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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CARD NUMBER- 73-600022
II
NATIONAL COMMISSION ON FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL 1730 K. STREET, N.W., WASHINGTON, D.C. 20006 (202) 382-7825
May 4, 1973.
The PRESIDENT, The White House, Washington, D.C.
DEAR MR. PRESIDENT: Transmitted with this letter is the final report of the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control. The report is based on almost 2 years of work by the Commission. We believe it presents the most significant fire safety problems, and the greatest opportunities for fire loss reduction, in the United States today. The vast majority of the Commission agreed with all fundamental issues. Over $11 billion of our resources are wasted by destructive fires each year. Additionally, 12,000 people are killed and tens of thousands of persons are scarred physically and emotionally by fire. Recommendations are presented in this report which, if implemented, will significantly reduce this great toll. The recommendations emphasize prevention of fire through implementation of local programs. This is in keeping with the very nature of the fire problem which is felt hardest at the community level. Additionally, the recommendations emphasize built-in fire safety-measures which can detect and extinguish fire before it grows large enough to cause a major disaster. We know our great Nation has the resources and technology presently available to lessen the destructive impact of fire. We believe a continuing Federal focus on the fire problem is a necessity. It is the earnest hope of the members of this Commission that this report will provide helpful guidelines for local, State, and national efforts to reduce the life and property loss by destructive fire in the United States.
Sincerely,
RICHARD E. BLAND, Chairman.
CONGRESSIONAL ADVISORY MEMBERS
John W. Davis, Warren G. Magnuson, Congressman, Georgia Senator, Washington Jerry L. Pettis, Ted Stevens, Congressman, California Senator, Alaska THE STAFF
Howard D. Tipton, Executive Director
Professional Staff Administrative Staff John F. Christian, Deputy Director Jane Sornberger, administrative assistant Edward K. Budnick, fire protection engineer detailed by General Services Administration Virginia Harr, secretary J. Thomas Hughes, fire protection engineer Jo Ann Mackey, secretary detailed by Naval Ship Engineering Center Pearlie Scott, secretary Eugene M. Sober, P. E. senior fire safety analyst Joe Swartz, operations research analyst Temporary Administrative and Research Staff detailed by National Bureau of Standards David Sergeant Kenneth Richardson Anthony E. Neville, writer Howard Markman Clayton Willis, director of public affairs Lawrence McGinty
VII
INFORMATION UPDATE
Since AMERICA BURNING was originally published in 1973 some of the statistical information presented has become outdated either through actual change, better data, or new methods of estima- tion.
The changes are:
Approximately 6,200 people die in fires in this country each year, including fire fighters, not 12,000, as stated in the cover letter, and on pages x, 1 and 53. (Source: U. S. Fire Administration (USFA) Estimate, Based on the National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) Data).
About 100,000 people are injured in fires annually, including fire fighters, not 300,000 as given on pages x, 1. (Source: USFA Estimate, based on NFIRS Data).
Direct property loss is currently estimated at $10,400,000,000 not 2,700,000 as given on page 2. (Source: USFA Estimate, based on NFIRS Data).
The cost of treating a severly burned individual can cost well over $100,000 rather than $60,000 as given on page 11. (Source: Office of Health Care Finance, U. S. Department of Health & Human Services).
Clothing fire deaths range between 150 and 200 annually, not 3,000 as shown on page 67. (Source: National Center for Health Statistics, U. S. Department of Health & Human Services).
Fire deaths resulting from motor vehicle accidents are estimated at 650 to 750 annually, not 4,260 as shown on page 85. (Source: USFA Estimate, based on NFIRS Data).
U. S. Fire Administration September, 1989 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Letter of Transmittal III The Commissioners. IV Congressional Advisory Members. VI The Staff. VII What This Report is About X Chapter 1 The Nation’s Fire Problem. 1 2 Living Victims of the Tragedy. 11 The Fire Services 3 Are There Other Ways?. 17 4 Planning for Fire Protection. 27 5 Fire Service Personnel, 33 6 A National Fire Academy. 41 7 Equipping the Fire Fighter. 45 Fire and the Built Environment 8 The Hazards We Have Created. 53 9 The Hazards Created Through Materials 61 10 Hazards Through Design, 71 11 Codes and Standards. 79 12 Transportation Fire Hazards. 85 Fire and the Rural Wildlands Environment 13 Rural Fire Protection. 93 14 Forest and Grassland Fire Protection. 97 Fire Prevention 15 Fire Safety Education. 105 16 Fire Safety for the Home, 117 17 Fire Safety for the Young, Old, and Infirm. 127 Programs for the Future 18 Research for Tomorrow’s Fire Problem. 133 19 Federal Involvement 139 20 What Citizens Can Do, 147 Minority Report 151 Appendixes I Public Law 90-259, March 1, 1968 160 II Hearing Witnesses. 163 III Acknowledgements. 166 IV List of Recommendations. 167 V 1971 Fire Loss Data, 172 VI Master Plan for Fire Protection, Mountain View, Calif. 173 VII Estimated U.S. Fire Research Funds 177
IX WHAT THIS REPORT IS ABOUT The striking aspect of the Nation’s fire problem is ment in certain areas, and providing financial as- the indifference with which Americans confront the sistance when adequate fire protection lies beyond a subject. Destructive fire takes a huge toll in lives, community’s means. injuries, and property losses, yet there is no need to To the extent these functions are being performed accept those losses with resignation. There are many at all, they are scattered among the Federal agencies. measures--often very simple precautions-that can The Commission feels there should be an entity in be taken to reduce those losses significantly. the Federal Government where the Nation’s fire The Commission worked in a field where statis- problem is viewed in its entirety, and which encour- tics are meager, but its estimates of fire’s annual ages attention to aspects of the problem that have toll are reliable: 12,000 American lives, and more been neglected. This same entity would serve as the than $11 billion in wasted resources. Annual costs conduit for the inter-governmental cooperation that of fire rank between crime and product safety in is needed to combat the Nation’s fire problem. Ac- magnitude. These statistics are impressive in their cordingly, the Commission recommends the estab- size, though perhaps not scary enough to jar the lishment of a United States Fire Administration in average American from his confidence that “It will the Department of Housing and Urban Develop- never happen to me.” In a Washington hearing the ment where the primary Federal responsibility exists Commission heard testimony from the parents of with local government. The US. Fire Administra- a J-year-old boy who caught fire after playing with tion would not swallow all the ongoing programs of matches. They described the horror of the accident, research and action, but would supplement them for the anxiety while awaiting doctors’ reports, the long the sake of a more coherent effort to reduce the Na- weeks of separation during the critical phases of tion’s fire losses. In this way, the special abilities of treatment, the child’s agony during painful treat- each Federal agency would be utilized. ment, the remaining scars, and the many operations The following summarizes