu,” 28. 8. Karatani Kōjin, Origins of Modern Japanese Literature, trans. Brett de Bary (Durham, N. C.: Duke University) (Originally published as Kindai Nihon bungaku no kigen), 77. This page intentionally left blank Bibliography

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Popular Cultural Sources

Films

AKIRA (1988). Dir. Ōtomo Katsuhiro. Bandai Visual, 2002, DVD. Gojira (1953). Dir. Honda Ishirō. Tōhō, 2003, DVD. Hoshi no koe – Voices of a Distant Star (2002). Dir. Shinkai Makoto. Comics Wave, 2006, DVD. Kaze no tani no Naushika (Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind) (1984). Dir. Miyazaki Hayao. Buena Vista Home Entertainment, 2003, DVD. Shin seiki Evangelion gekijō-ban: Air/magokoro wo kimi ni (The End of Evangelion) (1997). Dir. Anno Hideaki. King Record, 2003, DVD. Sukai kurora (The Sky Crawlers) (2009). Dir. Oshii Mamoru. VAP, 2009, DVD.

Manga

Ōtomo, Katsuhiro. AKIRA. 6 vols. Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1984–1993. Miyazaki, Hayao. Kaze no tani no Naushika (Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind). 7 vols. Tokyo: Tokuma shoten, 1987–1994. Takahashi, Shin. Saishū heiki kanojo (Saikano: The Last Love Song on This Little Planet). 7 vols. Tokyo: Shōgakukan, 2000–2001.

Light Novels

Akiyama, Mizuhito. Iriya no sora, UFO no natsu (Iriya’s Sky, Summer of the UFOs). 4 vols. Tokyo: Media Works, 2001–2003. This page intentionally left blank Index

Abe Kōbō 7, 44, 64, 71–9, 148, Anpo movement 45, 47, 66–9, 71, 162n26 162n31 Adorno, Theodor 14 Antichrists 10–12, 26 After the End: Representations of the apocalypse Post-Apocalypse (Berger) 22 1995–present 48–53 age of impossibility 6–7, 57–8, 109, Christian Bible and 9–10 124, 144, 150 functions of 24–30 AKIRA (1988) idealistic and fictional age 44–8 absorption and 104 Meiji to end of WWII 35–40 apocalypse and 7, 46, 115, 125, 149 modern apocalypse 13–15 awards for manga 99 non-Judeo-Christian communication and 108 tradition 15–18 film vs. manga versions 81, 98–9, origin of meaning 9 103–4 overview 8 Godzilla and 101–2 postmodern apocalypse 18–24 as hard science fiction 5 postwar period 40–4 Other and 118–19 premodern 9–12, 31–4 past/present/future in 101–6 sekaikei fiction and 54–9 plot 99–100 similarities and difference to postmodern features 101–3, West 59–61 105–7, 149 Ark Sakura, The (Hakobune postwar influence on 104–5, Sakuramaru) 71 140, 153 Around the World in 80 Days self and society in 116, 118 (Verne) 36 technology and 101 Asaba Michiaki 153 Akiyama Mizuhito 120 Asama Sansō incident 46, 163n34 Amidism 32, 161n5 atomic bomb Anderson, Benedict 54 AKIRA and 104 animal age 6–7, 56–7, 109, apocalyptic fiction and 29–30, 124, 144, 150 41–4, 60, 148, 153–4 animalization 57 Evangelion and 118 Anno Hideaki 112, 118 Godzilla and 137–8 184 index atomic bomb—continued Evangelion and 112 hibakusha 42–3 humanism and 12 identity and 63–4 Roman Empire and 10 influence on postwar culture 2, 8 time and 16–17, 19, 23, 27, 125 sekaikei and 122 Zoroastrianism and 16 time and 19, 48 Cohn, Norman 12, 158n10 Tōhoku disaster and 136 Cold War 14, 21–2, 45, 64, 72–3, Aum Shinrikyō 8, 46, 50–3, 61, 118, 78, 107 160n51, 163n36, 164n44 Complete Manual of Suicide, authenticity 18, 23, 89, 94 The (Tsurumi) 30 Azuma Hiroki 6, 8, 44, 56, 105, 130, Confucianism 33, 36 140, 150, 165n67 cozy catastrophe 29 cyclical time 2, 6, 16–18, 22–3, 26, Bakumatsu period 2 31, 34, 38, 60, 125–6, 134, 147, Barth, Karl 14 151, 154 Baudrillard, Jean 20, 78, 122 Berger, James 22 Decline of the West, The Betsuyaku Minoru 54 (Spengler) 14 Beyond the Pleasure Principle Derrida, Jacques 14, 22 (Freud) 14 Dharma 32, 161n5 Boesak, Allan 24 Dialectic of Enlightenment Bitcoin 21 (Adorno) 14 Bolton, Christopher 77 direct communication 108–9 bonpu 161n5 Disneyland Tokyo 45 Book of Revelation 1, 9, 11, 13, Dōgen 33, 161n5 26, 28, 60 Buddhism Edo period 32–6, 39, 59–60, 67–9, Aleph and 50 105, 147 apocalyptic thought and 2, 25, Eisai 33, 161n5 31–2 Eliade, Mircea 6, 16–18, 22, 126 cyclical life and 2, 26–7, 60, 147 End of History and the Last Man, direct communication and 109 The (Fukuyama) 14, 21 Edo period 33–4 End of the World, The Evangelion and 112 (Nakagawa) 37 Kamakura period 32–4 Epistle to the Romans, The (Barth) 14 mappō 32–3 Etō Jun 68, 153 Śambhala and 52 Evangelion theory of the Three Ages 32 apocalypse and 111, 115, 118–20 background 111–12 Cannes Film Festival 71 cultural impact of 5, 8, 111–13 Chikamatsu Monzaemon 34 maturation and 116–17 Christianity mecha stories and 114–15 Aleph and 50 moral standards and 115–16 apocalyptic thought and 2, 6, plot 112–14, 117–18 9–11, 15–16, 24–5, 35 postmodern feature 102 index 185

