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Diffusion of Gender Norms: Evidence from Stalin's Ethnic Deportations

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Diffusion of Gender Norms: Evidence from Stalin's Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Diffusion of Gender Norms: Evidence from Stalin's Ethnic Deportations Alain Blum (EHESS) Alexandra Jarotschkin (PSE) Ekaterina Zhuravskaya (PSE and EHESS) January 2019 Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Motivation Deportations Question Literature Motivation • Does exposure to a group with different cultural norms leads to a cultural diffusion, or in contrast, people reject alien cultures and increase identification with their own? • Experiments designed to answer this question usually assign people of different cultural backgrounds to the same locations randomly • The literature has studied random allocations of children to classes, students to dorms, soldiers to regiments, etc. • In such experiments, representatives of different cultures are forced to interact in a controlled environment Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Motivation Deportations Question Literature Motivation • In a real life, people choose freely whom to interact with • Thus, even when different groups co-exist in close proximity, they may self-segregate and avoid interactions with representatives of another group • There are many examples of spontaneously-created ghettos both in history and throughout the world • Jewish ghettos in medieval or 19th-century Europe • African-American neighborhoods in contemporary US cities • Immigrant neighborhoods in contemporary European cities • To study cultural diffusion, one needs to combine an experimental setting of cultural exposure with having no control over whom people interact with • Stalin's ethnic deportations during WWII combine both of these features Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Motivation Deportations Question Literature Stalin's ethnic deportations • 2.1 million people were deported from the Western parts of the USSR to Siberia and Central Asia in 1939{1944 • With the sole reason of belonging to an ethnicity, representatives of which were suspected of (potential or actual) collaboration with the Nazis against the Soviets • Deportees were not allowed to come back to their homelands (until the Khrushchev's thaw or the fall of the USSR, depending on ethnicity) • They left right after they were allowed to (1 to 3 generations later) • Unlike Gulag's prisoners, deportees were not confined to camps and were free to interact with local population Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Motivation Deportations Question Literature Ethnic deportees on the round to their destination Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Motivation Deportations Question Literature Ethnic deportees working at their destination Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Motivation Deportations Question Literature Culture of deportees • Culturally, deported ethnicities differed along many dimensions, e.g., in terms of religion: • Protestants: Germans, Estonians, Latvians, and Finns • Muslims: Chechens, Ingush, Karachays, Balkars, Kurds, Crimean tatars, Turk-meshketians • Catholic christians: Poles, Lithuanians • Orthodox christians: Moldovans, Greeks • Buddhists: Kalmyks, Koreans • In particular, gender norms sharply differed between Muslim deportees from North Caucasus and Protestant deportees from the Volga region • Chechens and Volga Germans were the largest groups of Muslims and Protestants, respectively • We focus on the effect of deportations on this cultural trait Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Motivation Deportations Question Literature Research question • What are the gender norms among the native local population today in Siberia and Central Asia depending on • whether they live in a locality in the vicinity of a former settlement of mostly-Muslim or mostly-Protestant ethnic deportees • The identification assumption is that: • provided there was a settlement of ethnic deportees in the vicinity, the religious (and ethnic) mix of deportees was orthogonal to factors that determine gender attitudes • As vast majority of the descendants of the deportees left when they were allowed to and we focus on non-migrants, the differences in the norms today is the evidence of cultural diffusion Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Motivation Deportations Question Literature We contribute to the literatures on: 1 Social identity and cultural diffusion that focuses on the effect of co-existence of ethnic and racial groups • e.g., Algan, Hemet and Laitin 2016 on social housing; Chetty Hendren 2015, Rao 2013 on classroom composition; Burns et al. 2013 on dorms assignments; Angrist 1998, Vanden Eynde, 2016 on military service 2 Determinants of gender roles • e.g., Fernandez and Fogli 2009; Fernandez, Fogli and Olivetti 2004; Alesina,Giuliano, Nunn 2013 3 Effects of Stalin's punitive policies • Ethnic deportations on distrust in central authority (Levkin 2015, using crude region-level data) • Gulag camps on human capital and distrust (e.g., Toews and Vezina 2017; Ciravegna, Toews and Vezina 2016; Kapelko and Markevich 2014) Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Timing Size Destinations Gender norms Timeline of ethnic deportations • Deportations: • 1939{1941: deportations from the annexed territories, Poland, Baltic republics, and Romania • 1941{1942: \Preventive" deportations of Soviet Germans, Finns, and Greeks • 1943{1944: \Retributive" deportations of the ethnic groups of the North Caucasus and Crimea • Deportees were allowed to return to their homelands in two waves: • 1991: Volga Germans, Crimean Tatars, Turk-Meskhetians • 1956: All the rest Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Timing Size Destinations Gender norms Deportations by religion and destination All Soviet republic of destination, % 000s % Russia Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Total 2155.1 100.00 41.86 42.60 7.73 6.58 1.14 0.11 Protestants 1132.5 52.55 30.86 19.64 0.30 0.74 0.91 0.11 Muslims 750.9 34.84 2.29 19.11 7.40 5.82 0.22 0.00 Catholics 142.6 6.62 4.58 2.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Orthodox 66.8 3.10 1.39 1.71 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Buddhist 62.3 2.89 2.73 0.11 0.04 0.01 0.00 0.00 Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Timing Size Destinations Gender norms Deportation locations Soviet republic of destination All Russia Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Districts (rayons) with deportations 1131 774 190 97 55 12 3 Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Timing Size Destinations Gender norms Size and composition of deportation settlements Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Timing Size Destinations Gender norms Gender norms of Muslims and Protestants at the time of deportations • There are no systematic data on gender norms at the time of deportations • Yet, there is anecdotal evidence: • Child marriage among Soviet Muslim population disrupting girls' education, most pronounced amongst the Chechen-Ingush population (National Archives, GARF) • Polygamy with men having up to five wives in Chechen-Ingush republic 1963 (e.g., Ro'i 2000, p. 539) • Muslim deportees were more observant in comparison to muslim local population in areas of deportation settlements (Ro'i 2000, p. 407) Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Timing Size Destinations Gender norms Gender norms of Muslims and Protestants before the deportations • There are some pieces of systematic evidence from before and after • Literacy gap between men and women was smaller for Protestants (and Germans) than for Muslims (and North Caucasians) in 1897: Dependent Var.: Share of population that is literate Comparison group: Male Muslims Male North-Caucasians Female -0.080*** -0.080*** -0.134*** -0.134*** (0.006) (0.006) (0.009) (0.009) Protestants 0.504*** 0.323*** (0.041) (0.027) Female × Protestant 0.070*** 0.070*** (0.008) (0.008) Germans 0.431*** 0.319*** (0.037) (0.033) Female × Germans 0.110*** 0.110*** (0.011) (0.011) City 0.095*** 0.095*** 0.146*** 0.146*** (0.020) (0.020) (0.020) (0.020) Observations 697 697 570 570 R-squared 0.847 0.934 0.778 0.874 Weighted by ethnic population XX XX Province clustered SEs XX XX Controls - Female and male literacy rates X X Mean literacy of comparison group 0.201 0.201 0.216 0.216 SD for mean literacy of comparison group 0.124 0.124 0.169 0.169 Blum, Jarotschkin, Zhuravskaya Gender Norms and Ethnic Deportations Intro Background Data Results Conclusions Timing Size Destinations Gender norms Gender norms of Muslims and Protestants contemporary data • Contemporary survey data (Life in Transition survey, 2016): Protestants Muslims Significance of difference Disagree that a woman should do most of the household chores 74% 33% *** Disagree that it is better for everyone if the man earns the money 49% 27% *** Disagree that
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