briefly some of the that lie ahead. Multiply that experience by the aspects of the Nation’s fire problem which the Com- 300,000 Americans who are injured by fire every mission studied and which the U.S. Fire Adminis- year, and consider, as we did, that it could easily tration, through encouragement or direct sponsor- happen in your own family; then the Nation’s fire ship, could help to solve : problem becomes very immediate and very fearsome. • There needs to be more emphasis on fire preven- During its deliberations the. Commission uncov- tion. Fire departments, many of which confine ered many aspects of the Nation’s fire problem that their roles to putting out fires and rescuing its vic- have not received enough attention-often through tims, need to expend more effort to educate chil- indifference, often through ‘lack of resources. It dren on fire safety, to educate adults through resi- became clear that a deeper Federal involvement dential inspections, to enforce fire prevention was needed to help repair the omissions and help codes, and to see that fire safety is designed into overcome the indifference of Americans to fire buildings. Such efforts need to be continuously safety. evaluated, so that the Nation can learn what kinds We felt strongly that fire prevention and control of measures arc most effective in reducing the should remain primarily local responsibilities. Local incidence and destructiveness of fire. governments-through codes and fire safety laws, l The fire services need better training and educa- and through heavy investments in fire department tion. Training for firefighters and officers ranges personnel and equipment-have shouldered the ma- from excellent, as in some large cities, to almost jor burden of protecting citizens from fire and non-existent, as in many rural areas. Better train- should continue to do so. Those governments ap- ing would improve the effectiveness of fire depart- preciate special local conditions and needs more ments and reduce firefighter injuries. Better fully than an arm of the Federal Government education provides the key to developing leader- would be able to do. Roles for the Federal Govern- ship for fire prevention. ment, in the Commission’s view, are appropriately l Americans must be educated about fire safety. limited to lending technical and educational assist- Most destructive fires are caused by the careless ance to State and local governments, collecting and actions of people, largely through lack of concern analyzing fire information, regulating the flamma- and ignorance of hazards, Many fires caused by bility of materials, conducting research and develop- faulty equipment rather than carelessness could
X be prevented if people were trained to spot the Administration: faults before it’s too late. And many injuries and l to develop a comprehensive national fire data sys- deaths could be prevented if people knew how to tern, which will help establish priorities for re- react to a fire, whatever its cause. search and action ; l In both design and materials, the environment in l to monitor fire research in both the governmental which Americans live and work presents unneces- and private sectors, to assist the interchange of sary hazards. The hazards of flames have been information, and to encourage research in areas studied and regulated to some extent, but recogni- that have been neglected; tion of the hazards of smoke and toxic gases has l to provide bloc grants to States so that local gov- come belatedly. Ironically, efforts to make mate- ernments may develop comprehensive fire-protec- rials fire-retardant may have increased the life tion plans, improve firefighting equipment, and hazard, since the incomplete combustion of these upgrade education of fire service personnel: materials often results in heavy smoke and toxic l to establish a National Fire Academy for the ad- gases. While materials and products that present vanced education of fire service officers and for unreasonable hazards should be banned, the Com- assistance to State and local training programs; mission believes the major emphasis should be on l to undertake a major effort to educate Americans a labeling system (to be developed by the Con- in fire safety. sumer Product Safety Commission) for materials The Commission has also recommended the re- and products, so that consumers, at the time of inforcement of programs in other agencies, includ- purchase, know what risks are involved. The im- ing: detection and alarm systems for federally as- pact of new materials, systems, and buildings on sisted and insured housing, and built-in protection users and the community should be assessed dur- loan insurance (Department of Housing and Urban ing design stages, well before use. Careful analysis Development) ; extension of burn treatment facil- and filing of a fire safety effectiveness statement ities (Department of Health, Education, and Wel- should permit recognition of faults before tragedy fare) ; burn and smoke research (National Institutes strikes. of Health) ; rural fire protection (Department of l The fire protection features of buildings need to Agriculture) ; and further research in the engineer- be improved. There is a need for automatic fire ing-based technology programs of the National Bu- extinguishing systems in every high-rise building reau of Standards. and every low-rise building in which many people If these efforts are carried out we predict a 5 per- congregate. Economic incentives for built-in pro- cent reduction in fire losses annually until the Na- tection are not available today and should be pro- tion’s losses have been halved in about 14 years. A vided. Many communities are without adequate 5 percent reduction in resource losses alone would building and fire prevention codes, and many amount to $350 million in the very first full year, nursing homes and other facilities for handicap- which is considerably more than the annual costs ped citizens are without adequate fire protection. of the projected Federal involvement of $153 mil- Perhaps most important, Americans need to be lion annually, as discussed in Chapter 19. encouraged to install early-warning fire detectors THhe public members of the Fire Commission in their homes where most fire deaths occur. represent the Nation’s firefighters, insurers, fire l Important areas of research are being neglected. equipment manufacturers, testing laboratories, and The state-of-the-art in firefighting, in treatment of other groups in the private sector concerned with burn and smoke victims, in protecting the built reducing the Nation’s fire losses. We reached the environment from combustion hazards, points to conclusion that there must be a significant Federal the need for a major expansion of research and effort only after careful consideration of the short- development in these areas. Progress in most of comings of present efforts to reduce fire losses in these areas is hindered by a lack of fundamental the United States. understanding of the behavior of fire and its com- bustion products. Many of the Commissioners have devoted their To encourage solutions to these problems, the careers to improving the Nation’s fire record. We Commission has made recommendations in this re- have become accustomed to public indifference to port to a number of bodies: the American public, the fire problem. But we hold the hope that this the President, Congress, State and local govern- attitude can be changed. It is our wish that this ments, industries, professional organizations, and report will provide a turning point, by reaching-if agencies of the Federal Government. It has also only indirectly-the conscience of millions of outlined important tasks for the proposed US. Fire Americans.
