Midlife Career Decisions of Librarians

ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN

PRODUCTION NOTE

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Library Large-scale Digitization Project, 2007.

Spring 2002 50(4) 575-758

Midlife Career Decisions of Librarians

Daniel F. Phelan and Richard M. Malinski

Issup Editors

UNIVERSITYOF ILLINOIS GRADUATESCHOOLOF LIBRARYAND INFORMATIONSCIENCE This Page Intentionally Left Blank Midlife Career Decisions of Librarians

CONTENTS

Introduction Daniel R Phelan 575

Becoming a Chief Librarian: An Analysis of Transition Stages in Academic Library Leadership CatherineJ Matthews 578

Exploring the Sabbatical or Other Leave as a Means of Energizing a Career Marlis Hubbard 603

Making It to the Major Leagues: Career Movement between Library and Archival Professions and from Small College to Large University Libraries TimothyJ Johnson 614

Migrating to Public Librarianship: Depart on Time to Ensure a Smooth Flight Ronald G. Edwards 631

Maybe It’s Not Too Late to Join the Circus: Books for Midlife Career Management Marilyn Kay Harhai 640

HeLIN Pilot Mentoring Scheme Anne Brice, Cathryn Brown, Marie Hickman, and Lis Thorburn 651 Midlife Career Choices: How Are They Different from Other Career Choices? Candy (Bogar)Zemon 665

Job Rotation in an Academic Library: Damned if You Do and Damned if You Don't! Richard M. Malinski 673

Are We There Yet?: Facing the Never-Ending Speed and Change of Technology in Midlife Linda Loos Scarth 681

A Work Journal Katherine Murphy Dickson 687

Happily Ever After: Plateauing as a Means for Long-Term Career Satisfaction Denise L.Montgomery 702

The Effects of Technology on Midcareer Librarians Marilynl? Lewis 717

About the Contributors 725

Index to Volume 50 731 Introduction

DANIELF. PHELAN

I BEGAN THINKING ABOUT the subject of this issue a few years ago. As I approached and passed my own midlife and that of my career, I began to feel a certain anxiety that I needed some form of personal or professional renewal. Just prior to my making a change, my coeditor Richard Malinski embarked on a Ph.D. in education. His late career initiative prompted me to seek out a similar channel (but not an exact duplicate) in an online master’s degree. We both took directions that at our ages and stages of career would have been unusual in the past. But as we discovered in investigating and researching this area prior to committing to editing this issue, times were changing. The career stages of librarians were once much clearer than they have become today. The new graduate chose a path (public services, technical services, or later some aspect of systems) and followed it to retirement, middle management, or upper administration. The occasional shift from one area to another occurred, but the librarian who changed from reference to technical services or from academia to public libraries was rare. This is no longer the trend for many reasons. Two of the major forces bringing about this change in the library world today are technology and aging. Technology has changed the nature of the profession and forced or influenced some to consider leaving it. Those who stay must cope with the speed of technological change and the challenge of acquiring complex skills at an age when learning these new skills is sometimes more difficult or challenging. The aging of the librarian population has been well documented (Wilder, 1999; Arthur, 1998). This phenomenon will drastically reduce the numbers of experienced librarians in the profession in just a few short

Daniel F. Phelan, Head of Technical Services, Ryerson University Library, 350Victoria Street, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada LIBRARY TRENDS, Vol. 50, No. 4, Spring 2002, pp. 575-577 02002 The Board of Trustees, University of Illinois 576 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

years. In addition, with age has come a certain dissatisfaction and reevaluation of careers and life, especially the work-life balance. This has led to a growing number of midcareer librarians often embarking on very nontraditional paths or even experimenting with boundaryless careers (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996) with no traditional organizational allegances or ties. Those who do choose to advance to upper management are few but significant and have begun to approach it in a manner very different from their pre- decessors. Others, who either do not wish to pursue upper management or who lack the opportunities, have begun opting for new career choices at the midpoint of their careers. These include moving to different sectors of the profession; embarking upon a sabbatical or study leave to reinvigo- rate themselves; becoming entrepreneurial or self-employed; seeking opportunities outside of the library field; rotating through different jobs at their workplace or within the profession; seeking to assist or mentor the young, those just entering the field, or those changing to unfamiliar sectors; or serving the profession through publishing and service. A strong sense of Erik Erikson’s generativity (Lachman, 2001) often compels the midcareer librarian to seek to give back to and to assist the future of librarianship and the new generation of librarians. Through the effects of aging, a growing dissatisfaction with the traditional paths, the need for new challenges, and the belief that a new generation might benefit from their encouragement and nurturing, the midcareer librarian is presented with an altered scenario for the future. This future is one that they may shape for themselves for personal or altruistic reasons. As the contributors to this issue show, the second half of their careers may take a direction that they never expected. Cathy Matthews approaches the traditional upper-management career path in a decidedly nontraditional manner while looking at the various transitional stages of becoming a chief librarian. Marlis Hubbard looks at the study leave as both a mechanism for professional growth and creativity as well as a means of personal self-renewal. TimothyJohnson details his move to the “major leagues”from a small to a large institution and what challenges and opportunities present themselves at midcareer. Ron Edwards discusses the less-common shift from the world of academia to that of public librarianship. Marilyn Harhai has us step back to examine “how”we make that midcareer decision and what resources we call upon to help us. Brice, Brown, Hickman, and Thorburn discuss one way that the midcareer librarian can give back without changing jobs-mentoring the young or those who have recently moved into librarianship or a new area of it. Their article covers a mentoring programme in the UK that is proving very successful. Candy Start Zemon looks at one librarian’s personal decision at midlife to move from a low ebb of productivity to an increasingly challenging one of contribution in the private entrepreneurial sector. Richard Malinski chronicles the initiatives at a Canadian academic library to rejuvenate the PHELAN/INTRODUCTION 577 librarians via a periodic jobrotation scheme that allows for risk and personal growth as well as revitalization of the staff. Linda Loos Scarth looks at the phenomenon from the other side as one who decided to become a librarian at midcareer. Katherine Dickson outlines the virtues of keeping a workjournal at midcareer. Denise L. Montgomery deals with the topic of “plateauing” especially as it applies to the midcareer librarian. Marilyn P. Lewis looks at the nature of technological change in the profession and how to cope with it.

REFERENCES Arthur, G. (1998).The “graying” of librarianship: implications for academic managers. Jour- nal ofAcademic Librarianship, 24(4),323-326. Arthur, M. B., & Rousseau, D. M. (1996).The boundaryless career: A new employment principle for a new mganizational era. New York Oxford University Press. Lachman, M. E. (2001).Handbook of mid@ development. NewYork: Wiley. Wilder, S.J. (1999). The age demographics of librarians: A profession apart. New York Haworth Information Press. Becoming a Chief Librarian: An Analysis of Transition Stages in Academic Library Leadership

CATHERINEJ. MATTHEWS

ABSTRACT THEAUTHOR EXPLORES HOW THE FOUR-PART MODEL of transition cycles identified by Nicholson and West (1988)applies to becoming a chief librarian of an academic library. The four stages-preparation, encounter, adjustment, and stabilization-are considered from the micro-, mezzo-, and macrolevels of the organization, as well as for their psychological and social impact on the new job incumbent. An instrument for assessment of transitional success which could be administered in the adjustment or stabilization stage is considered.

INTRODUCTION Whether midlife or not,job transitions are well-studied and documented phenomena in the literature of industrial psychology, organizational behavior, and personnel management. This article will examine midlifejob change among librarians, particularly movement into senior academic-library administration positions such as chief librarian. The analysis will be organized primarily around the Nicholson and West model of “Transition Cycles”(19SS), examining the issues around role expectations of both the individual and the institution that are uncovered in the process ofjob transition. The article will briefly touch on other theories associated with job change, such as “uncertainty reduction theory” (Kramer, 1996,p. 59),“social exchange theory” (Kramer,Roberts, & Turban, 1995,p. 152),and “person-organization fit” (Cable & Parsons, 2001)-“theories” that the author has now experienced firsthand. In addition to considering the stages of transition and associated psychological and social impacts upon the individual making the change, this paper will also consider organizational impacts at the micro-, mezzo-, and

CatherineJ. Matthews, Chief Librarian, Ryerson University Library, 350 Victoria Street, Tor- onto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada LIBRARYTRENDS, Vol. 50, No. 4,Spring 2002, pp. 578-602 02002 The Board of Trustees, University of Illinois MATTHEWS/BECOMING A CHIEF LIBRARIAN 579 macrolevels within the organization. While the examples will, in some in- stances, reflect personal experience with twojob transitions to increasingly significant chief librarian positions, this article will not dwell on subjec- tive analysis. Actually the opportunity to reflect on the literature on transition, together with the benefit of hindsight, has taught me some valuable lessons which I hope will be useful to readers in preparing for and accomplishing their own transitions. It comes as no surprise that there is much to master in a new senior position. The new chief librarian, like others assuming new jobs, must “build an image or role, build relationships, construct a frame of reference, map relevant players, locate themselves in communication networks, and learn the local language” (Louis cited in Kramer, 1994, p. 385) among many other things. Additionally, this article will consider a measurement instrument for determining whether an individual is satisfying role expectations at the mezzo- and macrolevels, as a guide to increasing the organization’s ability to analyze and to assist the transition. The “Report Card” approach used by the author in two universities is discussed as a sample instrument.

TRANSITIONCYCLE MODELS The Nicholson and West Transition Cycles Model has four distinct components which, as represented visually, illustrate a circular process in which completion of one phase leads into initiation of another. The four stages, which will be explored in this article, include preparation, encounter, adjustment, and stability.

Phase V/I

Phase IV Phase I1 Stabilization Encounter

Adjustment

Figure 1.The Transition Cycle (Reproduced by permission of the Cambridge Uni- versity Press.) 580 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

While the time span of transition is not precisely articulated in the graphic, I would suggest that this four-stage period of transition could last about twelve to sixteen months if the period of preparation was compressed to a brief period of several months leading up to an actual move. There are numerous other models, such as Gabarro’s (1985, p. 110) five-stage process of “taking charge” which, despite its similarities to the encounter, adjustment, and stability phases, lacks the important preparation stage of Nichol- son and West. Nortier’s (1995, pp. 1,13) five-stage model of transition not only lacks the preparation stage but seems more negative, using characteristics like “reflex,”“malfunction,” and “confusion,”which though they may well be part of transition, seem a backward means of analysis. Regardless of the specific model selected, the transition period in a new chief librarian job is one characterized by periods of significant learning as well as in- cremental learning, decisive action and slower consultative action, proactive planning and remedial actions.

PREPARATIONSTAGE While Nicholson and West (1988) characterize the preparation stage as one of “psychological readiness” (p.8), there will be some who make career changes without investing much conscious time in this stage. While precipitous termination is not common in a tenure-based university environment, it occurs regularly in the corporate world where business failure, mergers, acquisitions, and other factors can short-circuit an individual’s psychological preparation for career or job change. The preparation stage is also one for skill and competency readiness assessment.I would suggest that librarians, whether or not they have a career plan or advancement aspirations, have, by virtue of being professionals, many of the component parts of preparedness in their working existence. As someone whose career aspiration was focused on establishing a broad-based expertise and reputation in a specialist subject area, I was recruited into a library administration leadership position without having set my sights on that specific course. Nonetheless, well-rounded preparation can occur even within a more narrowly focused game plan, and a subconscious psychological readiness may well have been developing. Librarians, particularly in universities, are regularly investing in their own professional development. Most are members of professional and scholarly associations and read the literature of those associations on a regular basis. In order to perform our jobs in a complex and dynamic information environment, we engage in a number of methods of exchanging different types of knowledge. The work of academics like Chun Wei Choo (1998;2000) suggest that there are three categories of organizational knowledge: tacit (personal knowledge), explicit (codified knowledge), and cultural (knowledge based on shared beliefs). The literature of our field has the potential of contributing to the building of knowledge in all spheres, MATTHEWS/BECOMING A CHIEF LIBRARIAN 581 but particularly contributes to our explicit and cultural knowledge. Further- more, engagement in committee work and participation in collegial decision-making contributes to building our skills and knowledge base in preparation for change. In addition, librarians attend conferences and seminars to enhance competencies on the job. What enhances one’s competencies for the present may well also serve one’s future needs. Knowledge is not only the base of presentjob competency (Matthews &Perry, 1997), but it also builds the foundation forjob or career transitions. A librarian who is consciously building a career plan or who has aspirations to a particular advancement, should, of course, develop a strategic plan for their professional development. While institutes and conferences sponsored by the ALA (including subgroups like LAMA),the Association of Research Libraries (www.arl.org/training),and others can be useful for preparation for advancement, there are other more specialized institutes such as the Frye Leadership Institute (http//www.fryeinstitute. orgn and the International Summer School on the Digital Library (ht~://cuis.kub.nZ/-ticer/summer0ln that can be selected strategically to aid in preparedness. In Canada, the Northern Exposure to Leadership (http://www.ualberta.ca/LSS/AELIn looks to attract those with leadership potential in the first seven years following graduation from a library or information science program. And of course, for the truly committed, M.B.A., L.L.B., or Ph.D. qualifications may also be desirable depending upon the position sought and the institution’s expectations. If one’s own career plan is neither part of the institution’s plans nor resourced by them on your behalf, then vacation time, leave (sabbatical, research, or unpaid leave), and personal funds may be expended in undertaking these initiatives for your preparation. The librarian’s professional network is beneficial in adding to an explicit and substantive knowledge base. Additionally one’s network may contrib Ute to knowledge of the social and cultural dimensions of the workplace. It is a very small world indeed in academic library circles, and whether we anticipate change or not, we have a very valuable information asset in our networks with other librarians elsewhere and within our own institutions. For the person establishing a career plan, an environmental scan is particularly enhanced by the strength of one’s network. Choo’s (1999) work suggests that personal networks of business associates are deemed to be highly rated “for their ability to provide accurate and usable information” (p. 9). A career plan is like a good business plan and includes an environmental scan, itemization of “assets,”and consideration of competitors. McCall (1998) provides a concrete guide to self-assessment and development for career-planning (pp. 203-232), which could be used as a developmental framework. One might want to cultivate knowledge of a particular institution, its academic priorities, the librarians and faculty there, who any competitors might be, and what their attributes are. Based upon one’s capacity for relocation, one might want to scan a number of universities, identify- 582 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 ing term periods for existing chief librarians and anticipating a series of moves, just as in a chess game, because one move in the senior ranks can set off a ripple effect. Knowing your various opportunities can provide strategic advantage. An environmental scan of the library in and of itself is not adequate. A strong knowledge of the university culture, faculty perceptions of the role of the library, and the history and future of the budgetary commitment to the library are all part of what might be considered in contemplating a move to another university. The disadvantage to the person recruited to ajob and not equipped with a personal strategic plan is that the time period for this reconnaissance is considerably constrained, and hence having a strong network in the first place is advantageous. Preparedness can include environmental scanning even within one’s own university, for there is much to learn relative to new position demands, and senior administrators may possess information and plans that are not common knowledge to librarians within the ranks. Every hire-particularly that of a chief librarian-comes with a set of institutional expectations. Preparedness includes eliciting what those expectations might be. They could be made explicit in a job ad, they could be made further explicit in the interview or in subsequent prehire meetings with the president, principal, vice president academic, or other senior academic administrator. This environmental scan stage of preparation is the homework at which librarians should excel, both through their networks and through Web-based and other research. Job changers today have an outstanding capacity to mine data from an institution’s Web site and from related online resources which can help them position various factors. The academic librarian is responsible for his or her own curriculum vitae, for adding to it through a list of accomplishments that make it a “living” document. Preparation, planned or otherwise, is abetted not just by building the knowledge base through conference attendance, but by experience in presenting papers, publishing, undertaking research, and serving on the executive boards of professional associations. In the first senior job to which I was recruited, my professional reputation and communication skills gained through committee leadership were instrumental in bringing me to the attention of the search committee. Annual job appraisal or performance review gives librarians the opportunity to establish regular learning outcomes for their personal and professional development. Mentoring can also play a role in preparedness, either by mentoring another or by being mentored by someone who has the capacity to enrich your skills and competencies. Mentoring programs are often available formally, but the best may actually be self-initiated and need not be confined to the institution or even to the profession. (e.g., Clutterbuck & Megginson, 1999). Another important element of preparation is one’s own psychological and social preparedness. Why would one want to become a chief librarian? MATTHEWS/BECOMING A CHIEF LIBRARIAN 583

Hernon, Powell, and Young (2001) cite “ego, belief that they can make a difference, prestige of the university, spousal accommodation, personal reasons, move to a university with a positive attitude towards the library, desire to leave an unpleasant situation, and preference to move to a better budgetary situation” (p. 140) as factors that might be considered at the preparation stage. Preparedness can be compressed by the job invitation scenario, but it should never be omitted. Being prepared involves one’s own personal reflection on risk-taking, stress tolerance, learning capacity, values, capacity for self-sacrifice,and family capacity for change and sacrifice. In one move I had to contemplate my capacity for long highway commutes, not just as someone used to short public transit (convenient, environmen- tally responsible, economical), but for real costs associated with gas, car maintenance, parking, etc., as well as two to four hours daily of unproduc- tive car-based time, most of which would be absorbed at the family end. Certainly all really senior jobs require long time commitments, and while very few truly dedicated librarians are clock punchers, many senior jobs include irregular hours and/or have demands which require flexibility. It is, for example, “more difficult to have a private and research life” (Her- non, Powell, &Young, 2001, p. 140). The “expectancy-valencetheory” (Vroom cited in Nicholson & West, 1988, p. 8) particularly considers what the role expectations are for any position, and while the institution may have some that are explicit, the job changer must come to terms with his or her own personal possible outcomes or suffer the consequences of missing this stage of preparation. Be knowledgeable about the demands of the position. Bandura (as cited in Ander- son & Betz, 2001, p. 98) suggests that persons seeking certain career advancement should possess reasonable levels of “social efficacy”-that is, competence in behavioral domains such as social-approach skill (as opposed to avoidance behavior) and performance and persistence in social situations. The chief librarian has a role to play in the university at large, as well as in the profession and in the community, and analysis of one’s strengths in this domain is essential. While the concept goes back a long way to Merton (195’7, p. 265), “anticipatory socialization”is part of the preparation for a job change. This is based on understanding and embracing the values associated with a position and the behaviors associated with it, and reconciling these to one’s own personal dimensions, including one’s academic background, the social dynamics of one’s work environment, and many other factors. A cause of dissonance in a new position is incongruence with the values between one’s anticipated socialization and the actual work experience. Here the value of networks, homework, and preparedness are paramount. The work of Cable and Parsons (2001) and Schneider (cited in Cable & Parsons, 2001, p. l),for example, considers the concept of “person-organization fit” and how “individualsand organizations are attracted to each 584 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 other based on similar values and goals.”Attraction based on similar goals may not always be the case, and requires both preencounter reconnaissance and reflection on the part of a candidate. Difficulty in adjustment may occur if values are not reconciled. For example, while all universities value the broad and underlying concepts fundamental to postsecondary education, the organizational culture of an “applied”university, its beliefs, values and expectations, are distinctive from those of a medical, doctoral, and/or research-based university, particularly regarding the library. Thus the preparation and encounter stages, for both the candidate and the institution, are very important since the “person-organization fit research has shown that the discrepancy between actual and ideal organizational culture (i.e., discrepancies between what the organization and the individual values) can influence important organizational criteria” (Chatman cited in Goodman & Svyantek, 1999, p. 257). The extent to which these values are bridged in the various stages of transition, from the selection through the encounter and adjustment stages, will be a major determinant of whether or not the new individual is able to contribute “contextual performance” (Goodman & Svyantek, 1999, p. 257). Indeed, Cable and Parsons (2001) refer to the value of the “investiture process” by which newcomers are not just oriented to a new position or workplace but are led to internalize the values of the organization. This is similar to what Choo (2000) refers to as “cultural knowledge” (p. 397), which includes shared assumptions, beliefs, and values. Self-analysis at the preparation stage, as indeed throughout one’s life course, ought to include reflection upon what value one places on numerous factors. Cable and Parsons (2001) call this examination “pre-entryval- ues congruence” (p.8).Situations taken for granted in one workplace might be a source of discontent when absent from another. For example, the discovery that a pension plan was not portable to another university, entail- ing the necessity of making decisions around locking in or creating a self- administered fund may be unwelcome, and when combined with other factors such as losing sabbatical, sacrificing portable scholarships, and other financial considerations, can become negative baggage associated with the move from one university to another. Conversely, some financial considerations such as higher salary or the opportunity to self-manage pension investments could become enticements. Also, as will be discussed under the following section on adjustment, the extent to which one values the “character” of one type of university over another may become a factor, since it has more to it thanjust the international reputation of the universities. For example, the difference between a research-intensive university and a primarily undergraduate applied university includes access to the whole leading edge information loop for library innovation, as manifest in the ARL. and CARL networks. MATTHEWS/BECOMING A CHIEF LIBRARIAN 585

ENCOUNTERSTAGE The encounter stage of transition is where more of the social factors come into play. This stage encompasses both the “early”encounter stage ofjob interview (and any formal presentations, meetings with senior administrators, etc., as part of the selection process) as well as the first few weeks on the job for the successful new hire. This article focuses on the latter, since there is a large body of literature on the interview as encounter. Merton’s “anticipatory socialization” (195’7,p. 265), referred to above, may have constructed a sense of place and circumstance for the position incumbent that, depending upon the strength and accuracy of one’s network and homework, may or may not be borne out in the early stages. The oral history of a place and its inhabitants, if carefully constructed from re- liable sources, can reduce the “reality shock of the new position. There is much written on the preparation for socialization of newcomers both from the individual and institutional perspective. For example, in choosing to use the Nicholson and West four-stage model, I considered a subset of the literature that was more narrowly focused on the socialization that goes on in the encounter and adjustment stages. Van Maanen and Schein (1979) constructed a six-tactic model that was antithetical: collective and individual socialization tactics, formal and informal, sequential and fixed, variable and random, serial and disjunctive, and tactics of investiture and divesti- ture. These elements can certainly be found throughout all the stages of the Nicholson and West model, and although not referred to specifically in the antithetical sense, surely underlie much of what transpires in the transition to the office of chief librarian. This article also focuses on how the organization prepares for the encounter and deconstructs the organizational response to three levels: the micro-, the mezzo-, and the macrolevels within the organization. As explained below, each of these is important to the position transition, and like herding cats, may leave the incumbent’s head spinning in the early stages as he or she comes to terms with the multiplicity of social levels and the information in the new work environment. The microlevel refers to those individuals directly associated with the new position incumbent in the office of the chief librarian. These individuals are the secretaries and/or administrative assistants working in the office of the chief librarian at the time of the transition. I have been truly blessed to work with individuals who are knowledgeable, pleasant, and hugely responsible for keeping the library as well managed as can be. In addition, these have been, in my experience, people whom I have liked a great deal and have respected enormously. This is a great bonus, but one that should not be count- ed upon in making ajob transition. It is highly possible that one of the steps that will be necessary for a new chief librarian will be to effect change at the microlevel: to either adjust one’s own style somewhat to work with the staff 586 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

in place, to retrain the staff to adapt to one’s working style, or to effect some significant career transition for the library office staff concerned. The microlevel analysis of the encounter stage should also be viewed from the perspective of the library office staff. With the term nature of chief librarian appointments, these office staff may have survived transition in the past. However, in all likelihood they have been disenfranchised from the selection and hiring stage. They do not have the professional network that the librarians on the search committee have for learning about the new incumbent or for contextualizing what they do hear via the “grapevine.” They are, however, far more intensively involved in the success or failure of the early stages of encounter than people at the mezzo- or macrolevel. They have role expectations based both on their experience of the previous chief librarians they have worked with and on their understanding of the mezzo- and macrolevels of the university. They may not have been party to the discussions around role expectations that were part of the recruitment and selection process. In fact, if some major change in vision or direction at the mezzo- or macrolevel is to be signaled by the new appointment but not communicated clearly to the library office staff, then there may be further problems in the encounter and transition stages at the microlevel. Thus the early stages of the working relationship between the chief librarian and his or her assistant are fundamental to the establishment of trust, expectations, and sound communications. The mezzolevel of encounter involves specifically those librarians, staff, and faculty who have been involved in the development of the job advertise- ment, the search, and the interview process and who will be working in a professional relationship with the new director. It is likely at the chief librarian stage that the short-listed candidates have also given a lecture and therefore have had the encounter with a broader spectrum of the same strata. The faculty group that attended the lecture may be seen to be more “library friendly” and ought not to be considered to accurately reflect the faculty at large, although this can be the case. The candidate’s ability to construct a reality from the lecture encounter may be in direct proportion to the con- troversial nature of his or her lecture content and the size of the audience it draws. How the lecture was promoted within the university provides another signal about the role and value of the position and the library itself, which become part of the incumbent’s processing of the role and identity of the library at the recruitment stage. Everything tells you about something! The members of the internal network at the mezzolevel construct their own information and role expectations about the incumbent based upon their own networks and homework-much like one’s own environmental scan from the preparedness stage, but in reverse. They too have prepared, and the encounter stage for them, as much as for the candidate, is one at which the socially constructed role is examined. This is especially true of the other librarians in the university. Their understanding of you is based MATTHEWS/BECOMING A CHIEF LIBRARIAN 58’7 upon their understanding of the needs of their organization (both the library and the university), your interview, the questions you bring, and the manner in which you challenge their thinking, your “public” published record, their own professional networks, and other such means of constructing understanding. As the usual committee for a chief librarian search is comprised of faculty as well as librarians, their take on the early encounter, both pre- and posthire, is context sensitive. Faculty role expectations may be constructed in various ways, some of which are faculty specific. For example, a dean of science may have a strong role expectation based on the need for digital full text information, whereas the humanist faculty might have an interest in building depth or breadth of particular niches, regardless of format. All of these are part of the role expectation that the new chief librarian also has to contextualize, putting the various contacts, overtures and explicit expectations into the knowledge base that he or she has constructed of the university and library environment as a whole. Since individuals and groups at the mezzolevel begin their own “sensemaking” (Choo, 2002, p. 79) at the encounter stage, constructing and deconstructing role expectations of the new chief, it is essential that candidates strive to articulate a basic vision and statement of priorities for the university library. One particularly noteworthy element that emerges at the encounter stage and carries on into the adjustment stage is the dynamic around interaction with any internal candidates who have not been selected as the successful candidate. They have their own personal and professional identities and allegiances (or adversaries) within the library and the university. These can color the transition and the culture significantly, according to their professional standing and emotional capacity. The unsuccessful professional who is mature and focused on the success of the organization has more capacity to move the organization forward in working overtly and covertly with the new incumbent, adds positively to the organization’sfuture, and reflects a degree of rational capacity that should be valued and recognized in the transition process. My most recent transition has in fact been significantly aided by such a professional individual. A dysfunctional transition situation may include overt welcome and covert discontent and requires that the successful incumbent divert attention to address this behavior. The members of the macrolevel of the university, its president, vice presidents, provost, deans, and even board of governors usually play an important role in the recruitment of a chief librarian, some for their role in actual encounters with the candidate and some for the message they send by virtue of their own appointments. The macrolevel plays a role in the formal orientation of the new chief librarian through particular orientation processes and should ideally be responsible for the investiture processes by which the highest leadership values of the culture are communicated. In attempt- ing to cement the person-organization fit, this can sometimes be accom- 588 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

plished through the use of “serial and investiture socialization” (Cable & Parsons, 2001, p. ’7) tactics such as mentoring that, even done informally, can help the newcomer inculcate the norms and values of the organization. The candidate, in agreeing to apply for a senior position, constructs his or her own assessment of the university, its leadership, and the caliber of those with whom they will engage in their role as chief librarian. It is not common to have governors on the selection committee, but the candidate does seek out information about governance of a university as part of the preparation and encounter stages. What information can be discerned from a university’s Web site or other documentation about the board or governing council may be useful in constructing a sense of such things as how interventionist it might be in the management of the university, how strongly it supports any major endeavors that might be in the works (say, a capital campaign for a new library), or similar matters. Lack of publicly available information about university governance ought to be cause for further inquiry. At both the presidential and vice presidential level it is reasonable to anticipate both knowledge and expectations of the university library and opinions on the library leadership being sought. While the university president is not normally on the search or selection committee, there must be both strong background research on the leadership this person brings to the university and a personal meeting with this administrator before the encounter stage at the macrolevel is complete. The chief librarian and the university library will be highly dependent upon the vision and leadership of the president, so although the chief most likely reports to the vice president academic (or provost), one should see evidence that the library is important to the president. Although the in-person meeting is an excellent opportunity to explore issues identified in the recruitment stage, be certain to review any major speeches or “Universityvision” documents that the president has presented. At Ryerson University, for example, the president’s “Knowledge for Life” document, setting forth a five-year vision for the university, provided this candidate ample opportunity at the encounter stage to elicit the role of information and the library. One might attempt to determine whether the budgetary resourcing of the university library is pro- portionate to the goals set out in such vision documents by researching benchmarking documents and by consulting many of the commercial magazines and books which rank universities by various measures. The timing and breadth of a search, where and how a university has advertised (in professionaljournals, at conferences, or using a head-hunting firm) all signal something useful to the encounter. The vice president academic or provost may play an important role in what he or she signals to the search committee during interviews or afterwards, as well as what they signal to the candidate in independent meetings with them. One difficulty that may be encountered has to do with the term of appointments of those at the macrolevel. Presidents’ and provosts’ terms end, such that the chief MATTHEWS/BECOMING A CHIEF LIBRARIAN 589

librarian may find himself or herself working with an individual who in fact played no role whatsoever in his or her selection. Part of one’s networking should include information on the term of the person you would report to and what processes are being undertaken around that incumbent’s contin- uance, renewal, or search for their successor. You would be amazed what useful information you can determine from that line of inquiry alone. In my most recent transition, I had all of my early encounter meetings with the outgoing vice president academic, as the new one had not yet been appointed. For some this may be crucial, especially since this new vice president incumbent has for himself or herself a period of transition that may or may not impact on the chief librarian’s ability to realize some of his or her expectations of the first months of employment. In this situation I had to rely on the expectation of a shared vision between the outgoing and incoming vice presidents academic, a well-articulated university vision, and a host of signals sent out through the recruitment and interview processes, as indicators of an environment and culture, leaving to our professional willingness and “good fortune” the chemistry of the actual working relationship. From the personal perspective, the encounter stage is one in which the chief librarian signals readiness for change. He or she will form an understanding of the true role and status accorded the position that must be reconciled with his or her own personal expectations. For the librarian, the matter of the peer relationship and the collegial foundations of the academic librarian’s role must be reconciled with what the institution (at the macrolevel) and the librarians (at the mezzolevel) expect (e.g., see Hecht, Higgerson, Gmelch, & Tucker, 1999).Some want the chief librarian to be a colleague and a superior, others are more explicit of the distance they expect between the rank librarians and the chief. Expectations around this have to do with the local culture, the size of the staff, any past experience of chief librarians returning to the ranks at the end of a term appointment, and what, if any, circumstances exist around the unsuccessful bid of an internal candidate for the chief position. Some of this may come out in the early weeks of the new appointment, but some librarians may be on “best behavior” early on, looking to take their own read on the style and priorities of the new chief librarian. Also at the personal level in the encounter stage (both during the recruitment and in the first weeks on the job) come the first signals about the local organizational culture of the library. Some of this may have been apparent on the search committee, but the new chief will be interested in internal culture for its impact on the person-organization fit. Consider the difference between two possible opposite cultures: one environment in which the culture is very homogenous (age, race, gender, and other socio-demographics), the behaviors very conditioned and patterned (common breaks, arrival and departure times), in which individuality is subsumed to common identity; and one culture which is diverse (age, race, gender, etc.), the be- 590 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

haviors mature, flexible, and for the most part trusting of difference, and where both individual and group identity shine by virtue of those attributes. Such polarities do exist, and the new recruit should consider the importance of that culture in making a decision to accept a position. Some knowledge of the internal culture should have been discerned in the preparation stage as well as in the early encounter, and this knowledge will be crucial to signaling action and direction by the new chief librarian during the adjustment stage.If one has any expectations about culture change, they should be made explicit in the interview process so that, after an initial period of learning, the new set of expectations is not out of context. Mixed (or at least nonex- plicit) messages one sends to the search committee that do not threaten either the status quo or more frank individual meetings with the administration about embedded problems can lead to a situation in which different parties may actually want to hire you for differing and conflicting reasons. While this may not necessarily be negative, keep the message singular and honest to all parties. Having the support of the senior administration while having a course of action seen as a threat internally likely requires a longer process of legitimation and communication, and in the end this situation may ensure that one party is less satisfied than the other. In the early weeks of the encounter, some library staff may in fact be nervous and some may be enthused by change. Some may be on best behavior, getting to know the new director before showing their hand, and some may come out of the gates in confrontational mode. As the new chief moves into the “adjustment” stage, the learning will continue on all sides. The opportunity will exist to take the positive energy that has been assembled across the university from the search and hire activity and channel it into an actionable endeavor that signals the value of the library in the university. This could thereby contribute to staff morale and affirm the selection in the university. At a truly individual level, the success of the first weeks in the job may also be impacted by such tangible (and seemingly mundane) matters as the size, shape, furnishing, and location of the new office, the personal impact on one’s travel and transportation arrangements, the appearance and condition of the library, the size and adequacy of the library collection or budget, and the transition files left by or the transition meetings arrangedwith the previous incumbent. Some of these matters may not be mundane and may actually have played a role in shaping one’s decision to accept a new position and certainly impact the early stages of adjustment to the newjob.

ADJUSTMENT STAGE There is a large body of literature on organizational socialization that documents strategies, successes, and pitfalls of adjustment at the individual and organizational levels. The individual’s likelihood of success in the adjustment stage is enhanced by success in the preparation and encounter MATTHEWS/BECOMING A CHIEF LIBRARIAN 591 stages and is highly dependent upon good communication in all directions. Certainly at the chief librarian level there will be no hand-holding, as a self- starter is expected. One’s prior work experience should contribute significantly at this stage, since the senior librarian is expected to have a strong capacity to learn more independently about processes, individuals, and values. That said, it does not absolve the university (and particularly one’s superior) of responsibility for assisting in transition through formal and informal orientation and training sessions on matters particular to the university. A pioneer in the issues around workplace adjustment, Bridges (cited in Nortier, 1995) identifies the value of letting go of one’s old situation as part of the adjustment process. In so doing, one captures the best of one’s learning from past experiences but opens up to the capacity to learn from the new. This has both personal and professional risks, but it also importantly signals to all levels one’s willingness to recognize the new institution for what it is uniquely. An indicator of adjustment, along the road to stability, is the ability to combine the skills brought to the job (cognition, skills, knowledge base) with the experience and social networks of the new environment, and then to apply these “knowledges”in such a way that results in actions and decisions. “To transfer one’s knowledge to a new organizational culture” (Her- non, Powell, &Young, 2001, p. 126) requires learning and understanding that culture. In effect, the adjustment stage of transition is much like the knowledge-management process, in which the desired outcome is a com- pression of the “knowing-doinggap.” Like Broer’s (2001, p. 3) “knowing- doing gap,” Burke and McKeen (1994,p. 17)identify the “alternating phases of intensive learning and intense action” as characteristic of the process of taking charge new managers experience. For a new chief librarian in the encounter and adjustment stages, one decision will be what actions to take during the “honeymoon period” of the new tenure. To act too soon could be precipitous and mean that one has not had the opportunity to collect all the appropriate background. To linger too long, however, could signal either lack of decisiveness or that one is offering only custodial management rather than leadership. There is no correct course to take here, but the appropriate balance of learning and action will be situationally resolved according to the circumstances of the library or issue. For the individual, adjustments to micro-, mezzo-, and macrolevels may not progress simultaneously. Early adjustment to the operation of the library and the establishment of strong working relationships require success in the micro- and mezzo realms. There will exist structures for regular meetings (such as a library council), and in situ visits to all departments are essential. Sometimes the library will host a welcome reception or event at which staff can get to meet you individually. Certainly one must stretch one’s mental capacities to get to know staff members’ names and what they do, whether your staff is 40, 70, or 200 individuals. Ensure that librarian 592 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 managers invite you to departmental meetings. The object of all this is not to micromanage units and functions that are running well, and staff ought to be assured of that! It will be up to the new chief librarian to define how much you want staff to know about you as a person, but it is certainlywith- in reason that one share a brief professional biography so that all are aware of the professional background or library experience brought to the position. At early staff or library council meetings, be certain to communicate what goals were communicated to the search committee (and the president and vice president academic), so that staff can have an early sense of one’s vision. The omission of informal socialization from the macrolevel negatively impacts transition. Gabarro (1985, p. 119) suggests that the communication networks established and the quality of the working relationships enhanced through informal socialization help distinguish “successfuland the failed transitions.” To be included in outings for coffee or lunch, for example, is both part of the recognition of a person as an individual within the institution and part of the opportunity to employ Bandura’s (cited in Ander- son & Betz, 2001, p. 98) “social efficacy” concept. It permits the development of informal networks that become the vehicle for information sharing, for vetting ideas, and for building partnerships. It effects “alignment” (Hernon, Powell, &Young, 2001, p. 132) at a number of levels. Ideally, the chief librarian will find some welcome and informal socialization at the macrolevel too, for further networking opportunities. The chief librarian can function best when acculturated to the institution, learning about its achievements and its difficulties through an informal network of others committed to the same academic mission. An institution’s “oral history” is a living story, embellished by its many players. The same level of informal socialization may not be required of an individual promoted within the institution but, for one coming from outside, the support of those already here during the early stages of network cultivation is invaluable. The new chief librarian must plan a course of meetings too, taking his or her vision of the library to deans and other senior individuals for affirmation and reconciliation early on in the adjustment phase. There is more difficulty at the macrolevel if the library has not previously been well placed on the communication radar of the appropriate offices or committees. The administration’s assumption that what was fine for the previous incumbent ought to be fine for the new chief may simply not work, particularly if the new person is coming in from another institution. For instance, one’s superior needs to understand and even anticipate some of the chief librarian’s information needs, which may be communicated through regular update meetings and the appropriate dissemination of reports and documents. The size of the university and its bureaucracy can either assist or inhibit these efforts. For the new person at a senior level much of the onus is on the position incumbent to be the master of his MATTHEWS/BECOMING A CHIEF LIBRARIAN 593

or her own integration in information networks. Get to invited meetings and schedule those you need in order to meet the key players. This is where one’s network with comparably placed librarians at other institutions is invaluable in prompting you to investigate what you ought to be doing within your own university. For example, the Ontario Council of University Li- braries, and its directors’ meetings and listserv, have been instrumental in both my learning and acculturation. In addition to the informal socialization of new-position incumbents, many universities have formal orientation processes for new faculty and staff, often structuring specific orientations for new senior academic administrators. These are important processes for ensuring the transfer of core (explicit knowledge) information on budget processes, collective agreements, administrative channels, governance, etc. At one university I was particularly fortunate to be part of a senior-level planning retreatjust three weeks into myjob, providing me an excellent opportunity to meet an important group of academic and administrative leaders, to hear the vision articulated and discussed “publicly”by these leaders, and to be able to articulate the convergence of the library’s mission with the university’s. Since it is unlikely that both formal and informal processes of orientation and socialization will be equally achieved, be prepared to fill what gaps you perceive through your own initiatives. Kramer (1994) actually warns of the situation in which “peers and supervisors may surmise that it is the other’s responsibility to socialize new employees; as a result it is possible that neither provides the necessary information” (p. 395). Indeed the newcomer might not even know what information is missing if it has not been shared in the first instance. Con- versely, “strategic ambiguity” (Eisenberg, 1984, p. 228) may be an effective technique employed in an organization to provide a less encumbered framework for change and independent action. The position of chief librarian may in fact be a very isolating one-never truly a peer or colleague of the librarians by virtue of the status of the position, not one of the deans (who have their own cohort of other deans for support) and not one of the vice presidents or other executive administrators (see Hecht et al., 1999, p. 22, for example). This can be particularly challenging in the adjustment phase for a chief librarian, as he or she seeks to establish information networks, mentors, and to establish a person-organization fit. Some of the fit may well have to do with the age, gender, or academic credentials of the incumbent, as well as institutional factors and cultural assumptions. Librarians can relate to the uncertainty that exists in many universities across the continent on the librarian-faculty fit discussion, and this uncertainty does not evaporate when one becomes chief librarian! It could be a “now you fit, now you don’t’’ status that, while not to be taken personally, merely reflects the values and understanding around the role of the library as a whole in the academic process. Above all, remem- 594 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 ber the changing dynamics of universities, and keep a healthy perspective on your professional role.

STABILIZATIONSTAGE Adjustment is a continual process in dynamic organizations, and the day one feels that one is truly in a stable environment one is either delu- sional, dead, or ready to move again. That said, there is a point at which the adjustment is less conscious, and the individual is relatively stable and comfortable in the understanding of theirjob, the work environment, and what is expected of them. Kramer (1994) suggests that adjustment is accomplished when “employees have reduced uncertainty by developing cogni- tions or schemes for routine activities , . . [such that] they are able to move from ‘mindful’ to ‘mindless’activity in which automatic routines are enact- ed . . . enabling them to be perceived as competent in theirjobs” (p. 385). According to Nicholson and West (1988), “For the manager, the crucial process in stabilization is relating across levels of the hierarchy to bosses and subordinates” (p. 14). This would mean, for example, that the new chief librarian has achieved enough learning to determine the virtual boundaries of his or her role, and to understand the boundaries of his or her discre- tion such that he or she is able to act in areas of leadership and decision- making. Nicholson and West place particular value on the development of a critical relationship with one’s supervisor as signaling adjustment. Once adjusted to the position and fully functional, the chief librarian may be called upon to identify goals and to participate in the appraisal of his or her undertakings. This may involve a formal process of performance review and goal setting, or a less formal one. For the chief librarian, the review of personal achievement may well be bundled with the review of organizational achievement, since the chief librarian is responsible notjust for his or her own individual achievements but those of the library as a whole. It is extremely important to clarify expectations, at all three (micro-, mezzo-, and macro-) levels. The microlevel affords the opportunity for daily engagement and can particularly benefit from the use of a regular Mon- day morning planning meeting. At the mezzolevel, one technique I have used to assist both personal and organizational understanding of progress in the transition of the new chief librarian is the “report card” assessment. All library staff are provided a scoring instrument (in the appendix to this article) to which they may reply anonymously. Replies are sent to the chief librarian’s assistant who then compiles the information into a report that protects the identity of those replying through the use of aggregate scores and anonymous anecdotal comments. Return rates are usually very high, based on two experiences with this method. The benefits of this simple (although unscientific) instrument are many, but should not be deemed to be wholly accurate as indicators of transitional success, particularly if staff are not wholly forthcoming in their assessment. Indeed, the use of this for- MATTHEWS/BECOMING A CHIEF LIBRARIAN 595 ma1 written feedback is not without risk, as Miller and Jablin (1991,pp. 95, 97) indicate the potential “social costs” of admitting that you are looking for information. The potential benefits of some formal feedback mechanism can be deemed to support Kramer’s (1994) “uncertaintyreduction” theory research which shows that “receiving feedback from peers . . . reduces stress and role ambiguity, and increases knowledge of how we use communication to accomplish . . .tasks” (p. 396).Information, solicited or not, contributes to increasing organizational knowledge. While unsolicited feedback is deemed more useful, solicited feedback at the peer and supervisory level has considerable value that, for the author, has outweighed the “social costs” risks. To have staff affirm that “morale has improved significantly”or to suggest that more activities should be delegated can help direct management style. The report card gives the chief librarian an opportunity to idenqthose areas in which he or she is presumed to be performing and for which they seek feedback. Thus, it serves as a means of reinforcing for staff the understanding of what a chief librarian ought to be achieving and sets the stage for new levels of preparation, encounter, and adjustment. Furthermore, the report card gives an opportunity to summarize some of the actual achievements in this area, as reminders to those answering the survey. By providing a Likert-type scale or a grading scheme (A, B, C) it provides for a range of response beyond the “pass/fail” or “achieved/did not achieve” realm. Additionally, room for anecdotal comment invites staff to offer input not elicited through the questions. The data, once assembled, should be shared with the staff and with one’s superior and can be used to help focus performance and strategy in the stabilization period. At its weakest, the report card may only serve as a method of assessing staff approval of a managerial style and may be short on substantive analysis, but if communication and managerial style are part of the plan for a new chief, then this instrument has much merit. Employing a report card assessment after six months or one year gives the chief librarian an opportunity to act on certain matters before problems are solidified. Taking the instrument in some form to academic leaders outside the library (deans, for example) enables the chief librarian to determine whether he or she is being effective in meeting the needs of the faculties or whether communications with deans are effective, and the evaluation may well serve as a means of reminding deans of their obligations for keeping the chief librarian and the library in their planning and communication loops. Given the size of the “dean-pool,”there may not be much room for anonymity if a written instrument is used, but a list of appropriate discussion questions could be distributed to them and followed up in individual meetings to convey the willingness of the chief librarian and the university library to understand and meet the needs of their constituency. All of this information-gathering-beginning at the preparation stage, 596 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 through encounter and adjustment, to the period of stabilization-is characteristic of “uncertainty reduction” (Kramer, 1996, p. 59) activity. Wheth- er it is at the stage of cognitive awareness (“Iknow I need information on . . .”) , motivation (“Ishould clarify my information on this . . .”) ,or communication (“I am recommending. . .”), these are behavioral responses necessary to reduce uncertainty (Deci cited in Kramer, 1994). If, as Hernon, Powell, andYoung (2001, p. 131)determined from one library director, the university may often be described as an “ambiguous” administrative environment, information-gathering may help in bringing some clarity. All the information in the world is not going to absolve the new chief librarian of one of the most certain aspects ofjob transition: working long hours. This is one of the high activity strategies identified by Feldman and Brett (1983, p. 260) as characteristic ofjob change. As one’s stability increases, it is possible that some of this high activity behavior can be decreased, unless of course it is eclipsed by other circumstances such as sudden budget cuts, political circumstances, changes in university leadership, or other such unpredictable (but inevitable) events. The stabilization stage is the one in which the rubber truly hits the road! It is the stage at which the sharp learning curve is diminished in favor of application of skills, plans, longer term management, and organizational learning. True leadership, achievement, and work performance will be achieved and assessed during the stablization stage. Also during this stage, the chief librarian will determine his or her own job satisfaction. Goal-setting is essential to this stage, but the goals set are more likely for the library as a whole rather than for the individual alone. And those activities one undertakes in the office of chief librarian-the planning, the day-to-day work, and the leadership skills demonstrated on the job, in committee work, and through professional associations-all become part of the next prepa- ratory steps in one’s career, knowingly or not. In academic libraries that operate as relatively flat, nonhierarchical organizations, librarians within the ranks or in department-head management positions should be cognizant of the platform they now occupy as the “jumping-offpoint” for new leadership endeavors. The age demographics of academic librarians (Wilder, 1995) are such that there will be many retirements in the coming years. New leadership of tomorrow’s libraries will come from within today’s ranks. The needs of our organizations are changing and dynamic, experiencing the impact of new technologies, new learning partners, and the competition/cooperation nexus with publishers and aggregators of information products and services. Important research like that of Hernon, Powell, and Young (2001) contributes to increasing the understanding of the role of library directors. Leadership of tomorrow’s academic libraries is not for the faint of heart, but for the professional dedicated to the opportunities of learning organizations. Step back and assess your preparation and be thoughtful about the stages of transition. MATTHEWS/BECOMING A CHIEF LIBRARIAN 597

Recognize too that the stages of transition exist at the micro-, mezzo-, and macrolevels of any organization and that, while they may echo the stages of incumbent experiences, the length of those stages may vary at the different levels of the organization. Organizational effectiveness may depend upon the capacity of individuals and organizations to manage all phases of transition effectively,by developing appropriate recruiting and orientation processes for the necessary transfer of institutional knowledge and cultural values.