sekaikei and 8, 55, 58–9 overview 82–3 self and society in 116–18 plot 84 EverQuest 21 postmodern feature 86–9 reality and 86–7 fictional age 6, 44–9, 51–2, 56, 58, Town and its Uncertain Wall 81, 87, 97, 103–4, 106, 109, 111, and 84 137, 143, 149 Hayles, Katherine 78 Flammarion, Camille 38 Heian period 32–5, 60, 148 Foucault, Michel 14, 25 Heidegger, Martin 14 freeters 123–4 hendo 161n5 Freud, Sigmund 14, 116–17, hibakusha 42–3, 146 170n23, 173n3 Higuchi Shinji 141 Fujikō 33 hikikomori 122–4 Fujimura Ryūji 145 Hinduism 2, 16, 25, 28, 125, 157n3 Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Hiroshima 2, 19, 41–2, 63, Plant 3, 8, 135–6, 145–6, 65, 136, 162n22 172n10 Hōjōki (Kamono) 33 Fukuyama, Francis 14, 21 Hokke Buddhism 161n5 Hollywood 57, 61, 99 GAINAX 112 Holocaust 29, 49, 51 Gluck, Carol 126 Hōnen 33, 161n5 Godzilla (1954) Horkheimer, Max 14 AKIRA and 101 How Will This World End? apocalypse and 5, 136–41 (Flammarion) 37–8 atomic bomb and 8, 138–41 as “hard” sci-fi 5, 8 idealistic age 6, 45–6, 51, 56, 65, 86, idealistic age and 148 97–8, 103, 111, 137, 139, 143, 148–9 Japan Sinks and 142–3 Inter Ice Age 4 (Daiyon kanpyōki) Lucky Dragon 5 incident and 137 apocalypse and 75–9 plot 137–8 Cold War and 72–3 science and 139–40, 142 Nausicaä and 94 Gojima Ben 46 past/present/future in 72–5, 105, Gojira 125, 148 see Godzilla plot 71–4 Good Old Future, A (Nagayama) 37 postmodernity and 77–8 Great Hanshin Earthquake 7, 48, 56 as science fiction 7 Great Kant Earthquake 48 Silent Cry and 65, 73 Great Tokyo Air Raid 41 themes 71 Ippen 33, 161n5 Han System 166 Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the Jameson, Fredric 19–20 End of the World 82–9 Japan Sinks (Nihon chinbotsu) apocalypse and 87–9 apocalypse and 8, 143–5 identity and 85–6 atomic bomb and 136–7 morality and 88 disaster and 144–6 186 index