XI
1 THE NATION’S FIRE PROBLEM Fire! Hundreds of thousands of times a year, that every year. Of these, nearly 50,000 lie in hospitals shout reverberates down hallways or the inner for a period ranging from 6 weeks to 2 years. recesses of the mind as Americans come face to Many of them must return, over and over again, face with one of the most dreaded causes of death for plastic and reconstructive surgery. Many never and disfigurement. Ironically, for every American resume normal lives. who will confront flames or choking smoke this The price of destructive fire in the United States year, there are hundreds who give the threat of amounts, by conservative estimate, to at least fire not a moment’s thought, who will continue to $11.4 billion a year (see Table 1-1 ) . Beyond cal- take only the slightest precautions to guard against culation are the losses from businesses that must fire. close and from jobs that are interrupted or Fire is a major national problem. During the destroyed. next hour there is a statistical likelihood that more In an America that has only lately grown con- than 300 destructive fires will rage somewhere in scious of its ecological responsibilities, there is a this Nation. When they are extinguished, more need also to develop an awareness of fire’s role than $300,000 worth of property will have been as one of the greatest wasters of our natural ruined. At least one person will have died. Thirty- resources. four will be injured, some of them crippled or Appallingly, the richest and most technologi- disfigured for life. cally advanced nation in the world leads all the Annually, fire claims nearly 12,000 lives in the major industrialized countries in per capita United States. Among causes of accidental death, deaths and property loss from fire. While differing only motor vehicle accidents and falls rank higher, reporting procedures make international compari- Most of fire’s victims die by inhaling smoke or sons unreliable, the fact that the United States re- toxic gases well before the flames have reached ports a deaths-per-million-population rate nearly them. twice that of second-ranking Canada (57.1 versus The scars and terrifying memories live on with 29.7) leaves little doubt that this nation leads the the 300,000 Americans who are injured by fire other industrialized nations in fire deaths per
AMERICA BURNING 1 capita. Similarly, in the category of economic loss America’s poor fire record, and its failure to per capita, the United States exceeds Canada by marshal enough scientific and monetary resources one-third. to improve the record, concerns those who work in the field of fire protection. Firefighters, indi- Table 1-1. Estimated Annual U.S. Fire Costs vidually and through such organizations as the International Association of Fire Fighters and the Property loss ...... $2,700,000,000 International Association of Fire Chiefs, have Fire department operations . . . 2,500,000,000 Burn injury treatment . . . . . 1,000,000,000 been outspoken on the need to improve fire pro- Operating cost of insurance tection. The insurance industry, fire equipment industry ...... 1,900,000,000 manufacturers, fire research scientists, code offi- Productivity loss ...... 3,300,000,000 cials, government administrators : Each of these Total ...... $11,400,000,000 groups has sought to improve the Nation’s per- formance in combating the fire problem. For Among those paying most heavily for this poor three-quarters of a century, the National Fire Pro- record are the Nation’s firefighters. Theirs is the tection Association, representing a variety of inter- most hazardous profession of all. Their death rate ests, has compiled an excellent record in public is 15 percent greater than the next most dangerous education and in the setting of standards for occupations, mining and quarrying. In 1971, the fire safety. injury rate for firefighters was 39.6 per 100 men- Causes of America’s Fire Problem far higher than that of any other profession. That same year, 175 firefighters died in the line of The efforts of individuals and organizations in duty; an additional 89 died of heart attacks and the, fire protection field have run against the twin 26 are known to have died of lung disease con- tides of ignorance and indifference-tides which tributed to by the routine smoke hazard of their contribute substantially to the extraordinary mag- occupation. nitude of the fire problem in the United States. While many firefighters, particularly in smaller While genuine economic problems often stand departments, do not have adequate opportunities in the way of deeper investment in fire protection, for training, the fact is that the best training avail- lack of understanding of fire’s threat helps to ac- able does not obliterate the risks that firefighters count for the low priority given fire protection. must take in the line of duty. Every fire is a gamble And while those who have survived a fire never with the unknown, a venture into a unique com- forget its destructive potential, for most Ameri- plex of combustible materials and fire dynamics. cans fire appears a remote danger that justifies Risk substitutes for certainty, intuition for firm indifference. knowledge. As the Committee on Fire Research But indifference exists where it is least excus- of the National Research Council pointed out in able. For example, there are those in the fire 1959, “growth in our knowledge of how to cope services who are unaware of the technological with fire has not kept pace” with the growth of the state-of-the-art in their field. There are fire de- fire problem. This basic force of nature has at- partment administrators who pay lip service to tracted little interest in the scientific community, fire prevention and then do little to promote it. and its elementary characteristics remain myster- The public shares their unconcern, for in the pub- ies. To cite an unanswered practical question, lic’s image-an image which firefighters share- posed in the Committee’s 1969 report: “When the fire department is a heroic-proportioned bat- should the top of a building be opened by fire- talion of people rescuers and fire suppressers, not a fighters to minimize spread; when does opening professional corps of fire preventers. it increase the spread ?” Every fire chief, of course, Designers of buildings generally give minimal has to answer that question many times at many attention to fire safety in the buildings they de- fire scenes, based on his training and experience. sign. They are content, as are their clients, to meet But little fundamental research has been per- the minimal safety standards of the local building formed to make one chief’s answer better in- code. Often both assume that the codes provide formed than another’s. completely adequate measures rather than mini-
2 THE NATION’S FIRE PROBLEM The death rate from fire among children under five is three times that of the rest of the population.
AMERICA BURNING 3 ma1 ones. In other instances, building owners and fires that are caused by the relatively helpless in occupants see fire as something which will never our society-the very young, the old, and the happen to them, as a risk they will tolerate be- handicapped. At the other end of the spectrum’ cause fire prevention measures can be costly, or are the fires set deliberately. as a risk adequately balanced by the provisions The death rate from fire among children under of a fire insurance policy. Product designers, too, 5 and the elderly over 65 is three times that of give little thought to possible toxic or fire-aggra- the rest of the population. Though together these vating effects should their products become in- young and old make up only 20 percent of the volved in a fire. American population, they account for 45 per- The Federal Government also has been largely cent of the fire deaths. indifferent to the fire problem. The Federal pro- In contrast to the fire accidents difficult to pre- grams that exist (some of which are excellent) vent are the fires set on purpose. In 1971, among touch only small portions of the total fire fires reported to the National Fire Protection problem. Association, about 7 percent were classified as in- Lastly, the American public is indifferent to cendiary; an additional 17 percent were “of un- and ignorant of the heavy toll of destructive fire. known origin.” Arsonists pick expensive targets : The problem has not reached the American con- Among the 1971 fires in which losses exceeded sciousness with the same force as, for example, the $250,000,27 percent were classified as incendiary, far less lethal problem of air pollution. In contrast, another 47 percent as of unknown origin. In many poliomyelitis, which in the peak year of 1952 killed large cities, fire chiefs believe that almost half of about a third as many people as died by fire in all fires in their experience have been deliberately that year, has been virtually eradicated because set. of the public attention it received. Moved by the Fire has always held an attraction for de- sight of crippled children, Americans dug into mented thrillseekers. That fire is a way of attack- their pockets to support research and control pro- ing authority is indicated by the fact that in 1971 grams to attack the polio problem. Little concern 26 percent of the large-loss school fires and has come forth regarding the grave losses to the 44 percent of the large-loss church fires were Nation by fire. incendiary. Indifferent to fire as a national problem, Amer- First cousin to the maliciously set fire is the icans are similarly careless about fire as a personal false alarm. In large cities, it is not uncommon for threat. There is an old saying in the fire protection false alarms to constitute 20 to 30 percent of all field, to the effect that fires have three causes: calls for service (excluding ambulance requests), men, women, and children. It takes the careless or In Boston false alarms in 1972 occurred on the unwise action of a human being, in most cases, to average of one every 45 minutes. begin a destructive fire. In their home environ- Not all deliberately set fires stem from malice ments, Americans live their daily lives amid or thrillseeking; an increasing number are set for flammable materials close to potential sources of profit. A number of building owners have been ignition, Though Americans are aroused to issues setting their properties afire to reap insurance ben- of safety in consumer products, fire safety is not efits and tax write-offs in excess of market value, one of their prime concerns. Few private homes delinquent taxes, or demolition costs. In the have fire extinguishers, much less fire detection troubled city of Newark, N.J., where the number systems. Too few multiple-family dwellings and of vacated buildings increased by 300 percent institutions have automatic equipment for ex- between 1965 and 1971, the number of fires in tinguishing fires. And often when fire strikes, these structures increased by over 500 percent. ignorance of what to do leads to panic behavior There is evidence that the Fair Access to Insurance and aggravation of the hazards, rather than to Requirements (FAIR) plan, designed to provide successful escape. insurance on properties not qualified under nor- Fire accidents due to carelessness occupy a mal company standards, is being used by some vast middle portion of the spectrum of man- owners of deteriorating buildings to burn for caused fires. At one end of the spectrum are the profit.