APPENDIX

REPORT CARDON THE CHIEFLIBRARIAN- MARCH2001

Hello Staff- I have now been at the Ryerson Library for just over six months, and want to ask for your anonymous feedback on my first half year. This will help me to set goals, to be accountable to you and to my superiors. Please complete this to the best of your ability, knowing that you may have to leave some questions blank if you are not in a position to make observations on some aspects of my performance. Please return these forms to Anna by March 9th. She will compile all the information into one report for me, and I will share the results with you at the next “All Staff” meeting, likely in late March. I will not see any of the individual replies, and aggregated responses will ensure anonymity. Thanks for taking the time to provide me with some feedback. Mark from 7 (strongly agree) to 5 (agree) to 3(slightly disagree) to 1 (strongly disagree)

LIBRARYCULTUREAND COMMUNICATION One of the Chief Librarian’s responsibilities is to ensure that we communicate well as a staff, through formal means (Library Council, Staff Meet- ings, committees, etc.), and informal means. This entails my responsibility to share relevant information to enable others to do their jobs, and to be open to hearing from staff. It involves valuing the role of staff at all levels. It includes participating in Library events, from the “meet and greet” that accompanied our Code of Behavior initiative, to the holiday party. It involves coming to know what the issues are from the people involved in dealing with them.

1. Chief librarian acknowledges me as part of the team 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2.....1 2. Chief librarian understands the work that I do 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2.....1 598 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

3. Chief librarian sees that relevant information is communicated to the staff 7.....6.....5.....4.....3 .....2.....1 4. Staff meetings have improved 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2.....1 5. Minutes of staff meetings are helpful 7.....6.....5.....4.....3 .....2.....1 6. Chief librarian talks too much at staff meetings 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2.....1 7. Chief librarian's e-mail to staff is informative 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2.....1 8. Chief librarian works to support library staff morale 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2.....1 9. Chief librarian listens well 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2.....1 10. Chief librarian models positive work behavior to staff 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2.....1 11. Chief librarian welcomes my input and opinions 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2.....1 12. Chief librarian has learned appropriate information about our Library 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2.....1 13. Chief librarian is knowledgeable about developments in academic libraries 7.....6.....5.....4.....3 .....2.....1 14. Chief librarian should be more approachable 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2 .....1 15. Chief librarian gives credit to staff who do the work 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2.....1 16. Chief librarian makes too many references to other universities 7.....6.....5.....4.....3.....2.....1 MATTHEWS/BECOMING A CHIEF LIBRARIAN 599

Chief librarian could improve the Library culture and communication by

Chief librarian has not delivered on

COMMUNICATIONWITHIN THE UNIVERSITY Since coming to the University Chief librarian has participated in Dean’s meetings, Senior Directors, has chaired a Working Group on the Province’s Investing in Students Task Force for the V.P. Administration, has represented the Library at meetings (e.g., Academic Council and meetings of the Board of Governors). She has participated in the Senior Planning Retreat. She has made presentations at meetings of the Advancement Office, the faculties of Business, Community Services, and the School of Hospitality and Tourism. She has spoken on behalf of the Library at the program reviews and graduate studies approval meetings with external examiners on five occasions. She has provided two interviews (to Nexus and University’s alum- ni magazine), initiated two press releases, and sent a “State of the Library” backgrounder to the President, as well as touring the President through the Library. She has brought the new V.P. Academic to a staff meeting and the Dean of Graduate Studies to Library Council. With Library staff she has greeted students in the Library Code of Behavior Campaign.

Overall has the Chief librarian met your expectations and contributed to furthering the understanding of the Library within the university ? Yesa No 0

What suggestions do you have to improve her communications within the University?

TAKINGTHE LIBRARYOUTSIDE THE UNIVERSITY Since coming to the University the Chief Librarian has spent more time in- house, learning about the library and the University. She has attended the OCUL Directors meetings. She has begun to cultivate external advisors and potential donors. She has maintained networks with other academic librarians and the Faculty of Information Studies (and participated in their 600 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Career Day). She has encouraged application for external funding. She has encouraged other librarians to bring external groups to campus for meetings and has supported joint proposals.

Overall has Chief librarian met your expectations and contributed to furthering the understanding of the Library beyond the University ? Yes u No a

What suggestions do you have for further work in this area?

VISIONAND LEADERSHIP Since coming to the University the Chief librarian has worked to help clarify and hone the many exciting projects under development by the Library into a tight and strong CASE for support of our vision. To this end, she has coordinated Librarian meetings, has encouraged departmental meetings, and has brought various draft documents to staff for continuing input, worked on the Committee on the Library Mission and Goals, has met regularly with the Advancement Team, as well as taking the concept and vision to other potential partners (e.g., the Teaching and Learning Committee, Access Centre, Learning Support Services). She has brought in a number of outsiders for their advisory capabilities, and has facilitated the donation of a gift of fine art photography books valued at approximately $10,000. She has drafted terms for an Advancement Advisory Council, and is working to advance the understanding of the “common good” of the Library to all the faculties.

Overall has the Chief Librarian met your expectations and contributed to fur- thm‘ng the understanding of the Library vision? Yeso No D

What suggestions do you have for further work in this area?

Overall grade (pick one) A+# A0A-u BtD B# B-Q C+# CQ C-0 FailQ MATTHEWS/BECOMING A CHIEF LIBRARIAN 601

REFERENCES Anderson, S. L., & Betz, N. E. (2001). Sources of social self-efficacy expectations: Their measurement and relation to career development. Journal of VocationalBehavim, 58(1), 98- 117. Broer, W. (2001, May). Overcomingthe knowing-doinggap:Practical knowledge management. Paper presented at the World Criminal Justice Libraries Network, Zutphen, The Netherlands. Burke, R.J., & McKeen, C.A. (1994). Facilitating the new manager transition: Part I. Execu- tiveDevelopment, 7(2), 16-18. Cable, D. M., & Parsons, C. K. (2001). Socialization tactics and personurganization fit. Per- sonnel Psycholopy, 54(l),1-23. Choo, C. W. (1998). The knowing organization: How organizations use injormation to construct meaning, create knowledge, and make decisions. New York Oxford University Press. Choo, C. W. (1999). Closing the cognitive gaps: How people process infomation. Retrieved July 4, 2001 from University of Toronto, Faculty of Information Studies Web site, Research Pub- lications: http://choo.fis.utoronto.ca/. Choo, C. W. (2000).Working with knowledge: How information professionals help organizations manage what they know. Library Management, 21(8), 395-403. Choo, C. W. (2002) Sensemaking, knowledge creation, and decision making: Organizational knowing as emergent strategy. In C. W. Choo & N. Bontis (Eds.), Strategzc management of intellectual capital and organizational knowledge (pp. 79-88). New York: Oxford University Press. Clutterbuck, D., &Megginson, D. (1999). Mentoring executives and directors.Oxford Butterworth- Heinemann. Eisenberg, E. M. (1984).Ambiguity as a strategy in organizational communication. Communi- cation Monograph, 51,227-242. Feldman, D.C., & Brett, J.M. (1983). Coping with newjobs: A comparative study of new hires and job changers. Academy of ManagementJournal, 26(2), 258-272. Gabarro,J. J. (1985).When a new manager takes charge. Harvard Businesshim, 63(3),110- 123. Goodman, S. A,,& Svyantek,D. J. (1999). Person-organization fit and contextual performance: Do shared values matter?Journal of Vocational Behavior, 55(2),254-275. Hecht, I. W, D., Higgerson, M. L., Gmelch, W. H., & Tucker, A. (1999). The department chair as academic leadm Phoenix, AZ:The American Council on Education and Oryx Press. Hernon, P., Powell, R. R., &Young, A. P. (2001). University library directors in the Associa- tion of Research Libraries: The next generation, part one. College and Research Libraries, 62,116-145. Kramer, M. W. (1994). Uncertainty reduction during job transitions. Management Communica- tions Quarter&, 7(4), 384-412. Kramer, M. W. (1996). A longitudinal study of peer communication during job transfers- the impact of frequency, quality, and network multiplexity on adjustment. Human Com- munication Research, 23(l),59-87. Kramer, M. W., Callister, R. R., & Turban, D. B. (1995). Information-receiving and information-giving during job transitions. WesternJournal of Communication, 59(2), 151-171. Matthews, C. J., & Perry, E. (1997). Skills and competencies for a successful information service: The Perry-Matthews model. Fee-For-Sewice, 4(3),10-12. McCall, M. W.,Jr. (1998). HighJyers: Developing the next generation of leaders. Boston: Harvard Business School. Merton, R. K. (1957). Social theory and social structure. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. Miller, V.D., &Jablin, F. M. (1991).Information seeking during organizational entry: Influenc- es, tactics, and a model of the process. Academy of Management him, 16(1),92-120. Nicholson, N., &West, M. A. (1988). Managerialjob change: Men and women in transition. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press. Nortier, F. (1995).A new angle on coping with change: Managing transition! Journal of Man- agement Development, 11(4),32-46. Van Maanen,J., & Schein, E. H. (1979). Toward a theory of organizational socialization. In B. M. Staw (Ed.), Research in organizational behavior(vo1ume1,pp. 209-264). Greenwich, CT. JAI Press. 602 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Wilder, S.J. (1995). The age demographics of acadpmic librarians: A profession apart: A report based on data from the ARL annual salary sulvq. Washington, DC: Association of Research Li- braries.

ADDITIONALREADINGS Jablin, F. M. (1984).Assimilating new members into organirations. In R. Bostrom (Ed.), Com- munication Barbook 8 (pp. 594-626). Beverly Hills, C': Sage. Mech, T. F. (1990). Academic libraly directors: A managerial role profile. Colkge and Research Lihran'er, 51(5),415-428. Person, R.J.,&Newman, G. C.(1990). Selection of the university librarian. College and Research Libran'es, 51(4),346-359. Exploring the Sabbatical or Other Leave as a Means of Energizing a Career

MARLISHUBBARD

ABSTRACT THISARTICLE CHALLENGES LIBRARIANS to create leaves that will not only inspire professional growth but also renewal. It presents a framework for developing a successful leave, incorporating useful advice from librarians at Concordia University (Montreal).As food for thought, the author offers examples of specific options meant to encourage professionals to explore their own creative ideas. Finally, a central theme of this article is that a midlife leave provides one with the perfect opportunity to take stock of oneself in order to define future career directions. Midlife is a time when rebel forces, feisty protestors from within, often insist on being heard. It is a time, in other words, when professionals often long to break loose from the stress “to do far more, in less time” (Barner, 1994, p. 4). Escaping from currentjob constraints into a world of creative endeav- or, when well-executed, is a superb means of invigorating a career stuck in gear and discovering a fresh perspective from which to view one’s profession. To ignite renewal, midcareer is the perfect time to grant one’s imagina- tion free reign. Daydreaming about the many compelling leave options, not confining oneself to study and research, in itself is often wondrously energizing.To achieve a truly enriching experience, combining more contempla- tive tasks with those that add another dimension is especially rejuvenating. Creating a successful leave so that one returns to work truly revived, furthermore, is more likely when professionals plan conscientiously and far in advance. Such preparation includes becoming familiar with the culture of one’s institution, selecting inspiring projects, negotiating a leave conducive to personal reward, and producing a good balance of activities. Moreover, to profit most from a leave, one should take a prolonged look

Marlis Hubbard, Coordinator, Career Resource Centre-Counselling & Development, Con- cordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd. West, Montreal, Quebec H3G 1M8, Canada LIBRARY TRENDS, Vol. 50, No. 4, Spring 2002, pp. 603-613 02002 The Board of Trustees, University of Illinois 604 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

at how one’s career is progressing and what type of project will maximize one’s career goals.

PRELIMINARYMATTERS Taking Stock at Midlife Job success demands that professionals keep a jaunty pace while acquiring skills needed for the workplace of the twenty-first century. Mastering new technologies and other developments in the field also promotes job satisfaction and enhances leadership skills. As stated by Ronald L. Krannich (1997): “Overall,success in tomorrow’sjob market will require a new breed of worker who anticipates, prepares, and eagerly adapts to change. Such individuals prepare for career transitions by acquiring new skills and actively seeking new work environments” (p.26). Taking stock of abilities, then, should be done regularly throughout a career. Certainly midlife is ideal for determining if proficiencies are serving one well with respect to ultimate career goals, whether these include advancement or lateral moves. Skills to be evaluated include not only those that are traditionally associated with the field but also skills like teamwork- ing, networking, and leadership-that is, professional and personal competencies such as those outlined by the Special Libraries Association in Competenciesfor Special Librarians of the 21st Century (http://www.sla.org/ content/SLA/professional/meaning/comp.cfm). The sabbatical, furthermore, is for some an ideal time for test-driving alternative careers providing as it does occasions for applying skills to fields like editing, fundraising, natural language translation, publishing, and marketing (Sellen, 1997).Applying library skills to nontraditional settings such as online information services, computer graphics, or Internet-content management might be appealing to some professionals. Moreover, trying out problem-solving skills in consulting, entrepreneurial, or other endeavors while currently employed is a prudent course of action to be sure. Even for the professional not desiring ajob change, doing a stint in a completely different milieu provides a stimulating frame of reference from which to view one’s presentjob. A valuable offshoot of a leave, then, is taking stock of one’s mission in order to define future career directions. This can be done alone or with a mentor or counselor and should include the thoughtful analysis of one’s values, personality, and interests to see if they match one’s current objectives. “Through self-exploration you will begin to see how capable you are, how much more is possible for you, and how wonderful you are and could become on the road to success’’ (Michelozzi, 2000, p. 12). Getting Organized After taking stock of skills and current career objectives, the information professional is better equipped to weave together the threads of a well- HUBBARD/EXPLORING THE SABBATICAL 605

designed leave. This obviously demands earnest concentration on many, sometimes laborious, details. Responding to a call for papers or submitting a grant proposal, for example, requires that deadline dates be observed. As stated by Lynda Cronin (2000), author of Midlqe Runaway: A Grown Ups’ Guide to Taking a Year Off, who took a travel leave with her husband: “We’re off! After three years of wishing and hoping and thinking and praying and planning, we have finally set out on our great adventure” (p. 15). At the outset of planning, it is wise for professionals to network with colleagues to uncover the type of proposals that are likely to be approved and to inform themselves about sabbatical policies. Professionals are often able to decipher through the grapevine whether a particular project will be accepted. As stated by one Concordia University librarian, current trends in the information profession tend to influence whether a project is likely to be approved. Her own project, a citation analysis, was linked very closely to her work at Concordia University to increase its chances of being approved (unnamed, personal communication, December 6,2000). Another Concordia University librarian, Ruth Noble, requested funding through the University’s Library Research Fund, a matter that required approval and the meeting of a deadline date (R. Noble, personal communication, November 29, 2000). Her sabbatical project (done in collaboration with a colleague) primarily involved administering two surveys. “[Olne was a survey of Concordia students (distributed by professors in undergraduate courses of departments representing all faculties) with respect to their library needs and experiences. The other was a survey (by mail) of academic chemists in Chemistry departments (small, medium and large depending on the number of faculty in the department) in all regions of Canada” (R. Noble, personal communication, December 19,2000).Because this project involved administering surveys, university policy required that they be sub- mitted to Concordia University’s Human Research Ethics Committee for approval. This meant that Ms. Noble had to allow sufficient time for the board to meet to consider them in advance. Negotiating a Leave Although the sabbatical originated in the academic sector, it is becoming increasingly prevalent in the public sector (Cronin, 2000, p. 78-79). While it may be more challenging to convince employers in the private sector of the merits of a sabbatical, this is nevertheless worth pursuing. When employers compete for top employees, they are more willing to ne- gotiate benefits to attract professionals. Even if an organization has no formal leave policy, its administration may be willing to accommodate those who make good cases for leaves. Furthermore, since sabbatical or leave policies vary from institution to institution, some establishments are more flexible about negotiating the conditions of a leave. Whereas an institution may specify that the sabbati- 606 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 cal’s purpose is for intensive study, research, scholarship, “or other creative accomplishment,” “other creative accomplishment” might be defined very broadly. In addition, what is accepted by this year’s administration might not be accepted five years from now. Leave policies, then, may appear at first glance to be more restrictive than they are in actual practice. There- fore, it is wise to become sawy regarding the culture of one’s institution.

EXPLORINGTHE OPTIONS Leave options are virtually limitless. Librarians have taken sabbaticals for such activities as setting up Web sites, placing courses on the Web, chair- ing conference committees, creating databases, and pursuing volunteer work. While pursuing research, study, and publishing are popular pursuits, indulging one’s passions in undertakings such as internships, exchanges, community service, and travel abroad can add an element of adventure. Moreover, public service activities-like developing advocacy strategies to strengthen the presence of library issues in government bodies-can add a real sense of gratification. Combining types of activities can also result in an experience which is more varied, balanced, and conducive to renewal. Professionals should strive to tailor activities to suit their own stages of professional growth and development. Among options that might be considered are those elaborated upon below. Internships/Fellowships Sometimes paid and sometimes unpaid, internships are often undertaken in conjunction with pursuing another degree. They offer tantalizing op portunities for short-term work and learning adventures. They also provide marvelous opportunities to investigate new careers and new work settings. Organizations of all types offer internships, many in rich cultural settings. For example, the Library of Congress provides eight- to twelve-week and summer internships to anyone “who is doing serious research” in Wash- ington, DC (Oldman & Hamadeh, 2001, p. 261). Likewise, the United Nations offers two-month library science internships in New York City to those who are “fluent in English and proficient in one foreign language” (p. 422).For an extensive list of internships, Peterson’s Internships (1998)is recommended. It specifies which internships are available to “career changers” and lists library-specific internships under the heading “Education, Training, and Library” (p. 542). Governmental libraries, such as the national libraries of North Amer- ica, also present various internship programs. Contributing to working groups or task forces at a national library is an excellent way to learn about digital collections, online services, and more. For example, the National Libraryof Canada offers a fellowship program in which Charlotte MacLaurin of Concordia University participated for two months. As a member of a Collection Management Policy Team, she was able to contribute to the HUBBARD/EXPLORING THE SABBATICAL 607 greater library community and to finish her leave with a great sense of satisfaction (C. MacLaurin, personal communication, November 22, 2000). Finally, there is no reason for the creative individual to restrict him or herself to formal internship or other programs. It is quite feasible to contact a potential establishment to propose a project of one’s own, as Ms. MacLaurin did with Simon Fraser University (C. MacLaurin, personal communication, November 22,2000).Academic or other research institutions are often more than happy to accommodate professional development goals, especially when projects proposed advance their own aims. Exchanges Exchanging jobs with another information professional in one’s own country or abroad can also be tremendously liberating. Formal exchanges are established for various purposes: enhancing expertise, creating professional links, upgrading language skills, and promoting mutual understanding with those from other countries. Exchanges present challenges that frequently leave professionals eager to return to work, to share what they have learned, and to implement new ideas. To help individuals uncover exchanges, many professional associations list programs on their Web sites. The American Library Association’sWeb site, for example, (http:www.ala.org/work/international/links.html),provides links to many organizations worldwide that have arranged professional exchanges. For those interested in experiences abroad, this site provides contact information for bodies such as the Association for International Practi- cal Training and the International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX). Furthermore, universities sometimes facilitate exchanges for librarians as do organizations like the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA). The IFLA Journal does this by providing a list of people who desire to participate in exchanges with someone from a country other than their own. Likewise, the LIBEX Bureau for International StafF Exchange fosters exchanges “for librarians from the U.S., Canada, E.E.C. countries, Commonwealth and other countries” (ALA Guide, 1999,Over- seas-Exchange Programs). In addition to considering the aforementioned possibilities, those with initiative, as in the case of internships, can create their own exchanges by contacting establishments of interest. This is a good way to locate like-minded professionals who are interested in exchanging jobs. Conference/Event Participation Other individuals may seize reprieves from regular work preoccupa- tions to advance the goals of professional associations. Popular activities include presenting conference papers or conducting workshops. Other activities might focus on promoting aims of division or interest groups. At least two Concordia University librarians have spent a good part of sabbaticals organizing annual conferences such as that of the Association of Mov- 608 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

ing Image Archivists. Such projects provide a superlative means of networking and keeping up with trends in the field. Simply attending conferences during a leave adds variety and helps librarians achieve a sense of balance so that they do not remain too solitary. In other words, conference work helps ensure that professionals are not too lonely and isolated. Scheduling events and conferences, whether they are library related or not, are good means of offsetting research and study. As with exchanges and internships, many professional association and other Web sites provide useful links to events of all kinds. The National Library of Canada’s Web site (http://www. nlc-bnc.ca/6/7/s 7-1 004-e. html) maintains a selective list of meetings and conferences in the United States, Canada, and overseas. Links to library associations make it easy for professionals to track events. Moreover, scanning conference schedules and continuing education programs fosters the generation of creative ideas for participating in these conferences.

Community Service, Volunteer Work Good Samaritan work also can be blended with other projects to make one’sleave more rewai-ding.Working in a developing country, for instance, offers personal reward as well as opportunities for professional growth. Organizations such as the Peace Corps provide opportunities for librarians to master another language and to work in developing countries (ALA, 1999, Overseas). For those who already speak more than one language, naturally, the opportunities are richer. Most people are surprised by the wide range of short-term volunteer experiences that are available in North America and abroad. Some programs are fully subsidized whereas others require that individuals pay their own way. Possibilities include community development, environmental research, historical restoration, marine research, museum work, outdoor and recreational work, public health, social action, teaching, scientific research, work with religious organizations, and much more (McMillon, 1999, p. 375-391). For those who wish to stay closer to home while helping less-fortunate individuals, there are possibilities in community service agencies. Creative individuals might try piloting services for any number of local community groups that exist for ethnic groups and other populations. The elderly, the unemployed, the physically challenged, and those with AIDS are among the wide variety of populations that can profit enormously from such efforts. Travel There are few things more invigorating than new surroundings for enhancing the joy of the sabbatical. For example, signing up for language study or for a cultural tour in Amsterdam provides an alluring adjunct to the pursuit of more scholarly goals. To support such aims, some institutions HUBBARD/EXPLORING THE SABBATICAL 609 will defray the cost of travel and related expenses such as conference registration, tuition fees, and moving expenses. For fascinating accounts of two librarians’ experiences abroad, The Special Libraries Association Web site’s “LibrariansAbroad section is worth perusal. Donna Hanson recounts time spent in the United Arab Emirates (http://wwu.sla.org/chupter/nucn/wwest/vlnl/hansonll.htm)where she worked as a technical services supervisor,and Carol Williams describes a ten-month sabbatical experience in Southern France (http://www.sla.org/chupter/cwcn/ wwest/vlnl/williall.htm). Traveling within one’s own continent can be equally exciting and may be more feasible for many professionals. Charlotte MacLaurin, from Con- cordia University, and her husband planned joint sabbaticals and relocated from Quebec to British Columbia for approximately ten months. Ms. MacLaurin initiated a survey on library effectiveness at Simon Fraser Uni- versity where it so happened that staff were in the midst of doing a review of services. The administration was pleased to accommodate her survey. During the same leave, Ms. MacLaurin participated in a previously mentioned fellowship at the National Library of Canada. In conjunction with these projects, she attended the BC Library Association Conference, participated in other professional events, and got to know librarians across the country. The result was that she finished her sabbatical feeling enormously refreshed and having acquired a broader understanding of how library services in Quebec differed from those in British Columbia (C. MacLaurin, personal communication, November 22,2000). Study and Research Many professionals focus their sabbatical dreams on what they consider to be the most traditionally acceptable activities: study or research. They imagine themselves delving into fascinating topics without interruption. In their prime, they expect to approach leaves vigorously and with enormous discipline, to launch ultimate quantum theories of information science. At last they expect to obtain their just rewards, emerging as tomorrow’s superstars! As laudable as research is, it behooves professionals to ask themselves critically whether prospective research projects will truly add something valuable to the field. Should their conclusion be positive, perusing the Gale Directory of Learning Worldwide (Hunt, 2001)might help them track down appropriate research establishments. This publication lists a multitude of libraries, academic societies, research institutes, and other associations that present opportunities for collaborating with scholars overseas and doing research in the field (pp. 3936-3938). For each country, a “National Sur- vey” provides an overview of “Education, Libraries, and Museums” and provides a “description of any special collections” (pp. x-xi) . 610 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Study options might be more titillating than research to some professionals and may be more conducive to their achievement of career goals. Naturally, there are many formal and informal learning projects possible. Seeking another subject degree can open up new job options. Acquiring an M.B.A. degree can strengthen leadership and management skills. Then, alternatives to seeking another degree include taking short-term courses through distance or traditional means to improve oratory, communication, or other abilities. Such educational endeavors not only rekindle the delight that accompanies learning but enhance credentials and career options.

FUNDING Seeking funding for a leave involves exploring such sources as professional, public, and private bodies as well as one’s own institution. In addition to this, applying for funding includes drawing up a proposal and doc- umenting a project’s value. If applylng for more than one award, a wise choice indeed, it is important to follow the advice of David G. Bauer (1999) and “to determine how you could change or alter your idea so that it ap- peals to different grantors” (p. 29). Professional organizations often sponsor activities and can refer librarians to funding agencies. The Canadian Library Association, for example, sponsors library research and development grants. The American Library Association’s Web site lists numerous funding organizations such as the Council for International Exchange of Scholars in Washington, DC (through which various countries offer research or lecturing awards in library science) and the Bogle Pratt International Travel Fund (http:www.ala.org/work/ international/links.html) . Finally, a wide variety of grant directories, such as Funding for United States Study: A Guidefor Intonational Students and Pmfissionals (O’Sullivan, 1996) lists funding bodies from which information specialists can uncover awards (p. 450).

ADVICEFROM OTHERLIBRARIANS The wise individual gathers advice from colleagues who have survived and thrived through the sabbatical process and who are familiar with pitfalls that might impede one’s ultimate success. Interviews with Concordia University librarians, who are members of the Concordia University Facul- ty Association, provide substance for other librarians’ reflection. Questions asked of these librarians included the following: “What would you do dif- ferently were you to plan another sabbatical?”and “What advice would you give others planning a sabbatical to ensure a successful experience?”A summary of some of their statements, paraphrased by the author, follows: Ensure sufficient time for planning, well in advance of one’s leave. Conduct any preliminary research and preparation necessary in advance to “get off to a good start.” HUBBARD/EXPLORING THE SABBATICAL 611

Be sure to meet sabbatical policy, grant, and other deadlines. 0 Consider early on whether statistical consultants, students, or others should be hired to assist one with repetitive or specialized tasks so that one can use professional skills where they really count. Take time before the leave begins to consult advisors on designing the project in a manner that is consistent with good research. 0 If planning statistical analyses, consult a statistician in advance for input on designing appropriate questionnaires, surveys, and the like. 0 If working in collaboration with others, discuss different work styles beforehand and define the division of labor clearly, so that it is fair. Inform oneself early on as to the support provided by one’s establishment (e.g., funding, statistical support). Reflect on how realistic expectations are with respect to how much can be accomplished during a leave. Many people underestimate this. Allow for the unexpected, such as health problems or a death in the family. 0 Schedule time for relaxation, exercise, and entertainment. Consider carefully the desired length of leave, especially when planning a time-consuming project. Recognize that when one returns from a sabbatical, one will have to catch up on new databases, new software, and new policies that have been instituted during one’s absence. 0 Reflect upon what time of year is most conducive to one’s productivity with respect to the type of leave project one is undertaking. For instance, would research be more appealing in the winter? Avoid the temptation to stay in perpetual communication with one’s employer or users through the telephone or work-related e-mails. This can impede one’s progress and the completion of a major project. If the leave includes vacation time, schedule it during an appealing time. 0 If planning on publishing, contact editors well in advance to uncover the likelihood of the project being published.

BENEFITS Concordia University librarians were also asked the following during interviews: “What professional benefits did you derive from the above-mentioned sabbatical?” and “What personal benefits did you derive from the above-mentioned sabbatical?” Benefits expressed, as paraphrased by the author, include the following: Reaffirmed that my own professional focus was consistent with what other librarians were doing. I discovered that I was on the right track! Broadened my perspective on problem-solving in the field. Increased my flexibility so that upon my return to work I was a more effective team player. Was very energizing and prevented my own burnout. 612 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Enjoyed the freedom I had to do something important to me professionally, something my normal duties did not permit me to undertake. Finally I had time, without interruption, to give my undivided attention to a project. Benefited from the stimulation of working on something far removed from my day-to-day duties. Was able to extricate myself from the library culture and view librarianship from a different angle, becoming a user myself and seeing things again from the user’s point of view. Found it very rewarding and validating that my supervisor took pride in the conference presentation that resulted from my sabbatical project. Was able to sleep in until 8 A.M., swim every day, and recover from ex- haustion! Rediscovered the virtue of patience, experiencing less stress, a change my spouse appreciated immensely.

FINALREMARKS A truly successful leave, like many things in life, requires well-thought- out planning, deliberation with respect to long-term goals and self-reflection. Setting one’s sights high, working with a prestigious organization, or collaborating with experts in one’s field can be part of the excitement. Choosing a project, however, goes beyond finding one acceptable to one’s employer. It also goes beyond producing a crowning achievement or defini- tive study. To achieve success, there is every reason to choose captivating activities that inspire joyful pleasure and rejuvenation. To reiterate, professionals should pay attention to inner signs of warn- ing-to those perspicacious rebel voices who demand a reprieve from current midlife pressures. Creating sabbaticals that are truly invigorating is not only possible but also crucial to one’s well being. This is an excellent time to immerse oneself in stimulating change, to launch a pilot project, or to indulge oneself in an innovative endeavor that truly arouses one’s curiosi- ty. Engaging oneself in activities that are enticing personally as well as professionally makes sense from every perspective. Finally, creating a triumphant and worthwhile experience requires giving in to fantasies and paying attention to intuition. One’s goal should be to return to work energetic and raring to take on new challenges and changes. The sabbatical in its ideal form leaves professionals delightfully satisfied, as was Charlotte MacLaurin after a sabbatical that she described as a “wonderful gift” (C. MacLaurin, personal communication, November 22, 2000). HUBBARD/EXPLORING THE SABBATICAL 613

REFERENCES American Library Association. (1997). In&rnational Relations Ofjce: Funding sourcesfor librah- an and information scientists exchanges. Retrieved November 30, 2000 from http:// www.ala.org/work/international/links.html. American Library Association. (1999). Guide to employment sources in the library and information professions. [Brochure]. Chicago: Author. Barner, R. ( 1994).Lifeboat strategies: How to keqb your career above water during tough times-or any time. New York: AMACOM. Bauer, D. (1999). The “how to”grants manual: Successful grantseeking techniquesfor obtainingpub- lie andplvategrants (4th ed.). Phoenix, AZ:The American Council on Education. Cronin, L. (2000). Midliferunaway: A grown ups’guide to takingayear. osf: Toronto, ON:Macrnillan Canada. Hanson, D. (1997). Lfe on the Gulf.Retrieved November 25,2000 from http://www.sla.org/ chapter/cwcn/wwest/vlnl/hansonll .htm. Hunt, K. (Ed.). (2001). Gale directory of Zearning nrorldwide: A Guide tofaculty and institutions of higher education, research and culture. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. Krannich, R. L. (1997). Change yourjob, change your life: High impact strategies forfinding great jobs into the 21st century (6th ed.). Manassas Park, VA: Impact Publications. MacLaurin, C. Personal interview. November 22, 2000. McMillon, B. (1999). Volunteer vacations: Short-term adventures that will benejityou and others (7th ed.). Chicago: Chicago Review Press. Michelozzi, B. N. (2000). Comingalivefim nine tofive (6th ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. National Library of Canada. (2000). Meetings and confwences 2000 and beyond. Retrieved De- cember 15,2000 from http://www.nlc-bnc.ca/services/ecanconf.htm. Noble, R. Personal interview. November 29,2000. Oldman, M., & Hamadeh, S. (2001). The internship bible. New York Random House. O’Sullivan, M. (Ed.). (1996).Funding for United States study: A guidefor international students and pofssionals. New York: Institute of International Education. Peterson’s internships, I999 (19th ed.). (1998). Princeton, NJ: Peterson’s Guides. Sellen, B. (Ed.). (1997). What else can you do with a library degree: Career options for the 90s and beyond. New York Neal-Schuman Publishers. Special Libraries Association. (1996). Competenciesfor special librarians of the 21st century. Wash- ington, DC. Author. Retrieved December 15, 2000 from http://www.sla.org/content/ SLA/professional/meaning/competency.cfm. Unnamed. Personal interview. December 6,2000. Williams, C. (1997). To visit libraries or not to visit libraries! Retrieved November 25, 2000 from http://www.sla.org/chapter/cwcn/wwest/vlnl/williall.htm. Making It to the Major Leagues: Career Movement between Library and Archival Professions and from Small College to Large University Libraries

TIMOTHYJ.JOHNSON

ABSTRACT ISSUESOF CAREER MOVEMENT AND CHANGE are examined between library and archival fields and from small colleges to large universities. Issues examined include professional education and training, initial career-planning and placement, continuing education, scouting and mentoring, job market conditions, work experience and personal skills, professional involvement, and professional association self-interest. This examination leads to five observations: 1.It is easier, in terms of career transitions, for a librarian to become an archivist than it is for an archivist to become a librarian; 2. The progression from a small college venue to a large research university is very manageable with the proper planning and experience; 3. At least three of the career elements-professional education, career-planning, and professional association self-interest-in their best moments provide a foundation that enables a future consideration of change between institutional types and professional areas and in their worst moments conspire against the midcareer professional in terms of change; 4. The elements of scouting, continuing education, work experience, and professional involvement offer the greatest assistance in career transitions; 5. Thejob market is the wildcard that either stymies or stimulates occupational development.

INTRODUCTION Eleanor Gehrig once asked her husband, baseball legend Lou Gehrig, “What’sthe difference between a baseball player in the high minor leagues and a man in the major leagues?”TheYankee great responded, “One step.” The answer was both simple and complex, loaded with all the pain, passion,

TimothyJ. Johnson, Curator, Special Collections and Rare Books, Interim Curator, James Ford Bell Library, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, Suite 111Elmer L. Andersen Li- brary, 222-21st Avenue South, Minneapolis, MN 55455 LIBRARY TRENDS,Vol. 50, No. 4, Spring 2002, pp. 614-630 02002 The Board of Trustees, University of Illinois JOHNSON/MAKING IT TO THE MAJOR LEAGUES 615

and perplexities of a game that has been transformed into a business and anointed as the national pastime. As a former high school baseball player who has seen at least one classmate make it into the majors, Gehrig’s answer made sense in pondering a professional path in the library and archival fields. That autobiographical and professional pondering, in both its simplicity and its complexity is examined here. What are some of the elements of that one step that might separate a player in the informational minor leagues from one in the majors? Is this distinction of the quicker- stepped major leaguer valid when technology is in some sense leveling the playing field? Are there, indeed, major and minor leagues in the information world? And can a baseball player (read librarian) learn to successfully play cricket (read archivist) or vice versa? The first part of this examination requires a brief autobiographical sketch. In early 1998, I accepted an offer to join the University of Minneso- ta’s library staff and felt, in the process, like I had finally made it to the bibliographic big leagues. For sixteen years I had been trying to hone my game in the minors, first as a reference/instructional-services librarian in a small private college, then as the library director for that same struggling enterprise (moonlighting at the same time as a medical librarian at the local hospital), and finally as the director of archives in another, more financially secure, small college (now turned university). Now, at one of the nation’s leading research libraries, I had the chance to take all those hard-learned lessons (and more than a few pleasant experiences) to the next level. Although physically older, I was a step quicker and (I trusted) a step wiser. 1had made the one step. I had followed, for the most part, a course mapped out in graduate school. The course was simple and straightforward: I wanted to be an academic librarian who began my career in a small college library. From there I hoped to move to a midsized college or university setting (with some additional administrative responsibilities) and finally find my way to a large research university. Small college, university, multiversity: that was the plan. But even while formulating this plan I wondered if one could go straight from library school to a research university position. Other recent graduates seemed successful in jumping straight to the majors. But as graduation neared, I was still waiting on the bench. The library market for entry-level professional positions in the early 1980swas rather bleak. At the time there was only one half-time acaderjnic position available in Minnesota (where I attended library school and spent the better part of my second year lobby- ing to keep the school open. It was, quite possibly, my first taste of life in the major leagues.) Given that dim career-market prospect-the professional equivalent of Fenway Park’s Green Monster in left field-resumes were scat- tered abroad in a kind of preprofessional fungo. Eventually I secured interviews with two Chicago-area institutions: a renowned private research library and a small undergraduate college. The college interview was facilitated by informal contacts with the previous library director, much in the manner of 616 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

a minor-league scout, and resulted in a successful appointment. The major leagues, in the form of the research library, became a later career goal. Two years later another scout, in the guise of a college president, appointed me as the library director. This was followed nearly three years later by yet a third scout (an historian) and an invitation to switch institutions and professions, moving from a library directorship to director of archives. At least one archivist, well-placed within the profession and serving as a consultant to the search process, was suspicious of a librarian (even one with archival training and experience) moving into a position that might be better filled by drafting from within the archival profession. Was this a case of interleague rivalry or another scout wanting to promote their own hot prospect? Working in library-rich Chicago, home to both the American Library Association and the Society of American Archivists, provided additional opportunities to make contact and establish working relationships with library and archival colleagues from a wide range of institutions. Work in professional and scholarly associations provided additional contacts. When The Chronicle OfHigher Education posted the position for curator of special collections at the University of Minnesota in the spring of 1997 Gehrig’s one-step difference to the major leagues seemed surmountable. I entered the draft process of the major leagues. It may be wise, at least for the moment, to place the baseball metaphor that has struggled through the first innings of this article on the injured- reserved list and turn to those questions of movement between library and archives professions, the transition between small college and large university, and the specific elements of career transition that seem fundamental to a discussion of midlife career transitions between institutions and across professions. These elements include, but are not limited to: professional education and training, career-planning and placement, scouting and mentoring, job market conditions, continuing education, work experience and personal skills, professional involvement, and professional association self-interest. If we accept the definition of a midcareer, seasoned professional as someone in their 40s with fifteen to twenty years of experience (St. Lifer, 1994, p. 45); and if these elements are examined both historically at the time of professional entry (for me this occurred in 1982) and at the time of professional transition (I moved into the archive profession in 1987 and returned to the library profession in 1998); and if this examination is placed within the contextual continuum of small college-large research university and library- archives professions, then the following observations can be made: 1. It is easier, in terms of career transitions, for a librarian to become an archivist than it is for an archivist to become a librarian. JOHNSON/MAKING IT TO THE MAJOR LEAGUES 61’7

2. The progression from a small college venue to large research university is very manageable with the proper planning and experience. 3. At least three of the career elements-professional education, career- planning, and professional association self-interest-in their best moments provide a foundation that enables a future consideration of change between institutional types and professional areas. In their worst moments, these elements conspire against the midcareer professional in terms of change. 4. The elements of scouting, continuing education, work experience, and professional involvement offer the greatest assistance in career transitions. 5. Thejob market is the wildcard that either stymies or stimulates occupational development.

IT IS EASIER, IN TERMS OF CAREER TRANSITIONS, FOR A LIBRARIAN TO BECOME AN ARCHIVIST THAN IT IS FOR AN ARCHIVIST TO BECOME A LIBRARIAN. There is very little in the literature (by that I mean the literature of both archives and library professions) that specifically addresses a midcareer change between the library and archives professions. But the literature is full of discussion and debate on professional education, accreditation, credentialing, and professional identity, all of which provide the backdrop for an individual’s decision to change careers. The differences between these two professions show both the gateways and the barriers that make such transitions possible or improbable, depending on the direction of professional travel. Librarians have a clearly defined “terminal”degree; archivists do not. The ALA accredits programs; the SAA does not. Oetting (1989) writes: The library profession has struggled for many years with the problem of distinguishing between librarians and other professional library workers and has effectively decreed and more importantly enforced a professional definition based almost solely on an ALA-accredited M.L.S. There is no equivalent understanding or accepted credential in the archival profession, nor is it likely that there will be one in the near future. (p. 135) Martin (1994) amplifies this observation when he notes that The library school has evolved from the status of an independent trade school to one of the constellation of professional schools that characterize the modern university. Meanwhile, archivists have failed to establish a similar program or curriculum to prepare students for entry into the profession, with serious deleterious effects on the competence of practitioners, the availability of resources with which archival institutions achieve their goals, and the status of the profession. (p. 545) 618 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Martin (1994) goes on to state: “Individuals may claim the status of archivist without having completed any specific course of study and without any specific educational credentials” (p. 546). In preparation for his article Oetting (1989) surveyed ARL libraries on the status of archivists and the credentials necessary for appointment. The second question in the survey asked, “Does your library require that archivists possess an ALA-accredited M.L.S. as a condition of employment?” Oetting (1989) reported that: almost half of the libraries responding require that archivists at their institution possess an ALA-accredited M.L.S. Further, this figure is increased since many of the libraries responding negatively indicated that they strongly prefer an M.L.S.-wielding candidate. Since at least half of all professional archivists are employed by academic institutions, this one statistic points out the interesting dilemma that many archivists face: if they do not want to rule out a major market for archival employment (i.e., college and university libraries), they must obtain an academic degree that is not considered sufficient in and of itself by the archival profession. (p. 137) Credentials,beyond the M.L.S. or Ph.D., do not exist in the library world. In the archives world it is a different matter. The Academy of Certified Ar- chivists places a professional stamp of approval on successful examinees. Certification, however, has been one of the most hotly contested issues ever to face the archival profession. Even with its approval as an offi- cial program of the society, there is no guarantee that it will be widely accepted as a meaningful credential. This is particularly true since it is not intended to he the initial professional credential for entry-level archivists, unlike the M.L.S. which is the “terminal”credential for entry into the profession. (Oetting, 1989, p. 136-137) Finally, because of these differences in education, accrediting, and credentialing, librarians have a clearer professional identity; archivists’ identities remain somewhat fuzzy. Contrary to the assessment by Hermans (1997) that “the image of the profession of an archivist is almost a paradigm: the well-known stereotyped phrases are persistent and have a long tradition” (p. 18),the professional image remains ambiguous. What comes readily to mind is not a paradigm (a word we might wish to banish from the English- speaking world) but the MacNelly cartoon that graced the cover of the Summer 1992 issue of The American Archivist. In the cartoon Professor COS- mo Fishawk, a.k.a. the Perfessor, enlightens his nephew, Skyler, on the piles of paper in his office: “This is not a dump. It’s an archive.” “What’sthe difference?”Skyler asks, to which the Perfessor replies, “An archive is a dump without the seagulls.” The image is even more confusing to those outside archivy and reminds me of a box I once found in my one-person archival shop, an echo of the MacNelly cartoon. The box had the word “Trash” written in bold, black marker on one side. In what one might imagine as a JOHNSON/MAKING IT TO THE MAJOR LEAGUES 619

somewhat confused state of mind, the box’s owner apparently had a sudden change of heart. The word “Trash” had been crossed out and written next to it, in equally bold lettering, was the word “Archives.”“The archival profession,” Oetting (1989) observes, “led by its professional organization, the Society of American Archivists, has responded to the need for self-definition with two basic approaches: individual certification and guidelines for graduate archival education programs. Both approaches have fervent sup- porters and opponents. This, in turn, contributes to the confusion outside the archival community as to how to define an archivist” (p. 136). Given the professional atmospherics that existed in the mid- to late- 1980s library and archives communities, it is not surprising that I was able to make two early career moves that effectively broadened my professional experience. The first, somewhat experimental step into medical librarianship took advantage of the firm foundation of graduate education accredited by the major professional association that, in concert, provided a clear professional identity, The second, more adventurous step into collegiate archives was launched by the successful and rewarding completion of that first stride, a reiteration of the importance of one’s undergraduate degree (in this case, history, thus echoing Gabehart’s [19921 observation that “it would appear that an individual would be more employable in the archives field with an undergraduate degree in history” [p. 43’7]), the additional administrative experience as a library director, and the relative disarray of the archival profession in terms of graduate education, accreditation, credentialing, and professional identity. A move in the opposite direction- from an archive into a library-would have been difficult, especially if the archive was historically focused and quite happy to accept employees with either an undergraduate or graduate degree in history. An archivist working in an institution requiring the M.L.S. or a dual library science-history degree would have been much better served. To resurrect the baseball metaphor for a moment, such education and early career-planning would have allowed him or her to hit at least a double and put him or her into scoring position.