Japan Sinks—continued Evangelion and 112 Fukushima disaster and 145–6 otaku and 57 Godzilla and 142–3 popular culture and 46 idealistic age and 143, 149 sekaikei and 55, 120, 150 identity and 142–4 see also AKIRA; Nausicaä plot 142 mappō 27, 32–4, 39 science and 6 Mappō tōmyōki 32 sequel 144 matsudai 161n5 themes 142–3 Matsumoto Chizuo 50, 52, 163n36, versions of 141 164n50 jōruri plays 34 Maturation and Loss (Kojima) 68 junbungaku 5, 7, 35, 64, 158n7 Mazinger Z 114 Meiji period 2, 6, 31, 35, 38–9, 64, Kamakura period 32–4, 148, 161n5 70, 148, 166n5, 166n10 Kamono Chōmei 33 Mishima Yukio 44, 46 Kan Naoto 136 Miyadai Shinji 30, 153, 160n51 Kanna Shun’ichi 36 Miyazaki Hayao 7, 81, 89, 92, 96–8, Karatani Kōjin 154, 162n27 101, 107, 149 Kasai Kiyoshi 116–17 MMORPGs 21 Katō Norihiro 67, 139, 153 Mobile Suit Gundam 114 Kawamoto Saburō 139 modernization 6, 13–14, 17–18, Keller, Catherine 24–6 35–6, 38–40, 50–1, 58, 63–4, 66, Kermode, Frank 10, 15, 22, 42–3 74, 76–7 Kobe Earthquake 7, 48–52, 61, 111, Moltmann, Jüngen 24 118, 136 Mori Hiroshi 127, 147, 171n27 see also Great Hanshin Earthquake Moritani Shirō 141 Kojiki 31 Murakami Haruki 7, 52–3, 81–3, 89, Kojima Nobuo 68 97–8, 101, 107, 120, 130, 133, 149, Komatsu Sakyō 6, 8, 141–4 158n9, 164n43, 168n4 Kraus, Karl 14 Murakami Takashi 154, 171n25 Myth of the Eternal Return, Lacan, Jacques 54, 57, 124 The (Eliade) 16–18, 157n2 Last Days of Mankind, The (Kraus) 14 Nagasaki 2, 19, 41–2, 63, 136, Lawrence, D.H. 24–5 162n22 Live in the Endless Everyday Nagayama Yasuo 13, 37–8 (Miyadai) 30 Nakagawa Kajō 37 Lucky Dragon 5 (Daigo Fukuryūmaru) Napier, Susan J. 65, 71, 99, 101–2, incident 137 106, 138–9, 143 Lyotard, Jean-François 19, 78 Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind 89–98 MacArthur, Douglas 153, 173n3 apocalypse and 7, 46, 81, 91, 96–8 manga Hard-Boiled Wonderland and 95–6 apocalypse and 2, 5, 7, 149–50, 153 manga vs. film version 92–5 defined 2 overview 89–90 index 187