4 THE NATION’S FIRE PROBLEM Social Changes Affecting the Fire Problem The crowded apartment houses and tenement That there is not an all-out war against arson and buildings often reflect total indifference to fire false alarm again reflects national indifference to- safety, because landlords see no benefit in decent, ward destructive fire. Partly because of this na- long-term upkeep of their properties. Tenants tional indifference, and partly because rapid must often warm their rooms with dangerous port- changes in American society have created other able or make-shift heaters because central heating problems, our approaches to ‘the fire problem are is inoperable or nonexistent, Discontent in the not adequate to meet the needs of today. They ghettos can breed problems for fire departments: suffer what anthropologists call “cultural lag”; in the form of riots, set fires, false alarms, and our methods of handling the fire problem are at- harassment of firefighters. tuned to the America of yesteryear-not to con- The movement of America’s minorities for rec- temporary needs, much less to future needs. They ognition of their rights has forced upon us the have changed slowly, while America has been realization that fire departments are, in general, changing rapidly. manned disproportionately by white Americans. It doer; not follow that the increasing lag has Racial minorities are under-represented in the fire led to increasingly inadequate fire protection. For, departments in nearly every community in which as the National Fire Protection Association has they live. documented, our Nation’s dollar losses from fire Another social change pertinent to the Nation’s (adjusted for inflation) have not worsened mate- fire protection is the increased militancy of munic- rially over the years. The percentage of national ipal employees. Firefighters have seen what union- wealth destroyed by fire has actually been decreas- ization has done for the salaries and benefits of ing by a very small extent. What follows is that, other city employees. They have seen conditions if the Nation’s fire record is to improve signifi- improve for other municipal departments while cantly, our methods of protection against fire losses they have been bypassed. Quite understandably must respond, more effectively than they have they have petitioned for higher wages and better thus far, to important changes that have been working conditions. In the past half-dozen years, taking place in America. in some of the larger cities, they have also under- One such trend is the increasing urbanization taken job actions-slowdowns, massive sick leaves, of the United States. Half a century ago, about and even a few strikes-which jeopardized fire half our population lived in urban areas. Today, protection for the community. about three out of four Americans do. While dis- The increasing militancy of firefighters meets, tances from firehouse to fire site are generally head on, another important change: the increas- shorter in urban areas than in rural areas, clogged ing financial plight of local governments. Especi- city streets often add costly minutes to response ally in the large cities, but not exclusively there, time when a fire breaks out. Intensive use of land governments are facing static or declining tax in urban areas means bigger buildings, which revenues, increasing costs, and hence the need to create complex problems of fire safety. More peo- question all city expenditures and to place greater ple are concentrated and exposed to the threat of emphasis on the efficient operation of municipal fire or its toxic smoke. High-rise buildings, though services. Local governments are demanding better hallmarks of urban progress, are special night- long-range planning and better utilization of man- mares to firefighters. Upper floors are hard to power and equipment. They are pressing fire. de- reach, and it is difficult to vent heat and smoke in partments to produce sophisticated cost-benefit modern air-conditioned buildings. justifications for their expenditures. They are Urbanization has created social problems-the demanding that fire departments operate more migration of the poor into cities, the expansion of efficiently without jeopardizing the public’s safety ghettos, the rising expectations of minorities which from fire. are being met only laggardly---that have affected This makes pertinent a further trend in our the magnitude of fire losses. The most rundown society: the increasing application of manage- neighborhoods, where dilapidated buildings are ment science to solve these local problems. Local tinder boxes, are where the poor are forced to live. governments are calling in research experts to re-
AMERICA BURNING 5 Working amid flame, smoke, and collapsing buildings, firefighters pursue the most hazardous profession of all.
6 THE NATION’S FIRE PROBLEM view municipal services with the same systems cities, suburbs, communities, and elsewhere.” approaches that have worked so well in industry. The enabling legislation (see Appendix I), Still another important change bearing on the without limiting the Commission’s scope, defined Nation’s fire protection is the so-called technologi- a number of areas for our study. We rephrase cal revolution. Our man-made environment is be- them here as questions: What technological ad- ing filled with new materials and new products vances, construction techniques, and improved about which little is known concerning their haz- inspection procedures would prevent fires most ard potential when they burn. New chemicals effectively? Is the Federal Government doing all and other hazardous materials are being pro- it should to lessen the danger of destructive fires duced, shipped, and used around the country. in federally assisted housing and in the redevelop- Often fire departments are unaware of these dan- ment of the Nation’s cities and communities? Are gers in their midst, nor have they experience in existing methods for suppressing fires adequate? dealing with them. Some of these new products Are the procedures for recruiting personnel ad- produce toxic gases while burning that are far equate? Are firefighters receiving sufficient train- more deadly than the kinds of smoke firefighters ing? Are current fire communication techniques are accustomed to. adequate? Does firefighting equipment need About the technological revolution it can also improvement? Standardization? Are there ad- be said that it has hardly touched the fire services. ministrative problems affecting the efficiency or In comparison with such fields as aviation, large- capabilities of fire departments? Finally, how scale construction, and electronics, the technology should responsibilities for reducing fire losses be of firefighting has been relatively stagnant. Ironi- distributed among Federal, State, and local cally, while flammability standards have been im- governments? posed on children’s sleepwear, no such standards In pursuit of answers, the Commission has held exist for firefighters’ “turnout” coats. hearings in five widely scattered cities, heard the testimony of more than 100 witnesses filling Prevention Needs Priority thousands of pages of transcript, and spent count- Response to important social changes is a key to less hours learning and deliberating in both for- improving the Nation’s record in fire protection. mal and informal sessions. In addition, special A consideration of equal importance is the need studies have been prepared by Commission staff to change priorities in the field of fire protection. and by a dozen experts from government and Currently, about 95 cents of every dollar spent on private groups exploring particular problems and the fire services is used to extinguish fires; only their alternative solutions. Over 130 position about 5 cents is spent on efforts-mostly fire pre- papers were filed with the Commission advocat- vention inspections and public education pro- ing different approaches to the fire problem. grams-to prevent fires from starting. Much more energy and funds need to be devoted to fire pre- How Fire Safe Could We Be? vention, which could yield huge payoffs in lives Congress established this Commission out of a and property saved. (While fire prevention efforts conviction that- present rates of losses in life and would lower the incidence of fire and, hence, property by fire in the United States need to be might lower the costs of fire suppression, it would reduced. The question naturally arises: What be essential to support fire suppression services at level of losses is acceptable? For us to set as a current levels until a marked reduction in fires had goal a total end of destruction of life and property been documented.) by fire would be unrealistic. An acceptable goal, however, can be based on The Role of This Commission the allocation of an appropriate part of our na- The National Commission on Fire Prevention tional resources. The goal of saving lives, of and Control was funded by Congress in 1971 to course, is inherently worthy of pursuit. But one study the fire problem and make recommenda- way of defining a minimal appropriate level of tions “whereby the Nation can reduce the de- Government investment is to find that level which struction of life and property caused by fire in will maximize the payoff, in tax revenues, from
AMERICA BURNING 7 In some large cities, nearly a third of the engine responses are to false alarms-not always set by children both lives and property saved. Another is to com- l A total saving of 8,000 lives; pare the severity of the fire problem relative to l A total reduction of injuries by 210,000; other important problems competing for re- l Property losses saved totaling $1.9 billion; sources, such as crime and death on the highway. l Hospital and medical costs lowered by $85 This Commission believes that a reduction of million. (Under the present system of sub- 50 percent in deaths, injuries, and property losses sidized medical care, this might save the Fed- is quite possible within the next generation. This eral Government $30 million.) can be attained by a declining balance reduction of 5 percent per year. To that end, we have Federal Action is Needed recommended a number of actions that can be While the Commission’s stated goals for fire re- taken by government and industry at little or no duction might be argued, it is indisputable that cost. But we also see the necessity, if that goal the Federal Government must at some cost help is to be achieved, of Federal assistance averaging the Nation attack the fire problem if any signifi- $150 million annually over the next 5 years. cant reduction in fire losses is to be achieved. It This 5 percent drop per year in fire losses over must help devise educational programs so that the next 5 years could accomplish : Americans can prevent fires and cope with them