THEPROGRESSION FROM A SMALL COLLEGE VENUE TO LARGE RESEARCH UNIVERSITY IS VERY MANAGEABLE WITH THE PROPER PLANNING AND EXPERIENCE. In the mid-1990s writers noted that “the process of career progression virtually has been ignored in librarianship literature” (Phillips, Carson, & Carson, 1994, p. 541).This comment is somewhat surprising given the 1989 pronouncement in LibraryJournal that career development was to be one of the “issues of the nineties” and the creation by the ALA in 1991 of its planning document, “The Decade of the Librarian: 1990-2000.” Yet, it remains true that at the time little was to be found in the professional journals on such issues as “plateauing” and “entrapment” that were appearing 620 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

in the career and management literature (Carson 8c Carson, 1997, pp. 64, 69). Such is still the case, especially as it relates to progression from types of institutions. At the same time, various facets of the existing literature and research can be teased to produce some interesting leads in providing a portrait of transition from smaller to larger institutions. Another brief autobiographical sketch is in order at this point. Four- teen years into my career I had experienced directorships in both library and archives settings. Ihad taken advantage of a tuition benefit and had nearly completed a second master’s degree in theological studies. The small college/university setting in which Ifound myself offered three possible career alternatives: promotion into a newly created vice presidential position overseeing all information structures on campus (i.e.,library, archives, academic computing), employment in a different position at another institution, or retention of my current position. The first option demonstrated institutional attentiveness to change, what Newman (1995) describes as a movement in higher education to merge and restructure services in order to reduce personnel costs and duplication of services, create economies of scale and efficiency, and increase productivity. Many of these changes are necessary, since administrative staffing in higher education grew at a much faster rate than faculty staffing in the 1980s . . . But the smaller rate of growth in the number of faculty and other academic support areas leaves the perception of a large disparity between “management” and “labor” in higher education. Over the past few years, higher educational institutions have tackled this disparity in different ways. Some have done so by merging the library, the computer center, telecommunications, learning resource centers and study skills centers into one organization unit in order to reduce budgets for institutional maintenance. Such a change, while being a valid method of reducing administrative costs, portends an uncertain future for academic libraries and their administrators. (p.91-92)

Even with the uncertainty, this first option was the most attractive, but the leading candidate was a member of the university’s board of directors who also happened to be the library director at a midsized university in a popu- lous southern state. Nonetheless, I applied for the position, but circumstances beyond my control dictated the final outcome. The vice presidential position was abandoned after the primary candidate prematurely died. The president and his second-in-command informed me that if Iwished to advance to a higher level of responsibility then my most realistic career path was one that led beyond the institution. At the same time my parents and in-laws had all recently retired and there was a strong familial interest in moving closer to them. The search began for a position that fulfilled both professional and domestic interests. Planning and experience were the key elements in this transition. The initial plan that dictated movement from a small college to a midsized university to a research institution was amended to include a geographical JOHNSON/MAKING IT TO THE MAJOR LEAGUES 621

element. The career target tightened to a small circle of larger academic institutions in the upper Midwest. Throughout my career, as a way to keep current with the job market and to make sure my skills were at the proper level, I continually scanned professional employment postings. Most of the positions at my level and in my fields of interest indicated the necessity of a second master’s degree, increasing familiaritywith technology-especially as it related to the Internet-and ACA certification for archival positions. While certification remained problematic in my mind, the second master’s degree was nearly completed. One additional element was added to the plan: interview preparation and experience. The creation of the vice presidential position at my then-current place of employment provided me with the opportunity to update my resume and solicit letters of support. Because of the demise of both the position and its leading candidate, however, no interview took place. Fortunately, anotherjob interview presented itself off- campus, and although I was not successful in my candidacy, it did provide me with a valuable experience. Other professional experience, on a number of fronts, came into play as well. I had been extremely active in a local consortium of private academic libraries in the Chicago area. This, in turn, provided contact with a state- wide organization of private academic libraries and with the state chapter of ACRL. Leadership in all of these positions, especially in regards to resource- sharing, acquainted me with personnel from a number of library systems and from larger academic institutions, particularly with staff members in Com- mittee on Institutional Cooperation (CIC) libraries. In addition, and because of my archival work, I communicated with subject specialists and faculty members from institutions across the country and in Europe. Although I was an individual member of ALA and an institutional member of SAA, my professional involvement in these associations was almost nonexistent due to costs, lack of institutional support, and other time and management concerns. I attended a number of Midwest Archives Conference (MAC) gatherings, but I never attempted greater involvement in this or any of the other organizations. There was a greater degree of activity, however, in the work of two ethnic historical societies and in an academic society, The Society for the Ad- vancement of Scandinavian Study (SASS),that put me into frequent contact with scholars in the humanities and social sciences from a broad range of institutions. This planning and these experiences, in essence, “set the table” for the next possible career move. Newman (1995) provides a snapshot of where I perceived myself to be at this point in my career. Given the nature of changes within as well as outside the academic library, it seems fair to predict that professionals with a generalist background who can adapt to changing environments, who can transfer skills from one area to another, and who can communicate effectively with different important user groups will be most prepared to direct the academic libraries of the future. 622 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Where does one find this type of academic generalist who has the necessary credentials yet possesses the institutional strengths to manage the library and other campus information systems? These individuals will come from a variety of sources and may or may not be identified through the typical search and screen process. The size or academic reputation of the institution may have littlr bearing on a candidate’s ability to perform. In fact, individuals from small- or medium-sized academic institutions may have assumed management responsibilities in academic libraries early in their careers and, as a result, may bring good management skills to the library. Additionally, they will have had numerous opportunities to work on many issues within the institution. (p. 96; emphasis added)

At the same time, there was never a strong sense of what the literature has termed “entrapment” or “plateauing,” although in hindsight it is now clear that both of these characterizations were probably accurate. Techno- logical aptitude, while important, was not an overriding concern in career- planning and did not present what Smith (1995) describes as “a poignant awareness and a sense of frustration about the ways in which their career paths have been blocked or irrevocably altered” (p. 23). Conroy (1995) comes closer to the descriptive mark in describing my midcareer perspective, although the physical, mental, and emotional symptoms were not as marked or were absent altogether, and there were few, if any, negative factors in terms of performance and job appraisal. In terms of the type of plateau, I was facing what Bardwick (1986) described as a structural plateau which exists in hierarchical organizations with limited upper-level positions relative to the larger number of position seekers (p. 49) and probably a combination of what Kaye profiled as “productivelyplateaued-continued interest at position without movement. They see challenge and opportunity in their assignments, although the position and responsibilities remain at the same level” and “partiallyplateaued-continued high interest in one portion of the position’s responsibilities. Personal initiative and motivation remain vigorous” (cited in Conroy, 1995, p. 14). When the opportunity came for a midcareer transition from archives back to library work, the author presented most of the typical behaviors and attitudes outlined by Phillips, Carson, and Carson (1994), that is: a) more realistic about the ability of career to satisfy needs. b) a highly productive phase, as requirements of the career have been mastered and difficult performance goals are established. . . . c) fully socialized into the profession, adopting values congruent with those of the field.

However, two typical behaviors and attitudes were taking on a heightened significance: d) as skills become organization and career-specific, career change would require substantial reinvestment. JOHNSON/MAKING IT TO THE MAJOR LEAGUES 623

e) opportunities for career change begin decreasing with increasing age. (p. 542)

Thus, I had the sense that while I was not entrapped, the time to make a move was becoming more important in terms of career-planning.

AT LEAST THREE OF THE CAREER ELEMENTS-PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION, CAREER-PLANNING, AND PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION SELF-INTEREST- IN THEIR BEST MOMENTS PROVIDE A FOUNDATION THAT ENABLES A FUTURE CONSIDERATION OF CHANGE BETWEEN INSTITUTIONAL TYPES AND PROFESSIONAL AREAS. IN THEIR WORST MOMENTS, THESE ELEMENTS CONSPIRE AGAINST THE MIDCAREER PROFESSIONAL IN TERMS OF CHANGE. Professional education and training encompasses all coursework, practi- cums, internships, and work-related experience within the context of a graduate-level, professionally accredited program of instruction leading to a master’s or doctorate degree. In my case, this meant a two-year master’s program accredited by the ALA within a specific course track for academic libraries, requiring additional course work outside the library-school curriculum (archives administration, taught in the history program, and a 120-hour practicum in one of the university’s archives). In addition, I worked as a student assistant for two subject bibliographers in the university library, with two National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) grant projects for a third library staff member. In 1980 there were seventy-one accredited library programs listed by the ALA (American Library Association [ALA],2000, Accredited). There were no accredited archive programs at this time. In 2000, ALA listed fifty- six programs in the Directory of Institutions OfferingAccreditedMuster’s Proqum on its Web site (ALA,2000, Directory). Common sense would lead to a conclusion that a reduction by nearly 27 percent of the accredited programs offers the prospective North American librarian fewer choices in terms of specialization and a greater need for geographic mobility. Financial and other resources might also be under greater strains. In a similar vein, Newman (1995) remarks on the uncertain training of future administrators: We are seeing changes in the field surpassing changes in the schools themselves, and as a result the schools may be becoming increasingly irrelevant. During the 1970s the number of accredited library education programs increased dramatically, and the 1980sbegan with approximately sixty such programs. In a little more than a decade, 20 percent of these programs have been discontinued at some of our most prestigious universities. This may be a reflection of the value that colleges and universities place on libraries, librarians, and the leadership of academic libraries in higher education. The status of the library profession is being severely challenged, and to compete in colleges and 624 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

universities today the library education programs will have to adapt to changing needs and will have to provide more in the areas of technology, management, and administration. (p. 98) SAA currently lists graduate programs in nineteen states, the District of Columbia, and Canada in its Directory of Archival Education in the United States and Canada, 1999-2000, but the “SAAdoes not accredit archival education and training programs, institutes, or courses, and inclusion in this directory does not imply endorsement or approval by the Society” (Society of American Archivists [SAA], Directory, 2002). Elsewhere, the SAA Directory states that: In 1994the Society of American Archivists approved the Guidelines for the Development of a Curriculum for a Master of Archival Studies Degree. “SAAbelieves that programs of the extent and nature outlined in these guidelines are the best form of pre-appointment professional education for archivists.” . . . Currently, no such degree programs exist in the United States. The M.A.S. programs that exist in Canada are based on similar guidelines established by the Association of Canadi- an Archillsts. (SAA Archival Education, 2002, Introduction, para. 1) An individual contemplating a midlife career decision involving movement between libraries and archives is thus faced with opposing or confused professional trends. Movement from the library world into the archival arena presents one with the prospect of entering a profession in search of a stan- dardized program of instruction and, possibly, an increasing reliance on certification in the credentialing process. Movement from an archival setting into a bibliographic universe presents one with the prospect of attain- ing an additional accredited degree. Based on these educational forces, it would seem easier for a librarian in midcareer to make a move into an archival position than for an archivist to make a similar move in the other direction. The SAA admits as much when it states in the Directory that: Individuals can prepare for a career in archives through a variety of educational programs. Most entry-level positions require an undergraduate and a graduate degree, together with archival coursework and a practicum. Although archivists have a variety of undergraduate majors, most receive graduate degrees in history or library science. Some have degrees in both fields. Other useful specializations include public administration and political science. A Ph.D. is often preferred for higher ranking positions in academic institutions. (SAAArchival Profession, 2002, Qualifications for Employment, para. 1) It is this openness to variety, even as the profession moves towards a stan- dardized program of instruction and credentialing, that invites the professional to consider the archival profession as a career alternative. Career-planning and placement are both individual and institutional responsibilities and activities that have become more visible and vital. For many midcareer librarians the early- to mid-1980s was “a time when pro- JOHNSON/MAKING IT TO THE MAJOR LEAGUES 625 spective librarians faced a confused and contracting educational system, low salaries, scarcejob openings, and diminishing status” (O’Leary,2000, p. 21). For the most part, my own planning and placement was self-motivated and self-directed at the time I entered the library profession in 1982. General career assistance and some faculty guidance were available, but individual devices and desires drove the process forward. Institutional responsibility, especially within the context of a small private college that was struggling for its own survival,was limited to conversations with faculty colleagues (who for the most part were ignorant of the library profession and the prevail- ingjob market) and to the growing and helpful insights of librarians from other institutions. During these early days of my career the most helpful comments may have come as part of the annual review process. By 1989, seven years after my entry into the library profession and two years after my switch to the archival world, the editors of LibraryJournalwere stirring the waters and observing that “the overarching issues surrounding professional development, continuing education (CE), and career ladders for both professional and other library staff have not been addressed adequately” (“Career,”1989, p.52). The perception, not documented here but a reality at the time, was that local consortia, state library associations, regional organizations, and the professions at large (both library and archives) were beginning to factor career-planning and continuing education into programmatic and conference-planning. At the same time, the jargon of the career planners and advisors from the business/human-resources world was finding its way into our professional literature. Thus, by the early 1990s we could speak of glass ceilings and plateaus and quite possibly mix the metaphors in the process of describing our plight. The topography of our careers and the ability to explore that terrain were encapsulated in convenient alliterative tablets. The way off the plateau involved responsibility, recreation, reassessment, and reshaping (Conroy, 1995).Even if this repetitive, rumbling roar created some cognitive dissonance, there were still some helpful observations for those considering a change of scenery. For example, Conroy (1995) states: Library leadership-in associations and schools-must be alert to the impact of plateauing on the field as a whole. Mentoring and network- ingwith personal and professional contacts offers both information and support for career changers. When a field is structured so tightly that movement and change is difficult, organizations become stagnant. The result of this is often diminished creative responses to environmental demands. By remaining flexible and open to hiring laterally or from nontraditional sources, managers allow plateaued staff additional op portunities. (p. 16) 626 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

THEELEMENTS OF SCOUTING, CONTINUING EDUCATION, WORK EXPERIENCE, AND PROFESSIONAL INVOLVEMENT OFFER THE GREATEST ASSISTANCE IN CAREER TRANSITIONS. It may be a truism, but in the course of making the various transitions between professions and institutions, who one knows is as important as what one knows. And one is noticed more often when one throws oneself into one’s work, as a minor-league pitcher throwing a no-hitter would be noticed by players on the bench and scouts in the stands. In my experience there were a number of scouts who had an eye for talent (or who found themselves in need) : the college president, the history professor, the library director. The difficulty with these scouts, however, was in their own focus or horizon-in other words, they served, for the most part, as internal scouts within an organization or network of like-minded organizations. All of these scouts were part of the small college-liberal arts network within the Chica- go metropolitan area. And while these individuals played an important role in making transitions to greater levels of responsibility within institutions or in making a professional transition from librarian to archivist, they were not particularly helpful-with the exception of writing letters of recommendation-in a transition that would take the author to a different type of institution. Burnam & Green (1991) comment that the significant professional issue of moving from one type of library to another “is seldom discussed verbally or in the library literature” (p. 10). What I needed was a different type of exposure that would put me in contact with a different pool of scouts, those-to use the baseball metaphor again-who were scouting the minor leagues for major league talent. Here I must be cautious, for I am not equating small, liberal arts colleges with the minor leagues. Far from it. Rather, the problem with this type of institution is that the range of experiences and the contacts with people can sometimes be limited by budget or salary-limits that can be found in any number of institutions and that cut in any number of ways. Green (1991) observed “that the size of the library affects what a librarian does as much as the type of library. The smaller the library, the greater the range of required library skills; the larger the library, the more specialization is needed” (p. 13).One of the strategies that I employed, sometimes subconscious- ly, was to explore the avenues of continuing education and professional involvement. Beyond the self-evident value of continuing one’s education and becoming a better professional, there was the “value-added”potential for personal interaction. Here I made contacts with individuals from a variety of institutions, most of them acting in a nonscouting capacity, that provided additional outlets for professional creativity and involvement. In those arenas of resourcefulness and participation, names and faces were remembered, actions and activities recorded. One never knew when a non- scout would become a scout, or when a tip might be handed on to those responsible for recruiting. In my case, I had the added benefit of having a JOHNSON/MAKING IT TO THE MAJOR LEAGUES 627

remarkable supervisor who became a true mentor-one who continually was on the lookout for opportunities for improvement or participation and who had her entire staffs best interests at heart. Ironically, scouts as they have been previously described here did not play a role in the latest transition from small-college archivist to research- university curator/rare-books librarian. We may need to expand the notion of scout to include members of a search committee. This expansion of the scouting definition would seem to place an even greater weight on how these committees are chosen and how they go about their work. Not being privy to their deliberations in my own case, I can only hazard a guess that the strength of the resume and the letters of recommendation prompted the committee to extend an invitation to interview. The author applied for his current position as a relatively unknown individual. No one on the search committee had any professional contact with him. If known at all, it was as a graduate student almost two decades earlier. Yet, even during the interview process there were signs of hesitancy and concern, primarily over the question ofwhether or not the candidate would be able to handle the transition from a small college to a large university, from managing a small student staff to administering an entire department. Their fears were justified, if not totally grounded in the literature-small though it is-that is cited above (especiallyNewman, 1995).Three years later, in the process of undergoing a thorough review for promotion and continuous appointment (and at the time this article was being written), a letter advocating my promotion was written by a well-known supporter of the university libraries. There are two sentences in that letter that are highly appropriate to quote here and that underscore the immense importance of a search committee: “AsI reviewed his curriculum vitae, the thing that stood out for me was how relatively obscure he had been until he came to the University. It seems to me that the selection committee that brought him to the Univer- sity in the first place is to be highly recommended for discerning his potential and promise and choosing him above others” (Andersen, 2000).This is in stark contrast to Burnam & Green’s (1991) comment on “the reluctance of academic research library administrators to look beyond their own familiar surrounding for dynamic and bright managerial talent” (p. 10-1 1).

THEJOB MARKET IS THE WILDCARD THAT EITHER STYMIES OR STIMULATES OCCUPATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. We do not know, ultimately, what the job market will be like in the future, but it seems that we are in a much better position than we were two decades ago to provide some very good and very educated estimates. These forecasts and the added availability of information via the Internet provide us with the necessary tools to think about, if not act upon, a career-transition move. Occupational outlook reports and job hotlines are available online. Electronic lists are sent a continuous stream ofjob notices. Every- 628 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

thing, it seems, is now part of the mental mix in this type of contemplation: education, accreditation, certification, continuing education, and professional cross-fertilizationand integration. I am tempted to argue that midcareer transitions across professions and between types of institutions, at least in the library and archives fields, will be easier in the future. Part of this ease may come, in part, from the continued merging or combination of programs at the graduate level of study. For example, Hermans (1997) notes from an archival perspective that “[wlhat we will see is a growing cooperation between archival and librarian education programmes, which will eventually lead to an integration of both. But also the archivist of today will have to enhance his level of knowledge in this field. If he or she will not, an obsolete, isolated position somewhere in the basement of the cultural information building will be the future” (p. 19).This echoes Cook’s (1986) observation that: In the case of librarians, there is such a range of different jobs that orientation can follow career choice, What is important is that all training in the information sciences, archival and other, must allow for movement across the orientational boundaries If we must recogn- ise that archivists (like documentalists and many librarians) should take an active part in academic research in other disciplines, we must also see that the appropriate training probably comes best from a combind- ed [ rzc] school of information studies. (p. 201) At the same time, I am hesitant about such pronouncements because so many elements are in flux.Witness, for instance, the new talks about and renewed attention to professional education within the library and archives communities. Examine as well trends in the information-industry sector of the economy and the recent demise of so many “dot.coms”or the increasing layoff notices found in the business and technology sections of local newspapers. If I am somewhat ambiguous in my thoughts about the future, I am less so when it comes to a discussion of the traits and characteristics that allow me to master that ambiguity during times of transition. While I may disagree with Cook’s assertion that “the whole bias of professional education should be towards developing a management approach,” I would certainly agree with the claim that “an information professional is one who can manage the task of applying resources to the solution of problems” (Cook, 1986, p. 201). Finally, the wisdom gained in the process of making a midcareer transition may have its source in the kernel of advice given on the American Library Association’s Web site to interested students considering the merits of generalization or specialization: Some students enter a master’s program knowing what they want to do when they graduate, some have not made a decision, and some see their interests shift once they are exposed to the wide variety of types and settings in which librarians and information professionals work. You should plan a program of study based on an assessment of your past JOHNSON/MAKING IT TO THE MAJOR LEAGUES 629

experiences, education, personal strengths and interests, geographic mobility, intended career path, and future plans. Although you should be aware ofjob market opportunities, these should not necessarily dic- tate specializations. Faculty advisors can help in the process of developing a program of study that fits your needs. (ALA Guidelines for Choosing a Master’s Program in Library & Information Studies, 2002, “Generalistvs. Specialist,”para. 1) Or, as this is the bottom of the ninth inning (to bring this baseball-laced exercise in transition to its conclusion), what better words of wisdom could be offered than those from another New York Yankee and font of memorable quotations, Yo@ Berra: ‘You got to be very careful if you don’t know where you’re going, because you might not get there.”

REFERENCES American Library Association. (2002).Accredited Libra9 and information studies masters program from 1925 through present. Chicago: Author. Retrieved August 24, 2000 from http// www.ala.org/alaorg/oa/schools.html. American Library Association. (2002). Guidelinesfw choosing a masteri program in library &information studies. Chicago: Author. Retrieved April 23, 2002 from http//www.ala.org/ alaorg/oa/guide.html. Andersen, Elmer L. Letter to Library Review Committee. November 6, 2000. Bardwick, J. M. (1986). The plateauing trap, part 1:Getting caught. Personnel, 63(10), 46-51. Burnam, P. D., & Green, T. A. (1991). Making career changes between different types of libraries. Ohio Libraries, 4, 10-13. Career development: Defining the “issues of the nineties”; a paraprofessional “movement,” people shortages, and technology exacerbate the issues. (1989). LibraryJournal, 114( 12), 52-55. Carson, K. D., & Carson, P. P. (1997). Career entrenchment: A quiet march toward occupational death? The Academy $Management Executive, 11(l),62-75. Conroy, B. (1995). The plateaued career. Library Administration &Management, 9(I), 13-16. Cook, M. (1986). Combined library and archive training schools. A commentary on recent trends. In Proceedings of the 10th International Congress on Archives (Archivum, 32).Munich: K. G. Saw. Gabehart, A. D. (1992). Qualifications for entry-level archivists in the United States. Am’can Archivist, 55 (Summer), 420-39. Green, T. (1991). Transcending the boundaries of library type. Ohio Libraries, 4, 13. Hermans, R. (1997).Two professions, one future: Archivists and librarians. ZFZAJournal, 23(l), 17-19. Martin, R. S. (1994). The development of professional education for librarians and archivists in the United States: A comparative essay. Ametican Archivist, 57, 544-58. Newman, G. C. (1995). Selection, career paths, and managerial development in academic library administration: Forecasting the needs of the twenty-first century. In G.B. McCabe & R. J. Peterson (Eds.),Academic libraries: Their rationale and role in American higher education (pp. 91-102). Westport, CT Greenwood Press. Oetting, E. C. (1989).Who are these people and why can’t we call them librarians? Library Administration &Management, 3, 135-38. O’Leary, M. (2000).New roles come of age. Online, 24(2),21-22,24-25. Phillips,J. S.,Carson, K. D., & Carson, P. P. (1994). Evolution of affective career outcomes: a field study of academic librarians. College &Research Libraries, 55, 541-49. St. Lifer, E. (1994). Are you happy in yourjob? LJ’s exclusive report. LibraryJournal, 119 (Nov. 11.44-49. Smith, K. (1995). Career development as a remedy for plateauing. Library Administration & Management, 9(1),23-26. Societyof American Archivists. (2000).SAA directmy of archival education in the United States and 630 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Canada, 1999-2000. Retrieved August 24, 2000 from http://www.archivists.org/prof- education/dir-part1 .html. Society of American Archivists. (2000). SA4 directory o/ archiuul education: Archival education. Retrieved August 24, 2000 from http://www.archivists.org/prof-edncation/edd- arched.asp. Society of American Archivists. (2000). SAA directon; of archiual education: The archivalpofesssion. Retrieved August 24, 2000 from http://www.archivists.org/prof-education/edd- archprof.asp.

ADDITIONALREADINGS Osif, B. A,, O'Neil, R. M., & Harwood, R. L. (1995).Manager's bookshelf: Plateauing. Libra? Adminastratzon €cY Managemmt, 9(I), 45-49. Pollack, M., &Brown, K. B. (1998).Learning and transitions in the careers of librarians. ZFIA ,Journal, 24(1),33-41. Migrating to Public Librarianship: Depart on Time to Ensure a Smooth Flight

RONALDG. EDWARDS

ABSTRACT CAREERCHANGE CAN BE A DIFFICULT, TIME-CONSUMING, and anxiety- laden process for anyone contemplating this important decision. The challenges faced by librarians considering the move from academic to public librarianship can be equally and significantly demanding. To most outsiders, at least on the surface, it may appear to be a quick and easy transition to make, but some professional librarians recognize the distinct differences between these areas of librarianship. Although the ubiquitous nature of technology has brought the various work responsibilities of academic and public librarians closer together during the last decade, there remain key differences in job-related duties and the work environments. These dissimilarities pose meaningful hurdles to leap for academic librarians wishing to migrate to the public sector. By examining the variations between academic and public librarianship, academic librarians may find the transition to public librarianship less intimidating. Public libraries have a long history of educational and cultural involvement with the communities they serve. In the earliest days, and even well into the twentieth century, many public libraries were constructed with private funds on the condition that library services were provided to the general public at no cost to the library user. Educators, business professionals, politicians, and other civic leaders firmly believed that there was a direct correlation between the provision of free library services and a literate populace and a free society (Kemp, 1999,p. 116).This philosophy is still adhered to today and serves as the foundation for many services provided by public libraries, especially small to medium-sized facilities. In order to better comprehend what is involved in pursuing a career

Ronald G.Edwards, Director of Library Services, ChippewaValley Technical College, 620 West Clairemont Avenue, Eau Claire, WI 54701 LIBRARYTRENDS, Vol. 50, No. 4, Spring 2002, pp. 631-639 02002 The Board of Trustees, University of Illinois 632 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

in public librarianship, an understanding of public library in comparison to academic library organization is essential. Although various public service initiatives offered in public libraries are similar to those prevalent in academic libraries, distinct variations exist which affect the overall organizational structure and operations. Likewise, internal and external issues confronting public libraries are noticeably different when compared to the academic environment. These unique characteristics of organizational design are evident throughout public libraries. Considered collectively these individual features help to define public libraries in general and distinguish them from academic organizations. Public libraries reflect, to a large degree, the communities they serve. They are usually established as a result of public law and are empowered through various legislation. Although most public libraries operate somewhat independently of other government agencies, they are administered by library boards which are normally appointed or elected to serve the surrounding community. Maintained primarily by local or property taxes, public libraries also rely on a combination of state and federal funding. Theoretically, public libraries provide open access to all library users, but in actuality certain municipalities alter this practice based on individual economic needs and other fiscal considerations.

POLITICALATMOSPHERE OF PUBLICLIBRARIES The political climate of a public library plays a major role in its stability development, and success as an institution. Despite the fact that public library directors and library hoards bear the brunt of political pressures, frontline librarians also feel the effects of such pressures since public policy and major decisions cross all boundaries. Because public libraries are dependent on local and state funding, and since board members are usually appointed by the same political figures responsible for this financial support, the political character of public librarianship often mirrors its trustees. The variety of individuals and groups serviced by public libraries is so diverse that managing the political agenda becomes a tremendous task. Educational institutions, governmental agencies, civic groups, private citizens, and the business community must all be tended to and handled with care. Each constituent requires its own politically correct response. Academic libraries, on the other hand, exist to meet the educational and research needs of a fairly limited variety of clientele. Primarily, these constituents are composed of students and faculty throughout the campus community. Nontraditional students and the expansion of distance education have changed the complexion and increased the average age of students across the curriculum in the United States, but the majority of library users at academic institutions are still in the 18-35 age bracket. The function of the academic library is connected to the overall function of the college or university it serves. It also provides services and resources to the EDWARDS/MIGRATING TO PUBLIC LIBRARIANSHIP 633 college or university administration and staff, but to a lesser extent. Orga- nizational goals and objectives are developed specifically in response to these types of library users, although the community at large is factored into this equation regarding various outreach initiatives. The political pressure that is extremely visible in public libraries is less conspicuous from outside sources in the community and is certainly nonexistent from library boards regarding academic libraries. LIBRARYBOARDS The library board is probably what makes the public library so unique and different from the academic library. Academic libraries often have an advisory committee that represents various departments throughout campus, acts as liaison with the campus community, and serves as an advocacy body regarding library policies and procedures. The academic library administration is also accountable to the university administration concerning budgetary issues, recruitment and hiring, and basic library practices. But academic libraries are basically autonomous entities existing within the environment of higher education, acting independently from any dominant group of individuals such as a public library board. In contrast, public library boards wield an enormous amount of power and control in relation to the vast majority of essential library policies and other duties required by law. Whereas most academic libraries determine policy for themselves, public library boards adopt policies. These policies provide the foundation upon which the public library is structured. Library directors and their respective staffs are accountable for the daily operations of each library, but library boards set the pace concerning how these operational initiatives are implemented. The magnitude to which library boards, directors, and staff come to realize the reasons behind the policies set, and the interrelationship that exists between all constituents, largely determines how effective library management is in achieving its goals and objectives. Theoretically,library trustees possess qualifications which enable them to assume their duties and responsibilities, with the welfare of the public library being paramount. A genuine interest in the library’s future, a concern for the library as a community information center, a belief in intellectual freedom, and knowledge of effective planning and sound management are usually key qualifications of library board members.

ORGANIZATIONALGOALS The organizational goals of public libraries are broad and reach a diverse clientele. Whereas academic libraries focus most of their attention on the educational and research needs of their library users, public libraries tend to emphasize the recreational, social, and cultural needs of the whole community they serve. In effect, the public library becomes the focal point for an array of community-oriented activities, meetings, and other servic- 634 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING zoo2 es. Not only does the public library assist library users of all ages, it basically serves as a clearinghouse for current information on community organizations, issues, and services. In essence, the public library becomes a place where the community at large comes together. Library users are comprised of individuals from preschoolers to the elderly. This wide range of individuals is reflected in the multitude of services provided.

COLLECTIONDEVELOPMENT The collection development initiatives undertaken by academic libraries normally match the research and teaching agendas emphasized by the faculty at these respective institutions. Within this framework different types of academic libraries concentrate on different kinds of collections. While larger universities may focus on the needs of graduate degree programs and research faculty requirements, smaller liberal arts colleges tend to collect materials which support the undergraduate student curriculum. Although the size of collections may vary from one academic library to another, they almost always include current research journals, related monographs, the- ses and/or dissertations, and often special collections of rare books or historical information of prime importance to local history professionals or genealogical societies. Public libraries, on the other hand, tend to react more to current, high- demand materials regarding their collection development initiatives. Al- though public libraries assist students and scholars of all ages achieve their educational objectives, the policies maintained by public libraries do not focus on the research components or historical emphasis prevalent in most academic library collection-development policies. Product mix is the main operational method employed by public libraries. Books, videos, films, compact discs, art prints, pamphlets, cassettes, and mainstream periodicals are all required to satisfy specific segments of the general public. To some extent, all of these resources provide an answer to customer demand. Because of the variety of community needs, changes in socioeconomic structure, and emerging technologies, public libraries are finding themselves in a constant state of assessment concerning the types of materials acquired in response to public demand. Even though medium- to large- sized public libraries may own special collections, the majority of these collections tend to change as societal demands shift. As opposed to academic libraries, public libraries place less emphasis on preserving significant portions of the collection for research or historical purposes. Public libraries responsible for collection development thus deal with collection-building in a more transitory manner than do academic libraries.

CENSORSHIP Censorship has always been an issue that public libraries have experienced with more regularity than academic libraries. Over the years, censor- EDWARDS/MIGRATING TO PUBLIC LIBRARIANSHIP 635 ship complaints have concentrated on a variety of individual works-especially in children’s and young adult literature-that library board members, irate citizens, or any number of community groups have leveled objections against. Currently, challenges that examine public library policies and collection development initiatives are becoming more prevalent. Internet filtering is a prime example of a related issue that has surfaced during the last few years. Public libraries are now managing public Internet use by developing policies and guidelines that preselect Internet sites considered acceptable for library patrons to access (Estabrook & Lakner, 2000, p. 60). Librarians who work in public libraries have always been more reactive to public policy and legislation. Consequently, the policies established by public libraries reflect the areas of public concern that have been the focus of recent discussion and federal bills related to the installation of filtering devices (p. 60). As access to the Internet has increased, and various issues regarding intellectual freedom are being added to the equation, public librarians continue to respond to an array of challenges.

DIVERSITYIN PUBLICLIBRARIES Librarianship in general has always experienced difficulty in providing public services to diverse populations. Historically, public libraries have not been extremely successful in this respect regarding multicultural library users. Many roadblocks exist which have hampered efforts to expand services to the various ethnic groups served by public libraries. Reasons that explain this dilemma include lack of sensitivityto diversity issues, inadequate funding, racial barriers, and improper training of library staff. Attempts to reverse this situation have been severely hindered by the fact that many public libraries still do not have a sufficiently multicultural staff to address these issues. Although attempts have been made by many public library administrations throughout the nation to increase minority staff representation, using ineffective methods to recruit minority librarians remains the norm. Very little emphasis has been placed on targeting minority groups, providing staff development opportunities that encourage minority recruitment, or marketing the library in ways which will attract minority candidates. Library schools have been somewhat successful in recruiting teachers to their programs, but statistics still reflect a dearth of minority librarians employed at many large metropolitan public libraries, and especially at small- to medium-sized public libraries across most of the United States.

EMPLOYMENTPROCESS Obtaining employment in public libraries is distinctly different from applying for ajob in the academic arena. The normal rule of thumb regarding the application process for academic library positions is fairly straightforward. A second master’s degree, subject expertise, a significant amount of experience in computer technology, excellent presentation skills, library 636 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 instruction experience, and knowledge in providing reference service in an electronic environment are standard. In addition to a formal application, transcripts, and letters of reference, academic libraiy positions often require an extensive curriculum vitae outlining an applicant’s list of publications, presentations, previous committee involvement, and possible teaching experience. When applying for public library positions, the application process is considerably different. A formal application, letters of reference, and transcripts may be required as they are for academic positions, but other credentials-such as a resume reflecting scholarly or service activities-are not usually required. Less importance is placed on publications, presentations, and service or committee involvement.Public library positions often reflect the need for individuals who are generalists and not subject specialists. In many cases, applicants possessing expertise in certain areas are overlooked because of the generalist mentality that exists in the public sector. Wheth- er done intentionally or not, public library advertisements often require public library experience as a condition of employment, thereby restrict- ing the potential pool of excellent candidates who may have been employed, up to this point, in academic libraries. Public library jobs usually fall under civil service guidelines. Certifica- tion requirements often vary froin state to state so it is difficult to project which requirements might exist. These civil service regulations on a local, county, or state level can add additional steps to the overall job search. Written and possible oral examinations may be required as part of the application process. Because candidates are usually placed on a candidate list as a result of these examinations, and thereby ranked accordingly, applicants may not be able to accurately determine how long the search process will take. The written examination fulfills its duty by initially screening a potentially lengthy list of applicants, but it also results in one major disadvantage because of the nature and content of the testing process. Exami- nations are very often not updated for years at a time, and in many cases, do not examine areas relevant to the position applied for. Candidates who may have expertise in areas such as computer programming, management skills, human resource issues, Web development techniques, or matters related to diversity are not properly screened because examinations lack appropriate questions that could reveal these attributes. Consequently, this strict ranking system based on numerical test scores results in an ineffective process of evaluation. The bottom line is that all too frequently examinations administered by municipalities do not reflect current trends in librarianship.

PUBLICLIBRARIESAND THEIRFUTURE Public libraries have not been immune to the forces of change which have affected most institutions during the last decade as a result of increased EDWARDS/MIGRATING TO PUBLIC LIBRARIANSHIP 637

technology. Add to these technological innovations a potpourri of social, economic, and political pressures, and you have a public library environment drastically different than it was just a few years ago. In response to these immense challenges, public libraries need to, more than ever, reposition themselves to remain legitimate contenders in the information field for the twenty-first century (Crisman, 1998,p. xxi) . Since public libraries have traditionally lagged behind academic institutions in this regard, it has become vitally important that this reengineering occur at a faster pace. Public libraries are basically reflections of the communities they serve. If economic conditions are deteriorating or populations dwindling, public libraries will probably be struggling to keep afloat providing basic public services. Likewise, technological needs and adequate staff will present much greater challenges. In contrast, if the economy is thriving and busi- nesses are booming, public libraries will also be in a much better position to enhance their respective technology infrastructures and to provide the level of staffing required to undertake these objectives. The end result is that the majority of library systems are somewhere in the middle, adjust- ing their budgets and settling for an adequate increase in technology and staffing. The programs developed and the services provided by public libraries must be in direct response and proportion to the needs of the community of library users. If the library is going to be successful in meeting the needs of its constituents, it will have to become an active player in the political, social, and cultural arena. In the past, public libraries possessed a fairly narrow vision regarding the clientele they served. Libraries must now assume a broader vision if they are going to continue to be supported. Chil- dren, young adults, the physically challenged, adults, and all ethnicities must be included in program-planning and services provided. Library directors and boards need to reexamine their missions if objectives are to be achieved. The hierarchical organizational structure that exists in so many public libraries has not allowed for as much growth as is needed today. Public libraries must start to take a team approach to problem-solving and the decision-making process. The complexity of working in a dynamic environment such as a public library demands no less. The public library of today must involve all staff in its daily operational planning if it is going to suc- ceed. Individuals and support groups, representing the diverse clientele served by public libraries, must work in tandem with the library administration and professional staff to ensure the provision of public and technical services. The library’s image is in drastic need of a cosmetic lift.

PUBLICLIBRARYIMAGE One crucial area public libraries must address is image. Throughout the past few decades public libraries have come under increased scrutiny regarding what policies are implemented, how information access is pro- 638 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 vided, and what library staff do in the performance of their duties. A re- curring theme in the literature indicates that the public maintains an in- complete or distorted image of libraries and how they function (Raber & Budd, 1999, p. 180).Academic librarians seeking to change from higher education to the public library sector must realize this situation. This ques- tionable image is especially prominent for public librarianship (p. 180). Although some of these negative images are a result of the way librarians have been depicted in film, television, and literature, many of these responses are a direct result of the way the community perceives the public library with regard to information technology. With information so readily available on demand, many people see the public library as obsolete (Raber & Budd, 1999, p. 182).No longer do library users need to consult public librarians for information retrieval. Questions can now be answered online without this intermediary process once so essential to the majority of library users.

CONCLUSION One advantage that academic librarians may have in seeking employment in the public sector is that many prognosticators believe the library profession is suffering from a lack of qualified professionals. Some maintain that librarianship is in such dire straits that a crisis is looming. Job openings are plentiful, but the supply of new librarians is inadequate to handle the demand (St. Lifer, 2000, p. 38). Thus, not only are new librarians extremely marketable, but those possessing experience in a variety of areas are especially sought after. On the flip side, though, public library positions have traditionally paid less than academic library positions. Likewise, many positions open to prospective librarians are in smaller cities where salaries are generally even lower. Thus, academic librarians who decide to make the switch to the public sector should be advised that salaries may not compensate enough for this shift to be worthwhile in the long run. The shift to public librarianship is a major decision. It involves not only the time and effort expended with the application process, but a commitment to working in an environment quite different from academic librarianship. Librarians migrating to most public libraries will still experience an institution with a hierarchical organizational structure. Public libraries exhibit a division of labor unique to the library as an organization (Webb, 1989, p. 20).Unlike many academic libraries, public libraries retain a strong sense of departmentalization. The flatter and more participative organizational structure prevalent in academic libraries will not be exhibited in most public libraries. In the final analysis, making the shift to public librarianship should not be based on any overnight decision. Although similarities exist between academic and public librarianship, distinct differences exist which require EDWARDS/MIGRATING TO PUBLIC LIBRARIANSHIP 639 investigation and planning. If a smooth transition is going to occur, the prospective candidate must take the search process seriously and be willing to expend the amount of time necessary to reach an informed decision. The final decision must be made not only because of the need to change working environments, but also because of the desire to meet and accept new challenges and opportunities. REFERENCES Crisman, L. (1998).Reinventing libraries: Responding to the forces of change. In W. L. Wh- itesides (Ed.), Reinvention ofthepublic library forthe 21st century (pp. xxi-xxvi). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc. Estabrook, L. S., & Lakner, E. (2000). Managing Internet access: Results of a national survey. American Libraries, 31(8),60-62. Kemp, R. L. (1999).A city manager looks at trends affecting public libraries. Public Libraries, 38(2),116-119. Raber, D., & Budd,J. M. (1999).Public images of the role of information technology in pub lic libraries: Alternatives and controversies. Public Libraries, 3R(3), 180-186. St. Lifer, E. (2000).The boomer drain: The last of a generation? LibraryJournaZ, 125(8),38- 42. Webb, T. D. (1989).Public library organization and structure. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. Maybe It’s Not Too Late to Join the Circus: Books for Midlife Career Management

MARILYNKAY HARHAI

ABSTRACT MIDCAREERLIBRAKIANS 1,OOKING FOR LAREER MANAGEMENT HELP on the bookshelf face thousands of choices. This article reviews thirteen popular career self-help books. The reviewed books cover various aspects of career management and provide information on which might be best suited for particular goals, including career change, career tune-up, and personal and professional self-evaluation. The comments reflect issues of interest to midcareer professionals.

No one zr qunlzjrdfor any job on thrjirst dau (Adam?, 1998,p. 10).

IMAGINETHAT A LIBRARIAN is thinking about a midlife career change. What is the best way to move from thinking to action? A good suggestion would be a book about evaluating career changes, but which one? A search of a public library catalog yielded 1,205 vocational guides (hit$:// wm.u.och.lib.jl.us/) and Amazon.com listed 8,295! Even among the books aimed at midlife career changers, the offeringsare extensive. This article will examine books on various aspects of career management and provide information on which might be best suited for a particular goal, such as changing careers, career tune-up, and personal and professional self-evaluation. Career management can be defined as the process of developing the skills needed to choose and direct one’s path in life (Cosgrove, 2000). Ca- reer management skills include the following: Self-evaluation-ldentifylng personal values, skills, interests, aptitudes, and abilities that may change throughout life.

Marilyn Kay Harhai, Associate Professor, Department of Library Science, Clarion University, 840 Wood. Street, Clarion, PA 16214 LIBRARYTRENDS, Vol. 50, No. 4,Spring 2002, pp. 640-650 02002 The Board of Trustees, University of Illinois HARHAI/BOOKS FOR MIDLIFE CAREER MANAGEMENT 641

Planning process-Setting short- and long-term goals, decision-making with goals in mind, and adaptability to change. Integration-Integration of work and other life activities through lifestyle choices, balancing roles, selecting leisure activities, and personal growth. Exploration-Awareness of job markets and opportunities and pursuing self-development in relation to them. Marketing-Putting the other career management skills to use to improve a current career situation or career transition (Cosgrove, 2000). The books in this article are evaluated for how well they help explore or develop these career management skills. Titles on the specific aspects ofjob-searching (i.e., resumes, cover letters, interviewing,job Web sites) are not included. The selection process for the books included was not scientific. For the most part, the titles have stood the test of time. Discover What You AreBest At was first published in 1982 (Gale & Gale, 1998). What Colorls YourParachute is in its 29th edition (Bolles, 2000). A few items are necessarily of newer vintage, such as, Career Xroads, which is a directory to job, resume, and career management sites on the Web, and even this title is in its fifth edition (Crispin & Mehler, 2000). Some titles, like In My WildestBeams and I Could Do AnythinglflOnly Knew “hat It Was, have made the NewYork Times best- seller list (Best Sellers, 1998). Overall, the books are popular titles that should be readily available. But while they may be popular best-sellers, not all are worthwhile.

Banning, K. B., & Friday, A. F. (1995). Timefor a change: How to change your career: The re-entry & re-careerworkbook. Lincolnwood, IL: VGM Career Hori- zons. (171 pages) Retail: $9.95 Timefor a Changeis specifically about changing careers. The topics covered run from taking stock of employment skills to preparing a resume, but the book does not cover any of the topics in depth. Each topic is covered in about ten pages and sections often include preprinted worksheets to be filled in. Unfortunately, there are no explanations provided to help explain or use the information gleaned from doing the exercises. For instance, one work- sheet has readers list five areas where they lack self-confidenceand then write down what they can do to raise their level of self-confidence in those areas (p.41). Likely readers who can do that exercise without any guidance do not need a self-help book. The advice is also often very basic for a book aimed at career changers. In the chapter, “The Final Test: The Interview,”the advice includes to be clean and not to wear low neck lines or high hem lines (p. 157). This book is rife with gender stereotypes and the tone is patronizing. The authors treat career reentry as a woman’s issue and career change as a man’s issue, even though the advice that follows would not seem to change 642 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 had they left out the sexism. Women look for Mr. Perfect, stay home with the children, and need to update their makeup. Men need to change jobs due to health problems. Women’s worries “include whether their wardrobe, hairstyle, or body image fit those of a working woman” (p. 32). The authors’ advice on improving body image suggests that ifyou cannot lose weight “you are not committed to your decision for change . . . No one ever said change would be easy” (p. 55). Bottom line: Awful. There are books with much better content and writing without the jarring tone.

Blanke, G. (1998).In my wildest dreams: Simple steps to afabulous lfe. NewYork: Simon & Schuster. (254 pages) Retail: $12.00 At the beginning of this article, career management was defined as the process of developing the skills needed to choose and direct one’s path in life. In My Wild& lhams focuses on how to choose the right path. This is not a book about the nuts and bolts of career management. It is an inspi- rational self-help book on how to “design the life of your dreams” (back cover). Blanke offers workshops on life redesign and the book takes the reader along with fifteen workshop participants as they model the processes described. The book is broken into two sections: breaking the grip of the past and designing the life of your dreams. Each chapter offers ideas, suggestions, and exercises to help the reader explore current realities and define and reach new possibilities. Bottom line: If you want to do a general inventory ofyour life and hope to move in new directions, this book is a good choice. More readable than most follow-your-heart-and-live-your-dreamsbooks. Not for those looking for serious career advice.

Boldt, L. G. (1999).Zen and the art of making n living: A practical guide to cre- atiue career design (rev. ed.).NewYork: Penguin/Arkana. (640 pages) Retail: $17.95 For many, the title of this book will immediately rule it in or out. Those who prefer their career advice sans the spiritual and mystic will choose a different book. For others, its size, 640 pages, will make reading it seem like a career in itself. For anyone who is left, it is quite a good book and well written. After reading dozens of business and career books, it becomes apparent that literate prose is a scarce commodity. The author was a career consultant prior to writing this book (Center for Creative Empowerment, 2001). The book is comprehensive, covering all the skills needed for career management. The book can be used in a variety of ways to meet differing needs. It can be a life work-planning book; life work-planning being “creating a picture of the world you want to live in and then organizing your energies into building it” (Boldt, 1999, p. xxvi).The text can work as a how- HARHAI/BOOKS FOR MIDLJFE CAREER MANAGEMENT 643 to career guide, giving specific information on a number of practical career issues from how to research a particular job to how to become a freelancer. The book can also function as a career-resource reference as the author has also included additional resource suggestions after each section, including readings, Web sites, networking resources, and professional services. The book is organized into four sections. Each section provides specific how-tos, resources, and process work (i.e., exercises, worksheets, questions) (p.xxxiv). The first section, “The Quest for Life’s Work,” deals with identifymg work purpose, talents, and objectives toward creating a vision for the world. “The Game of Life’s Work takes the individual’s vision for the world and begins to express it in terms of work. “The Battle for Life’s Work” develops a personal marketing strategy. Finally, “The School of Life’s Work develops a strategy for making a transition from a current situation into a new career. Bottom line: Great book. It is “loaded with the practical, mundane material about finding a job” but with the added twist of including “an awareness of the sacred in the ordinary” (p. xvii).

Bolles, R. N. (2000). Watcolor is your parachute?: A practical manual for job- hunters &? career-changers (30th anniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press. (344 pages) Retail: $16.95 No list of career books would be complete without What Color is Your Parachute? It is, according to the front cover, the best-selling job-hunting book in the world with over 6 million copies in print. Because it is so popular, and because the subtitle indicates it is also for career changers, it could easily be an initial choice. However, it is at heart a book aboutjob-seeking skills not career management. Bolles notes that this book is written at about an eighth-grade reading level and that he writes as he speaks (p. xix) . The book seems most appropriate for students or those with little real-world experience. The book is organized around the three steps tojob-hunting success: What do you have to offer the world? Where do you most want to use those skills? How do you obtain such ajob? Suggestions and exercises are provided for each section. The epilogue and appendix might offer some help to someone looking at a midlife career change. The epilogue, “How to Find Your Mission in Life: God and One’s Vocation,” is a twenty-page guide to finding your mission in life (p. 240). It is written from a religous, “Christianperspective” (p. 243). Appendix A, “The Flower: A Picture of the Job of Your Dreams,” is a forty- page set of exercises used to create a picture of the reader’s ideal job. Bottom line: Likely unsatisfymg to a librarian who is looking to develop real career-management skills and not how-tojob-search proficiencies. 644 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Crispin, G., & Mehler, M. (2000). CareerXroads: Career(cross)ronds (5th ed.). Kendall Park, NJ: MMC Croup. (435 pages) Retail: $26.95 The subtitle of this book, The DirPctory to Job, Resume and Career Manage- ment Sites on the Web, might mislead those interested in Web information on changing careers to purchase this book. In fact, this book has nothing to offer those seeking career-management advice. While the book defines career-management sites as those whose main focus is “information about careers, job searching and counseling,” the working definition seems to be any site that is not specifically a resume or job-posting board (p. 81). There is a one-page listing of career management sites that has forty- seven entries (p. 399). The reviews of the career-management sites (fourteen sites are reviewed in three pages) are not very helpful. Career Search (ww://m.careersearch.net) is described as an “Internet product that allows job seekers and others to search out companies by industry, specialty and location” (p. 9).Unfortunately,it fails to mention that it is a subscrip- tion-only service whose subscribers include “outplacement firms, career counselors, colleges and universities, executive search firms, dislocated worker programs, federal agencies, military bases, and state employment services” (Careersearch, 2001). Bottom line: This megalist of Web sites is not useful for a librarian exploring career options.