plot 90–1 postmodernity setting 91 AKIRA and 101–3, 105–7, 149 themes 91–2, 95–8 animalization and 57 time and 97 apocalypse and 4, 6–8, 18–30, NEETs 123–4 109, 115 Neon Genesis Evangelion death and 49 see Evangelion Evangelion and 120 New Age movement 109 gender and 5 Newcomb, Simon 37 Hard-Boiled Wonderland and 82, Nichiren 33, 161n5 86–9 Noriega, Chon 139 hikikomori and 124 Inter Ice Age 4 and 77–8 Ōe Kenzaburō 7, 44, 64, 148, 161n21 Japanese culture and 44–8, Okinawa 41, 65, 161n21 58–9, 61 Orbaugh, Sharalyn 43 Nausicaä and 97 Origin of Modern Japanese Literature, post-apocalypse and 23, 28–9, 61, The (Karatani) 154 125–6, 129–30 Osaka 6, 44, 143 time and 6 Ōsawa Masachi 6–7, 14, 45–7, 49, trauma and 56 52–3, 56–9, 81, 86, 106, 109, 121, unveiling 122 129 Prefecture System 70, 166n10 Oshii Mamoru 8, 127–9, 150 Prophecies of Nostradamus, otaku 57, 120, 165n67, 170n15 The (Gojima) 46 Ōtomo Katsuhiro 7, 81, 98–9, Pursuit of the Millennium, 105–6, 149 The (Cohn) 12, 158n2, 158n10 Ōtsuka Eiji 46, 96 Ōtsuki Takahiro 153 Quantum Families, The (Azuma) 8, 130, 132–4, 150, 154–5 Plato 16 Quinby, Lee 25 post-apocalypse AKIRA and 101 reincarnation 16 Berger and 22 Restoration of the Toyotomi Clan, disaster and 140, 145–6 The (Sugiyama) 36 Evangelion and 119 Richard, Pablo 24 Fukuyama and 21–2 Rinzai sect 161n5 Hard-Boiled Wonderland and 89, 97–8 Saichō 32 Nausicaä and 91, 97 Saitō Tamaki 5, 122, 165n67 Nichiren and 33 Śambhala 52 postmodernity and 23, 28–9, 61, Sawaragi Noi 45–6, 104–6 125–6, 129–30 Schnellbächer, Thomas 77 science fiction and 29, 46, 59, 125, science fiction 127–34, 140, 154 1980s 81, 108–9 sekaikei and 150–51 1995–present 111, 127–34 Silent Cry and 71 apocalypse and 2–8, 27, 40, 60 188 index science fiction—continued Spengler, Oswald 14 origins in Japan 36–8 St. John 24 post-apocalypse and 29, 46, 59, Strecher, Matthew 86 125, 127–34, 140, 154 Sugiyama Tōjirō 36 postwar 29, 47, 64 Symbolic 54–5, 59, 61, 109, 117, 120, prewar 63–4 150–2, 155 space and 37–9 sekaikei fiction Taishō period 35, 38, 64, 148 AKIRA 116, 118–19 Takahashi Shin 120 birth of 54–9 Tale of Genji, The 32 characteristics of 120–6 Tani Kōshū 141 Evangelion 112–20 Tendai Buddhism 161n5 Freud and 116–17 Tōhoku disaster 3–4, 8, 135–6, Hard-Boiled Wonderland 116, 119 139–40, 143–4 hikikomori 122–4 Tokutomi Roka 38 real-world influences on 111 Town and Its Uncertain Wall, The Symbolic and 61, 109 (Murakami) 7, 81, 83–84, themes 120–1 86–9, 101, 105, 107, Sense of an Ending (Kermode) 15 125, 149 Shibuya 45 Travel in Outer Space (Kanna) 36 Shinkai Makoto 120, 169n11 Treat, John Whittier 42 shishōsetsu 38 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation 67, shōbō 32 162n31 Shōwa period 64 tsunami 8, 35, 135–6, 143, 145 Silent Cry, The (Man’en gannen Tsurumi Wataru 30, 160n51 no futtobōru) Tsutsui, William M. 137–9 apocalypse and 65, 68–9 awards 66 Underground: The Tokyo Gas background 64–5 Attack and the Japanese Psyche collectivity and 67 (Murakami) 52 identity and 67–70 Uno Tsunehiro 120, 132 Inter Ice Age 4 and 65 unveiling 9, 20, 122 as junbungaku 7 modernity and 69–71 Verne, Jules 36 plot 66–7 Vincent, Keith 153 as science fiction 7, 66 Voices of a Distant Star 120–1, 125, themes 65–8 169n11 tradition and 67–8 Sky Crawlers, The (Sukai kurora) wakon yōsai 35 8, 127, 129, 134, 147, 150, 154–5 Wells, H.G. 29 sōkatsu 45, 163n32 Westernization 35, 39–40, 64, 148 Sōtō Buddhism 161n5 Wilson, Michiko 66 Space Battleship Yamato 46–7, 120, Woman in the Dunes 71, 167n13 163n36–7, 170n15 World War I 14, 29, 44, 63 index 189

World War II science fiction and 4, 6, 29, apocalypse and 3, 7, 14, 23, 40–2, 63–5, 126 47–8, 151–2 Silent Cry and 65, 68, 70 economy and 41, 45 Sky Crawlers and 129 Fukushima disaster technology and 63 compared to 136 Writing Ground Zero (Treat) 42 Godzilla and 137 hibakusha and 42 yonaoshi ikki 34 Japan Sinks and 144 Japanese culture and 8, 42, Zen Buddhism 161n5 46, 104 Zenkyōtō movement 45, 47, 162n31 Japanese identity and 2–3, 55, 65, zōbō 32 76, 151–2 Zoroastrianism 16, 23, 157n2