8 THE NATION’S FIRE PROBLEM when they occur. It must help provide better studying the fire problem, in searching for solu- training and equipment for firefighters. It must tions-this Commission found an appalling gap assist an accelerated and coordinated effort in in data and information that effectively separated research on the fire problem. us from sure knowledge of various aspects of the Accordingly, the Commission recommends fire problem. The lack was not total; the Na- that Congress establish a United States Fire Ad- tional Fire Protection Association, for example, ministration to provide a national focus for the collects valuable data on a voluntary basis from Nation’s fire problem and to promote a compre- the fire services. Other valuable studies have been hensive program with adequate funding to re- conducted by the National Bureau of Standards, duce life and property loss from fire. the Committee on Fire Research of the National Details of the responsibilities we envision for Research Council, and a number of insurance the U.S. Fire Administration, and of its relations companies. But in many areas of the fire prob- to existing Federal agencies, will emerge in sub- lem, proposed solutions rest on limited experi- sequent recommendations. It is sufficient to say ence, shaky assumptions, and guesswork, here that we would not want the proposed U.S. Cost-effective solutions to the fire problem will Fire Administration to swallow or supplant on- require a lot more data-broader in scope and going programs of research and action. The func- deeper in detail than now exist. This is not a one- tion of the Administration would be to help guide time need. Continuing data collection will be efforts, by keeping local, State, and Federal needed to measure the effectiveness and impact agencies informed of related efforts in both the of new programs in fire protection and to identify private and public sector, encouraging coopera- emerging problems in the field. tion, and promoting interest in areas of research Accordingly, the Commission recommends or action that have been neglected. that a national fire data system be established to Many of our recommendations call for aug- provide a continuing review and analysis of the mented programs and new efforts by State and entire fire problem. In addition to filling in cur- local governments. We recognize that many of rent gaps in understanding of the fire problem, these governments are unable to undertake new the system could ensure against duplication of expenditures in fire protection without Federal effort by data-gatherers in both the public and help. Thus we envision the new Fire Administra- private sectors. (In this connection we note that tion as also being a grant-making agency in the the National Fire Protection Association has de- field of fire protection, similar in concept to the veloped the most broad-based and thorough data Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. system; it would be appropriate for the Govern- ment to utilize the NFPA surveys as part of its The Need for Fire Data larger effort in data-gathering.) Since the pro- One other function of the proposed U.S. Fire posed U.S. Fire Administration could not per- Administration deserves special emphasis : to form its functions effectively without adequate help place solutions to the fire problem on a data, it is altogether logical to house responsibility firmer foundation of scientific data. for administering a national fire data system Time and again-in listening to testimony, in within that Administration.
AMERICA BURNING 9
2 LIVING VICTIMS OF THE TRAGEDY Fire kills. But fire has its living victims too: those flict considerable pain on the patient over long who grieve the loss of loved ones killed by fire, periods of treatment, are subject to stress. In many those who manage to get out alive (while others burn care facilities there is a 100 percent turnover close to them may not have), those who are left in nursing staff every 6 months. homeless or jobless or impoverished because of fire. The victims most poignant to consider are The Long Road to Rehabilitation those maimed and disfigured by burn injuries. The average hospital stay for a burn victim is over About half of these victims are children. Their three times that of medical and surgical patients. scars, psychological as well as physical, often last An individual’s hospital stay and later treatment a lifetime. can add up to $60,000 or more. (Reducing fire Among the illnesses and injuries that require accidents, therefore, should be among the top pri- long hospitalization, few are as traumatic as severe orities in the national effort to control health care burns. The frightening circumstances of the in- costs. ) jury, the long isolation from family, the feeling If the severely burned patient is fortunate, he of helplessness, the continuous pain during recov- or she will be treated in one of a dozen “burn ery, the cosmetic operations that fall far short of centers” in the United States. In these special expectations, the stigma of disfigurement--all facilities, patients receive expert medical and sur- contribute to a deep despondency that impairs gical care from the outset, and physical and emo- recovery. tional rehabilitation through the long weeks of Often the patient is not the only one to endure recovery. The process can be described through psychological wounds. If the victim is a child, par- an actual case history: ents are likely to feel guilty for what has hap- It is the fall of 1970. Eight-year-old Susan and pened. Some parents find it impossible to accept her older brother are playing in their garage. An and love a disfigured child. Nurses, who must in- unsealed can of gasoline tips over and, an instant
AMERICA BURNING 11 later, the pilot light of the nearby water heater watch, lest she go into shock or turn blue from ignites the vapor. In the flash fire and explosion, smoke inhalation injury. Later she is anesthetized Susan’s face and arms are badly burned, her dress and wheeled into surgery, where a doctor begins set afire. She is rushed to a local emergency room, debridement, the cutting away of burned tissue. where she is treated for shock. Because the burns The wounds are covered with antibiotic dress- are extensive and predominantly third degree (the ing, and Susan is given penicillin to ward off most severe kind), the doctors arrange for her infection. admission to a burn center, 100 miles away. More debridement operations follow. Doctors There, intensive care begins. The wounds are and nurses continue to monitor closely Susan’s cleaned and treated with antibacterial agents; in- fluid management and the functioning of her vital travenous lines are inserted; and a catheter is organs. On the third day, having survived the placed into the bladder to collect urine, which acute phase in which fluid imbalances can be serves as a guide to the fluid needs of the body. fatal, Susan is taking food by mouth, and the Nurses in the intensive care unit keep a close intravenous lines are removed. For the first time, she complains of pain from her wounds. On the seventh day there is a marked change ONE CHILD’S ORDEAL in Susan. She refuses food, she is unruly. But the “Todd was burned on both sides. He kept re- staff members have seen this kind of behavior jecting grafts for 5 weeks. They would leave often, for it signals the onset of guilt or fear of him in one position as long as the graft seemed parental reaction about the accident. After con- to take, then they would turn him over and try ferring with staff, Susan’s parents discuss the ac- grafting another area.” He would stay in that position?’ cident, assuring her they were concerned but not “Yes, for 2 or 3 weeks. angry. Her mood soon brightens. But there will “During the time that he was in the unit, be other periods of irritability. Having less than he exhibited the typical signs of withdrawal. He the normal amount of skin is a depressing con- wouldn’t speak to us. He would turn his face to dition, and it is common for patients to be difficult, the wail. . . . “We were able to touch him through plastic irascible, or complaining until the wounds heal gloves only. We were not able to touch him at or are successfully skin-grafted. all until 10 weeks, until he was out on the floor, During the second and third weeks, operations and even then we had to wear a mask. . . . are performed to remove further dead skin. AS SO “After he was out he had to learn how to walk all over again. Being bedridden for that often happens, the wounds become infected and amount of time, he was extremely weak. He for a time her life is in jeopardy. In the fourth was very bent over at this particular time be- week grafting operations begin-four in all, staged cause the folds were burned right around his at 1O-day intervals. Between operations, Susan un- hips and in the groin area, As time went on the dergoes intensive physical therapy, since grafted scar tissue was contracting, pulling down. . . . “This [indicating brace] Todd wears for his skin tends to contract and hamper the body’s nap and also at nighttime. When he first came movements. Despite all precautions, contractures home, we tried everything to keep this on his of her neck, right wrist, and right hand begin to legs. We had restraints made ourselves. We develop, drawing her chin toward her chest, her would spend an average of an hour a night wrist backward, and her fingers out of joint. getting him into this splint, because it was very important that his knees remain straight so that Though Susan is discharged after 80 hospital days, his hip would be flat. . . . the deformities already developing grow worse, “[Before applying ointment] you have to take despite frequent physical therapy and splinting. the scab off that forms, so that the wound will She is readmitted twice during the ensuing 4 not heal on the outside and stay open under- months for reconstructive surgery. neath. So you have to pick this off your child’s skin while he screams and cries, ‘Please, More plastic surgery awaits her. It will never Mommy, don’t hurt me.” totally erase the scars. And despite the efforts of From testimony to the Commission the psychiatrist on the burn center staff, Susan still (February 15,1972) of parents of carries psychological scars. She is introspective, a 3-year-old bum victim. self-conscious, and overly dependent on her father.