Gale, L. (1998).Discover what you’ve best at: The national career aptitude system and career directory (Rev. for the 21st century ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. (181 pages) Retail: $13.00 This book contains a career aptitude test that purports to measure what a person is capable of doing or of learning to do (p. 13).The author con- trasts this with career interest inventories that identify what a person might like to do. Interest inventories do not assess the ability to learn or perform certain tasks. A career aptitude test identifies skills that the test-taker may not be aware she or he has. The book includes self-administered and self- scored tests that measure career aptitude skills in business situations, cler- ical speed and accuracy, logical reasoning, mechanical reasoning, numerical concepts, and understanding personal and social situations (p. 15). After taking the tests, the reader is guided through scoring the tests and identifying groups of careers that match identified skills. There is no information given in the book on how the test was constructed, how the validity or reliability of the test was established, or what the credentials of the author are. Barry Gale and Linda Gale wrote the first edition of the book. The last page of the new edition notes that Barry Gale has died. The note mentions that he had “achieved degrees in education, counseling, and psychological testing” (p. 185).Linda Gale (now the sole author) is mentioned only as having been the coauthor of five career books (apparently all with Barry Gale). No educational credentials are listed for HARHAI/BOOKS FOR MIDLIFE CAREER MANAGEMENT 645

Linda Gale. A search of the ERIC, PschyInfo, and Mental Measurements Yearbook databases (searched on Silverplatter) yielded no articles on the National Career Aptitude System. There is no way to determine the accuracy of the results of this test. Bottom line: For career aptitude and interest testing, there are better choices. Contact the career services office at your undergraduate or library school to see if they offer career testing. Community college career-services centers also often offer career testing. These centers offer established tests, like the Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), Strong’s Interest Invento- ry, and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), generally at a nominal cost.

Helfand, D. P. (1999). Career change: Everything you need to know to meet new challenges and take control of your career (2nd ed.) . Lincolnwood IL: VGM Career Horizons. (379 pages) Retail: $14.95 Helfand, both a Licensed Clinical Professional Counselor and a Nation- al Certified Career Counselor, earned a master’s degree in guidance and counseling and a doctorate in counselor education from Loyola Universi- ty in Chicago. He is a member of the American Counseling Association, National Career Development Association, Career Planning and Adult Development Network, and the International Association of Career Man- agement Professionals (“About the author,” 2001). As one would expect from the author’s credentials, this book is grounded in career-counseling theory. It is also well written and engaging. The author states that the book is written for those who are considering or who are in the midst of a career change and that it pulls together in one volume strategies for dealing with the challenges of changing careers (p. vii). The book is divided into three parts: “Self- and Career Awareness: The Basis of a Successful Career Change,” “Preparing for the Next Steps in Your Career Change: Strategies for Dealing with Challenges,” and “Strat- egies for Groups with Special Challenges in the Workplace.”The book provides tools and advice for self-assessment and details the steps for conducting a successfuljob search, including research, networking, resumes, and interviews. Strategies for groups with special challenges in the workplace (women, minorities, people over age fifty, etc.) are included. In short, Ca- reer Change covers all the skills needed for career management in an eru- dite, professional manner. Bottom line: The best general career-management book reviewed.

Krannich, R. L. (2000). Changeyourjob, change your lfe: High impact strate- ges forjinding great jobs in the decade ahead (7th ed.) . Manassas Park, VA Impact Publications. (317 pages) Retail: $17.95 The author of this book has a Ph.D. in political science and is a travel writer. Contrast this with the credentials of Helfand (Career Change) and decide who is more qualified to give career advice. Change YourJob, Change 646 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Your Life is a how-to book about finding a job. The back cover sums up the contents as “cover[ing] everything from identifylng today’s best jobs and employers to writing resumes, interviewing,and negotiating salaries” (back cover). Part I, “Prepare for Turbulence and New Opportunities,” discusses employment changes, trends, and predictions. Part 11, “Develop Powerful Careering and Re-Careering Skills,” deals with the specifics of identifymg skills and interests, setting goals, creating resumes, and looking for job openings. Part 111, “Create Your Own Opportunities,”works through career evaluation, finding an ideal place to work, and starting a business. Part IV, “Get Started in the Right Direction,” gives suggestions on how to get started on a career change. Krannich’s style is strident and light on support for the assertions made in the text. For instance, Krannich suggests that an employment trend ahead is the continued entry of women into the labor force “accounting for nearly 90 percent female participation in the labor force” (p. 38). No citation is given. Later, Krannich notes “women in the year 2006 are pro- jected to constitute 47 percent of the labor force” (p.51). The most recent Bureau of Labor Statistics numbers show a level of female participation in the workforce at about 60% and male participation at about 74% (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2001). While this may be only a quibble as to any one fact, the lack of documentation does make it difficult overall to rely on the statistics and predictions presented. Bottom line: For people simply looking to change jobs. The content is not very useful or innovative. Use the Occupational Outlook Handbook that is available for free on the Web for information on specificjobs and employment trends. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is a nationally recognized source of career information, designed to provide valuable assistance to individuals making decisions about their future work lives (http:// stats.bls.gov/ocohome.htm). Revised every two years, the Handbook describes what workers do on the job, working conditions, the training and education needed, earnings, and expected job prospects in a wide range of occupations (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2000).Although the Occupational Outlook Handbook targetsjunior and senior high school students, it also can assist college students and experienced workers, including those seeking to change careers or reenter the labor force.

Salmon,W. A., SC Salmon, R. (2000). The mid-career tune-up: 10 new habitsfor keepingyour edge in today’sfast-paced workplace. New York: American Manage- ment Association. (214 pages) Retail: $17.95 This book takes a completely different approach to midcareer issues. The ten habits are ideas that can be used to make a current work situation better. Leaving ajob is often a response to difficult pressures at work. This book suggests ways to make time spent at work more productive and fulfilling, as an alternative to changingjobs. As the authors describe it, there HARHAI/ BOOKS FOR MIDLIFE CAREER MANAGEMENT 647 are “specific actions you can begin to take to help you flourish and feel successful in your job” (p. 8). The book offers practical advice and, while not everything may work equally well in every setting, everyone should find some of the ideas useful. The authors take the interesting approach that being successful and happy at work is a personal responsibility and suggest that responses to problems at work can be proactive rather than reactive (p. 7). Successful habits include balancing multiple demands on time and resources, developing productive relationships with the right people, and staying current and developing one’s own career (p. vii). For each habit, the book gives strategies, checklists, self-assessments, and action steps. Bottom line: If the real source of contemplating a career change is your work environment, not the job itself, The Mid-Career Tune-up is a good choice.

Sher, B., & Gottlieb, A. (1983).Wishcraft: How to get what you real& want (1st Ballantine Books Trade ed.). NewYork: Ballantine Books. (278 pages) Re- tail: $14.00

Sher, B., & Smith, B. (1995).Icould do anythingifl only knew what it was: How to discover what you really want and how to get it. New York: Dell Publishing. (322 pages) Retail: $13.95

Sher, B. (1998).It’s only too late ifyou don ’t start now: How to create your second life afterforty. New York Delacorte Press. (324 pages) Retail: $13.95 How do you create the life you want? Enter prolific author Sher whose best-sellers make wishes come true, if you follow the directions. Sher’s books are for an older crowd who do not know what they want to be when they grow up. Chapter titles like “Don’t Panic, It’s Only a Midlife Crisis”and “The Courage to Live Your Life” (both from It’s Only TooLate) give a pretty good idea of what the books are like. It is midlife career-planning according to the Wizard of Oz. Find your true calling (you really do have a heart, a brain, courage), gather people around you to help you to your goal (a scarecrow, a tin man, a cowardly lion), and, in the end, you really had what it took to reach your dreams all along (knock your heels together). Now, cast Sher as the Good Witch Glinda and find “a richly rewarding career rooted in your heart’s desire” (Sher & Smith, 1995, back cover). The books are a pep talk with strategies for change sprinkled in. Sher writes in a breezy style and all of the books would be a quick read. While these books are not traditional career-management manuals, each may help answer different questions that may come with midlife career indecision. Wishcrafiis a self-help manual designed to identify dreams and how to achieve them. I Could Do Anything rf Only I Know What It Was is designed to help people decide what they really want to do with their lives. 648 LIBRARY TKENDS/SPRING 2002

It’s On4 Zbo Late is aimed at someone in a midlife crisis (including a list of questions to diagnose a midlife crisis, like “Doyou read plastic surgery ads and keep a secret file with phone numbers of surgeons?”) (Sher, 1998, p. 2). Each book includes lots of exercises, techniques, and strategies. Bottom line: If you want something to help you dream a little before you settle down to the nitty-gritty, these books might be appropriate. How- ever, In My Wildest Dwnms is a better choice (see above).

Tieger, P. D., & Barron-Tieger,B. (2001). Do what you arp: DZSCOVPItheperfkt careerfor9ou through the wmts ofpersonnZz9 Qpe (3rd ed.). Boston: Little Brown. (386 pages) Retail: $18.95 Most people at one time or another have taken the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and found out that they are an INFP (a good fit for a librarian according to the book) or any of the other fifteen possible combi- nations (p. 165). The MBTI is based on the work ofrung, Myers, and Briggs and measures psychological type. The four measured dichotomies are In- trovert/Extrovert, In tuitive/Sensing, Feeling/Thinking, andJudging/Per- ceiving. These combine to make the sixteen possible personality types identified by the MBTI. Each type has common elements identified with it. The basic premise of Do What You Are is that the rightjob flows out of the elements of your personality type (p. 9). This book lists what occupations are popular, typical work-related strengths and weakness, and suggested careers for each type. For those who do not know their MBTI type, Part One of the book describes how to determine individual type (but does not actually use the MBTI test) and explains the theory behind personality-typ- ing. Part Two, which makes up three-fourths of the book, takes each of the sixteen types in turn and provides case studies, criteria for career satisfaction, popular occupations, and career-planning advice. Each type is covered in about fifteen pages. For a midlife career changer who is looking for guidance on possible career choices, this type of book may be helpful. The MBTI has been thoroughly researched and career counselors use such tests. The ideas about personality and job fit could be used as a starting point to consider career changes. It is a more analytical approach to deciding what type of career might be most fulfilling than the dreams and wishes books (See Blanke and Sher) discussed in this article. Likely, the test approach will appeal to the Thinking types and the follow-your-heart approach will appeal to the Feel- ing types. Bottom line: Cheap career counseling based on personality type. Ac- tually taking the MBTI and using a book like Career Changeby Helfand might be a better choice. Career Changeis not focused exclusively on the MBTI but does discuss it and other career interest and aptitude tests. College and university career centers often offer the MBTI (and other career interest and aptitude tests) for a nominal fee. HARHAI/BOOKS FOR MIDLIFE CAREER MANAGEMENT 649

As is evident from the discussion above, the quality of career-management books varies greatly. The background of the person writing the book appears to have the most influence on quality. Work or academic experience in career-counseling or a similar field is a pretty solid indicator that the book will contain useful information written in a style that won’t make people who read for a living wince. It is generally a good idea to stay away from books written by people who support themselves solely by writing or by being motivational speakers. Books by the former tend to be written not in paragraphs and chapters but in lists and bullet points. Books by the latter tend to be long on shish boom bah and short on content. While not quite as clear an indicator, books published by professional associations (like the American Management Association) or specialty career-book publishers (like VGM Career Horizons) tend to be of better quality. Let’s face it; people struggling paycheck to paycheck are unlikely to be exploring the meaning of the universe when looking for a newjob. Career guides are geared for one or the other of two types: people who just need to get a job (What Color Is Your Parachute?) and people who are looking to get more fulfillment out of their currentjob or are planning a career change (Zen and the Art of Making a Living and Career Change). For those looking to explore career issues, Helfand’s Career Change is the best selection. For a more comprehensive meaning of life review, Boldt’s Zen and the Art ofMak- ing a Living is an excellent choice. Salmon’s The Mid-Career Tune-upis recommended for everyone as the general career advice can turn around a currentjob or be used to help a new career stay on track.

REFEREN cEs About the author. (2001). About the author: Northmslern Illinois University.Retrieved May 14,2001 from http://www.neiu.edu/-dphelfan/careers/page5,htrn. Adarns, S. (1998). Thejoy of work: Dilbert’sguide to)nding happiness at the expense ofyour cc-workers (1st ed.). New York HarperBusiness. Banning, K. B., & Friday, A. F. (1995). Timefor a change: How to change your career: The re-entry & re-career workbook. Lincolnwood, IL: VGM Career Horizons. Best Sellers. (1998, December 13). The Nau Ywk Times busines.r best sellers. New York Times, p. 5. Blanke, G. (1998).In my wildest dreams: Simplesteps to afabulous lff.NewYork Simon & Schuster. Boldt, L. G. (1999). Zen and the art of making a living: Apracticalgzlide to creative career design (Rev. ed.). New York Penguin/Arkana. Bolles, R. N. (2000). What color is yourparachute?: A practical manual forjobhunters &rareer-changers (30thanniversary ed.). Berkeley, CA.Ten Speed Press. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2000). Occupational outlook handbook, 2000-01 edition: Author. Retrieved May 17, 2001 from http://stats.bls.gov/oco/. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2001). Table 1. Employment status of the civilian noninstitutionalpop- ulation by sex, age, race, and Hispanic orlgzn. Washington, DC: United States Department of Labor. Retrieved April 21,2002 from http://www.bls.gov/opub/gp/pdf/gp99-01 .pa. Careersearch. (2001). Company: Careersearch. Retrieved May 3, 2001 from http:// www.careersearch.net/marketing/company.html. Center for Creative Empowerment. (2001). LaurenceBoldt Bio: Author. Retrieved May 15,2001 from http://www.ernpoweryou.com/Biol .html. Cosgrove, H. R. (2000). Encyclopedia of careers and vocationalguidance (Ilth ed.). Chicago: Fer- guson. 650 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Crispin, G., & Mehler, M. (2000). CarrerXroads: Carecr(cross)roads (5th ed.). Kendall Park, NJ: MMC Group. Gale, L., & Gale, B. (1998).Discov~r what you i.e best at: Thr natzonal cnrecraptitude systpm and career directoqi (Rev. for the 21st century ed.), New York: Simon & Srhuster. Helfand, D. P. (1999). Career change: Everyth2ngyou need to know to meel new challenges and take control ofyour career (2nd ed.). Lincolnwood, IL VGM Oareer Horizons. Krannich, R. L. (2000). Change your job, changr your life: High impact strateps forjnding great jobs in the decade ahead (7th ed.). Manassas Park, VA Impact Publications. Salmon, W. A,, & Salmon, R. T. (2000). The mihcarem lune-up: 10 new habitsfor keepingyour edge in toduy’sfaat$uced workplace. New York American Management Association. Sher, B. (1998).It’s on4 too latr ifyou don’t start noni: Horu to create your rmnd lfe aftm/orly. New York: Delacorte Press. Sher, B., & Gottlieb, A. (1983). Wi.rhrraft:Ho7u to get what you reall))want (1st Ballantine Books Trade ed.). NewYork: Ballantine Books. Sher, B., & Smith, B. (1995). I rodd do anything ifI only knew what it was: How to discover what you really want and how to get it. New York: Dell Publishing. Tieger, P. D., & Barron-Tieger, B. (2001).110 what you are:Discover thepmject careerforyou through the srrvt.s ofpersonality type (3rd ed.). Boston: Little Brown. HeLIN Pilot Mentoring Scheme

ANNEBRICE,CATHRYN BROWN, MARIE HICKMAN AND LIS THORBURN

ABSTRACT THE HEALTHCARE LIBRARIES UNIT COORDINATES, FACILITATES, and promotes continuing personal development for all staff in the Health Li- braries and Information Network (HeLIN) of the Oxford Deanery (UK). It supports the development of a culture of lifelong learning and recognizes that CPD should help deliver organizational objectives, as well as enabling all staff to expand and fulfill their potential. A major emphasis for 2000 was to investigate ways of improving support for individual learning within the workplace. The group identified a need to build on existing informal support networks in order to provide additional learning opportunities and decided to investigate the feasibility of piloting a mentoring scheme. The objectives of the pilot were to increase understanding and knowledge of mentoring as a tool for CPD; to investigate existing mentoring schemes and their applicability for HeLIN; to develop a pilot mentoring scheme for HeLIN incorporating a program for accreditation of mentors; and to evaluate the scheme and disseminate the results. In order to identify current practice in this area, a literature review was carried out, and colleagues with an interest in or existing knowledge of mentoring schemes were contacted where possible. In the absence of clearly defined appraisal tools, all abstracts were read, and articles that met the following criteria were obtained and distributed to the group for review. Few

Anne Brice, Institute of Health Sciences, Old Road, Headington, Oxford OX3 7LF, England Cathryn Brown, LIS ETD Lead, Richards Building, Oxfordshire Health Authority, Old Road, Headington, Oxford OX3 7LG, England Marie Hickman, Trust Library, Postgraduate Centre, Royal Berkshire and Battle Hospital NHS Trust, London Road, Reading RGl 5AN, England Lis Thorburn, Health Care Libraries Unit, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, Eng- land LIBRARY TRENDS, Vol. 50, No. 4, Spring 2002, pp. 651-664 02002 The Board of Trustees, University of Illinois 652 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

reports of mentoring schemes that fit our regional context were found, most being organizationally based, with a small number of formal programs in libraries and little activity in the health-library setting. A semistructured pilot mentoring scheme was introduced, which would focus on providing support to a wide range of HeLIN members, including midcareer librarians who wanted support in restructuring their career or who were facing changing roles and tasks and needed help structuring their learning. A set of guiding principles were produced, and the scheme advertised and promoted widely. Recruited mentees were matched with mentors, and initial contacts were undertaken. As part of the scheme, an accreditation program for mentors was organized. Mentors undertake a flexible and learner-centered six-month course in order to achieve the City and Guilds Mentoring Award. The program includes attendance at workshops that underpin participants’ knowledge and understanding, provide a forum to raise and discuss issues, and also provide a valuable support network for mentors. Individual meetings with learners also provide guidance, support development, assessment, and practical experience of mentoring sessions. A midpoint process evaluation has been undertaken to make sure that individuals’ needs are being met and to reassess and reprioritize the meetings program. A full evaluation will be conducted following the conclusion of the initial mentoring award program. This will assess whether the program is reaching its target population and whether the program meets the individual objectives of participants. BACKGROUND The Health Care Libraries Unit (HCLU), based in the University of Oxford, coordinates, facilitates, and promotes continuing professional development (CPD) for all staff in the Health Libraries and Information Network (HeLIN) of the Oxford Deanery (UK). HeLIN is a cross-sectoral, cooperative federation of libraries and information units that aims to enhance the ability of each member to provide quality library and information services to the health care community it serves, by resource-sharing and other cooperative efforts. The network has been in existence for over thirty years and includes libraries in acute hospital trusts, psychiatric hospital trusts, health authorities, the primary health care community, and higher education institutions. It supports the development of a culture of lifelong learning, and recognizes that CPD should help deliver organizational objectives, as well as enabling all staff to expand and fulfill their potential. A major emphasis of the CPD strategy for 1999/2000 was to investigate ways of improving support for individual learning within the workplace, particularly for staff at midcareer stage. The HCLU identified a need to build on existing informal support networks, in order to provide addition- BRICE, ET AL./HELIN PILOT MENTORING SCHEME 653 a1 work-based learning opportunities, and decided to investigate the feasibility of piloting a mentoring scheme.

HEALTHCARELIBRARIESCOORDINATION The principles of HeLIN, on which all HCLU’s work is based, are focused on the sharing of resources and best practice in library and information management, thereby extending the resources available for users of individual libraries. Expertise and experience is shared both individually and through more formal mechanisms such as a quarterly forum and time- limited, task-focused Special Interest Groups (SIGs). A key target is to present a positive, proactive image for library and information services and to strive for representation on relevant committees and working groups within the home organization and further afield, in order to ensure that library issues are seen to be an integral part of the delivery of health care. Members of the network work together to develop a strategic approach to developing services in the most appropriate way. This work is underpinned by a commitment to continuing professional development and includes an element of horizonscanning for intelligence on developing trends and on the increasing need for new skills and competencies.

PROFESSIONALDEVELOPMENT GROUP Increasingly, professionals can rely no longer on their initial training and qualification to see them through their careers, and the impact and demands of continual change could be seen as daunting to the midcareer specialist. The HeLIN Professional Development Group (PDG) is a SIG designed to coordinate, facilitate, and promote continuing professional development for HeLIN staff, and aims to support all members through this continual process of change and development. It consists of seven core library and information staff from within the region, all with an interest in training and development. It has representation from all parts of the region and from all grades of staff, encompassing a wide range of experience, expertise, and specialist knowledge. The group is chaired by the assistant director of HCLU, who has prime responsibility for the role and remit of the group. Building on the success of the Librarian of the 21st Century program (Palmer, 1996), the role of the group is both strategic and pragmatic, anticipating and identifylng development needs and ensuring that new skills and knowledge are maintained in order to facilitate innovation and development of services at a local level. The aims of the Professional Development Group are: To identify the common training and development needs of all HeLIN staff. 654 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

To provide and promote a program of training events to meet common identified needs. To identify and promote training opportunities that are available at local and national level. To enable newly qualified librarians to obtain professional certification. To raise awareness of opportunities for further qualifications. To promote the continuing professional development of library and information staff at trust, health authority, and regional level. To evaluate the work of the PDG. The main objectives and methods for the group are based on these aims, which are reTriewed in an annual strategy and action plan to ensure they are relevant and appropriate. The annual program of events reflects the three key areas of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and aims to ensure that all library staff in the region are enabled to do theirjob, to be aware of broader developments within the field, and to enhance their roles within their organizations. The strate

Decide on where and when, and for whom. Commission local or external trainers. Decide what level of evaluation should be undertaken. Plan and deliver event or program. Evaluate event or program and feedback into needs analysis. However, it has become clear that initiativesundertaken at the regional level can act as a crucial catalyst for personal learning. The main function of the group-that of providing tailor-made CPD events, which members would be unable to receive solely from within their employing organizations-has naturally expanded into the development of schemes to support work-based learning. It is understood that all of the library services offered via their host organization will have access to some learning support such as local appraisal schemes, local training events, and opportunities for multidisciplinary learning. As a general rule, responsibility for providing training in generic IT or management skills would also be regarded as the responsibility for the employing organization. However, the group felt that work-based programs, such as mentoring, required specialist knowledge and experience not normally found within the host organization and that therefore a regional scheme could provide a useful service to members. Training Needs Development and growth demands a continual commitment to nurture and improve skills and experiences to achieve maximum potential. As a personal aspect of work, such development and growth should be enjoy- able and motivating, enabling the achievement of both individual and organizational aims and objectives, building each time on newly developed skills and knowledge. However, the group was concerned that much of the data obtained on training needs was informal and that relying too heavily on assumptions might lead to unidentified training needs. A more robust approach was needed in order to make the identification of training needs more systematic. In early 1999, a review of the literature was undertaken and existing training needs-analysis questionnaires were examined. A list of core competencies was developed, from which a training needs questionnaire was designed and distributed to all members of library staff in the region. This questionnaire categorized competencies required by staff into the two main headings of professional and transferable skills, and then into key areas such as information retrieval, resource and collection management, human resource management, and personal and professional development. These categories were then further broken down into separate competency areas such as literature searching, negotiation skills, or data collection. Library managers were asked to distribute the questionnaires to their staff and to ensure that the guidance on completing the form was clear and understood. Contact details for the group were given with the forms to allow for further support or clarification. 656 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

The results of the questionnaire were analyzed, and key areas were addressed in the strategic plan for 2000. Key findings from the analysis indicated that, as well as a perceived need for all grades of library staff in new and emerging technologies and an interest in trends and developments within the NHS, there was a clear need expressed for more work-based and flexible continuing professional development opportunities, particularly among midcareer staff. Demographically,a recent national training census has confirmed that 45.3 percent of those respondents from the Oxford Deanery expressing a preference for a training method did so for work-based learning (Maynard, Kinnell, White, 8c Lianghzi, 2001). The results from these surveys provided a further rationale for the investigation of work-based schemes. Individual Learning within the Workplace Existing work-based schemes have usually focused on the support of new entrants to the professions, and this needed to be readdressed. Two distinct key areas were therefore identified as objectives for the 1999/2000 strategy. The first was to set up a program that encouraged members to take responsibility for their personal development planning, or portfolio development, and the second was to ensure that work-based programs were designed to cater to the needs of midcareer staff as well as young professionals. The process started with a training workshop entitled “Practical approaches to managing your development,” organized for HeLIN by an independent management consultant in September 1999.This workshop was itself a sign of commitment to the principle of lifelong learning. It focused on giving participants a chance to reflect upon and strengthen what they felt that they were already doing well and to consider and appropriately adopt the best practices of others. As a result, learning and development would become a planned and deliberate, not an accidental or haphazard, process. The feedback from this event was very positive and confirmed interest in and support for piloting a mentoring scheme within the region.

THEPILOTMENTORINGSCHEME Objectives The objectives of the mentoring pilot were to increase understanding and knowledge of mentoring as a tool for CPD; to investigate existing mentoring schemes and their applicability for HeLIN; to develop a pilot mentoring scheme for HeLIN incorporating a program for accreditation of mentors; and to evaluate the scheme and disseminate the results. Methods In order to identify current best practice in this area, a literature review was carried out, and colleagues with an interest in or existing knowledge of mentoring schemes were contacted where possible. Searches were conducted in LISA (Library and Information Science Abstracts), Medline, BRICE, ET AL./HELIN PILOT MENTORING SCHEME 657

Cinahl (a nursing and allied health database), and on the Internet, using two major search engines. In the absence of clearly defined appraisal tools, all abstracts were read, and articles that met the following criteria were obtained and distributed to the group for review. The criteria were that: The scheme was relevant to the needs of librarians. The scheme was not restricted to employees within a single organization. Mentors were not line managers. Few reports of mentoring schemes that fitted our regional context were found, most being organizationally based schemes, with a small number of formal programs in libraries and little activity in the health-library setting. The scheme described as operating within the Australian Library and In- formation Association was considered to offer the closest model to HeLIN. A semistructured pilot mentoring scheme model was chosen, that would focus on providing support to a wide range of HeLIN members, including midcareer librarians who wanted support in restructuring their career, or were facing changing roles and tasks, and needed help structuring their learning. Aset of guiding principles was produced, and the scheme was advertised and promoted widely, using flyers, mailing lists, and briefings. Following recruitment of those interested in the scheme, a matching process was undertaken, and initial contacts were made. DeJinition and Principles A working definition of mentoring and key principles on which the scheme would be based were established. These principles were heavily influenced by the work achieved by Ritchie and Genoni (1999), and in particular by the critical success factors outlined within that paper. The definition of a mentor, based on the work of the external consultant was: “Mentors are influential people who significantly help you reach your major life goals” (Gibbons, 2000). The characteristics of the HeLIN scheme were that it would: Be immediately responsive to individual learning needs. Create a safe learning environment. Address career and psychosocial development needs. Guarantee confidentiality and personal recognition of individuals’ successes and achievements. Assume that individuals carry basic responsibilityfor their own development. The process would offer support and development opportunity to both mentor and mentee by: Being a two-way learning relationship. Enabling goals to be determined by concerned individuals. 658 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Developing over time. Supporting lifelong learning. Allowing for the updating of individual learning of mentee. Offering structured learning opportunity for the mentor. Allowing for diversification to a new area within a field. Particular aspects of the HeLlN scheme that the group felt would be critical included ongoing support for both mentors and mentees, in particular training in the skills of mentoring. Recruitment of Mentors and Mentee., It was agreed to recruit into the program six to eight mentor participants, from all levels of library staff. The pilot scheme would involve using the external consultant both to support mentors and to supervise their accreditation for a City and Guilds short award in mentoring. The support process would involve running two to four workshops for mentors jointly and would also allow for meetings with mentors on a one-to-one basis. The cost of running the scheme and for formal accreditation would be metjoint- ly by HLCU and the mentor’s own organization. A flyer to attract candidates was posted on Zis-hclu, HeLIN’s electronic mailing list, and this received a good response particularly from potential mentors. Initially, it appeared there would be a shortfall of mentees, and this was compounded by the need for each mentor to have two mentees in order to meet the requirements of the accreditation process. The mentoring scheme was also advertised and discussed at the HeLlN Forum (a regular meeting held for regional library managers). In addition a further flyer-this time distributed by a physical mailing to all libraries-was sent out in order to recruit more mentees and this received a good response with fourteen further potential participants. This part of the recruitment process stressed that the scheme was for all library staff and not just for new entrants to the profession, as the group was keen to make sure that all potential midcareer participants were aware that they could benefit from taking part as either a mentor or mentee. The promotional material stressed the opportunity for work-based learning, and suggested that becoming a pilot mentor would result in: A tangible award-nationally recognized, externally accredited. The opportunity to develop transferable skills (not confined to mentoring or libraries only). The opportunity to be seen as people interested in the development of others. A chance to be part of a small learning set-providing an opportunity to share and pool learning from others interested in the same issues. In return, mentors would be asked to: BRICE, ET AL./HELIN PILOT MENTORING SCHEME 659

Commit to finding the time to devote to their own development and that of their mentees for approximately six months. Attend three or four one-half day workshops in order to underpin knowledge and understanding and to provide a forum to raise and discuss issues. Hold individual sessions with the assessor in order to receive guidance and support and to provide an opportunity for assessment. Match funding provided by the PDG in order to be officially registered and assessed under the City and Guilds mentoring award. In order to attract mentees, the material aimed to recruit from awide range of potential participants, including: Anyone moving into a new post or role. Anyone interested in their own development and seeking an interested person to help them, from whom they could seek advice, support, and interest. Anyone interested in having a structured basis for accelerated learning. Anyone seeking chartership (i.e., professional accreditation). As it had been stressed that mentees must also have the agreement of their line managers in order to take part, it was decided to hold a briefing session for all concerned before the pilot commenced. The briefing session held for all interested parties, facilitated by the external consultant, took place in March 2000. This was a useful opportunity for any general concerns to be discussed and questions raised and answered. Matching The next step in the program was to confirm who was taking part and then to match up each mentor with two mentees. This proved to be a difficult process. In the promotional material it had been stated that potential participants may either already have someone in mind who they thought would make a suitable partner, or that they may be interested in being matched up with a potential partner, remembering that for the purposes of the accreditation process mentors would need to have two mentees in order to be assessed. The external consultant had already advised the HCLU that matching was a crucial activity and needed to be considered carefully. Maintaining a balance between the preferred ideal of self-selection and the alternative practicalities in providing a service to match partners had to be monitored carefully. Firstly, all mentees were contacted to see if they had any preference for any particular mentor. This process also established if the mentees had any particular interests or needs. For example, it became clear at this stage whether potential mentees were interested due to their moving into a new 660 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

post or whether they had been established in a post for a while and just wanted someone to help them focus on future development. Approximately half of all potential mentees and all of the potential mentors were classified as midcareer specialists. One of the mentees was new to librarianship and from a different profession (nursing) and wanted guidance on reviewing his or her learning methods, as he or she felt that previous learning strategies were no longer effective. Some of the responses received from both potential mentors and mentees show a wide range of motivations for joining the scheme: “I like the idea of having a mentor-as an encouragement, to help keep track with development and as someone to talk things over with, ideally a confidante able to discuss anything.” “I would like to be a mentee please! I have opted to be a part of the scheme because I really believe in the ethos behind mentoring, and I think that it has enormous potential value in many situations. As I said, I think that a mentor is exactly what I could have done with at sixteen!” “I have reached a key transition point in my life and career. I want to take both onto another sphere but at the moment my path is uncertain and I could really do with some guidance!” “I do not have anybody particular in mind as a potential mentor, but I have a vision of somebody objective, probably older/more experienced career-wise than me with some worldly wisdom to offer!” One potential participant volunteered to be both a mentee and mentor, which although it was considered feasible in theory, was discouraged in this instance due to the time-consuming nature of the accreditation process in the early part of the scheme. Another interesting point was raised following an application from one library in the scheme where the library manager wanted to be mentored and their assistant offered to be a mentor (but not to each other!). The matching process was finally concluded, following a lengthy and somewhat sensitive process, and the support programs began. Suppnrtfor Mentors The accreditation program for mentors involves a six-month support process, which provides a flexible and learner-centered approach to achieving the City and Guilds mentoring award. The program includes attendance at workshops designed to underpin participants’ knowledge and understanding, to provide a forum to raise and discuss issues, and also to establish a valuable support network for mentors. Individual meetings with learners also provide guidance, support development, assess progress, and witness mentoring sessions in practice. To date, four workshops have been held, and the mentors are await- ing assessment. One of the key initial learning exercises undertaken in the BRICE, ET AL./HELIN PILOT MENTORING SCHEME 661

first workshop was a mentoring diagnostic activity. This involved mentors reading a series of statements and selecting those that represented areas of work that they individually feel that they need to address. Mentors are also encouraged to record learning points during the sessions and to keep a log of their meetings and activities. A copy of the mentoring diagnostic can be found in the appendix to this article. Support for Mentees An informal meeting for mentees was held early on in the scheme, in order to get their views on how their mentors were progressing and to raise any issues on and around the mentoring process. The external consultant used the meeting to establish what mentees thought were the specific characteristics and behaviors of the most competent mentors and to get views on how to get most from mentoring efforts. The HCLU did attempt to pilot the use of a Web-based workspace for the mentoring group using the BSCW server (http://bscw.gmd.de) as a sup- plementary method of keeping in touch using shared folders. This did not prove very popular on this occasion, due to the difficulties in maintaining confidentiality when staff have to share workstations, but may be developed in the future as the infrastructure within NHS libraries improves. Process Evaluation A midpoint process evaluation has been undertaken to make sure that individuals’ needs are being met and to reassess and reprioritize the meetings program. A full evaluation will be conducted following the conclusion of the initial mentoring award program. This will assess whether the program is reaching its target population and whether participants are satisfied with the program and are meeting their individual objectives. Discussion It is important to remember that this is still a pilot scheme. Although not hard to administer once up and running, the initial administration and matching process was extremely time-consuming, and had to be handled very sensitively. Once partners are matched, they take responsibility for arranging their own meetings; however, there are still some central tasks in arranging support meetings and generating feedback. This is essentially a coordination task rather than a controlling one. Throughout the pilot so far, a number of issues have emerged that may inform future developments. Firstly, we did have a problem with the lack of potential mentors, the main barrier being the time commitment. One mentor who left the scheme summed it up thus: “Although I would love to give mentoring a go, I feel at the moment that I am really overloaded at work as it is and would be reluctant to take on the responsibility and not feel confident that I could give somebody the necessary commitment in terms of time and focus.” However, feedback from those who have contin- 662 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

ued shows that there are many benefits to being involved in the scheme, not least in helping both partners with their continuing professional development and in learning of new skills. Although initial perceptions of the scheme are that it is about giving on behalf of the mentor, our experience shows that it is, in fact, a two-way learning process. The external consultant has stressed that, although it is possible to develop mentor competence, those who possess a “platform of existing or potential interpersonal skills” provide a firmer basis for further development. This has proved a useful and motivating reenforcement of confidence for some of our midcareer specialists, faced with an uncertain future and massive technological and social change. Most participants are not keen on the terms “mentor” and particularly “mentee,”although no consensus has emerged over alternatives. A further issue to consider is that of drop-out. We have had a small number of mentees leave the region for new appointments, and as mentioned above, one mentor withdrew from the scheme. One mentor has been investigating “e-mentoring” with one of the rnentees who left the region, but for purposes of the accreditation process they require further face-to- face contact. E-inentoring raises a number of additional issues, which will be considered as part of the final evaluation process. It must be remembered at all times that the scheme is voluntary. One factor present in the currentjob market is that an increasing number of appointments are made on a fixed-term basis, even for experienced professionals. Informal feedback from some participants has suggested that having a mentor outside the employing organization, providing support and help in deciding objectives and future work plans, can overcome some of the concerns created within such an unstable environment. There are also issues of confidentiality, and the satisfactory agreement of boundaries and ground rules between individual partners. It had been decided at an early stage that the scheme would not have a written code as such, with each pair setting their own codes and ground rules; however, the scheme does need to be accountable in terms of nondiscriminatory practice and other regulatory frameworks. For our current mentors, these issues are covered through the accreditation award process. The midpoint evaluation did confirm that the pilot scheme was offering opportunities for midcareer library and information professionals to benefit from either the learning opportunities provided by becoming a mentor or by being mentored themselves at a time of increasing demands on their capacity to manage change. Professional development is cyclical and continual, and whether we like it or not, it is our future! BRICE, ET AL./HELIN PILOT MENTORING SCHEME 663

APPENDIX A mentoring diagnostic activity-which are true of you? Read these statements carefullyyand select with a “yes” those that you need to work hardest upon. 1. I listen to the whole issue before commenting. 2. I give advice but still expect the mentee to make their own decisions. 3. I always find time to help. 4. I always question thoroughly to find the real issues. 5. I always give honest opinions. 6. I have a good range of networks and contacts that can be utilized appropriately. 7. I am not intimidating-I’m easy to approach at any time. 8. I know what I am talking about-I am good at my own job. 9. I look for the reality within which a mentee works. 10. I always focus on mentee needs during a mentoring session. 11. I don’t get irritated by a mentee who doesn’t get the point quickly. 12. I am an optimist. 13. I am encouraging. 14. I am always well prepared in advance. 15. I am a positive role model in terms of my own achievements. 16. I can help a mentee believe in their potential. 17. I am open to new ideas. 18. I know when to introduce options which may not have been considered. 19. I can challenge assumptions skillfully. 20. I am a positive person. 21. I possess great patience. 22. I am interested in people. 23. I am an active listener. 24. I am non-judgmental. 25. I feel comfortable about having my views challenged. 26. I am enthusiastic about mentoring. 27. I am very knowledgeable about developmental issues. 28. I am tolerant. 29. I don’t expect a mentee to be like me. 30. I am prepared to learn with the mentee. 31. I can give feedback skillfully. 32. I can allow a mentee the freedom and confidence to make mistakes. 33. I see my mentees as equals. 34. I have sound judgement. 35. I am able to distance myself, and maintain objectivity. 36. I am keen to allow mentees to make their own decisions. 3’7. I keep in regular contact with those I mentor. 664 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

38. I take an interest in the individual mentee-I value their views and what they say. 39. I am able to probe beyond the superficial. 40. I can provide the space for a mentee to express their feelings. 41. I can draw out a mentees’ ideas and I’m willing to use them. 42. I have a true passion for developing others, and really believe in the value of development. 43. I can avoid the temptation to direct conversation back to myself and my issues and experiences. 44. I can challenge constructively and directly to get to the heart of the matter. 4.5. I won’tjust tell a mentee what they want to hear. 46. I never appear keen to get a mentoring meeting over with and move on to the next thing. 47. I don’t talk about my own achievements too much. 48. I have a genuine desire to empower. 49. I am responsive to my mentee. Any learning points emerging from this? [email protected] h ttp: / /NWW andrewgibbons.co .uk/ diagnostic.doc

REFERENCES Brice,A,,& Tonilin, A. (1999).Using human and electronic networks to support end-user training in finding thc cvidenre. In S. Bakker (Ed.),Libranrr ruithout limits: Cl~an,@ngneeds- diuti,@ii,qro1r.s. Prowedings oj the 6th Europmn Conf~rmcroJhfedica1 and Heulth Librurirs (pp. 203-206). London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Continuing professional development: Quality in the new NHS. (1999, July 16).Health SPY- uire Circular, 154. Retrieved February 10, 2002 from http://tap.ccta.gov.uk/doh/ coin4.nsf/page/HSC-lI)YY-l~4?0pen~~icument. Gibbons, A. (2000). Getting the most from mentoring-recent developments and learning. Iliuining ,Journal. Retrieved May 2, 2002 from http://www.andrewgibbons.co.uk/ mentart.doc. Maynard, S., Kinnell, M., White, S., & Lianghzi, Y (2001). Training needs census ofNHS libury rtaflLibrq and I@rmution Statistics Unit (IXSlJ),Leicestershire, United Kingdom: Lough- borough University, Department oi Information Science. The NHS plan: A plan for investment, a plan for reform. (2000).Retrieved February 10, 2002 from http://~wv.nhs.uk/nationalplan/. Palmer, J. (1996). Skills for the millennium-the librarian of the 21st Centur): 1,ibrarian Ca- rper Ilpvrlopmerit, 4(I), 13-1 7. Ritchie, A,, & Genoni, P. (1999). Mentoring in professional associations: Continuing professional development for librarians. Health Libraries Rmimu, 16(4),216-225. Midlife Career Choices: How Are They Different from Other Career Choices?

CANDY(BOGAR) ZEMON

ABSTRACT IT WAS 1963 when Candy Start began working in libraries. Libraries seemed to be a refuge from change, a dependable environment devoted primarily to preservation. She was mistaken. Technological changes in every decade of her experience have affected how and where she used her M.L.S. Far from a static refuge, libraries have proven to be spaceships loaded with precious cargo hurtling into the unknown. The historian in the author says that perhaps libraries have always been like this. This paper looks at a midlife decision point and the choice that this librarian made to move from a point of lessening productivity and interest to one of increasing challenge and contribution. It is a personal narrative of midlife experience from one librarian’s point of view. Since writing this article, Candy’s career has followed more changes. After selling the WINGSTMsystem, she has taken her experiences and vision to another library vendor, Gaylord Information Systems, where she serves as a senior product strategist.

INTRODUCTION Initial career choice is usually driven by youthful dreams, personal interest, personal talents, market availability, geographic preferences, and likelihood that the career will support one’s lifestyle. It is a forward-looking choice. In some ways, it is the most open of all career choices. Lateral and interim career choices are usually made for personal reasons (having to move, for instance) or because the current position has an unpleasant atmosphere, declining prospects, an incompatible boss, or because a better opportunity opens up elsewhere. These are generally future- oriented choices tempered and driven by accumulated experience. Candy (Bogar) Zemon, 4116 Elkhart Lake Rd., St. Charles, MO 63304 LIBRARYTRENDS, Vol. 50, No. 4,Spring 2002, pp. 665-672 02002 The Board of Trustees, University of Illinois 666 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Midlife career choices are a different matter. Boredom, plateau blues, family changes, success, fewer family obligations, burnout, restlessness, and mental fatigue all tend to drive career choices at this point. These are generally here-and-now choices. The fact is that midlife choices are made from a position colored by both experience and mortality. This foundation makes them different from earlier career choices, more final in some ways, less “responsible”in other ways, more frightening, more liberating, and ultimately less predictable. Not every midlife career choice is driven by dissatisfaction or unhap- piness. There are many librarians who are flourishing in their positions and who have no intention of changing direction. For them, their career is blossoming as desired, and they are enjoying the fruits of their training and choices. Midlife career choices for them tend to be choices in maximizing returns along the current path. Others find themselves in midlife suddenly and unaccountably restless, bored, dissatisfied, disconnected, tired, fed up, irritated, depressed, or otherwise short on the job satisfaction they want. For them, midlife career choices loom large. The current path is usually not the one they wish to continue following. Yet dissatisfied librarians are usually old enough and prudent enough to realize that they have assets tied up in the status quo-retirement is within sight, family obligations exist, health and retirement benefits are increasingly important, and they are beginning to be concerned about age discrimination. What choices exist for the dissatisfied librarian in midlife? Accept the status quo? Endure somehow until retirement? Revel in emotional peril- la warfare? Join a gym? Do outside charity work? Run for political office? Mentor a younger worker? Take up a hobby? Retire early? Write that book or novel or play? Take an extravagant vacation? Spoil the grandchildren? Learn a new language? Start a collection? Redecorate the house? Reland- scape? Buy a sports car or motorcycle? Start all over again in something completely different? Wait a minute-what was that last one? That’s what I did. I left a comfortable, established, and successful position as a librarian at a major library automation vendor for the dubious joys and undeniable excitement of starting a new business and learning to be both its president and a programmer. For me, it was absolutely the right thing to do. At least, so far. Check back with me in a decade . . . THECONTEXT I began working in libraries as a high school student in 1963.At that time, it was a fully manual environment, with a form for every purpose and a well-choreographed workflow. I was fortunate enough to work in a library ZEMON/MIDLIFE CAREER CHOICES 667

for six years and, over that time span, to be trained in all aspects of library work-from shelf-reading to reserve room to serials to interlibrary loan to original and copy cataloging. This foundation has served me well. I enjoyed the quiet, well-ordered deliberate bustle of the library. I viewed the library as a very pleasant refuge from a changing and challenging world. I received my M.L.S. from the University of Michigan in 1973, after finishing an M.A.in my intended career-medieval history. I never intended to be a librarian. My youthful vision of my future was as a medieval historian, tenured, publishing happily, and doing on-site research projects in various rare-book collections around the world. That did not happen. My funding ran out in 1970when I finished my MA., and I found myself in Ann Arbor, Michigan, with no prospects of moving elsewhere for another five years and a need to support myself and my graduate-student husband. I found that my previous library experience qualified me for work in the university library system, where I happily reentered the library world, took classes part-time for my library degree, and learned a lot about the impending changes that library automation of various sorts was bringing my way. MARC was being hotly debated for nonmonograph cataloging in those days. For a variety of reasons, I have worked most of my professional life in the offices of library automation vendors rather than in libraries themselves. I find it ironic that the love of libraries I gained when working in them as a nonprofessional was responsible for my becoming a librarian at all. Yet I have spent only a few years as a professional librarian in a “real”library. This was a stint as the audiovisual librarian at the Art and Architecture Library at the University of Michigan from 1973through 1975. In 1975,I took a five-year hiatus to start a family. It was upon my return from this “rest”in the early 1980sthat I discovered the library automation vendor world. This was a career development that I stumbled upon rather than sought. I applied for work in “real”libraries. I had missed some crucial work experiences in my family-starting hiatus, though, and the library world was changing due to automation. It was in following up a newspaper help-wanted ad for a completely unrelated job that I accidentally found myself at a company that had a side business in library data conversion. It was in this capacity that I entered the library automation vendor world. It fit me well. Suddenly I was in a comfortable environment again, working with card catalogs in all their peculiarities. My training and facili- ty with languages (learned during my medieval historian days) were of value in this world. I started to learn MARC standards as a byproduct of my data conversion duties. In a relatively short time, I became involved in designing programming specifications for data manipulation and verification. 668 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

I felt at home, happy in the use of my training and experience. Because of the work I have done for library vendors, I have remained in close contact with a variety of librarians coping with various stages of library automation throughout my career. I found that I had an orderly mind coupled with a delight in puzzle- solving. These traits predisposed me to the technical and programming side of the library vendor world. My specialties became data conversion, authority control, MARC standards in their grittiest detail, and writing program specifications.At first, these specifications were for specific data manipulation purposes, but eventually I authored a batch authority control processing service and became involved in writing specifications for the maintenance of existing programs, as well as adding features to these programs. In time, I was one of three architects involved in the design of an entire brand-new integrated library system.

THECHALLENGE It was at this point that midlife malaise hit me hard. It was completely unexpected. Objectively, my career could not be going better. I was using all the depth and breadth of the library knowledge I had accumulated in almost four decades. I was deeply involved with programming and program design. I worked closely with librarians at customer sites. I held a position of respect and authority within the company. I was involved in creating the new as well as maintaining the old. I was on MARBI subcommittees. I attended other standards meetings. I was very busy doing things I had always enjoyed doing. Yet I was suddenly and emphatically not happy. More than that, I was restless. The design phase on the new integrated library system was ending and my role was changing again-moving away from close program design and toward more standards development involvement. I did not like the change. I wanted to spend time figuring out new ways to use new technologies, not how to bring another standards document to revision or to a vote (important though that is to both librarians and vendors). I found I was getting less patient with myself and even less patient with the world in general. I was working a strenuous schedule and getting little satisfaction from it. I was feeling both too old and too young to be so dissatisfied. Reason did not help the situation. My life felt unbalanced, although reason declared it to be going remarkably smoothly. I could not understand why this was happening. I fought it. I tried to adjust my attitude. I could not imagine working anywhere other than with a library automation vendor. Even work within a traditional library did not appeal to me any more. My experience was so highly specialized that only a few places in the entire country could really make use of it. I did not want to relocate. So I was stuck. There were no other options open for me. I ZEMON/MIDLIFE CAREER CHOICES 669

would have to learn to like myjob again or find a way to endure it and make a life for myself outside of work that satisfied me. Unfortunately, I had no artistic or creative or altruistic yearnings that could serve as safety valves for my discontent.