12 LIVING VICTIMS OF THE TRAGEDY Most Treatment is Inadequate mount a coordinated effort to treat all aspects of the patient’s problem. At present, fewer than 100 of the 6,000 general The difference between the treatment in burn hospitals in the United States provide specialized centers and the treatment in most hospitals can be burn care. Together these few hospitals treat only a matter of life or death. For example, of all the 8 percent of the Nation’s patients with serious 2-year-olds treated in hospitals for second- and burn injuries. third-degree burns over 45 percent of the body, Of the burn centers like the one that treated only one in ten survives. Of the small proportion Susan, there are only 12 in the United States. of these children who are lucky enough to be These are separate hospital facilities with research treated in burn centers, more than six out of ten and teaching programs as well as patient care. survive. Among 8-year-olds suffering second- and Typically, a burn center employs a large staff of third-degree burns over 60 percent of the body, general, orthopedic, and plastic surgeons, specially the national survival rate is only two out of ten. trained nurses and physical therapists, psycholo- Among patients in this category treated in burn gists, psychiatrists, social workers, and others who centers, half survive.
Only 8 percent of the Nation’s seriously burned patients receive treatment in specialized hospital facilities.
AMERICA BURNING 13 Not only do burn centers save more lives than The most experienced specialists in burn treat- most hospitals, they also expend more effort on ment are quick to admit that the state-of-the-art rehabilitation-psychological and vocational as is limited by lack of knowledge. For example, un- well as physical. derstanding of the fluid shifts and transfusion re- There is obviously a great need for additional quirements in burn patients is limited. There is burn centers in the United States. There is also uncertainty among medical scientists about the a need for less elaborate facilities to handle less best techniques for warding off infection, a major serious cases. Presently there are 20 hospitals in killer of burn patients. How burn injuries affect the Nation with “burn units”--that is, specialized a patient’s immunity is another matter little facilities of at least four beds used only for burn understood. victims. An additional 46 hospitals are known to In fiscal year 1972, the National Institutes of have “burn programs”-a staff of burn injury Health spent about $1.25 million on research con- specialists but not separate facilities.¹ nected with burns and their treatment. The Social The Commission recommends that Congress Rehabilitation Service of the Department of enact legislation to make possible the attain- Health, Education, and Welfare spent an addi- ment of 25 burn units and centers and 90 burn tional $380,000 on special studies having to do programs within the next 10 years. These burn with the rehabilitation of burn patients. treatment facilities should be located where they In contrast, NIH spent $34 million on renal dis- are most needed-that is, close to populations ease research, $16 million on studies of hyper- with high incidence of burn injuries. The number tension, and $5.5 million on hepatitis research. of facilities we have recommended is far fewer (Renal diseases claim about 9,000 lives every than the number some experts say are needed, but year; hypertensive heart disease about 16,000; we believe that other measures we recommend in there are about 54,000 cases of hepatitis every this report could significantly reduce the number year, few of them fatal.) of burn injuries and, hence, the need for costly The Commission recommends that the Na- treatment. tional Institutes of Health greatly augment their sponsorship of research on burns and burn The Need for Specialists and Research treatment. A minimal and very realistic goal If these added facilities were available tomorrow, would be $3 million, which would correspond they would be of little value without dedicated with an investment of $10 per year for each of physicians, nurses, and other professionals to staff the 300,000 Americans who are injured by fire them. Considering physicians alone, the hard re- each year. ality is that there is little incentive to specialize in Another aspect of the fire injury problem, burn treatment. A disproportionate number of largely overlooked for many years, urgently needs burn patients come from lower income families research investigation : smoke inhalation injury. who cannot afford to pay the bills for treatment. More than half--53 percent-of victims suc- And that treatment is expensive. Clearly, the cumbing at the scene of a fire die a a result of needs of burn patients will never be adequately inhaling the products of combustion. Of those met unless the treatment is heavily subsidized. who live long enough to reach the hospital, 42 The Commission recommends that Congress, in percent succumb from inhalation injury.’ providing for new burn treatment facilities, make Surprisingly, even some of the simplest ques- adequate provision for the training and contin- tions remain to be answered. Which are the best uing support of the specialists to staff these simple methods for a person in a fire to protect facilities. Provision should also be made for spe- himself from smoke inhalation? What really does cial training of those who provide emergency the damage to the lungs? How does smoke in- care for burn victims in general hospitals. halation affect the ability of the lungs to resist
² Anne W. Phillips and Oliver Cope, “Burn Therapy II, ‘I. Feller, and K. H. Crane, “Classification of Burn The Revelation of Respiratory Tract Damage as a Prin- Care Facilities in the United States,” Journal of the Ameri- cipal Killer of the Burn Patient,” Annuls of Surgery, Jan- can Medical Association, Jan. 18, 1971. uary 1962 (pp. 1-19).
14 LIVING VICTIMS OF THE TRAGEDY Many of fire’s victims never awaken. Smoke, toxic gases, or lack of oxygen kills them while they sleep. infection? What emergency measures at the scene tional disturbances lead to accident-proneness. In of the fire could counteract the effects of irritants? one study of children with burn injuries, person- These and other questions deserve more atten- ality disorders (such as delinquency) and family tion than they have received. The Commission disorders (such as alcoholism and strained mar- recommends that the National Institutes of riages) were found to be commonplace condi- Health administer and support a systematic pro- tions prior to the accidents.” gram of research concerning smoke inhalation Strengthening of affection in American fami- injuries. At a minimum, NIH should receive an lies, it can be inferred, would do much to counter- additional $250,000 in the coming fiscal year for act the problem of fire injuries. That imperative this purpose. lies beyond our powers to recommend, but not beyond our fervent hopes. A Final Word Accidents happen-but not randomly. There is 3 Robert T. Long and Oliver Cope, “Emotional Problems of Burned Children,” New England Journal of Medicine, increasing evidence from research that deep emo- 264: 1121-1127, 1961.
AMERICA BURNING 15
THE FIRE SERVICES
3 ARE THERE OTHER WAYS?
Smoke is pouring from the windows of a vacant major burden of improving the Nation’s fire rec- apartment on the third floor of a tenement. A ord. Moreover, the vast majority of firefighters passerby runs to the nearest fire alarm box and are volunteers who take grave risks without com- pulls the lever. Instantly a gong sounds in the pensation, and they are giving all the time to their fire station eight blocks away, the pattern of its fire companies that their busy lives permit. Many ringing indicating the location of the alarm box. fire departments, both paid and volunteer, are Firefighters jump into their heavy boots, don their performing as well as their resources allow. Yet helmets and canvas coats, and sprint aboard a the Nation’s fire record gives them no ground for pumper. Other men board the ladder truck sitting complacency. next to the pumper. In less than a minute after How can fire protection be improved? The easy the sounding of the gong, the pumper and the answer is to augment the budgets of fire depart- truck are racing down the street toward the fire, ments by 20, 30, or 40 percent so that more equip- their sirens wailing. Simultaneously, engines from ment can be bought and more firefighters hired. other fire stations head toward the fire. But it does not follow that increases of 20, 30, or This is a scene that is repeated hundreds of 40 percent will be matched by like reductions in times a year in every city. Except that internal losses of life and property. Nor is it realistic, at a combustion engines have replaced horses, this is time when most local governments are financially the way fire departments have responded to fires squeezed, to speak in such terms. for as long as anyone can remember. Seldom does The more realistic solution, for most commu- the question arise : Is this the best way to respond? nities, lies in careful assessment of what future in- It is the duty of every fire department to save vestments (whether in men, equipment, or new lives and reduce injuries and property losses when programs) will maximize effectiveness, then a fires occur. Our Nation’s record in each of these gradual shift of priorities toward the most cost- areas needs vast improvement. Because human effective measures. carelessness accounts for most fires, it is the public, In such an assessment, basic questions need to not the fire departments, that must shoulder the be asked. Communities for which the scenario at
AMERICA BURNING 17 the beginning of this chapter is typical might ask : local governments have felt pressed to buy them. How many firefighters should respond to every Now local administrators are beginning to rec- single-alarm fire? How many pieces of equipment? ognize that their community’s interests and those (One study shows that less than 1 percent of all of the Grading Schedule do not necessarily coin- calls for service require greater effort than can be cide. The Grading Schedule, for example, is di- handled by two or three men and one fire engine.) rected primarily toward preventing property On the other hand, does sophisticated and expen- losses. Deaths and injuries are also prevented as sive equipment make a critical difference in the a result of this concern, but they are not the fore- time it takes to suppress a fire? Does it save more most consideration. lives and reduce property losses? The Grading Schedule attaches only small im- Paid fire departments typically spend most of portance to fire prevention. Ironically, few local their money and efforts on fire suppression; governments expend as much on fire prevention usually less than 5 percent of the budget is devoted as the Grading Schedule recommends. As we dis- to fire prevention. If part of the money spent on cuss in Chapters 11 and 16, more attention by fire responding to the tenement fire had been spent departments to fire prevention--through fire instead on enforcing a tough fire prevention code, safety education, building inspection, and ap- would the fire have occurred at all? proval of the fire protection features of building Other questions for communities to ask: How plans-would significantly reduce life and prop- should firefighters be scheduled and deployed to erty losses and injuries from fires. ensure effectiveness and efficiency in fire depart- Fire departments can’t be blamed for the ignor- ment operations? When a volunteer or paid de- ance and indifference that cause unsafe buildings partment has recruited all the members it can to be built, that account for shoddy wiring and (or can afford), might help be found elsewhere? hazardous storage, that contribute to people’s Should a town or small city have its own fire de- carelessness with matches and cigarettes, that ex- partment? Or should it consolidate fire services plain the counterproductive behavior of people with neighboring communities to avoid dupli- when a fire breaks out. But if the tides of ignorance cating costs? and indifference are to be turned back, as surely As communities undertake a basic reassessment they must, then fire departments are the natural of their fire services, they will have to find solu- place for the effort. As educators and enforcers, tions best suited to their conditions. Some com- fire departments can do much to lessen the inci- munities are at an early stage of growth where dence and destructiveness of fire. The importance they can consider a number of alternatives to their of the prevention role is underscored by the fact present system of fire protection. Others have a that fire departments can do so little when fires heavy investment in their present system and can have gotten out of hand before they were notified. consider only a gradual shift of priorities. Solu- The Commission recommends that local govern- tions appropriate to large cities are not likely to ments make fire prevention at least equal to work for small towns and bedroom communities. suppression in the planning of fire department For years fire chiefs and local governments have priorities. been listening to one outside voice telling them how to improve their fire services. That outside The Present System voice has been the score their community re- One reason large cities and smaller communities ceives on the Grading Schedule of the Insurance are likely to arrive at very different solutions to Service Office (formerly of the American Insur- enhancing fire protection is that they tend to have ance Association). The Grading Schedule was de- distinctly different fire departments. Most large vised as a tool to assist in setting fire insurance cities have paid fire departments; many smaller rates for each community. It was not intended as communities are protected by volunteer depart- a guide to fire department decisions, though cir- ments. cumstances have invited that kind of use. When a About 1 million Americans serve as volunteer community’s score has indicated that two or more firefighters-five times the number of paid fire- fire engines would earn it a lower insurance rate, fighters in the Nation. By one estimate, based on
18 ARE THERE OTHER WAYS? The Nation’s fire departments range from large metropolitan ones to small volunteer companies serving rural areas. what it would cost to replace volunteers with paid portive of the department and conscious of the fire firefighters, the Nation’s volunteers are render- problem. On the other hand, volunteer depart- ing a public service worth at least $4.5 billion ments often can afford only a low level of training annually. and an inadequate dispatching and communica- The huge diversity among volunteer fire de- tions system. When a fire occurs, turnout can be partments makes generalization about them diffi- uncertain. Their part-time members usually lack cult. While some are strapped for manpower, the experience of full-time firefighters. They also, others are endowed generously enough to send all in many cases, lack the manpower to do building of their active members to State firefighter school inspection and other fire prevention work. each year. Some serve isolated rural towns on Since paid departments are generally larger, budgets as low as $3,500 a year. Others are called and have more men on duty more of the time upon to serve a densely populated area of 50 than volunteer departments, they tend to be more square miles with substantial budgets and man- complex oragnizations. In addition to having spe- power. The hazards they protect against range cialized companies, e.g., engine, ladder, snorkel, from widely scattered houses and barns to heavily rescue-of from two to seven firemen, paid de- populated urban areas. partments often have special staffs for training, The striking aspect of volunteer departments, fire prevention, communications, purchasing, of course, is that they cost far less than paid de- community relations, and other purposes. partments. Then, too, volunteers are often people With such complexity, typical problems of bu- of standing in the community, are dependent on reaucracies emerge : lack of coordination among other citizens for contributions to the department, separate units, the subordination of central pur- so that a broad segment of the community is sup- pose---public service-to petty rules and red tape,