THECHOICE Literally out of the blue, a close friend (eventually to become my husband) suggested that we pool our talents and start a new company. I laughed. But there was something solid to consider. We had an opportunity to take a new look at solving some old library-relatedproblems in a very different way with some new (and some old) technologes. It was a real stretch, but we had the skills to try it. I took a week to think about it seriously. That was a very difficult week. I knew it was not a reasonable or prudent or sensible thing to do. But I knew it was rare to get an opportunity like this. I had certainly spent decades up to now without stumbling across anything like this opportunity. I knew I wanted to try it. Most of all, I knew I was not getting any younger. If I passed up this opportunity, how would I feel five years from now? Ten? Would I continue growing more bitter and unhappy? Would I say thank goodness I was sensible and still had my comfortable job? Would I have moved on from that comfortablejob anyway into something else I might or might not like? I inventoried my assets, turned in my resignation, took a deep breath, and plunged headlong into the completely new world of the entrepreneur.

THESHOCK We immediately incorporated Pigasus Software, Inc., in November 199’7.Suddenly everything about establishing and running a company needed to be done by only two people. And these two people were creating a brand-new product with the intention of exhibiting it at the midwinter ALA to be held only twelve weeks after we were founded. How we missed office-support personnel! We needed to buy furniture, work with lawyers and accountants to set up the corporate structure, regis- ter our Internet domain, open a corporate bank account, get equipment, decide on the architecture of the new product, select the database, purchase the necessary development software, design the company logo, print business cards, create handouts for ALA, file all the necessary papers to go to ALA, and then find the energy and time to design our product and program it into existence. And we needed to attend standards meetings. From the very birth of Pigasus Software, we have been members of IPIG (the Interlibrary Loan Protocol Implementers Group). Our first meeting in December 199’7was memorable because neither of us could remember where we had made reservations. We imposed an office management-safety net system of sorts because of that glitch. Programming. Now is as good a time as any to point out that, up to this 670 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

point, I had never programmed more than a single FORTRAN program in the early 1970s. I knew a fair amount about programs and had worked designing program specifications long enough to understand how to approach problems in a generally programmatic way. But I had never written any actual code in anything other than ancient FORTRAN. I assumed that my cofounder, a computer engineer, would be doing all the programming from designs and specifications that we both created. Wrong. It was too large a project for a single programmer, no matter how energetic, to code alone. It was time for me to learn to program. There was not time for me to learn what I call “heavy-duty”languages like C++. We had already decided that the user interface would be Web based. Art would do the database and communication work. I would do the user interface. I was to write it in HTML. But since we were using CGI forms a lot, I really ended up writing the entire user interface for patron and staff in Perl CGI scripts that generated the HTML for display and executed SQL queries to retrieve information from the database to be displayed. I was learning all of these (Perl, HTMI,, SQL) at once. I learned mostly by example, but I learned. It was one of the hardest things I have ever tried to do, but it worked. We went to ALA with working production code. And I found that I REALLY like programming. We released the full version 1.0 of the WINGSrMrequest management system in June of 1998. UCLA was our first customer. By version 2.0 in the fall of 1999, we had changed the user interface completely, and I wrote that one in ColdFusion, another new language for me. In my prelibrarian days, I had enjoyed learning languages (French, Latin, Greek, German, Spanish, a little Russian), so it is perhaps not so surprising that I enjoy learning nonhuman languages, too. By April of 1998, we had moved our company into commercial office space. By July 1998, our staff had doubled when we hired a sales person and a technical support person. ByJune 2000 we had more than twenty custom- ers internationally, three resellers, and had hired another programmer. Version 2.1 was due out by late July 2000. We were starting to look for new, larger office space with a move planned for the following spring. The search for yet another programmer was on. REFLECTIONS I am no longer bored or restless. I have learned more than I ever wanted to know about contracts, office management, leases, taxes, health insur- ance, marketing, and accounting. I have worked harder than I ever did for any other company or library. 1 have learned more in a shorter period of time than at any other time in my life except perhaps in my earliest child- hood. I have less time to myself than ever. I feel I am living at hyperspeed and that everything is changing faster than I can manage to keep up with. ZEMON/MIDLIFE CAREER CHOICES 6’71

I am often exhausted. I still am not getting any younger. But I am having more fun getting older. And I am seeing library puzzles in a wider view all the time. Oddly enough, the training that often comes to the fore is my earliest library manual-based procedural training. It is the habit of seeing reasons behind the process, of seeing process as a safety net of its own to ensure that a series of steps is completed, and of having a respect for the goals driving the process, if not for the current state of the process itself. Each new technology gives us new opportunities to reconsider current solutions. New technologies may well offer a better way-but they equally well may not. Only by looking at both the problem and the reason for the current solution can a sensible decision be made. I am startled at how much less “specialized or “isolated” the library world is these days. The Internet is a leveler in many ways and one of them is in opening quick and easy access to all types of information (both good and bad, organized and chaotic) directly to the user. People sometimes ask why I chose to work with interlibrary loan/document delivery software. Interlibrary loan is often seen as a backwater of library automation-full of labor-intensive processes and duplicate files, low on budget or statistics that impress. From my point of view, interlibrary loan librarians have been doing heroic work holding together the various pieces of theirjobs with their own brains and paper files because comprehensive and capable tools have not existed until very recently. Not only do I see it possible to put new solutions together to address the problems of interlibrary loans offices, I see the opening of the information access provided by the Internet and other Web-based tools as a trend. Rapid and accurate information provision and management should be a growth market for libraries in general. Physical items will always be important, and libraries will always be natural centralized archives and storage facilities. Many things are not best used electronically. But electronic access is quick, convenient, and usually reasonably priced enough to be attractive. I may not be interested in a particular work but in a particular piece of information. Those who know how to find that information efficiently and provide it most conveniently will prosper. Why should not that be the library? Interlibrary loan librarians have many of the skills most needed in the Webbased information world. They have a propensity for learning technologies that help them locate or provide information (fax, ariel, online databases with complicated and proprietary search algorithms, 239-50 searches, MARC record understanding, e-mail, Web forms, etc.). They have a natural networking environment with other institutions. They have a history of cooperative and collaborative behavior. They are dedicated to serving the information needs of their clients. They exercise professionaljudg- ment on the quality of resources. They balance cost, speed, and access needs 672 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 to select the best source for any particular request. Their tasks typically touch every aspect of library automation (cataloging, serials, searching, accounting, patrons, reporting, statistics, copyright compliance) and, in addition, have to reach out to network with other institutions-libraries, document suppliers, publishers, etc. Interlibrary loan offices know a lot about scheduling and managing resources over which they have no direct control. For me, the interlibrary loan office is an exciting place. From powerful solutions to the problems ILL offices face may indeed rise the next generation of integrated library automation (and information management) solutions overall. I intend to be there. I have a lot of time left in my career, more energy than I had in my forties, and less patience for the status quo. The clock is ticking. I am still not getting any younger, but I am very happy with the choices I have made thus far. Job Rotation in an Academic Library: Damned if You Do and Damned if You Don’t!

RICHARDM. MALINSKI

ABSTRACT THISARTICLE CONSIDERS JOB RoTATIoN-the systematic movement of employees from one job to another-as one of the many tools within the organizational development tool kit. There is a brief consideration of useful print and Internet literature on the subject as well as a discussion of the pros and cons ofjob rotation. The application ofjob rotation methods in Ryerson University Library, a small academic library, concludes the article in order to illustrate process and insights through example. INTRODUCTION Job rotation comes in many forms and is useful in many situations.Job rotation is the systematic movement of employees from one job to another. How this movement is accomplished depends on the purpose that you wish to achieve and how dramatic a move you are willing to take. What is the reason for embarking on a job rotation program? How does it fit with your overall human resources development and organizational culture? Is this going to be a complete rethinking of the jobs within your organization or is it going to be for a few of the staff? Is it a step-by-step process beginning with an hour per week shift, or for some longer period, or is it a complete change forever? Is the use of “job rotation” a suitable rubric for this type of all-encompassing reorganization? The purpose of this article is threefold. First, there is a general examination of the literature. In this way there is a foundation set for job rotation as one of the tools of organizational development. Second, there is a summaryof the pros and cons of implementingjob rotation. Once warned, twice armed! Third, there is a study on the use of job rotation in a mall

Richard M. Malinski, Director, Open College, Continuing Education Division, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada LIBRARYTRENDS, Vol. 50, No. 4, Spring 2002, pp. 673-680 02002 The Board of Trustees, University of Illinois 674 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

academic library. This provides a practical example and illustrates some of the issues and insights that might assist others in assessing their own organization and the possibility of using job rotation. LITERATURE Personnel do not always have to leave an organization in order to find a different, more fulfilling, or more satisfying position. Many human relations processes such as job enlargement, enrichment, restructuring, and rotation can be a means to an end. Whichever method or combination of methods is chosen depends on both the management and the staff of the organization. There are a number of articles dealing with job rotation in libraries. Pierce (2001) reported on a Phoenix, Arizona, case study that looks at movement in a public library system. Olorunsola (2000) deals with his experience in a Nigerian university library. An earlier examination is that of Perdue and Piotrowski (1986) who look at the advantages and disadvantages of a two-year rotation of reference department supervisors. These are not the only examples of interest in job rotation within university libraries. There are several universities that have information about theirjob rotation and job sharing programs mentioned on their web sites. The Indiana University, Bloomington, libraries have their own process, criteria, and forms for all their staff to use. The information is clearly laid out and is an excellent example that others might find useful. Their information is located at the following URL: http://www.indinna.edu/-libpus/ jspolicies. html. The Personnel and Employment Department at the Univer- sity of Wollongong is another example with criteria laid out in their union- management contract. Their information is at http://wwzu. uow.edu.&admin/personnel/conditions/gs-jobrotation.html#l . The business world sees the importance of such activities asjob rotation in providing a dynamic, productive, and satisfied staff. Collinson (2001) compares Japanese and UK firms and notes how the transfer of research and development knowledge to the front lines can be enhanced by tactics such asjob rotation. Allerton (1999) points to several techniques to reduce turnover or to improve staff loyalty. One of these is job rotation. Allerton also comments on the important issue of breaking down the them-us di- chotomy through the use of short-term or of the several-hours-a-week type ofjob rotation. It is the Hauptman and Hirji (1999) study that sets job rotation in context as one of the many techniques from which any successful organization must draw. With the impending retirement of many baby boomers, succession planning is growing in importance. The need for organizations to pass on the structural knowledge from experienced staff and managers to new members is critical. Of the many techniques that might be chosen to assist in this transfer are such techniques as coaching, mentoring, training, and job rotation. Gale points to the value ofjob rotation as one of the impor- MALINSKI/JOB ROTATION IN AN ACADEMIC LIBRARY 675

tant techniques in succession-planning and the development of managers at GE (Gale, 2001). Many others such as Cembrowski and da Costa (1998) also point to the importance of job rotation in succession-planning. Much of the literature onjob rotation focuses on occupational safety. Carnahan and Redfern (2000) illustrate this in their discussion of a job rotation scheduling algorithm which incorporates safety considerations. MacLeod and Kennedy (1993)also deal with the safety and ergonomic issues ofjob rotation. However, in addition, they provide an excellent overview of the pros and cons that should be taken into consideration when determining the fit of job rotation in general. Cheraskin and Campion (1996)do much the same in their case study ofjob rotation at Eli Lilly. The first two cases setjob rotation into an industrial setting while the last uses a finance department situation. Together they touch on many of the issues that need to be addressed in any job rotation program.

PROS AND CONS The literature noted above points to many of the pros and cons of implementing a job rotation program. The benefits may be outlined as reductions in boredom, work stress, absenteeism, and turnover and an increase in innovation, production, and loyalty. The difficulties of implementing a job rotation program center on such aspects as experienced staff not wanting to learn new job skills or move to other locations, educating and training staff for the newjobs, the fitting of staff (skill level) and job (skill and pay structure), the direct and opportunity costs of implementing a rotation program, and-in industrial settings-putting untrained staff in hazardous situations. While this latter issue may not be uppermost in the minds of library staff, improper stooping to and loading of library shelves or pushing book trucks improperly can result in nasty outcomes! These comments focus attention on three key challenges: the determi- nation of the type ofjob rotation, the clarification of the process of changing the work structure itself, and the communication to all about the type of staff training and the length of the learning period. There are often restrictions on the type and extent ofjob rotations. If there is a unionized environment, the job rotation may be held within particular generic jobs or classification levels. There may be significant skill differences among the staff. Management may baulk at the short-term expense of upgrading staff or at the loss of productivity during the break-in period. It may be easier to begin with a limited job rotation program within a delimited segment of staff. Changing the processes or work structure on a small scale may be less daunting than if the program encompasses all work and staff in the organization in one fell swoop. Whatever the extent of the program, the training and on-the-job learning period may be an important consideration. The focus of this article is onjob rotation. By no means does that point to job rotation as the only means of improving the organization and its staff. 676 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

The literature illustrates that there must be a context or an organizational culture that is conducive to a job rotation program. However, trying to implement a job rotation program should do wonders at bringing out all manner of questions and issues requiring resolution.

RYERSONUNIVERSITYLIBRARY This small academic library is organized in a hierarchy along familiar lines. There are six unit heads reporting to a chief librarian. The units are archives, audiovisual/interlibrary loans, library access services, reference and information, systems, and technical services. Within these units are fifteen librarians, forty-seven full-time library staff, and an equivalent of approximately seven full-time staff made up of temporary employees. This latter complement varies depending on the semester work cycle. The perspective on size takes on another dimension, however, when the student body, number of faculty members, and breadth of programs are taken into consideration. There are approximately 500 full-time faculty and about 600 contract instructors (hired every semester). Over the decade there has been a continued increase in the student body from about 11,000 to almost 14,000 full-time students and from just over 30,000 to over 48,000 annual registrations in continuing education courses. The Ryerson Library has a small library staff with a very large community to serve. There are two aspects of the library that are not so common and emphasize the breaking down of the hierarchy that often occur with such unit structure. First, there is the use of generic job descriptions for library technicians and assistants. These generic job descriptions facilitate staff moving around the library and working in several areas. Second, the library employs a library council that is composed of the chief librarian and all the librarians. This group meets every other week to discuss library-wide issues and to develop consensus around issues such as major acquisitions, new systems upgrades, generic job descriptions of library staff,job rotation, planning and budget allocation. This council acts as the management group advising the chief librarian and is a means of having all librarians participate in the library decision-making processes. Throughout the 199Os, the librarywent through some turbulent times ranging from organizational and physical restructuring, through cutting budgets and increasing budgets, through two new systems implementations, and through a changing university mandate. With the arrival of a new chief librarian in 1990,an examination of all components of the library started and continues to this day. There was a restructuring from thirteen units to the current six by amalgamating such functions as reference into one unit of reference and information and stack maintenance into library access services. It was during the discussion on reorganization that the first examination of generic job descriptions for library assistants and technicians began. There was further impetus to rethink process and organization MALINSKI/JOB ROTATION IN AN ACADEMIC LIBRARY 6’77

during a university-wide deficit reduction program. With the loss of twenty-one library staff members, it was clear to everyone that to continue as usual was not possible. During this wrenching experience came the revision of our university mandate to encompass (with the requisite increase in budget) graduate programming. Faced with cutting staff and then receiving an increased budget that was earmarked mostly for collections, it was once again clear that drastic measures were needed in order to cope. Careful examination of the implications of these changes on service and work resulted in several key initiatives. The building was renovated and the library collections and functions were relocated both to make information access, collections,and study space separate and to arrange service positions and traffic flow strategically. The DOBIS library system was replaced by a DRA system and later that was replaced by an Innovative Systems product. At the same time, the outsourced systems and cataloging units were brought in-house. The library assistant and library technician generic job descriptions were completed and reallocation of staff undertaken. For example, library technicians had reference desk duty but were located in the cataloging area so that when they were not doing reference, they were cataloging. The rotation of responsibilities for librarians and the extension to the librarians of workload analysis was initiated. A small group developed a schema of equivalent workload groupings that consisted of a mix of reference desk duty, subject collections responsibilities, portfolio leadership, and/or administrative duties. The issues around work groups, responsibilities, and rotation were the substance of many library council meetings. There were several other developments that played out during these many discussions and actions. To attempt to minimize the impact on the university community and to gain support for the shift in collections and services, the library embarked on a strong outreach and education program. To develop collections quickly, the library focused on providing on site and remote access to electronic resources and services. This enabled students and faculty members to access library collections and services from their homes and offices and reduced or obviated the need to come to the library for information or assistance.

GOALSTO BEACHIEVED These various developments illustrate the outward look of the many changes within the library. There were many more intangible issues that were at play. For the librarians these had to do with goals to be achieved through the workload analysis and an all-encompassingjob rotation program. There was recognition that workloads were changing as a result of changes in the university and therefore there was a need to examine and to distribute work equally across all the librarians. To continue to foster a collegial environment, there was a need to maintain an open and construc- tive dialogue on issues around the library. This opening up of all concerns 678 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

and questions for discussion was an attempt both to reduce the feeling of personal criticism or of stepping on someone’s toes and to continue the adoption of administrative processes consistent with the faculty contract as developed in the academic departments. By developing such a mechanism for examination, a systematic approach to change would be installed. This approach would also facilitate the movement within the library and reduce the stigma attached to anyone wanting to change roles, to get out of an old job, but not necessarily wanting to move up the administrative ladder. With changes, there was an expectation that newjobs would reenergize librarians, spur an examination of processes, and initiate a continuous improvement in quality of work and service. Having the opportunity to change roles, it was felt, would bring a sense of control over and ownership of the new work. This opportunity was especially important because there had been little turnover in librarian positions and no full-scale work assessment. By outlining new opportunities for taking responsibility, there would be a continued or revamped sense of innovation and enthusiasm for library work. Providing opportunities for cross-training in this manner would enrich the librarians’ appreciation of other areas and enable easier backup in cases of illness, study leave, or sudden departures. In addition, the focus on maintenance of quality service at all times became feasible with this move to broaden the skills and abilities and experience of librarians. PROCESS It was in the context of change and strategic planning that discussions began on what librarians did, what anomalies existed, what the possibilities of reassignment were, and what process there would be to allocate these new roles to librarians. Discussions were held in an open and collegial style with a view toward gaining clear understanding ofjob content and process. As noted above, a small group examined and categorized roles and responsibilities into units of equal workload and presented their proposal to library council. Because of the prior discussion on key strategic roles and responsibilities, in addition to standard roles like collections and reference roles, there were a number of high-priority portfolios also to be allocated. These portfolios’ responsibilities included such topics as library publications and the library-user education program. The allocation into units of equal workload went through several iterations until the council reached an agreement on the equality of the units. There was one unit for each of the librarians with many of the units having new groupings of subjects to administer, new lead-hand roles in portfolios, reference duty, and in some cases staff supervision duties. A major issue was the allocation of units or, in other words, the selection of librarians for the various roles and responsibilities. With the units outlined and the process clarified, the librarians agreed to apply for the roles over which they would like to have responsibility. This was no minor MALINSKI/JOB ROTATION IN AN ACADEMIC LIBRARY 679 issue but required a great deal of trust in colleagues and comfort with the interview and selection process. It was understood by everyone that the selection process might result in someone having to do something that they would prefer not to do. With the agreement that rotation would be done at the end of a three-year period, it was evident that someone might not get what they wanted right away but that moving to it would be possible. In addition, a librarian who was a lead hand for one activity could also participate in some collaborative fashion in another activity. In this way, a librarian wishing to gain some experience in an area might help out and therefore be a likely candidate for it in the next rotation. The selection process was formal in nature. There were some units for which there was only one applicant. This resulted from a tacit agreement by the librarians that some of the units contained portfolios or administrative duties-for example, systems or statistical data sets-that required extensive knowledge. These preselected units were brought to the library council and agreed upon. This was important because these few librarians, along with the chief librarian, made up the interview committee. For the rest of the units, there were more than two applicants. As a result of this, several librarians were interviewed by the committee more than once. While there was certainly some disappointment on the part of the librarians who did not get their first choice, there were no processjeopardizing concerns. On one hand, one might proffer that librarians are fairly docile and sub- missive types, so that any real contention was probably submerged. On the other hand, there was considerable discussion and examination of the goals and the outcomes prior to launching this process and the recognition that there were opportunities in the future for changing roles and responsibilities. Throughout the implementation there was clarity and openness in order to facilitate the successful conclusion to this difficult program during very turbulent times.

CONCLUSION There was no lockstep process outlined at the start of the work analysis process. In fact, the term “jobrotation” was not in common use during the process. What was evident right from the beginning of the 199Os, however, was the library-wide understanding that the whole operation was changing and that there was need for a continuous planning process. The development of a culture of change was instrumental in mobilizing the staff and especially the librarians to foster participation in the process and commitment to the goals. Communicating the culture of participation and collegiality was fundamental to allaying fears and to developing trust among the participants. For example, management restructured the library and developed genericjob descriptions for the library assistants and library technicians to facilitate a better, more productive organization. Having the librarians, who were, de facto, all managers of the library, examine and re- 680 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 structure their work in accord with priorities determined by them seemed like the next logical step in improving the library and providing opportunities for growth and development. Synchronizing attitude and behavior toward this growth and development meant encouraging everyone to play a part, to follow a personal development program, even to take courses if suitable to their development and even more so if it fit with the overall direction of the library. Throughout the process of work analysis generally and job rotation specifically,it is critical to keep the process moving so that participants see results. It is easy in times of budget-cutting to sidetrack such longer term, less-tangible programs. However, continuing the assessment of library roles and responsibilities so that the units of equal workload stay that way is important for maintaining the continued buy-in of the participants. Many of the aspects above are, no doubt, familiar to readers. In this specific case, the work of the library council, the librarians, and all staff to make this successful and keep it so is evident in their ongoing focus and continued discussions of this program. This deeply founded commitment is as essential to this program as it is to the success of any library-wide activity of this nature. There is evidently a realization that this is more than justjob rotation. It is a library development process with an overwhelming sense of community service that brings the additional benefits of personal job enrichment and job satisfaction.

REFERENCES Allerton, H. E. (1999). Good place to work. Training &DDPi,elopmmt, 53(4), 12. Carnahan, B. J., & Redfern, M. S. (2000). Designing safejob rotation schedules using optimi- zation and heuristic search. Ergonomics, 43(4),543-560. Cembrowski, B. J.,& da Costa,J. L. (1998,April 13-17), Sucressionplanning for management staff at a iuestm Canadian post-secondav technical institute. Paper presented at the Annual Meet- ing of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA. Available: ERIC ED420219. Cheraskin, L., & Campion, M. A. (1996). Study clarifies job-rotation benefits. PersonnelJour- rial, 75(11),31-38. Collinson, S. (2001). Knowledge management capabilities in R & D: A UK-Japan company comparison. R UDManugpment, 31(3),335-347. Gale, S. F. (2001). Bringing good leaders to light. Training,38(6),38-42. Hauptman, O., & Hirji, K. K. (1999). Managing integration and coordination in cross-functional teams: An international study of concurrent engineering product development. R &D Management, 29(2),179-191. MacLeod, D., & Kennedy, E. (1993).Job Rotation Systrm. Retrieved April 4, 2001 from http:// www.ddnmacleod.com/hticles/job.htm. Olorunsola, R. (2000).Job rotation in academic libraries: The situation in a Nigerian nniver- sity library. Libra91 Managemement, 21(2), 94-98. Perdue, B., & Piotrowski, C. (1986). Supervisory rotation: Impact on an academic library reference staff. RQ 25(3),361-365. Pierce,J. (2001).Job rotation: Beyond your own branches. LibraryJournaZ, 126(12),48-50. Are We There Yet?: Facing the Never-Ending Speed and Change of Technology in Midlife

LINDALoos SCARTH

ABSTRACT THISESSAY IS A PERSONAL REFLECTION on entering librarianship in middle age at a time when the profession, like society in general, is experiencing rapidly accelerating change. Much of this change is due to the increased use of computers and information technologies in the library setting. These aids in the production, collection, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of the collective information, knowledge, and sometimes wisdom of the past and the contemporary world can exhilarate or burden depending on one’s worldview, the organization, and the flexibility of the workplace. This writer finds herself working in a library where everyone is expected continually to explore and use new ways of working and providing library service to a campus and a wider community. No time is spent in reflecting on what was, but all efforts are to anticipate and prepare for what will be. INTRODUCTION One of the strange and whimsical things about entering a profession in middle age is that one’s baggage is very different from that of those who were socialized into the profession while young. I became a librarian just as library literature was blossoming with laments about the demise of traditional librarianship. Would reference work disappear? Is copy-cataloging a proper choice? Do we need more or less storage space? Are we all suffering from burnout? Even those who were putting into print their worries and their advice about ameliorating the consequences of change seemed to be contributing to the uneasiness and uncertainty. Self-fulfilling prophecy is a strong force and one which seems to be dissipating in this decade. Other occupational groups were and are undergoing similar technological

Linda Loos Scarth, Reference Librarian, Mount Mercy College, Busse Center Library, 1330 Elmhurst Drive NE, Cedar Rapids, Iowa 52402-4797 LIBRARY TRENDS, Vol. 50, No. 4, Spring 2002, pp. 681-686 02002 The Board of Trustees, University of Illinois 682 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

changes and are not generating as much angst about the technolo

skills and tools which are forever evolving. Myjob description is very short. Essentially it says that I am the reference librarian and that I provide research services, ready reference, and instruction to the college. The details change from day to day and minute to minute. Thank goodness. Perhaps some of the anxiety being expressed in the library literature of the 1990swas due to job descriptions. The very narrow, uninspired job requirements, which are said to stultify workers and cause burnout, could be eliminated. Narrow job descriptions involving a limited set of tasks are (or in my opinion, should be) replaced with the possibility of using, matching, and changing tools and tasks to accomplish the larger goals of librarianship. These are collecting, organizing, preserving, and providing access to cumulative knowledge, all the time teaching about the process, its importance, and the uses of this knowledge. What could be more intellectual fun than creating and solving the puzzles these tasks involve?Yes, there are legitimate worries about budget, space, and materials, but I do like the tools at our disposal to create and solve these problems and provide service to our users. I often wonder ifjob descriptions or control and separation of tasks into fiefdoms may have created the milieu in which people became uncertain about their work identity in midlife. A day hardly passes without our automation software, the Internet, or some productivity application providing an example of a new way to solve a problem, create a new product or service, answer a query, accomplish a task, or to make one of these possible as it never was before. Whenever one can make a machine or its instructions work in new ways, one can be reas- sured that no HAL (from 2001: A Space Odyssey) or similar machine will organize our world and work for us. We all repeat the platitude that change is threatening, unnerving, ex- hausting (take your pick). In the same breath we should also be saying that growth (like progress) is change, while remembering that the opposite is not always so. Change will occur. Therefore, we must do our best to make change be growth and progress. I sometimes wonder why a profession which espouses lifelong learning for its clients has some practitioners who worry so about their own requirement to be lifelong learners. One change I am pleased to see is that in the time I have been thinking and working on this essay, library literature is moving away from the anxiety about new technologies and is focusing more on ways to stay ahead of the curve and to lead lifelong learners in innovative ways. The recent book Faster (Gleick, 1999) is a thoughtful analysis of the acceleration of change, particularly technological change. While casting a critical eye and pen (word processor) on the subject, he also acknowledges that change just “is.”Some genies cannot be reinserted in their bottles. While technological change is wafting its seductive perfume in the genie’s smoke, the degree to which we get a whiff varies. How many people, not usually librarians, who lament the card catalog are avid users of the televi- 684 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

sion remote control? I suppose there is technology and there is technology; work versus leisure use. Just as we endeavor to teach our library users the underlying principles of asking questions that can be answered, along with those for locating, evaluating, and using information, we might apply the same techniques to ourselves and our interactions with new technologies and methods. What can this do for me and myjob in broad as well as narrow terms? I wonder also how many of us can define the “traditional values” that are supposedly being lost to change and to technology in libraries. When in library school, I asked this question and did not get a satisfactory reply. The library literature is no help. There is very little mention of the phrase in scholarly papers, and even in these the phrase is not well defined. I suspect that we librarians are just as guilty as most in remembering a past which did not exist. Traditional values probably involved gate-keeping more than expanding users’ horizons. What I perceived as traditional values of librarianship before I became a library professional are values that may not have been intended as such. My own experience as a lifelong library user is probably not unique. I had my own library card before I started school. The sweet, stereotypical, small-town librarian spent a lot of energy keeping me away from material which was “too old” for me because she knew my “liberal” parents would not. I still recall the day I was allowed into the adult section without a parent present. In high school, I was a member of the library club, so I learned by helping others find reading material. In reality we were more study hall proctors than library assistants.As a university freshman, I recall being thoroughly intimidated by the surly, arrogant student workers who guarded the closed stacks at the main library. I wanted to learn more about many things, and I would not wish to duplicate for my student patrons or other library users those first stumbling efforts to figure out the enormous card catalog and fill in the request perfectly, only to be sent away because I had missed some bit of information on the request card. There were no bibliographic information sessions, just a tour. I fled to one of the branch libraries with its open stacks, which I came to know well, but I do not recall talking with any librarian beyond checking out items. The only time I went back to the main library was if an assignment required an item which could only be found there. In graduate school, I acquired the privilege of having a carrel in the stacks. There I experimented and taught myself the basics of library research with no assistance from a reference librarian. None was available. ERIC was a relatively new technological advance. I stood before a tall reference desk window to ask how one went about getting an ERIC search done and was told to fill out a form and come back in ten days. There was no offer of assistance in forming the question or choosing some subject headings and key terms. I came back to get the printout of largely useless citations, and SCARTH/FACING SPEED AND CHANGE OF TECHNOLOGY 685

no one asked if the finds appeared useful. I believe these recollections are probably similar to those of a significant number of faculty members of my generation who do not appreciate what the librarian can do to help. I make the next observation cautiously because I do not want to be drummed out of the profession I thoroughly enjoy. I think one of the stresses of technology in libraries is that it is forcing librarians to really provide full service for what may be the first time. If we (our society and the publishing industry) are going to store important search tools (indexes) and full-text documents electronically on a universal scale, we have to know how to use them and how to teach their use. Library users are certain to ask for assistance. I believe that we must help people with the software and hardware so that they, and we, get to the core issue-finding the desired information. This is a central, hopefully traditional, value of librarianship in action. We live in a consumer society that is growing continually, and people really do need more help, in spite of the hype which leads the unsuspect- ing to believe that everything is end-user intuitive and compatible. Because our society, including librarians, is composed of neophytes experiencing the increasing rate of change, someone must accept responsibility for serving those in need. Librarians say we are best equipped to fill this important service role, so we should get on with less anxiety and a bit of bravado. Whenever I see discussion on various library e-mail groups about the number of hours one is assigned to the reference desk as if that is an imped- iment to getting real work done, it makes me sputter. I suppose it is a response to the demands of learning and teaching with and about library technology. I believe that most reference librarians should be “on the reference desk most of the time. I am available for reference work whenever I am in the building, and someone can find me even if I am away from the reference desk that is my scholar’s workstation. I do much of my reading, writing, and committee work at the reference desk. I do not have a computer in my office, which is adjacent to the desk. As well as modeling scholarly and professional behavior for students by working where they can see me, I also get to observe and keep up-to-date on campus activities. I can keep my eye on students who may be tentative in learning to use the tools and can approach to help. As much as I enjoy hunting for information, helping people articulate their needs, guiding them to think about the ethics, politics, and economics of information as well as the specific information they are seeking, I must admit to becoming bothered by some of what I see from this vantage point. I rarely become irritated with the person in front of me, but I do get cross at the lack of guidance provided by some instructors and the results of the hype in the media about information access. I then must remind myself that we are all victims of the idea that information is easy to locate and that people will intuitively know how to seek, find, select, organize, and use information. An instructor in library school often said, “people are not born 686 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

knowing how. . .,” and she was correct. In the intervening time, the news media has succeeded in convincing people that the young automatically know how to use computers for academic pursuits, and consequently teachers teach less about the information process, while it has become more complex. Another source of anxiety involves the concept of professionalism. If one expects to be treated as a professional, one should act like one. By definition, professionals are those who follow skilled or learned occupations, are motivated by the challenges of theirjobs, and desire to serve their communities and their disciplines. They have a vocation or strong calling to do what they do and often the ability to facilitate what others want to do. I consider myself a professional who came to this particular profession in middle age. I want my work to be valued and to be considered worthy of being found by all our users who expect professional service. Again, I wonder if job descriptions and bureaucracies continue to be impediments to true professionalism in librarianship. Regarding oneself as professional may mean changing some of the barriers within the job before those outside the occupation will respond. Considering myself a professional librarian allows me to teach, to guide, and to assist novice and full-fledged scholars, thereby contributing to the larger virtual and real intellectual and physical worlds. And that is the kind of stress which invigorates and sustains focus in this increasingly fascinating occupation. In conclusion, I must say that we are not quite there yet. Since beginning this essay, the speed of technological change in our library continues to accelerate as it does eveqwhere. That is good, because I believe that being at the forefront of the changes on our campus will keep the library relevant and librarians among the valued service and educational providers. The opportunities to do new and even more interesting tasks involves the college portal, where a partial facsimile of Vannevar Bush’s scholar’s workstation (Bush, 1945) is starting to take shape. The library and its resources, course materials, personal schedules, etc. are an important part of this idea, still in its infancy. Certainly there is a bit of stress, as we sometimes say, “of course, there is probably a way to do that on your portal account, and we’ll get back to you shortly” to a faculty person on the phone, and then scram- ble to figure out how as soon as we put down our phones. But it is truly personally and professionally satisfying to be part of the academic and cultural process to use information and information technologies to augment what we already do while working at the place where people and books (or their surrogates) touch-the library. That has not and should not change, so in a sense we are almost there.

REFERENCES Bush, V. (1945). As we may Ihink. RetrievedJanuary5,2002 from http://www.isg.sfu.ca/-duch- ier/misc/vbush/. Gleick,J. (19%). Fatm NewYork Pantheon. A WorkJournal

KATHERINE MURPHYDICKSON

ABSTRACT KEEPINGA WORK JOURNAL can be useful in exploring one’s thoughts and feelings about work challenges and work decisions. It can help bring about greater fulfillment in one’s work life by facilitating self-renewal,change, the search for new meaning, and job satisfaction. Following is one example of a workjournal which I kept in 1998.It touches on several issues of potential interest to midlife career librarians including the challenge of technology, returning to work at midlife after raising a family, further education, professional writing, and job exchange. The questions addressed are listed at the end of the article.

SAMPLEWORK JOURNAL, 1998 I. When the alarm clock goes off in the morning and I realize that I have to get up and go to work, I wonder if I’m going to be able to make it. To some extent it is this way every morning, no matter what the day has in store for me. I do not think it is a measure of how much I like or dislike myjob. I think it is just me and the process I go through waking up and gving birth to the day. As I struggle out of bed in the morning, I have doubt about my ability to shower, decide what I’m going to wear, make breakfast, remember to bring with me what I have decided I need to take, and get my act all together so that I am driving out of the driveway to get to work on time. Although I have gotten up and out millions of mornings, it never seems routine. It is always a hurdle. My confidence increases the closer I get to my goal of arriving at work on time. I love my physical surroundings at work. The Nimitz Library is a beauti-

Katherine Murphy Dickson, Caroline County Public Library, 100 Market St., Denton, MD 21629 LIBRARY TRENDS, Vol. 50,No. 4, Spring 2002, pp. 687-701 02002 The Board of Trustees, University of Illinois 688 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

ful building with large plate glass windows which look out on the Severn River and the Chesapeake Bay. My desk is by a window that overlooks the Severn River. I am incredibly lucky and whenever I see where some people work, I am freshly reminded how lucky I am. I love water and yearn for it whenever I am away from it for any length of time. Water makes me feel connected to nature and to the eternal. It is also fascinating to look at because the light is always different depending on the time of day and the season. I think I interact well with my coworkers. There are ten reference librarians in one office, and we make an effort to be considerate of each other. In the group, I am the oldest and also one of the quieter and more reserved persons. My interactions are collegial and friendly. What kinds of feedback/help do I need and get at work? Successful reference work depends on communication and sharing information and instant feedback. I feel that I get this kind of feedback from my colleagues and my supervisors. The kind of help that I need at work relates primarily to computers. Some demonstrations and training are provided, but I never feel they are sufficient for me. Also, I never find or make adequate time to practice and really get to know new systems so that they are second nature. I find it extremely difficult to keep up to date with the Internet, for instance. It is a problem both of creating time and also knowing what it is I do not know. Usually while I am doing my work I feel quite good. This is particularly true when I answer reference questions. Faculty, midshipmen, and staff at the Naval Academy are usually very grateful for assistance and this adds to my feelings of satisfaction at being able to provide the required assistance. I also feel needed and appreciated when I work with faculty to add books or journals to the collection or to develop library instruction for a class. But there are times-when I have to prepare reports and internal memos-that I feel rushed making or having actually passed a deadline. At these times I feel the pressure of too much work to do in a given space of time. Often at these times I feel as though I amjust going through the motions and grinding things out to meet a requirement. What do I do all day at my job as a reference librarian at the Naval Academy? I serve as reference bibliographer for the English and language studies departments. My time is divided almost equally among four main areas: reference duties, collection development, library instruction coordination, and midshipmen/faculty contact. Refer- ence duties consist of providing reference assistance at the reference desk. Collection development duties require that I develop and maintain the book and periodical collections to support the English and language studies curricula. As library instruction coordinator I plan, implement, and evaluate the library instruction program at the academy. Finally, I develop faculty and midshipmen contact to the extent necessary to carry out these activities. This contact is necessary to develop the collection and the instruction to support the teaching curriculum and faculty research at the academy. DICKSON/WORK JOURNAL 689

My energy is always highest in the morning and gradually diminishes with the day. Contact with people, either library patrons or staff, and also contact with a subject of particular interest, such as poetry, gives me energy. What saps my energy are interruptions that keep me from getting to something on which I need to work. At the end of the working day I feel tired, my body feels tired, and I think that I only wish I could feel the way I do in the morning. And why can’t I? My characteristic end-of-dayfeeling is that now I am free to do what I want, but I am too tired to enjoy doing it. What do I want to change in my work? There are no major changes I would make now in the present arrangement and organization. Four years ago our department head retired. I suggested that we adopt the academic department paradigm where the position of department head rotates among department members, as opposed to the department head being a permanent position for one person. It seemed that ten reference librarians could successfully rotate the reference head or chair position and thus over time contribute their administrative skills to the department. My suggestion was rejected, and since then I have not felt a need for any major changes in my work. What feels right is the very high level of reference service our department provides. This is our product, and it is an excellent one, in my opinion. I feel that I am in the right type of work-academic reference work-and in the right job. I feel privileged to be part of the information age at a time of such great technological change. Although I do not feel a need to make any major changes, I do feel I need to make minor changes in myjob. When I list my priorities for the day, I need somehow not to feel pressured by what is not being done. As I get older, time goes faster, and I do everything slowly. So it always seems that it takes me longer and longer to do less and less. The trouble with this is that I always feel stress to do more in less time. The change I would like to make is to be able to focus on my priorities and not to worry so much about everything else. If I could do this more consistently than I do, I would reduce stress. Perhaps the best way to do this is to be more conscious of what I am trying to do-and to take the time to stand back and be more aware and conscious. II. The blocks to my satisfaction in work are both external and internal. I think that the external blocks have to do with the nature of the profession of librarianship. The primary block is that librarianship in the years of the twentieth century when I have been a librarian has been a female-intensive profession along with elementary school teaching, nursing, and social work. These are four professions where most of the practitioners are female, that have very low social status compared with medicine or law, for instance, and that are frequently referred to as semiprofessions. Like the other female- intensive professions, librarianship has been low paying. Up to the present time, librarianship is a dead-end career for most women. Traditionally men 690 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

obtain higher-paying administrativejobs. The other primary external block has to do with the fact that the profession seems to reward administration over all other kinds of library work. The profession has assigned administration a higher status than, for example, cataloging or children’s librarianship. In fact it could be said that in librarianship, social work, elementary school teaching, and nursing, the further away from the primary task, the higher the reward. This is not the case in other professions such as law or medicine. The primary internal block to my satisfaction is that, except for my first position, I have never gone all out for my profession. By that I mean, I have never made choices solely for my career advancement. My career choices have always been tempered by other life choices. Because I have not gone all out for my career, I have not achieved the highest status or reward. I am not a library director or administrator. I have not gone all out for those areas of the profession rewarded most highly. I have chosen areas that give me the most personal satisfaction but that I also think should be both rewarded and regarded as highly as or more highly than administration. I know that this must be at some level an internal block to myjob satisfaction. My other primary internal block has to do with my inability to handle paper as well as I can handle people or ideas. The result is that I always feel behind and never caught up with the mountains of paper that clutter my desk and work area. It would be a great satisfaction to me to feel that I could easily and quickly read, make decisions on, sort, and file my paper work on a daily basis. Then I could feel on top and free. Instead, I feel inundated by white paper that waits for me, and this is a constant internal block to my satisfaction at work. As far as I am aware, there are no unexplored feelings, wishes, or dreams that are standing in the way of satisfaction. When I explore these blocks, I feel that one must understand the history, sociology, and anthropology of librarianship and especially the status of women within the profession. Success and satisfaction must also be explored in terms of the availability ofjobs and the status of the job market. Are there other people involved? Yes, anyone who shares or with whom I exchange my point of view is involved. Broadening this dialog to the wider community, that is, anyone who publishes on the subject of any of these blocks is involved. Probably the best thing to do about a block is to write about it and hopefully involve more people. So often the feminist maxim is true: the personal is political. III. When I explore the shadow side of work, I think of my disappointments and anger. One negative aspect of myjob is having to work forty hours per week. Since I have worked at jobs thirty-five hours per week, I find forty hours difficult, and I feel as though I am endlessly at work and sometimes just going through the motions because I am too tired to do otherwise. DICKSON/WORK JOURNAL 691

Another negative aspect is that staff members are not treated as a precious resource. Little is done to keep good people or to encourage staff professional development. The administration neither includes librarians in the competition for funds granted to faculty for research nor makes any effort to upgrade librarian positions in departments such as reference. Our positions were upgraded from GS-9 to GS-11 in 1985when reference librarians themselves rewrote their job specifications and asked for job audits. There was no indication that the library administration supported this grass roots endeavor in any but a lukewarm way. Since then reference self-studies have requested career ladders to represent promotions for greater levels of experience, but nothing has been done. In addition, there is no reward system so that all this adds up to a feeling that the staff is not really a highly valued resource. There are also the usual conflicts over everyday policies and procedures with other staff. When forty people work together it is unrealistic to assume that everything will always run smoothly and without conflict. Another aspect of the shadow side of work is more personal and in the realm of grip- ing, gossip, and/or backbiting: who is in trouble, who is late, who is falling below the mark, etc. I try to steer clear of this as much as possible and put my energy into actively doing something where I can make a difference. But I am aware that things are said behind my back just as they are said behind the backs of other people. At work I try to find happiness and satisfaction where I can and ignore or sidestep where I cannot. My natural tendency is to wait until my back is up against the wall before I strike out. I try to compensate for this by dealing as directly as I can with those situations which I deem important or worthy enough for direct intervention. For example, some time ago it was brought to my attention that my colleagues were criticizing my book selection behind my back. I knew that I could not sidestep this issue, but instead had to deal with it directly and immediately. I feel proud of having dealt with this unpleasant situation directly and out in the open. m When I fantasize about the perfect job, I see a job that matches my current job very closely. When I fantasize about the perfect day, I see my current job with just a few changes or additions. I close my eyes and imagine my current job. I imagine arriving at work with something interesting to say to my colleagues. I imagine a somewhat more congenial and support- ive atmosphere. I imagine myself more emotionally free and laughing more easily. I imagine my colleagues listening to what I say and commenting with great interest. The perfect day includes my current job with a few additions that are not really part of the job itself but that would create the perfect day. One thing we should have, but do not have, is an on-site fitness program. I would 692 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 like to participate every morning for thirty minutes in the program. Then at lunch I would like to be able to walk outside for forty-five or fifty minutes. My perfect day would also include time for professional writing. Ac- tually at the present time, the library director will authorize up to three hours per week for professional publication writing. I have been able to take advantage of this a couple of times in the past, but most of the time I am so busy and rushed dealing with whatever is at hand, that I have not even taken the time to request the time to use. My fantasy about the perfect day includes a colleague who is also a close friend. This is someone with whom I can share my interests and whom I look forward to seeing every day. The high point of my fantasy perfect day includes the seminar on journal writing that I coordinate in the English department and that is open to midshipmen for credit, and faculty and staff for noncredit. How does my fantasy compare with myjob? Last year there was a one- semester fitness program in the field house. And I do have an opportunity to walk every day on my lunch hour if I choose to do so. I do have time for professional writing, at least in an embryonic form. There is no colleague at present who is also a close friend. This is the exception to every other position where I developed at least one close friendship. And there is no journal seminar. I could probably bring about my fantasy of a perfect day if I put the time and energy into it, at least to certain levels of fulfillment. v Sayings, quotations, and/or conversations often spark my ideas about work. When I was hired for my present position, the reference departiiient head at the time told me that when he showed the library director my credentials, the director responded with, “Why would someone getting a Ph.D. want a desk job?” When I heard the director’s comment, it emphasized again for me the fact that successful people in the library world think that administration is where it is at and everything else is minor in comparison. Certainly status and financial rewards are in administration. But that is one of the unfortunate characteristics of the profession at this point in its history. Another conversation that comes to mind is when I was interviewed by the dean of the School of Architecture and Planning for the position of architecture and planning librarian at MIT. At the time, I was thirty years old and reference librarian at MCT. The Dean looked at me and asked ‘You don’t have any plans to get married do you?” I never forgot this question. It reverberated in my head for days. Why was marriage the price to pay for a career for a woman? Men did not have to make an either/or choice. Two years later civil rights legislation made it illegal for an employer to ask such a question. But this question underscored for me the fact that I had grown up with two categories of women: those who had careers, on the one hand, and those who had husbands and children, on the other hand. I never knew women who had both. DICKSON/WORK JOURNAL 693

W. Be a child again. When I explore how to bring more playfulness and creativity and humor to my work life I conclude that I am not really sure how to do this. These are certainly the areas that get eliminated in the serious- ness of meeting deadlines: I have always worked more slowly than my coworkers. By nature I am a slow person or at least that is how I perceive myself. My colleagues usually get things done faster with more conversation and humor. They are more extroverted, expansive, and faster than I am. And I am always compensating for this by pushing myself to go faster and by cutting out conversation, playfulness, and humor. I should try to not only see the humor in situations,but to take time to share it with my colleagues.When I think about aspects of my leisure activities that I could transfer to work, there is one thing in particular that I would like to try: to go at my own pace. It would be fun to try although I realize that I run the risk of being the butt of others’ humor because people have often told me that I seem deep in thought or preoccu- pied. I do not want to appear so deep in thought and slow that others wonder if1 have come to a grinding halt. But one of the things aboutjournaling that makes me feel good is that time stands still, and I go at my own pace. This is a wonderful feeling. The little figure on my left shoulder who keeps whispering in my ear, “Hurry up! Why are you so slow?”disappears for awhile. It would be fun for me to try to transfer to work the sense of timelessness and going at my own pace that I have when I journal in my leisure time. WI. When I think of my dreams, I remember two powerful dreams that relate to work. The first dream is set in the present and involves Simmons College in Boston where I received both my undergraduate and my library science education. In the dream I have returned for a visit and as I walk through a passageway I see some of the original large granite foundation blocks exposed and displayed very much the way a work of art might be displayed. These rough stones hold my attention in the dream. When I wake up I remember seeing a picture of these exposed foundation stones in a brochure from Simmons that had come in the mail. When I looked at the brochure, I remembered seeing these same foundation stones on an earlier visit to Simmons. These stones that had been recently exposed during renovations were not on view when I was a student. Until this dream, I had been accustomed in a rather unanalyzed way to think of my Simmons education as frosting on the cake, a finishing touch like finishing school, or like a hat on the top of my head: a frill rather than an essential. Seeing the exposed foundation stones in the dream corrected this barely conscious notion. I realized with the power of revelation that Simmons was the bedrock foundation of my whole professional life. It was not a frill. The image of those exposed rocks is still numinous. I expect that this is so because there is still meaning to extract from the image. 694 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

When I was a student at Simmons, the school had two janitors. They were brothers. They were about retirement age when I was an undergraduate. The older of the two brothers was slightly mentally disabled and was taken care of by the younger brother. The older brother's name was Tony and one day he told me that when he was a kid he used to play on the site where Simmons is now built and in fact played there while Simmons was being constructed. When I saw those large, exposed foundation stones, I thought of Tony, a living link to the foundation. The second of my powerful work-related dreams I had shortly after I started working at my presentjob. In the dream my desk is on the footbridge over College Creek. I am there because my desk is there. I am not sure why my desk is on the bridge. I see a woman standing on the bridge, but we do not make eye contact. I never actually see her face. Later she jumps off the bridge and commits suicide by drowning. I watch her prone body float out from under the bridge. She is wearing a raincoat. The air in the pockets has given her water wings that keep her afloat. I notice that she is wearing a gray and tan plaid skirt exactly like one I own. When I am awake and thinking about the dream, I wonder why I made no effort to save this woman. I feel some guilt until I realize that this woman in my dream is me, the old me, or an aspect of me that has died. The dream made me feel that the old was dead and the new was born. I am the new me in my newjob. It seemed to me that the aspect of myself that had died was the job-seeking, job-interviewing me because the skirt of the dead woman was identical to the skirt of my favoritejob-interviewing suit. Through active, imaginative dialog with the dead woman floating face down, I have come to accept that we must let the dead go, that this was meant to be, and that I should accept it as such and not feel guilty about not trying to save her. It was as it should be. In the time that has elapsed since this dream, I have come to realize that the image of the bridge as connector is probably the pivotal image in the dream. What does the bridge connect in the dream? I think it connects my present professional work with my premotherhood professional employment. This connection enabled me to remember my professional self as I was. I was able to connect myself in the present job with the professional academic reference librarian that I had been. This was problematic for me because in between were not only eight years of full-time motherhood when I was out of the workforce but also eight years when I never expected to return, having left my profession when our first child was born. I had very mixed feelings about returning to work because my husband's business was not doing well, and I felt financial necessity pushing me and not letting me do things in my own time. I felt it was too soon to return, since our youngest child was just beginning kindergarten. I knew in my heart that it was more important to be a full- time mother to our youngest child a little longer, but after a few false starts, I accepted my present position. I think the dream helped me to connect DICKSON/WORK JOURNAL 695 my presentjob to what I remembered about myself as a professional librarian in the past. Because I never thought I would return to professional life, the connection was really a reconnection and, as such, strengthened me and reinforced my professional identity. The image of the bridge in the dream helped me to make a reconnection that fortified me in a time of outward change and inner uncertainty. WII. When I try to meditate on something related to work, I find that the same incident comes up over and over again. And at the same time, a slight reluctance to write about it also appears. My inner voice both wants to speak and is reluctant to speak about this incident. About two years ago, two of my supervisors at work told me that my colleagues were vociferously criticizing the kinds of books 1 was selecting to support courses taught by the English department. This criticism was completely behind my back. I was told by my supervisor that I should explain my book-selection policies at a departmental meeting to my colleagues. I prepared for the meeting in several ways. The first thing I did was review my book-collection policies, especially with an eye to what might be criticized among my choices. It was curious to me that I had become a scapegoat, and I looked at my book choices to see if they held an explanation as to why this should happen. I could find no explanation. I then made an individual appointment with each of my colleagues and asked each if he or she had criticized my work and if so to please describe the criticism to me. Then I asked each if he or she would please criticize my work to my face in the future so that I could deal with it appropriately. Several of my colleagues told me at our individual meetings that he or she did not criticize my book selection, while others admitted to what appeared to be minor criticisms. When I reported what I had discovered in these individual meetings to my two supervisors, they told me that what several people said to my face was different from what these same colleagues said behind my back. I asked my two supervisors if there was anything further they would like me to do or could suggest I do. They both said “no”and that they had decided to ask each one of the reference librarians, rather than me alone, to describe his or her book-selection policies at a departmental meeting. Fortunately this incident turned out well. Or at least on the surface it turned out well for me for the time being. I say this because at the meeting each one described his or her book selection instead of me being the only one to have to do this. This allowed everyone to share in learning from each description rather than placing me in a defensive or potentially scapegoat position. My reluctance to speak about this incident is, I believe, because I always feel reluctant to deal with or speak of something unpleasant. More importantly, when I meditate on this situation, I wonder what in me contributed to creating this situation in the first place. On reflection, I can see that it 696 LIBRARYTRENDS/SPRING 2002

came about because I did not sufficientlyplay at being “one of the boys.” I tended to remain too aloof from the office gripe and gossip sessions. This left me vulnerable to being cut off from the group and then scapegoated. I learned how necessary it is to be part of the group. IX. The ambivalence I feel about work usually centers around the trip to work in the morning. As I drive to work, I begin to feel that it would be so wonderful to take the day off and have it to myself instead of going to work. Maybe I am rebelling against what I know I have to do. Maybe Ijust have to dialog h

A. It is very easy to think of my work goals in terms of heroism because the mission of the library is to provide excellent library service on behalf DICKSON/WORK JOURNAL 697 of learning, teaching, research, and other scholarly activities. The reference department realizes its mission, in part, by creating a reference environment which meets our users’ information needs and encourages self-sufficiency, and at this basic level teaches information concepts and skills. I work in an institution that is very conscious of its goals and mission. I feel that my department within the library fulfills its mission at the highest level. It is exciting and very satisfying to work in a department which provides such impressive professional service. I feel that what we accomplish is what I would like us to accomplish. I work to provide excellent reference service to our library users. Although I have my own standards of reference service, I find it very helpful to work in an environmentwhich fosters the fulfillment of these standards. Adequate budget for books, staff, and technology is an important factor in making it possible to accomplish such a mission. I work for personal goals of reference service, the mission of the institution, and the needs of library users. My goals in my previous jobs were the same as my goals in my present one. I onlywish that all students could have the same library service available that is available to midshipmen and faculty at the Naval Academy. I am very aware that it is no coincidence that the academy is part of the Department of Defense and that the budget is more than adequate to provide the best reference service available. x. The role work plays in my life. When I think of the role that work plays in my life, I can only conclude that work is everything in my life, or almost everything. I have been a professional librarian for forty years, minus eight years out to be a full-time mother. I have been a professional librarian longer than I have been either awife or a mother. Consequently, being a librarian is a major part of my identity. Librarianship has also played an important economic role in my life. It has been the way I have earned my living since age twenty-two. My professional work has given me economic independence. Simmons College was founded to educate women sufficiently to enable them “to earn an independent livelihood” and it certainly made it possible for me to be economically independent. I am well aware that Si- mone de Beauvoir wrote in “The Second Sex” that under capitalism, the way out of subjection for women was economic independence. Feminist Charlotte Perkins Gilman, like de Beauvoir, also pointed out the link between autonomy for a woman and economic independence. Work has played that role in my life and has provided me with whatever financial security I enjoy. Work has not only played the role of provider of economic independence and security, it has alsobeen a primary source of social life and friendships. From having been out of the work force when my children were very young, I am aware how much work provides a stage on which social activities and friendships can be played out. I met three of my best friends 698 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 through work. In addition, I have enjoyed daily contact with colleagues in each job I have held through the years. Colleagues have a shared database of information or shared professional education. Working with colleagues has provided me with a deeper perspective and a deeper way to know and share with people on a daily basis. Work has not only had the role of providing me with friends and colleagues, but over my professional life I have had two mentors. Both mentors were women, reference librarians, and my bosses in my first and second jobs. My first mentor taught me how to do excellent reference work and what excellent reference service is. My second mentor taught me the importance and significance of reference work, especially in an academic setting. She also taught me to think about the future direction of the profession. Work has played the role of providing me with many human relationships. It has been a way to meet people and a stage on which 1could watch the human procession. I have always liked librarians very much as a group, and I have always been proud to be a member of the profession. One of the spectacular roles that work has played for me has been that of proriding me with a year in Europe which included travel in England, France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Sweden, and Ireland. I was an exchange librarian for one year in England, and this was a very rich experience both professionally and personally. Working in another country provides a depth of perspective that being a tourist there does not usually prolide. It was interesting to me to see that cataloging and classification were emphasized in England whereas in the United States, reader services, especially reference senice is emphasized. I went on a tour of libraries in Denmark and Sweden with my British colleagues. During my year in England I was able to make a trip to County Cork, Ireland to visit the village of Ballindangan where my grandmother was born. Work has supported my educational experiences: My master’s degree in modern British literature from Columbia University made it possible for me to obtain NewYork State certification as a public librarian. Several years later when I obtained my Ph.D. from the University of Maryland, my profession provided me the subject matter for my dissertation. The ALA provided a goal award that underwrote the survey I conducted of reentering women librarians for my Ph.D. dissertation. During my long career I have had the opportunity of working as a reference librarian at four impressive institutions: The New York Public Library, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the Library of Congress, and the United States Naval Academy. These institutions, their roles, missions, book collections, and library services have been very interesting to experience in themselves. Each one is like a world within a world with its own distinct culture that is endlessly fascinating from a sociological or anthropological perspective. Each one of these institutions also provides a stimulating intellectual environment with lectures, art exhibits, movies, and other cultural events. In a sense myjob has also been my public library, because I have always DICKSON/WORK JOURNAL 699 felt I had access to information any time on any subject I might need. One of the fringe benefits has been that work has always supplied me with reading matter. I always see books, especially new books, and then when I need a specific title not in my library, I can obtain it through interlibrary loan. When my children had homework, I was often able to obtain information for them not available in their school libraries. Myjourney to work has been in four interesting cities: New York, Boston, Washington, D.C., and Annapolis. My work role is not compartmentalized in my life. While I do distinguish between my personal and professional lives, both lives feed into and nourish each other. Although my professional life and my personal life are not perfectly congruent, they are, in my opinion, integrated into one whole. Although I find my work very satisfjmg and do it to the best of my ability, I would like it to take less time and energy from me. When I get home after work many evenings I am so tired that my time is not quality time. Instead of being able to do intellectual work or writing, I feel I can only talk to my family, read my mail, and watch television news. My role at work has changed somewhat over time, from that of potential leader to that of specialist. This is due partly to the passage of time when more of my career years are behind rather than before me, partly to the fact that the job market has varied by decade. I had more of a leadership role in the early years of my career than at present. This is because I was younger, my education was on the cutting edge, and there were many more opportunities for advancement then. It has been said that women are not taught to abstract themselves out of experience, and this is probably true for me. The result is that I am probably more task-oriented then advancement-oriented. Whatever leadership role I now have is leadership by example. Growing up, I had a leadership role in my family as the oldest of five children and the oldest daughter. As a school girl I had a leadership role in my immediate community as the preeminent baby-sitter there. In my young adult life, I discouraged this role in my life because I did not want to live out my “big sister” side of myself to the exclusion of other aspects of my personality. I did not want to nurture others at the expense of nurturing myself. The “big sister” role was given to me, and it did not feel as authentic to me as any role I might design myself, such as the role of college student. Today, and throughout my professional life, there is some carryover from my family “big sister” role to my work role. For instance, I am concerned about the emotional and psychological welfare of my colleagues, particularly when an individual colleague has personal problems. I tend to be sympathetic with rather than critical of my colleagues and coworkers, and I attribute this to my role in the family as oldest child and “big sister.”

SUGGESTIONSFOR KEEPINGA WORKJOURNAL Following are some questions and suggestions for writing a work journal. Use them if they appeal to you, but do not be limited to them. 700 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

1.Keep an intensivejournal for one day about work. How do you feel when you get up and think about work in the morning? How do the physical surroundings at work affect you? How do you interact with your coworkers? What kinds of feedback/help do you need and get at work? How do you feel when doing your work? Describe your job-what do you do all day? What times of day is your energy highest or lowest? Who or what gives you energy? Who or what saps it? Reflect on the end of the working day: how you feel, what you’re thinking, how your body feels. Do you have a characteristic end-of-day feeling? After completing the intensive journal, look it over a while later and see what it tells you. What do you want to change in your work? What feels right as is? Are you in the right job? The right type of work? Do you need to make some minor or major changes? If so, how can you start doing that? Even if you do not decide to keep an intensive journal for a day, you can use any of these questions as topics to write about. 2. Explore the “blocks”to your satisfaction in work. Are they internal, external, or both? Are there unexplored feelings, wishes, or dreams that are standing in the way of satisfaction?Explore the blocks and what you can do about them. Are there other people involved? 3.Explore the shadow side of work. Write down all the negatives you can think of-your disappointments, anger, etc. This can lead to catharsis and greater insight. Can you use any of the negative energy in a positive way? Are there ways you resist satisfaction or happiness in work? Explore your resistance. 4.Fantasize about “the perfect job.” What would a perfect day be like? Close your eyes and imagine . . . then write about what you saw. How does your fantasy compare to your present work? What can you do to bring about your fantasy? 5.Write about interesting quotations, sayings, pieces of overheard conversations, etc. that spark your ideas about work. 6.Be a child again. Explore how you could bring more playfulness and creativity and humor to your work life. Are there aspects of your leisure activities that you could transfer to work? 7. Pay attention to your dreams. You may want to record what you remember. The more you write about them, the more you will remember of your dreams. Look for images, feelings, and situations that relate to work. Do not try too hard to analyze; rather, try to put yourself back in the mood of the dream and see what feeling it evokes. Try freewriting about an element in the dream. 8.Try meditating on something related to work and write about what comes up. The “inner voice” can tell us a lot. Assume that what you need to know is already present in your unconscious mind-you just need to listen to it. DICKSON/WORK JOURNAL 701

9.Write a dialog to explore your ambivalence about work. See what the two sides have to say to each other. Can there be a resolution of the conflict? 10.Think about your work goals in terms of “heroism”:what mission are you accomplishing through your work? What mission would you like to accomplish? For whom or what are you working? Are you working for things/people/goals you do not want to be working for? 11.Think about the role work plays in your life. Is it compartmentalized or does it flow into the rest of your life? Do you want it to be integrated or separate?Is work taking up the right amount of time and energy in your life?Too much or too little?A related issue is what roles you play at work. How do they relate to the roles you played in your family as child? To the roles you play now with your “significant others”? Happily Ever After: Plateauing as a Means for Long-Term Career Satisfaction

DENISEL. MONTGOMERY

ABSTRACT LITTLEDID I KNOW when I attended Judith Bardwick’s presentation on plateauing at the ALA annual convention in 1988 that it would turn out to be one of the most valuable sessions I would attend at any library conference, since it has enabled me to understand the phenomenon of plateauing and to use the strategies she suggested to rejuvenate my career and personal life continually. Key concepts and solutions from her book and from other literature on plateauing will be summarized and examples given as to how I incorporated them into my life.

INTRODUCTION On July 11, 1988 at the annual ALA conference in New Orleans, the Junior Member Round Table section sponsored a presentation titled, “Lev- eling Off and Lateraling Out: Plateauing and Tracking as Career Obstacles,” which was copresented by Herbert White and Judith Bardwick, author of The Plateauing Trap: How to Avoid It in Your Career. . . and Your LifeWithin the course of an hour, she outlined the reasons why plateauing inevitably happens to everyone, defined the three major types of plateauing that exist (structural, content, and life), and offered concrete suggestions for avoid- ing the psychological malaise that usually occurs and instead using plateauing as a force for growth and change in one’s life. I found her talk interesting enough to take copious notes upon it, but since I had entered the profession only four years previously, it was one of those things that seemed to belong to a far-off future and it was both literally and symbolically filed away. In later years, as it became increasingly apparent that I was experiencing precisely what she had described in her talk, I began to apply the sugges-

Denise L. Montgomery, Valdosta State University, Odum Library, Valdosta, GA 31698 LIBRARYTRENDS, Vol. 50, No. 4, Spring 2002, pp. 702-716 020W2 The Board of Trustees, University of Illiiiois MONTGOMERY/PLATEAUING AND CAREER SATISFACTION 703 tions she applied to my situation, which had the effects of keeping myjob continually challenging and enabled me to cope more easily with the changes which come with the midyears of life. Indeed, it has probably been one of the most useful presentations I have ever attended at any professional meeting, because I have been able to use what I learned there for so many years; and it was an opportunity which could have been so easily overlooked in the smorgasboard of offerings that one finds at a typical ALA conference. LITERATUREREVIEW Just how likely is it that I would have learned about plateauing by other means? Before the advent of databases and keyword searching, it would have been more difficult due to lack of consistency in the use of subject headings by major indexes. “Career Plateaus” is the Library of Congress subject heading under which Bardwick’sbook and other books on the topic of plateauing can be found. This subject heading is also used in four of the Wilson indexes: Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature, Business Index, Social Sciences Abstracts, and Education Index, and as an identifier by ERIC. Surpris- ingly, “Career Plateaus” is not used in ABI/Inform, where dozens of articles dealing with plateauing are found under such broadly encompassing headings as “Career Development,” “JobAdvancement,” and “Job Satisfac- tion,” so the searcher must use “plateau?”and read carefully through the abstracts to determine the relevance of the citations, since many articles do not use the words “plateau” or “plateauing” in the title of the article. An equally crucial resource for research on plateauing which also does not use “Career Plateaus” as a subject heading is Psycholoe’cal Abstracts, since articles on the topic are found under the headings of “Career Development” and “Occupational Guidance.” So it would have been a real headache in the days of using the print abstracts to find the thirty-seven articles retrieved by an online search of the database for the period 1976-2000 using the search statement “(job?or career?) and plateau?” and not all of those turned out to be relevant due to the weaknesses of keyword searching. In looking at the literature, I found that Bardwick did not introduce this topic, since the earliest usage of the term in the literature is by Warren, Ference, and Ston- er (1975) in an article from Haruard Business Reuiau, but she did popular- ize the topic due to her best-selling book, which is often cited in literature that deals with plateauing. Most of the articles that have been published are in business periodicals targeted toward an audience of supervisors, and they deal with plateauing as a managerial problem. The few articles which are addressed directly to employees are more likely to be found in general periodicals such as Fortune, Money, Glamour; Newsweek, and US News and World Report. Interest- ingly, Working Womanpublished five articles on the topic, which is the larg- est number published by any one mass market magazine. With only a few exceptions (Kreuter, 1993; Messmer, 1999), most articles portray it as a 704 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

negative experience and almost all the articles focus narrowly on only the two types of career plateauing (structural and content) and ignore the issue of life plateauing, which is frequently an offshoot of the other two types of plateauing and has far more serious long-range implications for what people will do with the rest of their lives. By comparison, literature on plateauing in the library profession is sparse. Library Literature does not use “Career Plateaus” even though there are more articles on the topic of plateauing (eleven) than are found in Education Abstracts (five), which does use “Career Plateaus.” Instead, the existing literature is found under even broader subject headings than those used by ABI/Inform, since it uses “Librarians-Careers” (376 citations), “Personnel-Administration” (763 citations), and “Working Conditions” (293 citations), which would have taxed the patience of the most determined searcher if the print index had to be used to retrieve the relevant citations on plateauing from among the large number of listings under those headings. Searching the database using the term “plateau?”yielded only eighteen citations, none of which was dated later than 1997 for articles that fit the context that was being searched. Two of the eighteen listings were duplicate citations for articles that had been published in more than one source, and five articles were not relevant because “plateau”was used in a sense unrelated to the context of the topic being searched. One article, entitled “Plateau,” reported the results of a survey taken by ALA about librarians’ attitudes about career-development needs, problems, and plans; and while it did not specifically address the concept of plateauing, it is always cited by anyone writing on this topic because it does give crucial information about librarians’ own insight into their possibilities for and obstacles to career advancement (Bernstein & Leach, 1985).Two articles dealt with the problems of specialized groups of employees: paraprofession- als (Massey, 1997) and children’s services librarians (Feehan, 1994). One article offered specific methods used in the author’s own library to com- bat the problem (Gossen, 1990),one was a literature review of books and articles in the business and managerial field published up to that time (Osif, O’Neil, & Harwood, 1995),and only one article addressed the issue of life plateauing and saw plateauing as a positive opportunity for growth and change (Launey, 1995). Much more needs to be written since the organizational structure of libraries and the nature of the work performed almost guarantees that librarians are at risk for experiencing plateauing.

PLATEAUING:WHATIT Is AND WHYIT OCCURS Plateauing is not an easy concept to define because it impacts all major areas of life and the effects are strongly intertwined. To begin with the most usual sense of its analysis in the literature, there is what Bardwick (1986) refers to as structural plateauing, which occurs “when an employee has reached the highest level he or she can go in the company” (Schiska, MONTGOMERY/PLATEAUING AND CAREER SATISFACTION 705

1991, p. 1).Structural plateauing is caused by limitations inherent to the company’s hierarchy, since the farther one goes up the structure, the fewer positions exist; and employees plateau because they either do not possess the skills or the ability to be moved to the next rank, or more frequently, because there is no place further up to move people. The latter situation has occurred because the last thirty years has seen an explosion in the ranks of qualified persons in all fields, largely due to the demographics of the large baby boom generation which went to college and graduate school in greater numbers than their parents. This factor, coupled with economic factors such as automation, downsizing, and relocation of companies overseas, has nullified the organization structure based on the idea of upward mobility in one’s career that was part of the expectations of employees from 1950 to 1970 (Fierman, 1993; Leach & Chakiris, 1985). Instead, what Bard- wick (1986) calls “the rule of 99%” will occur-that is, virtually everyone will plateau due to the sheer numbers of people trying to ascend the organization hierarchy (p. 36). Furthermore, employees will plateau at earlier ages, depending on their fields, but most will plateau by midlife, a time in which many major life issues are under scrutiny. In order to retain what have been variously called “solid citizens” (Ference, Stoner, & Warren, 1977, p. 608) and “productively plateaued employees” (Leibowitz, bye, & Farren, 1990, p. 30) who are still valued for their continuing contributions to the organization, companies should move away from promotion-based reward systems and eliminate unnecessary layers of management to create an organizational structure that offers their employees more respect, autonomy, and challenge. A second type of plateauing which usually occurs in conjunction with structural plateauing is contentplateauing. This happens when “work is mastered and there is essentially nothing new to learn” (Bardwick, 1986, p. 67). Although professionals are probably most susceptible to it, Bardwick warns that anyone can experience it if “the responsibilities and problems feel repetitive” (p. 68). It can take anywhere from three to five years to reach this state; and though content-plateaued employees remain competent and satisfactory workers, some adapt to the situation by becoming resistant to change and doing everything they can to increase their sense of security because they are fearful that change may bring failure (pp. 73-74). In order to avoid these negative consequences, employers should do all they can to increase challenge in the job by encouraging employees to set new goals and to take on different tasks. The third type of plateauing is lijieplateuuing,which is seldom discussed in the periodical literature because most of the articles are focused solely on career-based plateauing as represented by structural and content plateauing. This exclusion is unfortunate because, as Bardwick (1986) points out, “plateauing in life is vastly more serious than either structural or content plateauing, because it involves the sense that there’s little fulfillment in any area 706 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

of life” (p. 100).Life plateauing is a psychological state that is characterized by a feeling of being obliged to honor commitments made in the past to which one may no longer feel a sense of attachment, and this state is inten- sified by the sense that “the future holds nothing but an unchanged extension of the present” (p. 102). It can often occur as a result of being more immersed in careers than in personal lives, and unsurprisingly many wor- kaholics experience life plateauing. But the danger of focusing on the role of career to the exclusion of all others can result in a tremendous midlife crisis when such persons realize they are structurally and career plateaued, since they take stock of their lives and realize how much they have missed by being too career-focused. It causes examination of all aspects of life, and it “might end with the realization that you need to give up some goals, some of yourself, in order to get something that you haven’t had and don’t know if you can gain. An assessment can challenge essential values that you previously took for granted (Bardwick, 1986, p. 110). Awareness of life plateauing results in change only if the pain of remaining on the plateau is greater than the fear of change, but when that decision is made, the process could be life-altering because it may involve major changes in identity, personal relationships, the level of commitment to ajob, or a change of vocation. When done correctly,with careful assessment, it is possible to create “afuture that fulfills the person they have become . . . they are free to create a life in which they can become more complex, more involved, more spontaneous-more youthful, as it were-than they ever were before” (Bardwick, 1986, p. 128).

SOMESOLUTIONSTO PLATEAUINGFOR LIBRARIANS Librarians are probably less prone to dissatisfaction with structural plateauing than persons working in the corporate sector, since their organizations are smaller, with fewer levels of administration; and because librarians are less concerned with wielding “authority/influence over others” (Bernstein & Leach, 1985, p. 179). It is also not uncommon to see librarians voluntarily remain at a certain level in the organization structure because they prefer that particular type of work. For example, reference librarians may pass up opportunities to move into administration because they prefer working with the public at the reference desk. And since the profession is predominantly female, some employees will opt to remain at a particular level because family responsibilities such as small children or aging parents rule out the possibility of taking on the increased responsibility inherent to higher-level positions. But just as in the corporate sector, structural plateauing will most likely occur because there are simply more good people in the organization than there are positions to which they can be promoted. In that case, either restructuring the organization to eliminate levels of management or instituting team-based management can work very well as solutions to the problem of structural plateauing. Management MONTGOMERY/PLATEAUING AND CAREER SATISFACTION 707

restructuring was done in my own library three years ago, when a vacancy occurred in the position of the head of the reference department. The department of which I am a member asked for the opportunity to reorga- nize from a traditional department structure with a department head to a team-based management system in which each member of the department would be responsible for an area of the department’s function. We would have weekly meetings led by a coordinator and frequent communication by e-mail in order to set policy and tend to the day-to-day business of running the department. Also,we instituted a peer-based evaluation system for our annual reviews. In doing this, we found we communicated more effectively; increased productivity; instituted a greater number of cooperative projects, presentations, and publications; had a higher level of satisfaction with our jobs due to greater autonomy and a more challenging and varied array of tasks; decreased turnover in positions; and improved department camaraderie due to increased interaction with each other. The system worked so well that within a year the rest of the library had adopted the model, and longtime employees who have been with the library a number of years have expressed their belief that it is the best change they have experienced in the organization. Such a structure allows all employees to feel equally valued and respected, and it also eliminates much of the competition that can occur when too many people are competing with each other for scarce upper-level slots. While this solution may not work for all libraries, it should be considered when an organization has a number of employees who are likely to remain in the organization for more than five years, since it allows them to redefine their place in the organization and to avoid the loss of self-esteem that can occur in a traditional organization with the realization that one is structurally plateaued. Less drastic forms of restructuring the organization can also help overcome content plateauing, the other major type of career plateauing. Even for people who enjoy their work and have no desire to advance upwards in the ranks of administration, this one is bound to hit them eventually because of the sameness of the routine and the lack of challenge, an issue that cannot be ignored since 82 percent of all respondents in a survey on career development cited “challenging/varied work as the most important factor in job satisfaction” (Bernstein & Leach, 1985, p. 179). SUNY at Al- bany had some favorable results when they instituted a cross-training program in which persons from different departments in the library explained their policies and procedures to others outside the department and gave them the opportunity to do hands-on work there. The staff benefited from this program by increasing their self-confidence, renewing their sense of job worth within the organization structure, reflecting on their own career goals, examining work flow within the library with an eye to improvement, and keeping up with technological change in other parts of the library (Gossen, 1990, p. 8). Such cross-training programs can even be used as a 708 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 stepping-stone to the more radical solution of employees engaging in lateral transfers to different departments. While it has been noted that there is an initial loss of productivity as the employee learns the new tasks, it is later offset by the increased interest, fresh outlook, and renewed vigor that the employee brings to thejob (Bardwick, 1983,pp. 70-71). This technique has been used with great success in my library, where several existing employees have moved into newly created positions outside their former departments or have engaged in lateral transfers between existing positions in two departments. Examples of the former include a reference librarian who asked if she could fill a collection-development position we were preparing to advertise; the head of circulation who had become proficient enough with the library’s computer systems to be chosen as the head of automation; and a cataloger who became our first acquisitions librarian when the entire library adopted the team management structure. Lateral transfers have been few, but one of the most interesting occurred when a reference librarian swapped positions with the another librarian who worked most of the time in archives and wanted to work full-time in reference. In each case mentioned above, the employee had been with our organization at least five years and will likely be with us for a number of years, so the changes have been good for the employees in that they are not dissatisfied with being in the samejob for too long and good for the library in that each employee has brought a fresh perspective to the job and has instituted beneficial and exciting changes to each department. But since it is not always possible to restructure the organization to overcome the problem of structural and/or content plateauing, there are other solutions that can be applied by management and the individual. They are: 1. Consider plateauing to be a concern that involves all departments in the entire organization, from the director to the intermediate supervisor to the employee. Otherwise, “the more individuals feel they own the problem and have to fix it alone, the less likely it will be resolved” (DeLon, 1993,p. 13). 2. Once the issue of plateauing is established as an ongoing concern in the library, educate people about the three types of plateauing. According to Bardwick (1986), Understanding the three kinds of plateauing gives people a perspective that makes it easier for some to seek challenge in employment and others to increase their involvements outside work. The information about plateauing should include the relationship between identity, work, self-esteem, and aging; the appropriate role of work in life and how that changes over time; the interaction between work and personal life; and retirement and second careers. (p. 132) 3. Once the issue has been established and employees have been made aware of the problem, managers should first come to terms with the is- MONTGOMERY/PLATEAUING AND CAREER SATISFACTION 709

sue as it pertains to themselves before they attempt to counsel employees. Their role in counseling is that of a sympathetic listener who asks the right questions to elicit dialog and who points out the choices available to an individual rather than focusing on one solution (Bardwick, 1986, p. 150). 4. Establish a clearly defined personnel policy which lessens the emphasis on traditional rewards such as promotions, and instead come up with alternative compensations such as ceremonies, time off to go to conferences or do research, public praise verbally or through newsletters, and the opportunity for employees to show off their expertise through such activities as leading a task force or conducting an in-house seminar (DeLon, 1993, p. 15). 5. As part of the personnel policy, give plenty of feedback and be honest in giving it since, according to a 1985 ALA study, “a large number of respondents want feedback regarding job-related strengths and weaknesses” (Bernstein & Leach, 1985, p. 180).The ideal proportion is “lots of praise and only a little criticism” (Bardwick, 1986, p. 156). 6. Encourage employees to seek growth opportunities. This can be accomplished by learning new skills in house or through formal means, taking on short-term special projects which allow for more autonomy, being mentors for junior employees, or becoming representatives for the library within the community. These are by no means the only solutions for dealing with structural and/or content plateauing, but they do provide a starting point for dealing with the issue in a library if it has not yet dealt with the issue of career-plateaued employees. The final type of plateauing, life plateauing, may seem to be outside the scope of this paper, but it is very relevant because people who have allowed themselves to be caught up in their careers and who become aware they are plateaued in their careers usually come to the realization that they have become plateaued in life as well because too much of their attention has been focused upon their careers and insufficient attention has been paid to other roles in their lives. When this realization sinks in, they may find themselves asking, “What is the purpose of work and life?” (Launey, 1995,p. 27). To answer this question, they must first “realize that [they are] on ajourney . . . of personal and professional selfdiscovery” (Koonce, 1998, p. 18) to determine future goals and values, to get in touch with creative or spiritual aspects of their natures, and to realign the balance between all aspects of their lives. Launey (1995, p. 27) mentions Richard Bolles’ theory about the three boxes of life: learning, work, and play, and that many people experience plateauing as a result of spending too much time in the work box. Bardwick (1986, pp. 174-176) goes even further and challenges her readers to take the 168 hours of a week, divide it into sections on a pie 710 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

chart, and see what portions of time they give to work (including work done on evenings and weekends), sleep, the spouse or lover without the children, the children without the spouse or lover, the family as a whole, reading unrelated to work, hobbies, arts, athletics, the community, friends, and themselves, of which the latter state is defined as being a time when they “are not to feel responsible for anyone else” (p. 177).The results of the exercise can be quite alarming, since: work, commuting, and sleep can account for 60 to 75 percent of the hours in the week. That leaves little time for anything else and little energy with which to do it. . . Completing the pie chart often reveals that little spontaneous time is given to a spouse, the children, or friends. Most frequent of all, people find that they give little time to themselves. (Bardwick, 1986, pp. 176-177) In order to achieve balance between all aspects of the self, it becomes necessary to embark on the journey of rediscovery where “you turn inward, or homeward” (Fierman, 1993, p. 60) in search of “a measure of wisdom” (Kiechel, 1988, p. 231). It will not be a quick or easy solution since “transition phases in life ordinarily take four to five years, because changing in basic ways is hard” (Bardwick, 1986, p. 165).Some steps in thejourney are: 1.If you are considering switching jobs within the profession, remember that the rule of 99 percent catches up with everyone in the end: “If you change organizations, you may rise higher and delay structural plateauing, but unless you are very exceptional, you’ll eventually reach a level beyond which you will not climb. You never escape the long-term need to accept that. . . .Just changing where you work can mean doing old work in a new place” (Bardwick, 1986, p. 169). 2. If you are thinking of switching careers, analyze your current skills, interests, experience, and motivation for making the change. You may have to come to terms with limitations which might make it difficult to fulfill, such as lack of capital, appropriate experience, or the need for extensive education in order to be able to do thejob (Edwards, 1989, p. 115). You also need to recognize that, as a late starter, you have to be less concerned with ambition and promotion and more concerned with personal satisfaction and “the mind-stretching, rejuvenating exercise of great challenge” (Bardwick, 1986, p. 169). 3. If you decide to stay put, think about what satisfied you in the past, as well as what you might want to do in the future. (And remember what you want to do in the future does not necessarily mean what you want to do in the future at work.) Consider going on a retreat or taking courses to get in touch with creative or spiritual aspects of your nature in order to identify possible new work-related goals or personal interests that can help you achieve satisfaction with your life outside the workplace (Koonce, 1998, p. 18). MONTGOMERY/PLATEAUING AND CAREER SATISFACTION 711

4. Examine your goals, values, and habits. Let go of any that are no longer assets and in which the psychic costs incurred are higher than the gains (Bardwick, 1986, p. 165). 5. The need to communicate with others will never be more apparent than at this stage of life. Talk to others about your dreams and goals, but avoid “overly practical or judgmental people. They may try to squelch your search for self by telling you to regain your senses” (Koonce, 1998, p. 18).And even more importantly, you should tell people what you are trymg to do so they will understand that you are “less predictable,” especially if they are persons “who are affected by your efforts” (Bardwick, 1986,p. 165).And get marital, vocational, or psychological counseling if you think you need it: after all, your intention is to get off the plateau, not blow your life to pieces by taking hasty and radical actions. 6. Take an active role seeking change since to “wait around for superiors or fate . . . [will] increase your sense of being powerless” (Bardwick, 1986, p. 167). 7. Embrace continuous learning, whether it is on the job, by self-training, or through formal courses. This continuous learning not only gives you new interests to pursue for increased satisfaction in your personal life, it also gives you new skills that not only refresh the content of your job but can also make you a prime candidate for advancement (Bardwick, 1986, pp. 172-173). 8. Make relationships with family and friends a vital priority in your life. The people around you can be an important source of support and stimulation. Time causes children to grow up, parents to die, friendships to wither if they are not nurtured with attention; and once these people are gone from your life, you “can’trecapture that-it’s gone, an irrevo- cable loss” (Kiechel, 1988, p. 229). 9. Find an activity outside your career to alleviate any sense of disappointment or frustration that you may feel with your employment situation. In her ALA presentation, Bardwick highly recommended travel and creative activities, but solace can be found in pursuits as varied as a father who spent his nights and weekends coaching his son’s Little League and his daughter’s basketball teams, an Apple executive who coped by doing yoga, or a Chevron manager who rebuilt a 1932 Ford coupe in his driveway (Fierman, 1993, p. 60). 10.Finally, do not let yourself be largely defined byjust one role such as your job, since there can be an identity crisis when plateauing occurs or upon retirement or the loss of a job since so much of an individual’s self-esteem is invested in one role. If you balance your commitments to persons and activities outside of the job and remain open to change and growth, you will likely have few problems with life plateauing. 712 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

DEALINGWITH PLATEAUINGIN MY OWNLIFE In 1984 I began my professional career when I was hired as a reference and interlibrary loan librarian at Valdosta State College. At that time I expected to stay there about two or three years; and though I had not yet heard of the concept of plateauing, I had already accepted the possibility of structural plateauing because I liked the duties and I had no desire to progress up to higher administrative posts that would not allow me to continue this work. I began looking for jobs with similar areas of responsibility at major universities in larger metropolitan areas or in major academic communities, and I went on nearly a dozen job interviews during the period from 1987 to 1994. But as the years passed and I received no job offers, I began to realize that “the advantages of staying put have outweighed the uncertainty of moving on” (Edwards, 1989, p. 115), because I couldn’t be sure that I would have the “freedom and flexibility” (Edwards, 1989, p. 115) that my present position offered due to my senior status within the’department. It also would have been financially disadvantageous because our director had successfully negotiated raises that brought our salaries up to the same level as those of teaching faculty at the college. So, faced with the realization that I might be spending the rest of my career here, I dug out my notes on Bardwick’s lecture, read her book, and then began to incorporate her suggestions into my life. Because I have had to keep learning new skills over the years to cope with the changes of going from a microfiche catalog to Endeavor’s Voyag- er catalog, from print indexes to GALILEO’s hundred databases, from teaching library orientation classes using overhead transparencies to dem- onstrating how to search the Internet on a computer hooked up to a pro- jection screen, 1have never felt in serious danger of content plateauing! Still, to keep the job fresh, to exercise autonomy, and to bring new challenges to the work, I have undertaken special projects such as composing an interlibrary loan policies and procedures manual which is currently in its fifth revised edition, compiling reading lists of biographies of women, African-Americans, and Georgians that are revised every few years, creating Web sites which list our newspaper holdings on microfilm chronologi- cally and geographically, and designing a Web site listing the titles of eigh- teenth- and nineteenth-century periodicals held by our library. And due to an attack of tennis elbow that was incurred by inputting interlibrary loan requests that were increasing in double digit percentiles every year, I also restructured our interlibrary department to take advantage of as much automation as we could get. I added to our system OCLC’s IFM and custom holdings features, electronic request forms, and ARIEL, which sim- plified the process enough to make it possible to design the work flow SO that student assistants could process many of the borrowing requests with minimal supervision. I continue to look for more ways to streamline the interlibrary loan process, and I take note of situations in which new find- MONTGOMERY/PLATEAUING AND CAREER SATISFACTION 713 ing aids might be useful as possibilities for new projects so I can continue to feel challenged in my job. I have also managed to get inspiration for what to do in myjob by reading the professional literature and becoming more active in the profession. Much of my activity has been in the Georgia Library Association, where I have served on committees, been chair of the Interlibrary Cooperation Round Table, and given a couple of presentations to the above-mentioned Round Table. I have also attended conferences of the Southeastern Library Association and the American Library Association; and fittingly enough, considering that I first heard Bardwick’s talk at an ALA conference in New Orleans, I gave a presentation on new features of OCLC at the 1998 ALA Midwinter Conference in New Orleans. I have also attended workshops devoted to interlibrary loan and gone to interlibrary loan conferences in Colorado, Canada, and Finland. (It also cannot be denied the travel necessary to participate in professional organizations and events affords wonderful opportunities for learning and a chance to enjoy some of the cultural, recreational, and gastronomic amenities that a smaller community lacks. And I always make a point of taking off a couple of extra days so I can sightsee.) Each time I have returned to myjob spiritually refreshed and stimulated with new ideas that have reshaped my role in the profession, but I also find that I make contacts that sometimes have unexpected results, such as hearing a speaker whom I recommended to the Georgia Library Association as a keynote speaker or meeting persons who would later become instrumental in helping me secure an opportunity for a publication or presentation. One rule that I tend to follow is to keep alert for new opportunities and to follow them, since you never know where they might lead. A chance conversation with a member of the history department who was looking for a new project led to a collaboration on the Depression-era Farm Security Administration photography project in Georgia which resulted in two articles in the Georgaa Historical Quarterly (Montgomery, Schmier, & Williams, 1993;Schmier & Montgomery, 1994),but the biggest thrills came in interviewing one of the families who were the subjects of a set of photographs and in going to Puerto Rico to interview the late Jack Delano, who was the photographer in Georgia responsible for that particular set and for most of the photographs in the project. Most of my serendipitous opportunities have come about as a result of being subscribed to the ILL-L and Stumpers-L listservs, since they offer the best opportunities for networking for people who cannot afford to travel to national conferences on a regular basis; and for learning about opportunities for publishing, presentation, workshops, or conferences that might be unknown otherwise. In 1993 I mentioned a survey that I had done about the impact of telefacsimile on Georgia libraries in a posting to the ILL-L and received an invitation to publish it (Montgomery, 1993);and my pre- 714 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002 sentation at ALA and the article you are presently reading came about as a result of responding to notices posted on the ILL-L listserv. The ILL-L listserv has also been invaluable for learning about new developments in the field as well as for passing on advice to younger colleagues. Stumpers has enabled me to keep my reference skills sharp by answering hundreds of questions over the years, and it has enabled me to learn about reference sources, both print and Internet-based, that I did not know of previously. And some of my postings were even published in the Stumpers anthology (Shapiro, 1998), a compilation of questions and answers drawn from the Stumpers archives. These were outcomes that I never dreamed of when I took my first hesitant steps with e-mail back in 1993. E-mail and the decrease in phone rates over the past few years have been a great help in maintaining old relationships and developing new ones, since relationships are an important component in maintaining life satisfaction if one is structurally plateaued. After an interval of seventeen years, I had a reunion with my best friend from graduate school, and we now have a steady exchange of phone calls and e-mail and an annual visit every summer. My college roommate offered to introduce me to a man she supervised back in 1991, and it has resulted in a very satisfying long-distance relationship. I even convinced my father to buy a computer, and it has been great fun receiving e-mail from him and teaching him to use the Internet, while he has taught me how to play Freecell! I have also launched a Web page which grew out of my Ebay trading for Princess Diana collect- ibles. Since I found I was sending out longer and longer e-mails to fellow traders about where to find sites on the Internet where Diana merchandise could be purchased more cheaply, I had an idea for a Web site, the PrincessDiana ShoppingArcade (Montgomery, 1999). It started out as a listing of sites from which to buy Diana merchandise and royal family memorabilia, but it eventually expanded to include informative sites in the “Free Stuff” section, pictures and text of an exhibit of Diana memorabilia that I put up as a display in our library in the summer of 1999, and pictures of my trip to Althorp, Princess Diana’s ancestral home, in the summer of 2000. Almost every week I receive e-mail from visitors as far away as Swe- den and Australia. While much of it is fan mail, I also receive and answer reference questions from people who want to know where to buy a particular item, how much something is worth, or unusual questions like what kinds of wedding gifts were received or when Princess Diana and her sons visited Disneyworld. It is a lot of fun, and I have made some new friends along the way. And the process of learning how to do a Web page did wonders for my computer skills, opening up further prospects for enriching the content of myjob. Getting accustomed to looking for challenges and opportunities served me well when in 1999 I received a diagnosis of endometriosis following a stressful series of medical procedures. As soon as I could hobble to my com- MONTGOMERY/PLATEAUING AND CAREER SATISFACTION 715 puter after the surgery which initially diagnosed it, I was looking for information about the disease in order to make informed medical choices about a physician and subsequent treatment, which was further complicated by a diagnosis of low bone density since that condition ruled out taking a med- ication which could further reduce bone density. As a result of the medical problems, I have become greatly interested in the study of health and aging, something which I neglected prior to that time, I am taking a greater interest in spirituality, and I made major changes in my eating habits and took up weight-lifting in order to increase the amount of weight-bearing exercise I was getting. I believe my attitude in considering it another challenge and an opportunity for growth and change had a great deal to do with making the stress involved with the incident more bearable and with being able to adapt to greater discipline in eating and exercise habits. As for the future, I have an interest in photography which was awak- ened by the study of the Farm Security Administration photos, and within the next couple of years I am going to take some courses to learn how to take better pictures. I am going to make time to read the books of the Great Books program, since I loved studying literature as an undergraduate and in graduate school. Writing for Stumpers and my Web page has made it considerably easier for me to write, and I may undertake some lengthier projects. I am also concentrating on investing with the goal of early retirement, since it will allow me to choose where I wish to live and give me the opportunity to travel more and the time to pursue creative activities that are hard to do when you go to work every day. Until then, I will continue to be on the lookout for opportunities that will continue to keep my job and my life fresh and exciting.

CONCLUSION Although plateauing is often thought of as a negative condition, it does not have to be this way. When one is prepared in advance for it, it can actually become an unparalleled opportunity for growth and change in all aspects of life as well as for readjusting priorities which may have become skewed earlier in life. While it is not an experience anyone really wants to endure, once it is over we have the inner resources to make the most of the rest of our lives.

REFERENCES Bardwick,J. M. (1983). SMR forum: Plateauing and productivity. Sloan Management Review, 24(3), 67-73. Bardwick,J. M. (1986). The plateauing trap: How to avoid it in your career. . . and your lqe. New York: American Management Association. Bernstein, E., & LeachJ. (1985).PLATEAU:In career-development attitude sampling, librarians see advancement as problem. Amm'can Libraries, l6(3),178-180. DeLon, B. A. (1993). Keeping plateaued performers motivated. Library Administration L9 Management, 7(1), 13-16. Edwards, A. (1989,October). The plateau payoff. Working Woman, 14(10),114-116, 153. 716 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Feehaxi, P. E. (1994). Take me to your ladder: The issue of plateauing in children’s services positions. Librap Adrninzstration & Managemmt, 8(4),200-203. Ference, T. P., Stoner,J. A. F., &Warren, E. K. (1977). Managing the career plateau. Academy of Managpment Revia, 2(4), 602-612. Fierman,J. (1993, September 6). Beating the midlife career crisis. Fmtune, 128(5),52-62. Gossen, E. A. (1990). An experimental cross-training program to avoid career plateauing. Libray Personnel News, 4, 7-8. Kiechel, W. (1988, August 1). High up and nowhere to go. Fortune, 118(3),229-235. Koonce, R. (1998). Finding out what’s next for you. Training &? DmeloprnentJournal, 52(9),18. Kreuter, E. A. (1993).Why career plateaus are healthy. CPAJournal, 63(10), 80. Launey, L. (1995). Career life cycles: Coping styles for plateaued workers. Libray Administru- tion & Management, 9(1),27-30. Leach, J.J., & Chakiris, B:J. (1985). The dwindling future of work in America. Training & I)mielvpmPntJournn~,?9(4), 44,46. Leibowitz, Z. B., Lye, B. L., & Farren, C. (1990). What to do about career gridlock. Training & DPuelnpmPnt,Journal, 44(4),28-35. Massey, T. (1997). Life on the rainbow: Overcoming paraprofessional job plateaus. Librap Mo.saio, 8(6),19. Messmer, M.(1999). Stuck in neutral? It’s time for a career audit. Business Cr~dit,201(8),44- 45. Montgomery, D. (I 993). The impact of telefacsimile service upon interlibrary loan in Geor- gia libraries. Journal of Interlibrap Loan &Information Supply, 3(3), 57-90. Montgomery, D. (1999). Prinrers Diuna shopping Arcade. http://www.geocities.com/ highgrove.geo/. Montgomery, D., Schmier, L., &Williams, D. (1993). The other Depression: AFarni Security Administration family in Carroll County. Gol;ria Histmica1 Quarterly, 77(4),811-822. Osif, B. A., O’Neil, R. M., & trarwood, R. L. (1995). Manager’s bookshelf: Plateauing. Library Administration & Management, 9(1),45-49. Schiska, A. (1991).Revitalizing the plateaued employees on your staff. Supmismy Manugmmt, 36(9),1. Schmier, L., & Montgomeiy, D. (1994). The other Depression: the Black experience in Geor- gia through an FSA photographer’s lens. G~mffiaHistorical Quarterly, 78(1),133-148. Shapiro, F. (Ed.). (1998). Sturnpers! Answers to hundrpds of questions which stumped the experts. New York: Random House. Warren, E. K., Ference, T. P., & Stoner,J.A. F. (1975). The case of the plateaued performer. Haruurd Business Rer~ipu,,53(I), 30-38, 146-147. The Effects of Technology on Midcareer Librarians

MARILYNP. LEWIS

ABSTRACT THISARTICLE INVESTIGATES TECHNOLOGY COMPETENCY REQUIREMENTS in the library profession. Using the position advertisements in Am’cun Librar- ies in five-year increments over a twenty-year period (1970-1990), the article examines and evaluates the advertised qualificationsof positions and attempts to see if midcareer librarians-especially those who have achieved their degree prior to the change in M.L.S. curriculum that currently emphasizes technology-are “effective”librarians in the present and future job market.

INTRODUCTION Libraries have seen many changes over the centuries. From the scrolls and clay tablets of Egypt, Greece, Rome, and the Far East, to the early pnnt- ed volumes and manuscripts of European universities and monasteries, traditional libraries have always been stocked with materials that help to fill a knowledge void. As the libraries grew and changed in size, stature, and mission, the patron base grew and changed as well. The evolving methods of research and information access have reflected those changes. In today’s American libraries, it has become an increasingly rare occur- rence to find the traditional card catalog as the sole source of access to the library’s collection. The number of electronic databases that either duplicate or enhance information access has grown dramatically. Physical pos- session of information (in the guise of printed material) remains the back- bone of most library collections,but it can no longer be considered the only criterion for determining the quality and size of a library’s resources. The lower costs associated with automation, the expanding equipment capabilities, the use of consortia agreements to increase buying and sharing pow-

Marilyn P. Lewis, Head, Serials and Microforms Cataloging, Joyner Library, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27857-4353 LIBRARYTRENDS, Vol. 50, No. 4, Spring 2002, pp. 717-724 02002 The Board of Trustees, University of Illinois 715 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING2002

er, and a patron base that increasingly expects technology to answer its information needs without relying on printed material have contributed to the expansion of technology. What began as a novel “oddity” or “toy” in technical and large academic libraries twenty-five years ago is now found in more and more libraries-regardless of size and location. Today, new, “freshly-minted’’librarians with their M.L.S. in hand appear to have little problem with the present technology and what might be un- packed in the next electronic database release (Buttlar, 1996, p. 44). Cur- rent M.L.S. curricula provide a cornucopia of technology classes and rele- gate many of the “traditional” library science classes to either elective classes or workshops (Hildenbrand, 1999, p. 676; Wanden, 1995, p. 30). But can the same be said about the librarian who acquired the M.L.S. degree twenty to thirty years ago? Experience in the workplace, formal classes, workshops, and conference programs continue to be part of the continuing education of the professional librarian. A review of programs scheduled at professional conferences over the years indicates that librarians have historically shown an interest in knowing what happens outside of their own library building/program. Perceptions without facts to substantiate those perceptions should be considered suspect. StanleyJ. Wilder (1999) has published data on the age demographics of academic librarians researching data on Association of Research Libraries (ARL) and he has reported: Iibrary Manpower established that W.S. librarians were older than their counterparts in most comparable professions in 1970. Populations do not age the same way that individuals do; they may grow younger, remain the same, or age. In fact, the average age of U.S. librarians did not change between 1970 and 1990. But between 1990 and 1994, librarians in the Uiiited States aged rapidly. In 1990, 48 percent of librarians were aged 45 and over, compared with 58 percent in 1994. (p. 1) Wilder also indicated that ARL libraries hired more librarians with less years of professional experience than librarians with greater years of experience. In 1994,63 percent of the librarians hired in ARL libraries had five or less years of experience. In the same year, 37 percent of the new hires in ARL libraries had six or more years of experience (Wilder, 1999, p. 18).Further comment from Wilder indicated that “many new professionals enter ARL libraries only to leave within a few years” (p. 19). Many enter into librarianship as a second career, making the age of “newlyminted” librarians automatically older when they search for their first or second position (Wilder, 1999, p. 23). What does this have to say about the midcareer librarian-the librarian who acquired the “terminal degree” more than ten to fifteen years ago? How does that librarian compare technologically with the librarian who might be the same age butjust received the M.L.S.? Can the midcareer librarian compare favorably? LEWIS/EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY 719

BACKGROUND Technology has evolved in libraries over the past twenty to thirty years, and librarians have to grow with the technology that libraries presently employ. Unless midcareer librarians were in the position to learn about technology “on the job” in the 199Os, they had either to take formal courses that would help them to acquire the necessary slulls and knowledge to become “techno-say”or to rely on others in the organization to organize and implement emerging technology. It is the author’s contention that the use of all of these methods has made those librarians who acquired their formal “terminal” M.L.S. degree prior to 1990 capable “technocrats.” Prior to distance learning and/or the Internet of present-day technology, formal courses in emerging technology were few or nonexistent. Even when they became available, it took a major commitment for both librarian and the library to invest in the course. Formal and informal networking grew out of necessity to cope with a technology that had, as yet, no set rules. But as the technology proved not to be a temporary anomaly, libraries found that positions would have to reflect the growing field.

SETTING When a position in a library becomes available, it is customary to advertise the position-very often in publications and sources that would ensure maximum exposure to potential applicants. AmericanLibrariesis the officialjournal of the ALA. It has always provided a section where position vacancies are printed for its readership. The wide range of library and position coverage in this publication has made it a natural place forjob seekers and job providers to meet in a common arena. METHODOLOGY Using position advertisements from Amm‘canLibraries, this study will categorize the qualifications stated in the advertisements. It is anticipated that the written requirements for “technology” skills might increase over the years. It was determined to not categorize every year, but rather the following sample years as a database: 1970, 1975, 1980, 1985, and 1990. It was felt that these years would adequately cover positions held or sought by librarians either in “midcareer” or in “midlife” from the information taken from Wilder’s ARL sample of academic librarians. If librarians were to seek their initial position after those years, the author assumed that the librarian had acquired the necessary skills in formal coursework in a M.L.S. program. The ads from American Libraries were used because the author initially expected the job descriptions to be consistent and to ensure that the study would gwe a consistent cross-section of available positions during the sample years. It was felt that five-year increments would show the possible measurable change in any of the categories and years. The following categories were noted: 720 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Type of library: Academic, government, public, special, teaching, or other. Qualifications:Technology, administration. Database total: A total of 5,160 ads were reviewed from the sample years. The following table breaks down the number of ads by years and shows the percentage increase/decrease between years.

Table 1

Percentage Number Increase/Decrease Year of Ads over Previous Years 1970 646 - 1975 350 -45.83 1980 942 t62.85 1985 1443 t34.72 1990 1779 t18.89

DEFINITIONOF TERMS Library Types Academic: Libraries supporting two-year, four-year, and graduate programs. Government: Libraries/programs that support a wider range of formal entities. State and federal libraries are included in this group. Public: Libraries supporting a regional, county, or city patron base. Special: School libraries, libraries for a specific patron base (i.e., medical, organizational, music libraries). Teaching: Library school positions-either instructors or administrative (Deans, Associate Deans) positions. Other: Does not fit ayother library category. Vendors, networks, and publishers are included in this category.

PRELIMINARYASSUMPTIONS Based on her experience and that of colleagues with whom this was discussed, the author anticipated that while midcareer librarians acquired their initial library education and training prior to the explosion of micro- computers (1980s-l99Os), these librarians would be still qualified to contribute technologically in today’s libraries.

FINDINGS Upon the review of the positions, the greatest numbers were in academic libraries. Of a total 2,480 ads requesting technology skills over all years, 1,639 (66%) of these were for academic library positions. LEWIS/EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY 721

The growth of technology and the significance this had for libraries filling vacant positions appears to be reflected in the increase in technological qualifications noted in the advertisements. The number of positions, regardless of library type, grew consistently

Table 2

Year Number of Ads Requesting Technology 1970 42 1975 66 1980 391 1985 828 1990 1153 with one exception-1975. The author does not draw conclusions as to this variance to the otherwise steady growth other than causes implied by previous literature or statistical variance. Table 1(see above) demonstrates this trend. This data indicates that libraries have been increasing their recruiting for positions (regardless of type or indicated qualifications) from 1980 through 1990. This correlates with the increased capacity of libraries acquiring automation equipment and systems, as well as systematic retirements and reevaluation of positions to reflect changes in duties and responsibilities of librarian positions (Simmons-Welburn,2000, p. 11).

TECHNOFILEOR ADMINISTRATOR? Many, but not all, librarians move into administrative roles after a period of years in the profession. It was interesting to determine if the qualifications of “administration” and “technology”were considered sufficiently significant so that both qualifications were stated in the position ads; or if one qualification was considered more significant to available positions. The types of libraries that advertise in AmericanLibraries have remained relatively static. Interestingly, there was an increase in published qualifications other than “technology”at the same time “technology”qualifications were published in the ads. “Administration” qualifications were either implied or stated in the traditional administrative roles: director, assistant director, dean, department head. The following data shows that, while at the same time libraries were recruiting for candidates with technological qualifications, they were also increasingly requesting “administration” qualifications in their lower-level positions. By “administration” qualifications, the author includes supervision, evaluation, written and oral reporting to superiors as part of the duties implied in that quality. The breakdown according to years, regardless of library type, is shown in this table: 722 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Table 3

Number of Ads Number of Ads Requesting Requesting Technology Year Administration and Administration 1970 229 24 1975 197 49 1980 509 233 1985 764 483 1990 969 591

At about the same time that technological qualifications began to be explicitly stated in the ads, there was also an increase in administrative positions, including middle management. Both position types appear in all year spans, although administrative experience was required more than technological expertise in the earlier years (see Tables 2 & 3 above). And while previous studies have shown that many librarians move into administrative positions after serving time at an assistant level, one should not assume that ads for administrative positions do not imply some computer application experience. One cannot imagine an applicant for an administrative position not being conversant with current library technology, at least in a general way. The difference between the two ad types would be one of emphasis, rather than of exclusivity.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Statistics show that librarians are older, demographically, in comparison to other similar professions (Wilder, 1999, p. 1).The reasons for this variance could be a topic for another study. Whether librarians obtain their terminal degree early in their chronological life or as a second or third career, the current average age of a librarian is greater than what someone would expect in a profession that has been inundated with technology. The advertised qualifications of available positions reflect the requirement of emerging technologies, regardless of the position or the type of library. The increase in the “technology” qualification shows steady growth, beginning primarily in traditional technical services and some administrative positions. Growth in this qualification appears to have crossed into all types of positions by the mid-1980s. As was expected, the qualifications for “technology” only appeared primarily in technical services positions in the 1970s, which correlates with libraries beginning their implementation of automated systems and projects of retrospective conversion of card catalogs. It was not until the completion of the catalog conversion, the subsequent implementation of online catalogs, and the emergence of electronic databases that the “technology” qualification increased in the other positions. The growth of that crossover began in administrative roles in the 1980s and indicated that both “administrative” and “technology” qualifications in- LEWIS/EFFECTS OF TECHNOLOGY 723

creased during that time. Many of the people in these positions were not immediately out of their terminal degree program. They were professionals with a number of years of experience. Therefore, one might draw the conclusion that successful automation of libraries transpired due to the large number of people who were well into their career at the time of initial automation activity. Data also show that there are many librarians who stayed with only one or two libraries throughout their career (Wilder, 1999,p. 19).The range of years of these one-or-two-library librarians grows steadily to include up to thirty years. This suggests that librarians who obtained their initial degree prior to the “Technological Revolution” comprise a large contingen- cy of present library staffs. There is a normal attrition of librarians who leave the profession, retire, or are dissatisfied with their career for a variety of reasons. The adjustment to technology and the change it brings is only one reason for this attrition. But if that were too much of a reason, then there might be more librarians leaving (or being forced to leave) the ranks than the numbers indicate. Either midcareer librarians have adjusted to the changes of technology, or they have found some other source of job satisfaction (Kem, 1996) so that the positions requiring increased number of years of experience seem to be met by most libraries. Evan St. Lifer (2000) has commented on the number of vacancies anticipated as the current librarians who entered the library field in the 1970s and 1980s begin to retire. The number of people obtaining library training has seen an increase in the 1990s (p. 40). The people hiring these new graduates may have obtained their own degrees in the 1960s, 1970s, or 1980s.As was shown in the position study of qualifications, administrators have had to have “technology“as part of their own resume so that they could make informed decisions-primarily regarding technologcal plans- about the recruitment of new librarian positions. It appears that technology has had little “bad” effect on the midcareer librarian. Rather, it has made for changes in what is expected of a midcareer librarian. REFERENCES Buttlar, L., & Du Mont, R. (1996). Library and information science competencies revisited. Journal of Education for Library & Information Science, 37(1), 44-62. Hildenbrand, S. (1999). The information age versus gender equity? Technology and values in education for library and information science. Libraq Trends, 47, 669-685. Kem, C. R. (1996). The relationship between Hmbrrgk motivator/hypenr theory and work behavior typrr in academic libraries inFlorida. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Dissertation Services. Simmons-Welburn,J. (2000). Changzng roles of library professionals: SPEC kit 256. Washington, DC: Association of Research Libraries. St. Lifer, E. (2000). The boomer brain drain: The last of a generation? Library Journal, 125(8), 38-42. Wanden, J. A. (1995). Alternative education options for library staff. Journal of Educationfor Library &Information Science, 36( l),29-32. Wilder, S. (1999). The age demographics of academic librarians: A profession apart. Journal of Library Administration, 28(3),1-84. 724 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

ADDITIONALREADINGS Budd, J. M., & Miller, L. K. (1999, Spring). Teaching for technology: Current practice and future direction. Infmation Trchnolqq &Libraries, 18(2),78-83. Massey-Burzio, V. (1999). The rush to technology: A view from the humanists. Library Trends, 47, 620-639. About the Contributors

ANNE BRICE is Head of Knowledge and Information Sciences in the Pub- lic Health Resource Unit, Oxford. Brice is contracted for two days a week as a health-knowledge management consultant to the Director of Research and Knowledge Management, NHS South East Region, and for two days a week to the National Electronic Library for Health. After qualifjmg in 1983, she worked at the Royal Postgraduate Medical School, followed by a post at Queen Mary College, both in the University of London. Following six years as Regional Librarian in the Borders Health Board, Scotland, she was appointed in 1995 as Librarian at the Institute of Health Sciences, Univer- sity of Oxford. She moved to the post of Assistant Director of the Health Care Libraries Unit, University of Oxford from 1996-2002 and was responsible for coordinating and facilitating training, networking, and cooperation among the member libraries of the Health Libraries and Information Network. Brice’s current professional interests include e-learning in evidence-based health care, mentoring and professional development, knowledge management, and evidence-based librarianship.

CATHRYN BROWN is Education, Training, and Development Lead for the Local Implementation Strategy program in Oxfordshire, which implements the recommendations for Information for Health within the local health community. Prior to that, she was Library and Information Services Man- ager for West Berkshire Priority Care Service NHS Trust-a Mental Health, Learning Disability, and Community Services Trust. She has an M.Sc. in Health Information Management and the Use of Computers in Libraries from the University of Wales, Aberystwyth and is currently studying Project Management with the Open University. Her professional interests are around personal and professional development of staff. 726 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

KATHERINE MURPHY DICKSON retired after many years from the Li- brary at the Naval Academy in 1998 and is working part-time at her local public library.

RONALD G. EDWARDS is the Director of Library Services at Chippewa Val- ley Technical College in Eau Claire, Wisconsin. He is the author of numerous articles on library issues (including diversity and information literacy), has given presentations nationally and internationally, and has taught a variety of courses at the university level.

MARILYN KAY HAWis an Associate Professor in the Department of Library Science at Clarion University in Clarion, Pennsylvania. She has held a wide variety of jobs in libraries from page to director. Harhai has been involved in graduate education for over a decade. She is currently in the dissertation phase of a Ph.D. in Education at Barry University in Miami Shores, Florida. B.S. (University of Colorado), M.L.S. (University of Pitts- burgh),J.D. (University of Colorado).

MARIE HICKMAN is Library Services Manager at the Royal Berkshire and Battle Hospitals NHS Trust. She qualified with a B.A. (Hons.) in Informa- tion and Library Management in 1992. Her previous post was at Maidstone Hospital in Kent, and she has been at the Royal Berkshire Hospital since 1998. She is a member of the Professional Development Group of the Health Libraries and Information Network (HeLIN) of the former Oxford NHS Region. Professional interests include developing library staff and exploring new technology to deliver quality library services.

MARLIS HUBBARD is an Associate Librarian at Concordia University, where she is Coordinator of the Career Resource Centre, Counselling and Development. She is author of Deueloping a Career Information Centre (Mon- treal: Career Information Resource Advisory Group, 1987) and the Directo- ry of Career Information Resource Centres (Toronto: Career Information Re- source Advisory Group, 1983). She was President of the Eastern Canada Chapter of the Special Libraries Association from 1998-1999 and Cochair of the Canadian Career Information Association from 1994-96. She also presented “ReinventingYourself” at the Canadian Library Association An- nual Conference in 1997 and “Discovering Career Information for Your- self and Your Users” at the Canadian Library Association 46th Annual Con- ference in 1991.

TIMOTHYJ. JOHNSON is Curator of Special Collections and Rare Books and Interim Curator of theJames Ford Bell Library at the University of Min- nesota Libraries, Twin Cities campus. He has a B.A. in History from North Park College in Chicago (1979), an M.A. in Library Science from the Uni- CONTRIBUTORS 727 versity of Minnesota (1982),and a M.A. in Theological Studies from North Park Theological Seminary (1998). He has served at Barat College in Lake Forest, Illinois as Instructional Services Librarian and Library Director (1982-87); at Lake Forest Hospital as Medical Librarian (1986-87) ;and at North Park University as Director of Archives (1987-98). Johnson joined the University of Minnesota Libraries staff in July 1998.

MARILYN P. LEWIS obtained her M.S.L.S. from the University of South- ern California in 1975 after working for several years as a paraprofessional in an academic library and in a schooldistrict library. She has had a document published in SmdsReview that reports on the North Carolina Serials Conference. It is part of a column entitled “Serials Spoken Here.” She has also reported meeting proceedings on an electronic discussion list (safety- [email protected], 10 Feb. 1999) and has had a brief summary of the same meeting published in Library Administration & Management.

RICHARD M. MALINSKI is currently the Director, Open College, Continu- ing Education Division, at Ryerson University in Toronto. In this capacity, he has built up and now manages a team which develops, maintains, and supports the delivery of some 130 credit courses via the Internet, through print and audio/print combination. He has a varied education and work background having several degrees and having worked in four Canadian university libraries, the last being at Ryerson where he was the Chief Librar- ian. He also does international work through the Office of International Affairs, Ryerson and teaches management and organizational behaviour courses in Continuing Education.

CATHERINEJ. MATTHEWS, M.L.S., has been the Chief Librarian of Ry- erson University, Toronto, since August 2000. Prior to joining Ryerson, She spent twenty-four years at the University of Toronto, as the head of the Centre of Criminology Library and later Information Service (1976-96), and then as Chief Librarian of the University of Toronto at Mississauga (1996-2000). She is the author/coauthor of a number of publications, including Canadian Criminal Justice History (1987).

DENISE L. MONTGOMERY has been Reference Librarian and Head of Interlibrary Loan at Valdosta State University, Valdosta, GA, since arriving there in 1984.Montgomery holds an undergraduate degree in English from Sweet Briar College and a M.L.S. from Florida State University. Publications include an article on telefacsimile service in Georgia libraries in the Jour- nal of Interlibrary Loan and Information Supply, two articles coauthored with two members of the Valdosta State University History Department about the Farm Security Administration photographers in Georgia for The Geor- gia Historical Quartert$ and the ongoing Princess Diana Shopping Arcade 728 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

at http://www.geocities.com/highgrove.geo/. Research interests include the visits to the Americas by members of the British Royal Family and the editori- al career of Jacqueline Onassis.

DANIEL F. PHELAN is the Head of Technical Services at Ryerson Univer- sity Library in Toronto. Sincejoining Ryerson seventeen years ago, Phelan has had a variety of positions including AV Librarian, Science and Technol- ogy Librarian, and Head of Interlibrary Loans and Access Services. Prior to coming to Ryerson he held positions at North Bay Public Library, the University of Manitoba, and McGill University, where he obtained his M.L.S. degree. Currently, Phelan is completing a master’s degree from the Uni- versity of Calgary, which combines the fields of adult education, organizational development, and workplace learning. His publications include an article on the Canadian National Site Licensing Project in Against the Crain. His professional interests include distance education, document delivery, and information literacy.

LINDA LOOS SCARTH is Reference Librarian at Mount Mercy College, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. As well as providing reference service to the college, she teaches information retrieval, evaluation, and use, Web-page construction, use of course-management software, and related topics; and she built the Busse Library’s Web presence along with two colleagues. She received her undergraduate degree from the University of Wisconsin-Madison, a master’s from the Pennsylvania State University, a doctorate from the University of Georgia, and her M.L.S. from the University of Iowa. Scarth reviews reference materials for several publications. Prior to coming to Mount Mercy College, she taught at the university level in the US. and worked as a school counselor in Australia. She is also a nature photographer.

LIS THORBURN is the professional development assistant at the Health Care Libraries Unit, a department of the University of Oxford that coordinates activity and resource-sharing amongst the libraries in the NHS Oxford Deanery (four counties) Region. Thorburn graduated in 1995with a B.A. (Hons.) in Library and Information Management and has worked mainly in library administrative support posts. Since 1999 she has worked specifically supporting the work of the Health Libraries and Information Network (HeLIN) Professional Development Group in coordinating, facilitating, and promoting continuing professional development for HeLIN staff. This role reflects her professional interest in training and development.

CANDY (BOGAR) ZEMON, after working in libraries throughout her for- mative years, obtaining her M.L.S. from the University of Michigan in 1973, and holding a professional position within the University of Michigan Li- brary system, has spent the entire balance of her professional life outside CONTRIBUTORS 729 libraries proper, working with and for various library automation vendors. Approaching the age of fifty, She found herself at a personal crossroads and chose to leave her position with a library vendor in order to cofound Pigasus Software, Inc., a company dedicated to creating and marketing a flexible automated interlibrary loans/resource-management tool for libraries (the WINGS Request Management System). At Pigasus, she rediscovered the library world from a new perspective. It was during her time as President of Pigasus Software, Inc. that this article was written. Since the writing, she has changed paths again and is currently employed as a Senior Product Strategist by Gaylord Information Systems. She retains her entrepreneurial leanings as Vice President of Hen’s Teeth Network. This Page Intentionally Left Blank Index to Volume 50

PREPAREDBY MARILYNJ. ROWLAND

Abels, E. G., 245 Amazon.com, working conditions, academic librarians, career transitions, 228-29 619-23 American Association of Medical Col- academic libraries leges, 48 becoming a chief librarian, 578- American Libraries, analysis of position 97 advertisements in, 717,719-22 employment process, 635-36 American Library Association (ALA), funds spent by, 265-66 48,73-74,276,292,607,610,628, job rotation in, 673-80 702 public libraries us., 631, 632, 638 analogy, information literacy technolo- Academic Pioneer, 61 gy and, 83,84 Academy of Certified Archivists, 619 Anglo-Arnm’can cataloguing rules, 334, accredited library programs, 623 335,340 accuracy, of reference query responses, Anshen, R. N., 527 188 anticipatory socialization, 583-84, 585 acquisitions theory, 353-54,360-61 antithesis, 320 active learning applied mathematics, 394 in distance education, 11-12 archivists in problem-based learning, 48 career transition options, 624 in Web-based instruction, 37 credentials of, 618-19 Adamic, L. A., 385 librarian career transitions, 61 7-19 adjustment stage, Transition Cycle Ardito, S., 274 Model, 590-94 Aristophanes, 174 “advance organizer,” 99 artificial intelligence, 398 aging of information, 554,555-56,561 Ask Jeeves, 271 recent/relevant, 555-56, 561 assessment. See also evaluation; re- aging of librarians, 596, 722 search performance assessment; career evaluation and, 575-76 skills assessment Aguillo, I. F., 376, 383 California State University library Alabama Virtual Library, 264 instruction program, 32 Albert, R., 385 chief librarian’s “report card,” ALlSE Statistical Report, 256 594-95,597-600 aliteracy, reference services and, 178 of Fullerton First Year Program Almind, T. C., 375 (FFY), 35 AltaVista, 375, 377, 378, 379, 383, 384 in online courses, 156-57 Surprise link, 376 of reference services, 177 ’732 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

assignments Bentham, Jeremy, 226 authentic, in online courses, 151- Berge, Z., 155 52 Berra, Yogi, 629 collaborative, 259 Bharat, K., 375 distance education, 15-18, 259 bias library instruction program, 36- in journal evaluation, 429-30 37 in survey samples, 210 Association for International Practical bibliographic organization Training, 607 empiricism and, 337-44 Association of American Publishers, pragmatism and, 335-36 277 relationships, 340,345 Association of College & Research Li- bibliometric laws, 384-85, 386, 399 braries (ACRL), 74 bibliometric performance indicators Association of Research Libraries applications of, 518-19 (ARIA),718 international orientation, 511-13 Assouline, B., 379 journal ranking, 510-1 1 asynchronous communication, in on- in legal research, 498-519 line courses, 152-53 publication output, 506-11 atmosphere models, 92-94,95-96 research performance indicators, Ausabel, D. P., 99 514-15 authentic assignments, 151-52 studies, 503-5 authorities (Web pages), 383-84 units of analysis, 505-6 authority, of reference query re- bibliometric professionals, 314-15 sponses, 189 bibliometric studies, coauthorship, authority control research, 338 461-73 author productivity, 339,46142,467- Biomedical Library Web, 54 72,487 biomedical research, coauthorship authorship patterns, 461-73 patterns in, 463-73 automated call distribution (ACD), 223 Blecic, D. D., 363 Autonomous Citation Indexing (ACI), Blessinger, K., 250 378 Bogle Pratt International Travel Fund, average impact factor, 431,434 610 Bohr, Niels, 479 backlinks, to Web sites, 377 Bollacker, K., 377-78, 380-83 Barabasi, A. L., 385 Bonitz, Manfred Barcellos, S., 214-15 “Ranking of Nations and Height- Bardwick,J. M., 622, 702,704, 705, ened Competition in the Matthew 708,709,711,712 Core Journals: Two Faces of the Bar-Ilan, J., 372, 375-76, 379, 380, 381, Matthew Effect for Countries,” 384,386 440-59 Barron, D. D., 250 book clubs, 278 Bartlett, R. A,, 273 Boolean algebra, 397 Basch, R., 268, 270 Boulding, K. E., 324 basic citation model, 434 Bourdieu, Pierre, 218,239, 240 Bateman, J., 373 Bourke, P., 564-65 Bauer, C., 382 Boyle, Robert, 94, 102 Bauer, David G., 610 Bradford’s law, 384 BBC, Radio 4,279 Brand, Stewart, 266 Beaver, D. deB., 462,486,487 Brandt, D. Scott Beghtol, C., 343 “Information Technology Litera- Belkin, N. J.,525, 547 cy: Task Knowledge and Mental Belt, V., 226 Models,” 73-85 INDEX 733

Braun, T., 462, 472 Canadian Library Association, 610 Braunstein, Y M., 373 Capra, F., 479 Bray, T., 374 card catalogs, 334-35 Brett, J. M., 596 Career Change: Euwything You Need to Brewington, B. E., 386 Know to Meet New Challenges and Brice, Anne Take Control of Your Career (Hel- “HeLIN Pilot Mentoring fand) ,645,649 Scheme,” 65 1-64 career management. See also midlife Brin, S., 381, 383 career transitions Britannica Online, 36 books for, 640-49 British Open University, 147 job rotation, 673-80 Brittan, S., 282 planning for transitions, 581-82, Broder, A., 374,385 620-21,623-25 Brody,J., 280 sabbaticals and, 603-12 Brookes, B. C., 371,523 skills and, 604, 640-41 Brown, Cathryn, 651 career transitions, 578-97. See also Brown,J. S., 295,299 midlife career transitions Buchanan, R., 227,230-31,233-39 competency assessment and, 580 Bucy, E. P., 376,382 institutional expectations and, 582 Budd, J. M., 253 knowledge and, 580-81 Butler, L., 564-65 library skills and, 604 midcareer, 614-29 Cable, D. M., 583-84 planning, 581-82,620-21,623-25 California, University of, Los Angeles, plateauing and, 710 47-56 professional development and, California, University of, Riverside, 271 580-81 California Digital Library, 264 to public libraries, 631-39 California State University, Fullerton Transition Cycle Model, 579-80 interdisciplinary studies, 31 Career Xroads (Crispin and Mehler) , library instruction program, 29- 641,644 45 Carr-Chellman, Alison, and Duchastel, library learning environment, 28- Philip 45 “Ideal Online Course, The,” 145- student characteristics, 29 58 California State University system, 28 Carson, K. D., 622 call centers Carson, P. P., 622 call handling by, 224-25 Carter, D., 212, 265 characteristics of, 218 case briefing deskilling in, 222-26 defined, 144n.12 employee surveillance in, 228 online course development, 138- future of, 232-34 40 global outsourcing, 230 case studies, for evaluating reference inbound, 231 services, 214 mini, 228 catalogs politics of, 226-30 dictionary, 334 as reference service model, 218- pragmatism and, 338 42 rationalism and, 343 staffing, 223,225 theory development of, 334 women employees, 218,230-33 catchy phrase effect, 421,434 working conditions, 226-30 CD-ROM databases, 193, 289 Callimachus of Cyrene, 174 celestial mechanics, 351 Campbell,J. D., 264 censorship, in public libraries, 634-35 734 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Center for Software Engineering (Cen- Matthew, 442,450-51 si), 116-17 Matthew effect for countries Central Florida, University of, 130-43 (MEC),440-59 Centre for Science and Technology Matthew Index, 445-46 Studies (CWTS), Leiden Universi- models, 425-26 ty, 418,501 practices, in writing about theory, Chakrabarti, S., 377 414 Chandler, Yvonne J. scientific publications, 564-66 “Reference in Library and Infor- sources of, 427 mation Science Education,” 245- citation theory, 313-14, 358 61 ranking Web sites with, 377-78 Change YourJob, Change Your Life: High Clap, V. W., 336,337 Impact Strategies for Finding Great classification systems Jobs in The Decade Ahead (Kran- epistemology and, 342-43 nich), 645-46 history of, 332-246 Chatman, Elfreda, 407 library’s responsibility for, 185 chemistry research, coauthorship pat- for reference queries, 177 terns in, 463-73 for scholarly sources, 506-8 Chen, H. M., 363 theory and, 331,336 chief librarians, 578-97 theory of, 354,361 colleague relationships, 593 utility of, 336 “report card” assessment, 594-95, Clip-Joint model, 521,525,528-29, 597-600 531 search committees for, 587 coauthorship, 314, 462 Child, William B., 287 analysis methods, 488-91 Chinese Science Citation Database author productivity and, 461-62, (CSCD), 434 467-72,487 Chinese Scientific and Technical Pa- contradictory effects of, 462-63 pers and Citations (CSTPC), 429, database indexing and, 470,472 434 data sources, 463 Chisman,J., 213 gestalt theory and, 474-97 Choo, C. W., 580,581 growth in, 462,464 Chressanthis, G. A., 360 impact factors and, 468,470 Chressanthis,J. D., 360 Lotka’s law and, 495-96 Circuits of Theory, 317, 318-19, 322- master-apprentice collaboration, 28 487 applying to research process, 326- master-master collaboration, 487 27 patterns and trends, 461-73 modules, 322-26 search strategies and, 470, 472 taxonomy of theory and, 318, social networks and, 486-96 327-28 coauthorship networks circulation theory, 355, 362-64, 367 gestalts in, 474 citation pool, 434 similarities and differences in, citations 474-97 bias in, 429-30 cocitation analysis, 343, 346, 378-79 coauthorship and, 468,470-72 Coffman, S., 221, 222, 223-24,225, curve, 425 229, 230, 231, 232, 234, 241, 271, data mining, 53443,535-38 272 journal evaluation and, 419,425- cognitive coordination, 541-42 29 cognitive development stages, 138-40 journal rankings and, 427-29,451 collaborative assignments, 259 local indices, 429 collections INDEX 735

development, in public us. aca- for teaching search strategies, demic libraries, 634 110-25 theory of, 354-55,362 technology analysis for, 120 college librarians. Seeacademic librar- tutorial design, 116-23 ies use in distance education, 114-16 college students. See students computer literacy command subforce, 521,526 freshman college program, 31-45 commercial reference services, 270-72 information literacy and, 2, 75-76 fees, 271-72,277, 295 instruction in, by reference librar- Committee on Institutional Coopera- ians, 266-69 tion (CIC) libraries, 621 search strategies tutorial develop- communication ment and, 120 asynchronous, 152-53 computers in distance education, 22-24, 258 components of, 532 e-mail, 22-24, 153-54 growth in use of, 290 mailing lists, 22-24, 713-14 information processing and, 532 in online courses, 152-54 medical school requirements, 55 reference interviews, 254 as models of human brain, 104n.6 reference services, 152-54, 254, public access to, 273 298-99 student access to, 120 synchronous, 153 concepts, 320 community conciseness principle, 474, 475-76 collection development and, 634 Concordia University, 605, 610-1 1 library promotion within, 190 conference attendance, on sabbatical, library support of, 292 607-8 public libraries and, 184-86, 631- Conlon, G., 226-27, 228 32,637 Connell, T. H., 213 social change and, 291-93 Conroy, B., 622,624 technology and, 292-93 constructivism community service sabbaticals, 608 information technology literacy Competenciesfor Special Librarians of the and, 81-83 21st Century, 604 online course design and, 148, competition, scientificjournal cita- 157 tions and, 452 content analysis complementarity, 474,479. See also in Library and Information Sci- Yin/Yang ence (LIS) research, 407 computer-assisted instrnction (CAI). of Web and Internet sources, 379- See also distance education; online 81 courses; tutorials, computer- content plateauing, 705, 707-9, 712 based; Web-based instruction continuing professional education (WBI) Library and Information Science appropriate applications for, 3 (LIS),259-60 benefits of, 116 mentoring and, 651-64 defined, 114 midcareer transitions and, 623-25 history of, 3-4 plateauing and, 711, 713 ideal online course, 4 Cook, M., 628 notebooks in, 121-22 Cooper, M. D., 363 objectives or outcomes for, 121 Copernicus, 350-51 performance assessment, 121-23 copyright Status Of, 1-5 hackers and, 277 student response to, 124-25 online books and, 276-78 support for, 121 core documents, 472-73 736 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Council for International Exchange of databases Scholars, 610 end-user searching of, 289 country rankings, Matthew effect for journal evaluation and, 421 countries (MEC),440-59 retrieval for Web studies, 375 course development searchable FAQ (frequently asked Library and Information Science questions), 301 (LIS) education, 252-60 searching, 193 relevance criteria and, 204 vague queries, 398 conrse evaluation, 21-22 data collection methods Courselnfo Web site, library instruc- crawling, 374 tion program, California State database retrieval, 37.5 University, 41-43 monitoring/logging, 373-74 course management, 18-22,26 sampling, 374-75 coword analysis, 346, 378-79 search engine retrieval tools, 375- Cox, Suellen, and Houseright, Eliza 76 beth surveys, 372-73 “Teaching from the Web: Con- for Web studies, 372-76 structing a Library Learning Envi- data-entry clerks, 231-32 ronment Where Connections can data mining, 534-43 be Made,” 28-45 Deakin University, Australia, 148 CQResearrher, 36 Dean,J., 378-79 Crandall, M., 340 Debons, A,,524 Crawford, W., 247 Decimal Classzjication (Dewey), 335 critical thinking, 87-89 definitions, 320 Cronenweth, S., 524 de Lange, C., 463-64 Cronin, B., 375,380 democracy, reference services and, 181 Cronin, Lynda, 605 dependent variables, 359 Crosby, O., 246 de hjk, E., 333 cross-training programs, 707-8 derivative relationships, 340 Crotts,J., 361 Dervin, B., 234, 525, 547 Cui, L., 377 deskilling, in library call-center model, cultural knowledge, 582-84, 590 222-26 cumulative growth of publi cati ons, developmental level Webbased cours- 553-54 es, 136-37 exponential model of, 554 Devlin, K., 523 linear model of, 554 Dewey, Melville, 249, 330, 332, 334- Curran, C., 352 35 Curran, M., 379,384 diachronous impact factors, 423-24, Curtis,J., 228 433-34 customer senice representatives dialetcial process, 320 call centers and, 229-30 DIALOG, 267 global outsourcing of, 230 Dick, A. L., 342 reference librarians as, 299 Dickson, Katherine Murphy Cutter, Charles Ammi, 173, 330, 332, “WorkJournal, A,” 687-701 334,335 dictionary catalogs Cybenko, G., 386 rationalism and, 343 Czerwon, H. J., 472,473 theory development, 334 Dievko,Juris Daksh.com, 229-30 “Ideological Analysis of Reference Darling, Louise M., Biomedical Li- Service Models, An, 218-42 brary, 47-56 digital divide, 178-80, 273 database indexing, 470,472 digital literacy, 2 INDEX 737 digital reference call service model. See tutorial design for, 116-23 call centers Web-based instruction, 11-12 digital reference services, 194-95, Distance TGE Tutorial Program, 541- 207-16 42 availability of, 265-66 distributed learning, 4, 148 recommendations for, 300-304 diverse populations, public libraries Diller, K., 213 and, 635 Dillman, D. A,, 210 Dixon,J., 372 Direct Hit Service, 382 Douglis, F., 386 Directory of Archival Education in the Do What You Are: Discover the Perfect Ca- United States and Canada (Society reer for You Through the Secrpts of of American Archivists), 624 Personality Type (Tieger and Bar- Directory of Institutions Offering Ac- ron), 648 credited Master’s Programs, 623 Duchastel, Philip, and Carr-Chellman, disciplinary impact factors, 427 Alison discipline-specific resources, 40-41 “Ideal Online Course, The,” 145- Discover What You Are Best At (Gale and 58 Gale), 641, 644-45 Duguid, P., 295, 299 discussion groups. See mailing lists Dziuban, Charles D., and Pyle, Rans- dissimilarities,social networks and, ford C. 477-78,479-86 “Technology:Servant or Master of distance education. See also computer- the Online Teacher?”, 130-44 assisted instruction (CAI);online courses; Web-based instruction Earlham College, 85 Eble, Kenneth, 133 active leaning in, 11-12 e-books, 272-74 benefits of, 14,114-16,147-48 ebrary.com, 265 characteristics of, 4, 113 Eccles Health Sciences Library server, collaborative assignments, 259 63 communication in, 22-24,258 edge effect, 477,483-86 computer-assisted education in, EDUCATE program, 111 114-16 Edwards, Ronald G. continuing education, 259-60 “Migrating to Public Librarian- course assignment performance, ship: Depart on Time to Ensure a 15-18 Smooth Flight,” 631-39 course management, 18-22,26 Egghe, L., 382, 384, 429 defined, 6n.9, 8 e-ink, 274 effectivenessof, 11-18,112-13 e-journals growth of, 59-60,147,256 evaluation of, 418, 426-27 information literacy courses, 8- impact factors for, 426-27 26,58-70 visibility indicators for, 426-27 models for, 257 Electric Library, 271 prior computing experience and, electronic document depositories, 543, 13, 18, 26 545 reference education and, 255- electronic reference services. See digi- 59 tal reference services registration, 11, 19-20 electronic surveillance, of call center student attitudes toward, 18-22 employees, 228 for teaching search strategies, “electroweak theory, 351 110-25 Ellis, S., 231 technology development and, e-mail 255-56 call center requirements, 229 738 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

career development and, 714 feedback, for chief librarians, 594-495, communication through, 22-24, 597-600 153-54 Feldman, D. C., 596 conducting surveys using, 373 Feldmann, A., 386 limitations of, 51 fellowships, sabbaticals for, 606-7 for online course communication. Ferguson, C. D., 221,231,233,241 153-54 Fern5ndez, M. T., 462 reference assistance through, 50- Fernie, S., 226 51 Fidel, R., 340 reference services, 179, 298 Finding Basic Clinical Information student use of, 22-24 (FBCI) Web site, 53, 54 survey research using, 210-11 Flemish Inter-University Council empiricism, 342 (VLIR), 500 defined, 32526,330 flexible learning, 148 history of, 337-41 focus group interviews, 214 relevance of, 343-44 forecasting studies, 364 encounter stage, transition Cycle Mod- formal theories, 321. See also theory el, 585-90 Foucault, Michel, 226 end-user searching, 374 Foundations Web site, 54 engagement, 155 Fourie, Ina entertainment, online, 279-80 “Use of CAI for Distance Teaching entity-relationship design, 340-41 in the Formulation of Search entrepreneurship, 665-72 Strategies, The,” 110-25 “environmental scanning,” 235 fractal theory, 384 epistemology, 326, 342-44 frequency distributions, 358 Erdos, Paul, 380 Fritch, John W., and Mandernack, Erlang, A. R, 223 Scott B. Erlang C algorithm, 223, 224 “Emerging Reference Paradigm, Essinger,J., 524 The: A Vision of Reference Servic- evaluation. Spe also assessment; journal es in a Complex Information Envi- evaluation ronment,” 286-304 questionnaires, 208-1 2 Fry Leadership Institute, 581 of reference services, 207-16 Fullerton First Year Program (FFY), surveys, 208-12 30-45 Excite, 375, 379 functional literacy, 178 Exon, F. C. A., 362 Fundingfor United States Study; A Guide expectancy-valence theory, 583 for Znternational Students and Profes- experts directory, 542-44 sionals (O’Sullivan), 610 expert systems, 398 fuzzy clustering, 398, 399 explanatory theory, 357-67 Fuzzy Commonality Model (FCM), external validity, 341, 345 315,521,525,529-34 applications, 541-43 face-to-face reference services. See hu- data collection and analysis, 535- man-to-human reference services 41 faculty, user-centered relevance criteria examples, 534 of, 197-206 Q-C-S-T chaining process, 529-33, FAQ (frequently asked questions) da- 538,545 tabases, 301 Q-T-SCchaining process, 529-33, farming, 534 538,540,545 Faster (Gleick), 683 Fuzzy Set Theory (FST), 312,393-402 fee-based reference services, 271-72, basis of, 395 237,295 in information retrieval, 397-98 INDEX 739

in informetrics and bibliometrics, Gbrnez, I, 462 399-400 Google, 377, 424 in Library and Information Sci- Gordon, M., 381 ence, 396-401 Gorman, M., 297,337-38 library applications, 396 Gorman, Michael literature of, 401-2 “Values for Human-to-Human fuzzy thesauri-based retrieval, 398 Reference,” 168-82 governmental library internships, 606- Gabarro,J.J.,580, 592 7 Gabehart, A. D., 619 Gozansky,N. E., 503 Gagne, R., 155 Grabe, M. E., 376, 382 Gale Directory of Learning Worldwide, 609 grading, in online courses, 132-33, Galileo, 92-93 142 Garfield, E., 378,451,525 graduate education Garfield impact factor, 421-25,434, assistantships, 259 563, 568. See also impact factors Web-based delivery of, 257-60 Garnsey, B. A,, 212 Grams, E. S., 376 Garvey, W. D., 565-66,567 Gramsci, A., 232 Gaylord Information Systems, 665 grand theory, 321 Gehrig, Lou, 614-15 grand unified library theory, 355-56 Gemeinschaft, 29 1-93 Gray, S. M., 213, 298 general-interest reading, by reference Green, R., 340 librarians, 234-39 Green, Samuel S., 170-71,180,186- generalizations, 321 90,250 Genoni, P., 657 Green, T., 626 geographic penetration, of journals, Griffith, B. C., 566 419 Grimes, B., 269 Gesellchaft,29 1-93 Grimes, D. J., 273 Gestalt psychology, 475 Grogan, D., 236-37,239 gestalts Grover, Robert, and Glazier,Jack D. in coauthorship networks, 474 “Multidisciplinary Framework for defined, 475,476 Theory Building, A,” 317-28 in international science networks, Gullberg, M., 265-66 491-95 in social networks, 476-86 Haas, S. W., 376 gestalt theory, 314, 474-97 hackers, copyright issues and, 277 Gibson, D., 377 hands-on problem solving, 81, 83 Giles, C. L., 373, 374, 377-78, 380-83 Hannaford, W. E., 351,355 Gilster, Paul, 100, 101 Hansen, Carol Glanzel, Wolfgang, 428 “Internet Navigator, The: An On- “Coauthorship patterns and line Internet Course for Distance Trends in the Sciences (1980- Learners,” 58-70 1998):A Bibliometric Study with Harhai, Marilyn Kay Implications for Database Index- “Maybe It’s Not Too Late to Join ing and Search Strategies,” 461-73 the Circus: Books for Midlife Ca- Glaser, B. G., 319 reer Management,” 640-50 Glazier, Jack D., and Grover, Robert Harris, R. M., 223, 225, 232 “Multidisciplinary Framework for Harter, S. P., 376-78 Theory Building, A,” 317-28 Havener, W. M., 213 global impact factor, 431,4350 Hayes, R. M., 362 global outsourcing, 230, 232 Health Care Libraries Unit (HCLU), Goffman, W., 523-24,525 University of Oxford, 651, 652 740 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Health Libraries and Information Net- Hutchens, M., 235 work (HeLIN) hybrid Web-based courses, 141-42 mentoring program, 651-64 Hyde, Thomas, 333 Heckart, R.J., 221 hypothesis, 320 Heim, K. M., 256 Henzinger, M., 378-79,382 I Could Do Anything IfI Only Knm What Hermans, R., 619,628 It Was (Sher and Smith), 641, Hernon, P., 596 647-48 Heydon, A., 382 immediacy index, 422-23,435 Hickey, D.J., 336-37 impact factors, 313. SPPalsojournal Hickman, Marie, 651 impact factors Hicks, R., 524 average, 431, 435 high school Internet skills, 10 bias and, 429-30 historicism, 342-44 calculating, 422-25 Hj~rland,B., 342, 343 coauthorship and, 468 holistic theories, 475 diachronous, 42344,433-34 Holzner, B., 325 disciplinary, 427 homework. See assignments for ejournals, 426-27 Hood, William H., and Wilson, Con- global, 431, 435 cepcion journal, 345,422-33 “Solving Problems in Library and journal evaluation and, 422-33 Information Science using Fuzzy journal ranking and, 427-29 Set Theory (FST)”,393-402 as quality measures, 431-32 Hopkins, R. L., 255 standard IS1 (Garfield), 421-25, Horne, E., 524 434,436,563,568 Hothot, 3’77 synchronous, 423,426,433,436 Houseright, Elizabeth, and Cox, inbound call centers, 231 Suellen independent variables, 359 “Teaching from the Web: Con- indexes structing a Library Learning Envi- Internet as, 97-98 ronment Where Connections can periodical, 38-39 be Made,” 28-45 indexing HTML format, 435 Fuzzy Set theory and, 397-98 Hubbard, Marlis language, 105n.23 “Exploring the Sabbatical or Oth- relevance criteria and, 202 er Leave as a Means of Energizing index of research potential realized, a Career,” 603-13 422 Huberman, B. A,, 385 India, customer service workers, 230 hubs (Web pages), 383-84 Indiana-Purdue University at Indianap- humanities research olis (IUPUI) ,85 bibliometric parameters in, 498- Indiana University, Bloomington, li- 519 braries, 674 lack of standardization in, 502 indicators use of theory in, 407-16 bibliometric performance, 498- human-to-human reference services 519 alternatives to, 171-72, 179-80 defined, 435 characteristics of,170-71 identifylng and calculating, 382- demise of, 170-72, 173,208,221 83 online reference services us., 298- individual knowledge, 324-2’7 99 infomapping, 541-42 rationalism and, 176-77 infon, 524 reference interviews, 295-96 information INDEX 741

aging, 554,555-56,561 Information Processing and Management defined, 523-24,557 (IPh'M), 407-8 knowledge us., 299-300 information resources information generating model (IGM), access to, 265-66,272, 287 315,521 institutionalization of scientific Clip-Joint as supporting conceptu- information and, 553-68 al model, 528 overwhelming abundance of, Fuzzy Commonality Model (FCM) 266-67,292 and, 529-34 reference librarian role in mediat- Mobius Strip-Twist as supporting ing, 270 conceptual model, 527-29 teaching the diverse formats of, as primary conceptual model, 255 526-27 using effectively, 294 subforces, 526-27 information retrieval information genetics (IG), 521-48 Fuzzy Set Theory and, 393,397- applications, 541-48 98 command subforce, 521 through citation data mining, components of, 522-23 535-38 driving forces of, 522 through online searching, 535 query subforce, 521 information seeking, 533-34 statement subforce, 521 information services term-term bond subforce, 521 Fuzzy Commonality Model (FCM) theory of, 522-29 and, 532-33 total quality knowledge manage- information technology ment and, 541 distance learning and, 255-56 universal information generating, Library and Information Science 522-23,545 (LIS) education and, 248-50 information literacy reference roles and, 246, 247-48, competencies, 55 263-83 computer literacy and, 2 information technology literacy, 73-85 defined, 74 defined, 75 distance education courses in, 8- goal of, 81 26,58-70 information literacy and, 73 goals of, 48-49 instructional systems design, 76- instruction recommendations, 78 300-304 mental models, 81-83 medical school library instruction task knowledge, 79-82 program, 47-56 informetric theories need for, 73-74 bibliometric laws and, 384, 386 online library instruction pro- characteristics and measurements, gram, 28-45 387-88 outcomes, 85 citation analysis, 376-78 problem-based learning and, 48- cocitation analysis, 378-79 49 content analysis, 379-81 reference services instruction in, coword analysis, 378-79 187-88 evaluation using, 381-82 technological basis for, 75 Fuzzy Set Theory and, 399 Information Literacy Competency Stun- indicators, 382-83 dardsfor Higher Education, 294 models, 383-84 Information Literacy Standards for power laws and, 385 Higher Education (ACRL), 74 for Web studies, 371, 376-88 information processing, 532 Zipf-type laws and, 385 742 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Infoseek, 374 critical thinking and, 87-89 Ingwersen, P., 375,382-83 filtering devices, 635 In My WildestDreams: Skrnp'le Steps to a library use by users, 246 Fabulous Life (Blanke), 641,642 log files, data collection from, Institute for Higher Education Policy, 373-74 12, 14, 24 mental models of, 82-83 Institute for Scientific Information metaphors for, 89-91, 105n.22 (ISI), 421-22, 463, 498, 499 mistaken metaphors of, 96-98 defined, 435 as operating system, 100-102 standard IS1 (Garfield) factor, reference services and, 290-93 421-25,422-23,434,436,563, self-taught students of, 87-89 568 theoretical study of, 312 institutionalization of evaluative judg- user understanding of, 87-103 ments, 565 Internet and Personal ComputzngAb- institutionalization of scientific infor- stracts, 40 mation Internet Navigator online course, 58-70 models, 315-16,553-55,553-68 administration and funding, 66- relative publication growth index 70 and, 555-57 content development, 61-66 instructional systems design (ISD) , 76- goals, 64 78 modules, 62-63, 65-66 instructional technology Internet Public Library, 271 technology-driven, 130-31 Internet Public Library Reference Divi- intellectual freedom, 175-76 sion, 215 intelligent agents, 221, 535 Internet questionnaires and surveys interactive voice response (IVR)sys- comfort levels with, 211 tems, 223 evaluating reference services with, interdisciplinary studies 208-1 2 use of theory in, 414 problems with, 21 1 Web-based library learning pro- Internet Tools and Research Tech- gram, 31 niques course (Ohio State Univer- interlibrary lending (ILL) requests, sity), 9-26 421 communication challenges, 22-23 interlibrary loan/document delivery course evaluation, 21-22 software, 669-72 course profile, 10-12 interlibrary loan librarians, 671-72 grades, 17-18 Interlibrary Loan Protocol Implement- learner profile, 12-14 ers Group (IPIG), 669 performance measures, 14-15, International Federation of Library 14-18 Associations (IFLA), 249, 607 student attitudes, 18-22 international orientation, of publica- student self-regulation, 24-25 tions, 511-13 internship sabbaticals, 606-7 International Research and Exchange interpersonal relations matrix, 476-80 Board (IREX), 607 Inter-University Committee of the international science networks, gestalts Flemish Law Faculties, 504-5, 507, in, 491-95 508,516 International Summer School on the interviews Digital Library, 581 for determining relevance crite- Internet. See also mailing lists; World ria, 199-201 Wide Web for evaluating reference services, call centers, 221 214 content indicators, 89 Introduction to Information Technolo- INDEX 743

gy and Presentation course (Cali- geographic penetration, 419 fornia State University, Fullerton), glossary, 433-36 28-45 impact factors, 422-33 investiture process, 584 indicators, 418-21 ISI. See Institute for Scientific Informa- interest in, 419-20 tion (ISI) journal ranking, 510-11 IS1 impact factor, 435. See also impact Matthew effect for countries factors (MEC) and, 440-59 IS1 SCISEARCH Citation Index, 378 model-based approaches to, 418- It’s Only Too Late If You Don’t Start Now: 19 How To Create Your Second Life After popularity factor, 425 Forty (Sher), 647-48 prestige, 420, 430 publication output, 502, 510-11 Janes, J., 212, 213,265 purposes of, 419 Jansen, B. J.,373 rankings, 420,427-29,451 Jeong, H., 385 research performance assessment, job competency, 580-81 505-13 job creation, 227 self-citations,424-25 job descriptions, 682-83 journal impact factors, 345, 422-33. See job exchanges, 607 also impact factors job leaves coauthorship and, 468,470 options, 606-10 defined, 435 policies, 605-6 journal evaluation and, 422 sabbaticals, 603-12 Matthew effect for countries and, job market, midcareer transitions and, 448-50 627-28 using in evaluation studies, 430- job rotation, 673-80 32 advantages and disadvantages of, journal-keeping, 687-701 675-76 Journal of Documentation (JOOC),407-8 defined, 673 Journal of Educationfor Library and Infor- goals of, 677-78 mation Science (JELIS),407-8 literature on, 674-75 Journal of the American Society for Infor- process, 678-79 mation Science and Technology (JAS recommendations, 679-80 IST) ,407-8 job transitions. See career transitions journal self-citations, 424-25, 429, 470 Johnson, Timothy J. journal self-cited rate (SCD rate), 425, “Making it to the Major Leagues: 435 Career Movement between Li- journal self-citing rate (SCGrate), 425, brary and Archival Professions 436 and from Small College to Large journal weights, 510-1 1 University Libraries,” 614-30 Journal Citation Reports (JCR), 421 - Kaminer,N., 373 22,435,554 Kaplowitz, Joan R., and Yamamoto, journal evaluation, 418-36 David 0. bias in, 429-30 “Webbased Library Instruction characteristics of qualityjournals, for a Changing Medical School 420-21 Curriculum,” 47-56 citation impact, 419, 421-26, 430- Kasukabe, C., 364 33 Katz, Bill citation models, 425-26 “Long Live Old Reference Service economic indicators, 420 and New Technologies,” 263-83 of e-journals, 426-27 Katz, W. A,, 298 744 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Kellaway, L., 277 Lang, A., 376,382 Keller, L., 246 Larson, R., 378 Kellogg-ALISE KALIPER, 248,249, 252 lateral transfers, 665, 708 Kennard, William, 272 Launey, L., 709 Kesselman, M., 250 Iavrence, S., 373, 374, 377-78, 380-83 Kiernan, V., 275 learner analysis Kim, H., 524 for information technology litera- King, Stephen, 273, 277 cy programs, 77, 84 Kirkpatrick,J., 240 for search strategies tutorial, 119- Kishida, K., 360, 364 20 Kleinberg,J. M., 383-84 learner-centered education, 81-82 knowbot systems, 221, 286 learning knowledge active, 11-12, 37, 48 Circuits of Theory and, 325-26 computer-assisted instruction and, existing, 325-26 3-4 individual, 324, 325, 326, 327 flexible, 148 information us., 299-300 ideal online course, 154-56 job transition and, 581-82 metaphors and, 98-100 reference services and, 189-90 problem-based learning (PBL) , societal, 325, 326, 327 47-56 undiscovered, 325-26 reference services and, 178 knowledge-assisted document retrieval, student-centered, 148 398 through testing, 133 knowledge discovery, 535-36 Leavitt, Mike, 66 knowledge farms, 535 Leazer, C. H., 340,361 Knowledge Networks, 211 lecture courses knowledge organization ineffectiveness of, 81 empiricism and, 332 as online courses, 132, 135 epistemology and, 342-44 Lee, H. L., 362 history of, 332-246 “Left World” countries, 441-42, 446- pragmatism and, 332-37 48,450 theory of, 330-46 legal courses, Web-based, 134-42 Koch-Schulte, S., 227, 230-31, 233- legal research 39 bibliometric parameters in, 498- Koehler, W., 376, 386 519 Kohn, Alfie, 132-33 contributions in English, 516 Kovacs, D. K., 372 international orientation, 51 1-13 Koyama,J. T.,219 journal ranking, 510-11 Kramer, M. W., 593,594,595 lack of standardization in, 502 Kreider,J.,360 publication output, 506-1 1 Kretschmer, H., 461 research performance indicators, “Similarities and Dissimilarities in 514-15 Coauthorship Networks,” 474-97 research performance studies, Krishnamurthy, B., 386 503-5 Krugman, P., 282 Legal Resource Index (LRI), 503 Kuhlthau, C. C., 234, 525 Lehman, D. H., 363 Kuhn, T., 358 Leiden University, Centre for Science Kumar, R., 379 and Technology Studies (CWTS), 501 labor segmentation Lengermann, P. M., 240 in call centers, 230-32 Leonhardt, T.,274 in high technology, 232 Lewis, Marilyn P. INDEX 745

“Effects of Technology on Midca- assessment, 32 reer Librarians, The,” 717-24 benefits of Webbased program, Lexis/Nexis Academic Universe, 40 45 Leydesdorff, L., 379,384 content, 33-41 LIBEX Bureau for International Staff course development, 32 Exchange, 607 CourseInfo Web site, 41-43 librarians. See also reference librarians discipline-specific resources, 40- academic, 619-23 41 “administration” qualifications, evaluation, 43 721-23 full-text periodical and newspaper aging of, 575-76,596,722 indexes, 38-39 applying skills to other careers, homework assignments, 36-37 604 Lexis/Nexis Academic Universe, 40 archivist career transitions, 61 7- library home page, 34-35 19 online full-text background sourc- career planning, 581-82 es, 36-37 career stages, 575-76 online public access catalog chief, 578-97 (OPAC),34-36 credentials of, 618-19 Proguest Digest, 40 deprofessionalization of, 225-26 recommendations, 44-45 institutional expectations of, 582 syllabus, 41 interlibrary loan, 671-72 workshops, 43 job descriptions, 682-83 Library of California, 264 job restructuring, 620 Library of Congress, 247, 339 job transitions, 578-97 internshias.I, 606 motivation of, 582-83 Library Quarterly, The (LQQuarterly), plateauing, 624, 702-16 407-8 professional development, 580-81 library users professional networks, 581 Internet users as, 246 specialization by, 626-27 needs of, 278-79 “technology” qualifications, 721- life plateauing, 705-6, 709-1 1 23 Line, M., 419 librarianship theory, 350-68 literacy, 178 Library and Information Science (LIS) live reference services (remote), 179 education Lochstet, G., 363 continuing education, 259-60 log files, data collection through, 373- course design, 252-60 74 reference in, 245-61 Los Angeles County Public Library social knowledge and, 325 system, 224 technology and, 181-82 Losee, R. M., 361 trends in, 248-49 Lotka, A. J., 339 Library and Information Science Research Lotka’s law, 311, 339, 340, 345 (LISR),407-8 coauthorship and, 495-96 Library and Information Science Stu- Lowley, S., 381 dents Attitudes, Demographics, Lubetzky, S., 336, 343 and Aspiration Survey (LISSA- Lucel, Marc; Moed, Henk F.; and Ned- DA), 255-56 erhof, A. J. library automation vendors, 667 “Towards Research Performance library boards, 633 in the Humanities,” 498-519 library consortiums, 60-61 Luskose, R. M., 385 library instruction program, California Luther, Judy, 275 State University, Fullerton, 31-45 Lycos, 375 746 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Mabry, Hales, 296 defined, 441 MacFadden, T. G. discovery of, 441-42 “Understanding the Internet: journal impact factors and, 448- Model, Metaphor, and Analogy,” 50 87-1 06 Matthew-Index, 441,445-46,452-53 Machlup, F., 524 Matthews, Catherine J. macrolevels, in organizations, 585, “Becoming a Chief Librarian: An 587-88,591-92,594 Analysis of Transition Stages in magazine reading, by reference librari- Academic Library Leadership,” ans, 234-39 578-602 Mai,J. E., 343 McCain, K. W., 343, 360 mailing lists McCall, M. W., 581 career development and, 713-14 McClure, C. R., 213 conducting surveys using, 372-73 McCullough, D., 211 student use of, 22-24 McCurley, K. S., 377 Malinski, Richard M. McGlamery, S., 222,225,234,241 “JobRotation in an Academic Li- McGrath, W. E., 355, 359, 364, 428, brary,” 673-80 505 Marco, G. A,, 249,342-43 McKech, L., 357 Mardikian,J., 250 McKechnie, Lynne, and Pettigre, Marsden, P. V., 478, 482 Karen E. Marshall, R., 226, 232 “Surveying the Use of Theory and Marshall, V., 223, 225 Information in Science Research: Martin, R. S., 617-18 A Disciplinary Perspective,” 406- Marx,J. H., 325 16 Massey-Burzio,V., 255 McKnight, C., 381 master-apprentice collaboration, 487 Meadow, C. T., 524 master-master collaboration, 487 media evaluation skills, 269 mathematical theory, 312, 356 mediated online database services, 193 applications of, 396-402 medical school library instruction pro- coauthorship patterns and, 463- gram 73 instructional content develop- describing gestalts in social net- ment, 53-55 works, 478-86 Louise M. Darling Biomedical Fuzzy Set Theory, 393-402 Library, 47-56 uses of, 393-94 problem-based learning, 48-56 Matsui, S., 360 recommendations, 55-56 Matthew citations, 442, 450-53 technological delivery options, Matthew core journals, 314,451-53 50-53 defined, 441 Web-based instruction, 51 journal ranking, 451 Medical Subject Headings, 50 role of, 442 MEDLINE, 50 typology for, 454-59 Memmott, P., 212, 265 Matthew effect, 313-14 Menard, H. W., 554 coauthorship and, 462 Mendex, A,, 462 defined, 436,441 mental models journal evaluation and, 430 defined, 81 in science, 443,444-45 effectiveness of, 94-99 scientific information and, 563 for information technology litera- Matthew effect for countries (MEC), cy, 81-83,84 440-59 in science, 91-98 competition and, 452 mentoring, 651-64 INDEX 747

accreditation program, 652 professional association self-inter- definitions, 657 est and, 617,623-25 diagnostic activity, 663-64 professional education and train- identifymg training needs, 655-56 ing and, 61 7,623-25 information literacy instruction public libraries, 631-39 through, 303 small college-large research uni- job transition and, 582 versity, 617,619-23 mentee support, 661 technology and, 681-88 mentor/mentee matching, 659-60 Midlfe Runaway: A Grown Ups’ Guide to mentor/mentee recruiting, 658- Taking a Year Off (Cronin),605 59 Miller, G. E., 62 mentor support, 660-61 mini-call centers, 228 principles, 657-58 Mitzenmacher,M., 382 process evaluation, 661-62 Mobius, August F., 527 Menzies, D., 227 Mobius Strip, 527,529 Merton, R. K., 565,583,585 Mobius Strip-Twist model, 521, 525, Merton, Robert, 313,441,443 527-29,531 meta-journals, 436 Mobius Twist, 529 metalibrarianship, 357 models. See also reference services metaphors models ineffective, 96-98 Clip-Joint, 521,525,528-29,531 for Internet, 89-91 development of, 92-94 learning and, 98-99 effective, 94-96 mistaken, 97-98 Fuzzy Commonality Model in ordinary language, 89-91 (FCM), 315,521,525,529-34, science, 91-98, 102-3 538,540,541-43,545 Metcalf, D., 226 of growth of scientific informa- Metzger, W., 474,475-76,495 tion, 315-16 mezzolevels, in organizations, 585, information generating model 586-87,591-92,594 (IGM), 315,521,526-34 Michigan Electronic Library, 271 information genetics (IG), 521-48 Microcomputer Abstracts, 40 of institutionalization of scientific microlevels, in organizations, 585-86, information, 315-16,553-68 591-92,594 mental, 81-83,84,94-99 Mid-Career Tune-up, The: 10 New Habits scientific, 91-98, 102-3 for Keeping YourEdge in Today’s Fast- of service, for reference services, Paced Workplace (Salmon and Sal- 190-95 mon), 646-47,649 theory as, 103 midlife career transitions, 578, 614-29, of Web structure, 383-84 665-72. See also career manage- Moed, Henk F., Lucel, Marc; and Ned- ment; career transitions erhof, A. J. career planning and, 617,623-25 “TowardsResearch Performance characteristics of, 666 in the Humanities,” 498-519 continuing education and, 617, Moen, W. E., 256 626-27 Mogul,J., 386 entrepreneurship, 665-72 molecular biology research, 502 interim choices, 665 monitoring, of Internet log files, 373- job market and, 617,626-27 74 lateral transfers, 665, 708 Montgomery, Denise L. librarian-archivist transitions, 61 6, “Happily Ever After: Plateauing as 617-19 a Means for Long-Term Career options for, 666 Satisfaction,”702-16 748 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Moore, A,,374 notebooks, in computer-assisted in- Morrill Federal Land Grant Act, 287 struction, 121-22 Morris, M., 381 NoveList Web-site, 279 Mort, E., 269 motivation object-oriented design, for Web-based course design and, 131-32 tutorials, 52-53 factors affecting, 155 observation, reference services evalua- of librarians, 582-83 tion through, 212-14 moving image materials, 340 obsolescence Muirhead, B., 256 in scientific journals, 41 9 Mulchenko, Z. M., 553 of Web documents, 385-86 Murray, B. H., 374 Occupational Outlook Handbook, 246 occupational safety job rotation and, Najork, M., 382 675 Nalimov, V. V., 553 O’Hanlon, Nancy name heading distribution theory, “Development, Delivery, Out- 339 comes of a Distance Course for Nardi, B. A,, 247, 254 New College Students,” 8-27 Narin, F., 424 Ohio State University (OSU) National Library of Canada, 608 Internet Tools and Research Tech- National Research Council (NRC), 74 niques course, 9-26 Nature, 448-50 Olson, H. A,, 342 Navarro, M. A. E., 342-43 online books, 274-78 Naylor, M., 364 Online Computer Library Centre, Inc. Nederhof, A.J.,and Moed, Henk F.; (OCLC), 503 Lucel, Marc online courses. See also computer-assist- “Towards Research Performance ed instruction (CAI); distance in the Humanities,” 498-519 education; Web-based instruction NetFuture, 282 (WI) net.TUTOR, 11, 12 assignments, 151-52 Newman, G. C., 620,621,623 cognitive development stages and, newsgroups, 384. See also mailing lists 138-40 newspaper indexes, 38 communications, 22-24,152-54 newspaper reading, by reference li- content development, 61-66 brarians, 234-39 course objectives and, 131 New York, State University of, at Alba- defined, 6n.9,146-47 ny, 264 design, 145-58 New York Public Library, 264 examples, 152 Nicholson, N., 578-97,580,585,594 feedback to students, 151-52 Nie, Norman, 21 1 formats for, 131, 134-43 Niebrugge-Brantley,J,,240 grading, 132-33 Nieuwenhuysen ,P., 428 ideal, 4, 145-58 Nitecki,J. Z., 357 interactive skill building in, 154 Nofsinger, N. M., 260 introductory law course models, Nordic Web Index, 374 134-43 Northern Exposure to Leadership, 581 opportunities through, 142-43 Northern Light, 374,384 pacing, 154-56 North Texas, University of peer assessment in, 156-57 distance learning course, 257 presential instruction and, 148, Library and Information Science 156 (LIS) education, 252-60 public access to, 157 Nortier, F., 580 purposes of, 147-48 INDEX 749

student motivation and, 131-32 Parsons, C. K., 583-84 study guide, 149-50 Pascal, Louis, 93-94 technology and, 130-43,149 past-future use studies, 364 testing, 133-34 Pathak, P., 381 textbooks and, 150-51 PDF format, 426,436 theoretical bases for design on, Peek, R., 247 154-56 peer assessment, in online courses, university catalog listings of, 66- 156-57 67 peer mentors, for user group educa- online entertainment, 279-80 tion, 303 online public access catalog (OPAC), peer review system, for scientific publi- 34-36 cations, 565-66 online reference services. See digital perception, Circuits of Theory and, reference services 324 online sex and pornography, 280 performance assessment. See also bib- online shopping, 280 liometric performance indicators; online tutorials, 302 research performance assessment ontology, 342,343-44 of computer-assisted instruction OPACs, 398 (CAI),121-23 open-ended survey questions, 211-12 performance-related requirements, Open Text search engine, 374 79-82 Oppenheim, C., 381 periodical indexes, 38-39 Oregon, University of, 85 periodicals. See alsojournal evaluation; organizations Matthew core journals; scientific adjustment to, 592-94 journals/publications culture of, 582-84, 590, 591 reading, by reference librarians, institutional expectations about, 234-39 582 title evaluation, 313 learning about, 581,585-90 Peritz, B., 372, 386, 420 macrolevels, 585,587-88,591-92, Perry-Holmes, C., 254 594 person-or-organization fit, 583-84 mezzolevels, 585, 586-87, 591-92, Petersen, H. C., 359 594 Peterson’sInternships, 606-7 microlevels, 585-86,591-92,594 Pettigrew,K. E., 357 stabilization of relationship with, Pew Research Center, 210 594-97 Pfaffenberger,B., 254-55 Ortega hypothesis, 563 phenomena outreach programs, for reference ser- Circuits of Theory and, 323 vices, 215-16 defined, 320 outsourcing, global, 230, 232 of librarianship, 351-52 Phillips,J. S., 622 Paff, B., 341 Pigasus Software, 669 Page, L., 381,383 Pinski, G., 424 page length, of scholarly sources, 507- Pirolli, P. L. T., 385 8 Pitkow,J. E, 385 PageRank, 381,383 plateauing, 702-15 Panizzi, Antonio, 330, 332, 333-34, career planning and, 624 335 content, 705,707-9,712 Pao, M. L., 523 life, 705-6, 709-11 Parable of the Talents, 441-44 literature review, 703-4 paradigms, 321 positive outcomes, 715 Pareja, C., 383 solutions for, 706-16 750 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

structural, 704-5, 706-9, 712 requirements for, 48 types of, 704-6 technology options, 50-53 Plateauing Trap, Thp: How to Avoid It in value of, 48 Your Career . . and Your Lifp (Bard- W'eb-based library instruction, 47- wick), 702 56 poin t-of-need reference instruction, professional associations 304 conferences, 607-8 Poisson distribution, 464 midcareer transitions and, 623-25 Poli, R., 342 plateauing and, 713 political issues professional development, job transi- call centers and, 226-30 tion and, 581 public libraries and, 632-33 professional education. See continuing popularity factor, 425, 436 professional education popular sources, 38-39 professionalism, impediments to, 686 pornography, online, 280 programmed instruction, 1-5 Possibility Theory, 395 Project Gutenberg, 275 Postscript (PS) format, 426,436 propositions Potter, R. F., 376, 382 Circuits of Theory and, 323 Potter, W. G., 339 defined, 320 Powell, Anthony, 274 Proquest Digest, 40 Powell, R. R., 212, 596 public access power laws, 385 to computers, 157 pragmatism, 342 to information resources, 265-66 defined, 330,332 to online courses, 157 knowledge organization and, 332- to reference services, equity of, 37 178-80 pre-entry values congruence, 584 publication core journals, 451. See also preparation stage, Transition Cycle Matthew core journals Model, 580-84 Publication Velocity (PV), 555 prerequisite skills, for instructional public education movement, 185-86 systems, 78 public libraries presential instruction academic libraries us., 631, 632, lecture courses, 81, 132, 135 638 online courses and, 148, 156 censorship, 634-35 preservation theory, 354, 362 collection development, 634 prestige, journal evaluation and, 420, community and, 18446,631-32, 430 637 pretests, in computer-assisted instruc- diversity in, 635 tion tutorial, 122-23 employment considerations, 638- Pribram, K., 475 39 Price, D.J. de Solla, 524-25 employment process, 635-36 Princess Diana Shopping Arcade, 714 future of, 636-37 Princeton Research Associates, 277 growth of, 334 privacy history of, 185-86 information collection and, 213 image of, 637-38 reference services and, 180 library boards, 633 probabilistic frequency distribution organizational goals, 633-34 studies, 364 politics and, 632-33 probabilistic statistics, 356 public sector sabbaticals, 605 problem-based learning (PBL) public service sabbaticals, 606, 608 challenges of, 49 publishing theory, 353, 359-60 defined, 47 Punch, K. F., 362 INDEX 751

Purdue University, 85,275 digital access to, 222 Pyle, Ransford C., and Dziuban, e-mail assistance by, 50-51 Charles D. growing importance of, 245,246 “Technology: Servant or Master of ideal personal attributes of, 170- the Online Teacher?”, 130-44 71 instructional roles of, 254-55 Quandt, R. E., 360 job duties of, 224 queries. See reference queries media evaluation instruction by, query subforce, 521, 526 269 Question Master, 220-21 need for, 246 questionnaires, for evaluating refer- personal consultation hours, 50 ence services, 208-12 reading by, 233-39 reference skills of, 218-19 Radclyffe Group, 227 relationship-building by, 299 Radford, G P., 253 responsibilities of, 685 Radio 4 (BBC),279 roles of, 245, 267-69 Raghaven,P., 379 skills of, 295-96 Raisig, L. M., 422 staff hiring, 304 Rajagopalan, S., 379 staff training, 303-4 Ranganathan, S. R., 235, 236, 297 technological skills of, 219-20, rationalism 252 knowledge organization and, 342, reft’rence queries 343 accuracy in answering, 188 reference services and, 176-77 authority of answers, 189 Read, E., 269-70 classification of, 177 reader’s advisory services, 189, 278 reference services core values and, reading, as basis of reference work, 188-89 233-39 thoroughness in answering, 188 recent, relevant (RR) information, timeliness of answering, 188-89 555-56,561,563 user self-reliance and, 250-52 redistributed citations, 450 refe‘rence services. See also human-to- referee system, of scientific journals, human reference services 565-66 alternatives to human-to-human reference books services, 171-72,179-80 online availability of, 274-78 assessment of, 177 Web resources us., 175-76 bibliographic instruction, 187-88 reference enquiries. See reference que- commercial services, 270-72 ries components of, 186-90 reference exchange programs, 303 computer-based, 165 reference interviews core values of, 169, 172-82, 183, communication skills and, 254 187-90 face-to-face, 295-96 cost efficiency measures, 223-26 face-to-face us. online, 298-99 defined, 287-88 user needs and, 293-97 demise of, 170-72, 173, 184, 193, reference librarians 286 call-center reference model and, democratic nature of, 181 218-19 deprofessionalization of, 220-33, changing roles of, 250-51,253- 241-42 54,292-97 digital reference call service mod- as customer service representa- el, 218-42 tives, 299 equity of access to, 178-80,272 demise of, 286 752 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

future of, 239-41, 245, 264-65, Reference Threshold Model (RTM), 280-83,293-97 564 history of, 185-86, 287-90 Relative Publication Growth index human-to-human, 168-82 (WG(t)),555-57 ideal model for, 183-95 relevance information accessibility and, Fuzzy Set theory and, 397 253-54 identifjmg criteria, 198-206 intellectual freedom and, 175-76 of scientific information, 561, 564, knowledge and, 189-90 566-67 library Web sites, 271 Set Theory and, 394 literacy and, 178 user-based criteria, 197-206 models of service for, 190-95 relevance period, 555 outreach by, 215-16 remote reference services, 179 practical responses, 300-304 “report card” assessment, for chief li- public education movement and, brarians, 594-95,597-600 185-86 Rescher, N., 554 purpose of, I65 research rationalism and, 176-77 advisory sessions, 302 reader’s advisory services, 189, Circuits of Theory and, 323, 326- 278 27 role of, 292-97 productivity of, 315 service ethic, 174, 253 questions, 320, 323 stewardship, 172-74 sabbaticals, 606, 609-10 technology and, 165-67, 184, skills, 9 192-93,218-20,245-61,263-83, tools, 200 286-304 research performance assessment, 315, trends in, 248-49 500-519 24-hour, 271 bibliometric theory and, 518-19 user-centered relevance criteria, book publications, 507 197-206 indicators, 514-15 Web-based, 165 international orientation, 511-13 reference senices evaluation, 207-16 journal rankings, 510-11 case studies, 214-15 methodological framework, 501-3 focus group interviews, 214 practical considerations, 515-18 individual interviews, 214 publication output, 502, 506-11 observation, 212-14 standardization and, 502 survey research, 208-12 studies, 503-5 reference services models units of analysis, 505-6 conservative or minimum, 191- Rettig, James, 215 92,193-94,288,297 Richardson, J. V,Jr., 220-33,221 digital call center, 218-42 Richardson, R., 226,227 ideal reference librarian role, 267 Rifkin, Jeremy, 266 instruction and training, 254-55 “Right World” countries, 441-42, 446- liberal or maximum, 191-92, 193, 48,450 288,297 ring structure, 476 selecting, 195 Ritchie, A., 657 teaching libraries, 191, 193-94 Rivers, Douglas, 211 technical support roles, 266-69 Robinson, K. L., 372 technology and, 263-72 Rockwood, I. E., 273 tiered reference services, 194 Rodman, R. L., 361 traditional, 193 Rogers, M., 273 virtual reference services, 194-95 role expectations, 583 INDEX 753

Rosen, R., 462,486,487 bibliometric parameters, 499-519 Rosenbaum, H., 376,381 classification of, 506-8 Ross, N. C. M., 379 differentiating, 508 Rothstein, Samuel, 187, 191 distinguishing, 38-39, 508-9, 515 Rousseau, Ronald, 374, 384,426, 428 international orientation of, 51 1- ‘yournal Evaluation: Technical 13 and Practical Issues,” 418-36 page length, 507-8 roving reference, 302 publication output, 502, 506-11 “rule of 99%”,705 quality of, 499 Rupp-Serrano, K., 259 research performance indicators, Ryerson University Library, 673, 676- 514-15 77 scholars’ perceptions of, 501 substantial us. limited size, 504-5, sabbaticals, 603-12 507,513,515,517 benefits of, 603,611-12 units of analysis, 505-6 community service/volun teer Schubert,A., 428,462,472 work, 608 Science Citation index (SCI), 446, 463, conference/event participatioii, 499,554 607-8 defined, 436 fellowships, 606-7 journal evaluation and, 421 funding, 610 scientific information internships, 606-7 basic, 562 job exchanges, 607 common, 562 negotiating, 605-6 cumulative growth of publica- options, 606-10 tions, 553-54 preparing for, 603-6 evaluation of, 563,566-67 recommendations, 610-1 1 growth of, 553-57 skills assessment and, 604 institutionalization of scientific study and research, 609-10 information model (1%-S) and, travel, 608-9 557-68 university policies, 605 length of impact, 562-63,566-67 Salton, G., 525 Matthew effect, 563 sampling modeling the growth of, 315-16 bias in, 210 preferred sources of, 562 for Web studies, 374-75 recent/relevant, 555-56,561 Saracevic, T., 525 referencing, 564-66 Satija, M. P., 361 relative publication growth index, Sato,Y., 364 555-57 Savolainen, R., 372 relevance of, 561,566-67 Saxton, M. L., 221,223-24, 225, 232, sources of, 565,567 234,241,359 scientific jouruals/publications Scarth, Linda Loos announcing priority in, 557,561 “Are We There Yet?: Facing the cumulative growth of publica- Never-Ending Speed and Change tions, 553-54 of Technology in Midlife,” 681-86 evaluation of, 419 Schaefer, D. R., 210 information aging, 55-556, 554, Scharl, A,,382 561 Schein, E. H., 585 Matthew effect for countries Schneider, K. G., 273,583 (MEC) and, 440-59 scholarly sources Matthew effect in, 443,444-45 bibliometric characteristics of. obsolescence in, 419 507-8 references from, 565 754 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

scientometric (ISI-S) model, 557- semiotics, 343 67 Serebnick,J., 360 typology for, 454-59 service ethic, in reference services, scientific research 174,253 collaboration, 461-73 Set Theory, 394,397 Matthew effect for countries and, sex, online, 280 448 Shannon, C. E., 523,524 metaphor in, 91-98 Shapiro, F. R., 503 models, 91-98,102-3,553-68 Sharu, D., 360 use of theory in, 407-16 Shera,J. H., 336, 337,523 scientometric model of institutional- Shieber, S. M., 362 ization of scientific information, shopping, online, 280 553-68 Shostack, P. I., 210, 212 applications, 567-68 Siegel, L., 232 categories, 558 Silverstein, C., 362 evaluative processes, 557,559 similarity features, 557-64 social networks and, 477-86 information processes, 566-67 situational analysis, 118-21 references and evaluation, 564-66 situations (electronic citations), 426 Scriven, M., 356 skills assessment searchable FAQ (frequently asked career development and, 604 questions) databases, 301 job transitions and, 580 search engines sabbaticals and, 604 data collection using, 375-76 Web site evaluation, 78 evaluation of, 381-83 skills level courses, Web-based, 134, monitoring queries, 373-74 135,137-40 output-ranking algorithms, 424 Skinner, B. F., 3 search strategies, 110-25 Skinner, E. C. A,, 232 coauthorship and, 470,472 Slashdot effect, 427 computer-assisted instruction and Small, H., 525 distance education in, 110-25 Smiraglia, R. P., 332, 340, 343, 361 deficiencies in, 10 Smith, A. G., 383 information generation model Smith, K., 622 and, 535 social change, community and, 291-93 instruction in, by librarians, 295, social efficacy, 583,592 296 social networks, 476-78,477 mental models and, 82,84 anticipatory socialization, 583-84, technological understanding and, 585 75-76 characteristics of, 476 tutorial design, 116-23 coauthorship and, 486-96 user knowledge about, 295-96 complementarity and, 479 self, Circuits of Theory and, 323-24, dissimilarities in, 477-78 327 edge effect, 477,483-86 self-analysis,job transition and, 584 gestalts in, 478-86 self-citation curve, 425 interpersonal relations matrix, self-directed study, 24-25 476-80 Internet understanding and, 88 macrolevel, 585,587-88, 591-92, Web-based medical library instrnc- 594 tion, 47-56 mezzolevel, 585, 586-87,591-92, self-selected survey respondents, 210 594 seminar level courses, Web-based, 134, microlevel, 585-86, 591-92,594 135,140-41 ring structure, 476 INDEX 755

similarities in, 477-78 succession planning, 674-75 step structure, 476 “super unified” theory, 351 social sciences research, 407-16 Surprenant, T. T., 254 societal knowledge, Circuits of Theory survey level courses, Web-based, 135-37 and, 325,326,327 survey research Society for the Advancement of Scan- for evaluating reference services, dinavian Study (SASS),621 208-1 2 Society of American Archivists (SAA), Internet-based, 208-12 619,624 open-ended questions, 211-12 socioeconomic level, access to refer- response levels, 210 ence services and, 178430,272 sample bias in, 210 Soergel, D., 524 surveys, for Web studies, 372-73 SOLO taxonomy, 135,137,143~5 Svenonius, E., 330,331-32, 332, 334- sort-trespassing,96-97, 98-100 35,337,344 South Africa, University of (Unisa) , Swygert, M. I., 503 Department of Information Sci- symbols ence, 111-25 Circuits of Theory and, 323 specialization, library size and, 626-27 defined, 320 Special Libraries Association, 604, 609 synchronous communication, 153 Spink, A,, 373 synchronous impact factors, 423,426, St. Lifer, Evan, 723 433,436 St. Matthew Parable ofthe Talents, synthesis, 320 441-44 system-centered relevance criteria, stabilization stage, Transition Cycle 197-98 Model, 594-97 staffing Tague-Sutcliffe,J., 371, 524 call centers, 223 Talbott, Stephen, 282 reference librarians, 304 “Talk to a Librarian” icons, 222, 225 Stanford University Libraries, 281 task knowledge, 79-82 statement subforce, 521, 526 taxonomy of theory, 31 7-22 statistical theory, 312 Circuits of Theory and, 323, 327- step structure, 476 28 stewardship, reference services and, graphic form, 318 172-74 purpose of, 317 Stieg, M., 253 Taylor, A. G., 338, 341 Stom, S., 282 teaching libraries, 191, 193-94 storage theory, 354, 362 technological literacy, 75-76. See also Strauss, A. L., 319 computer literacy Straw,J. E., 298, 299 technology Strout, R, F., 333 midlife career-change and, 681- structural plateauing, 704-5, 706-9, 88, 717-23 712 values and, 172,291,684 student-centered learning, 148 technology-driven instruction, 130-31 students Technology Gateway Examination assignments, 15-18,36-37,151- (TGE), 541-42 52,259 Tenopir, C., 254,265,269-70 online information literacy tem-term bond subforce, 521,526, course, 9-26 534 research skills, 9 testing study guide, for online courses, 149-50 learning through, 133 study sabbaticals, 606, 609-10 in online courses, 133-34, 142, substantive theories, 321 144n.10 756 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Texas, University of, at Arlington, 9 Tonnies, Ferdinand, 291 textbooks total quality knowledge management online courses and, 150-51 (TQKM), 521,525,541,547-48 scientific references in, 565 training Thaler-Carter, R. E., 228 cross-training programs, 707-8 theory midlife career transitions and, academic disciplines and, 407 617,623-25 of acquisitions, 353-54, 360-61 needs identification, 655-56 of circulation, 355, 362-64, 367 for reference librarians, 303-4 of classification, 354, 361 reference services models, 254-55 coauthorship, 461-73 transference of curves, 528 of collections, 354-55, 363 Transition Cycle Model, 579-97 defined, 309-10,311,319,330, adjustment stage, 590-94 331,351,406-7 encounter stage, 585-90 explanatory, 357-67 preparation stage, 580-84 formal, 321 stabilization stage, 594-97 Fuzzy Set, 393-402 travel sabbaticals, 608-9 grand unified, 355-56 Tsai, Bor-Sheng history of, 311 “Theory of Information Genetics: informetric, 371-88 How Four Subforces Generate of knowledge organization, 330- Information and the Implications 46 for Total Quality Management,” Matthew effect for countries 521-48 (MEC) ,440-59 Tsay, M. Y,360-61, 419 as models, 103 Turning Point Project, 266 multidisciplinary framework for tutorials, computer-based. See also com- building, 317-28 puter-assisted instruction (CAI) of publishing, 353, 359-60 design of, 116-23 role of, 319 determining need for, 117-18 of storage and preservation, 354, evaluation of, 123-24 362 implementation of, 123 substantive, 321 pretests, 122-23 taxonomy of, 317-22 recommendations for, 302 unified, 351, 353 situational analysis of, 118-19 use of, in Library and Information student response to, 124-25 Science &IS) research, 406-16 twisted-bonded network curvature, 530 thesis, 320 Tyckoson, David A. Thomsen, E., 235 “What is the Best Model of Refer- Thorburn, Lis, 651 ence Service?”, 183-95 thoroughness, reference query responses, 188 uncertainty Thurow, L. C., 226 Fuzzy Set Theory and, 393 tiered reference services, 194 measures of, 395 Tillett, B. A. B., 340 Unidimensional Social Distance mod- Timefor a Change: How to chang? your el, 482 Career: The re-entry €7’ re-career work- unified library theory, 351, 353 book ( Banning and Friday), 641- defined, 351 42 explanatory research contributing timeliness, of reference query re- to, 357-67 sponses, 188-89 grand, 355-56 Tipple, J. E., 213 United Nations internships, 606 Tomkins, A,, 379 units of analysis, 359, 505-6 INDEX 757

university library career transitions, (CAI); distance education; tutori- 619-23 als, computer-based; World Wide unmediated database searching, 193 Web Updike, John, 274 134-142,131 user-centered relevance criteria, 197- advantages of, 133-34 206 content development, 53-55 User Transaction Standards, 208 course management, 256 Utah Academic Library Consortium effectiveness of, 11-12 (UAW formats for, 131 distance education, 59-70 for graduate education, 257-60 job descriptions, 68-69 hybrid courses, 141-42 online course maintenance, 68 ideal university level course, 145-58 Utah Higher Education Technology introductory level, 134-42 Initiative (HETI),66-67 for lecture courses, 135 for legal course, 134-42 validity, external, 341, 345 for library instruction, 28-45 values for medical library instruction, defined, 168-69 47-56,51 reference services and, 168-69, object-oriented design for, 52-53 172-82 paper-based approach, 52 technology and, 172, 291, 684 recommendations, 44-45 Van Maanen, J., 585 seminar level, 134, 135, 140-41 variables, 359 skills level, 134, 135,137-40 Vellucci, S. L., 340 technical skills needed for, 51-52 verification, Circuits of Theory and, technology and, 130-43 323 tutorials, 52-53, 302 Verona, E., 336 Web-based reference services, 165,298 Vinkler, Peter Webbased surveys, 373 “Institutionalization of Scientific Webcrawler, 375,386 Information, The: A Scientomet- WebCT, 257,258 ric Model (ISI-S Model)”, 553-68 Web-enabled (Web-enhanced) courses, virtual help desks, 221 131,135-36 Virtual Reference Desk (VRD) project, Weber State University, 59-70 20s academic library cooperation, 60- virtual reference services, 194-95,213 61 visibility Internet Navigator course admin- of articles in e-journals, 426-27 istration and funding, 66-70 international, ofjournal, 511 Internet Navigator course devel- of Web sites, 377 opment, 61-66 vocational guides, 640-49 Webhelp, 271 volunteer work sabbaticals, 608 Web impact factor (WIF),382-83 Web portals/gateways, 301 Wacquant, L.J. D., 239 Web site evaluation. See also World Walbridge, S., 213 Wide Web Walsh, K., 364 distance education course, 16-17 Walter, F. R, 234 observation methods, 213 Warren, K. S., 524 ranking, with citation analysis, Watson,J. S., 376 377-78 Watson-Boone, R., 264 resources, 35 Weaver, W., 523,524 skills assessment, 78 Web-based instruction (WBI). See also university library instruction pro- computer-assisted instruction gram in,’35-36 ’ 758 LIBRARY TRENDS/SPRING 2002

Web sites. See also World Wide Web World Wide Web. See also Internet; backlinks to, 377 Web-based instruction (WI); obsolescence of, 385-86 Web site evaluation; Web sites visibility analysis, 377 cognitive understanding of, 87-89 Weisberg,J., 273 content expansion, 2 Wells, H. G., 181 hubs and authorities, 383-84 West, M. A., 578, 580, 585, 594 “indexing,”98 Westbrook, Lynn as information source, 371 “Faculty Relevance Criteria: Inter- informetric methods for studying, nalized User Needs,” 197-206 371-88 What Color is Your Parachute? (Bolles), library reference sites, 271 641,643,649 models of, 383-84 White, H. D., 343 questionnaires posted on, 21 1 White, H. S., 261, 702 reference books us., 175-76 White, M. D., 215 reference services and, 290-93 Whitlatch, Jo Bell skills for using, 2-3 “Evaluating Reference Services in for survey research, 209-12 the Electronic Age,” 207-16 testing options, 133-34 Wiegand, W. A., 249,253 Wormell, Irene, 419 Wilder, Stanley.J., 718 Wouters, P., 425 Wilson, Concepcih, and Hood, Wil- Wyer,J. I., 235 liam H. “Solving Problems in Library and Yahoo, 375 Information Science using Fuzzy Yahoo Intempt Lije, 279 Set Theory (FST)”,393-402 Yamamoto, David O., and Kaplowitz, Wilson, M. C., 219, 251, 252, 294 Joan R. Wilson, P., 330, 337, 344, 414 “Web-based Library Instruction Wilson, Tom, 414 for a Changing Medical School WINGS- request management system, Curriculum,” 47-56 665,670 Yee, M. M., 340 Wisconsin, University of, 85 Yilmaz, B., 363 Wishcraft:How to Get What You Really Xnflang, 474,479 Want (Sher and Gottlieb), 647-48 coauthorship and, 495 Wittenberg, Kate, 255 social networks and, 479,483,485 Wolf, c.,477, 478 Young, A. P., 596 Wolfram, D., 379 Wollongong, University of, 674 Zadeh, L. A,, 394,401 Womack, K. W., 259 Zadeh, Lotfi, 393 women Zeleznikar, A. P., 524 call center employment, 218,230- Zemon, Candy (Bogar) 33 “Midlife Career Choices: How Are valuedjob skills of, 231-32 They Different from Other Career Women’s Studies faculty, relevance Choices?” 665-72 criteria of, 197-206 Zen and the Art of Making a Living: A Woodruff, A,, 374 Practical Guide to Creative Career work, role of, 697-98 Design (Boldt),642-43, 649 working conditions, in call centers, Zhang,Y., 209,210,211,373,377 226-30 Zimmerman, H.J., 395,400-401 workjournals, 687-701 Zipf-distribution, 481 sample, 687-99 Zipf-type laws, 385 suggestions for keeping, 699-701 Zwaldo,J., 357 world view, 321 Zwemer, R. L., 420