AMERICA BURNING 19 the stifling of innovation. Presiding over this be ill-advised. However, if adequately trained as tenuous alliance is the fire chief, who wears two firefighters, they can be a source of secondary hats-one, the administrative hat required to run manpower. the organization; the other, the helmet he dons Womanpower. When a small Florida com- when the alarm is sounded to lead his firefighters munity organized a volunteer fire department sev- in the suppression of a fire. Since the fire chief eral years ago, it faced the classic problem: The usually has come up through the ranks, the second 15 male members were not available during the hat probably fits comfortably. It is the adminis- daytime. The solution : Nine wives took over the trative duties of today’s complex municipal de- daytime obligations. They have responded to as partment for which the chief is less likely to be many as six brush fires in a single day, and the fire adequately prepared. chief describes the system as working “beauti- fully.” In a suburb of Columbus, Ohio, wives are Alternatives for the Future similarly organized as a daytime rescue squad. Whether the fire department is volunteer or paid, Fire departments that face physically strenuous fire prevention and protection can be improved in tasks day in and day out will understandably be every community in the Nation. Few, if any, reluctant to hire women as firefighters. But reluc- communities can say they have reduced life and tance to hire women for less taxing duties, such as property losses from fire to the extent humanly dispatching, ambulance-driving, and inspecting possible. buildings, is harder to defend and, indeed, is For most communities, improving the effective- likely to be challenged legally with increasing fre- ness of the fire service calls for gradual changes quency in coming years. The Commission recom- within the present structure: a shift of priorities mends that communities train and utilize women toward fire prevention, better deployment sys- for fire service duties. tems, improved management practices. Other Police-fire consolidation. A small number of communities will want to consider a major shift communities have consolidated, partially or fully, from their present system. In the next few pages their police and fire departments. One recent 1 we explore some of the alternatives open to them. source lists 23 cities and towns with fully con- Part volunteer, part paid. Communities that solidated departments (usually called public have grown in size or complexity beyond the capa- safety departments), 10 with partial consolida- bilities of their volunteer fire departments need to tion, and two with “selected area” consolidation- consider a shift toward paid departments. Among that is, confined to certain neighborhoods. the advantages of a paid department is the fact Of the cities with fully consolidated depart- that, if it replaces several volunteer companies, ments, 17 of the 23 are in communities with fewer it can ensure that fire protection resources are than 10,000 residents. Generally they are affluent spread equitably in the community. One source of residential communities, lacking the hazards asso- criticism, of course, is the increased cost of paid ciated with aging urban centers or large industrial manpower. But the shift need only be partial. For districts. They do not have the crime problems of example, many volunteer departments can sum- urban areas; hence, the absence of patrolmen dur- mon adequate manpower during evening and ing a fire is less risky than it would be in larger nighttime hours but are hard pressed for man- cities. power during daylight hours when volunteers are The 23 communities all have some form of CO- at their jobs. In such instances, it would make operative patrolmen or public safety officers--that sense to have paid firefighters on duty during the is, men with some firefighting training who are daytime. primarily police officers, but who respond to fire Auxiliary firefighters. An alternative source of alarms and provide various forms of assistance. supplemental manpower sometimes used is mu- In one city, for example, neighborhood patrols nicipal employees who can be called away from carry resuscitators and large fire extinguishers in their main jobs without serious detriment to the their vehicles. Patrolmen are not called away from chief function they perform. Reliance on such per- ‘Harry W. More, Jr., The New Era of Public Safety, sonnel for first-alarm capability would certainly Springfield, 111. : Charles C Thomas, 1970. 20 ARE THERE OTHER WAYS? crime control if a fire occurs. In another, public neither the crime problem nor the fire problem is safety units staffed by two firefighters, cross- serious. As either problem rises in seriousness, so trained as police officers, patrol an assigned area does the potential for conflict of purposes, with in station wagons equipped with firefighting the result that attention to one problem will be equipment, first aid equipment, and protective sacrificed to attention paid to the other. Indeed, clothing. Two additional firemen are assigned to the more serious is either problem the more im- each piece of equipment at the fire station; hence, portant it is to have personnel specially suited for total manning is four men per company. Ninety attacking the problem. Fighting fires and fighting percent of the time the station wagon arrives first criminals call for very different skills; they also at fires in its district, and one-third of the time its call for men with very different motivations and patrolmen are able to handle the fire unassisted. very different assessments of the kinds of risks they Consolidation appears to work in areas where are willing to take. That firemen and policemen
PROMETHEUS SCORNED From colonial times down to the twentieth cen- tury, fire was a dreaded threat to the advancing American civilization. Fire wiped out farms; time and again, conflagrations leveled whole sections of towns and cities. But citizens organized fire companies, and they fought back. Proud of their roles and the risks they took, volunteer companies became true fraternities of men. Often a community was served by several different companies, each trying to be the best in town-the strongest, fastest, shiniest. Rivalry sometimes led to brawls and even sabotage. The shift to paid departments in the larger cities came only gradually. Boston established the first, after a great conflagration in 1679, but for the next 200 years separate volunteer com- panies survived in most cities. With their strong fraternal traditions, the volunteer companies resisted change, They fought against relinquishing their place at the tow line in front of the hand pumper to a horse; they fought against efforts to reorganize the companies into a municipal organization, But inevitably, change came to the fire serv- ices. Hand-drawn pumpers gave way to horse- drawn steamers, which gave way to gasoline engine pumpers. Coordinated municipal fire services were established. Fire laws were enacted to give some responsibility for fire control to the citizenry. Technology reduced the risk of major fires. But the risks to firemen themselves have not diminished. They still push themselves to the outer edge of endurance-and sometimes beyond. Even with advances in technology, there still comes a moment when the fireman must turn away from the lashing tongues of fire. The struggle is still there, and it is still a heroic struggle.
AMERICA BURNING 21 One result of regional cooperation can be an improved dispatching system to reduce response time significantly.
22 ARE THERE OTHER WAYS? are different kinds of people is attested to by stud- than an arm of the government. On the other ies which find that firemen make much better hand, the pressures to make a profit run counter paramedics. to the fundamental aims of the fire services---to Several other cautions are in order. While con- save as many lives, and to reduce as many in- solidation plans make valuable use of firefighters’ juries and property losses, as possible. A commu- non-emergency time, there are functions related to nity considering contract service must define its fire protection that deserve higher priority: fire requirements and standards of performance very prevention inspections, fire safety education, res- carefully. It must have continuing proof, through cue and paramedic services among them. More- the company’s records of performance, that com- over, no community can say with full assurance munity expectations are being met. (Once it has that its fire problem is small.2 drawn a contract with adequate provisions, a An additional consideration : If firefighters also community must face the possibility that no en- have law enforcement duties, they will be bad trepreneur will come forward to assume the risks.) choices for conducting residential fire safety in- Governmental contracting. Many communi- spections. Suspicions about their true intentions ties have mutual-aid agreements with neighboring will make them unwelcome in many homes. communities so that they work together to cope Reduced services. An additional alternative with major fires. A more formal banding to- for communities is to freeze suppression services gether occurs when a community pays a neigh- of the fire department at the present level, while boring or encompassing political jurisdiction to at the same time placing more of the future bur- provide it fire protection. The Los Angeles County den for fire protection on the residents of the com- Fire Department serves 35 communities on this munities. This is not as novel as it may sound. basis. Services provided range from paramedic Many communities require buildings of a certain teams to forest fire suppression. Communities size or type of occupancy to have sprinkler sys- benefit from the availability of equipment and tems, in whole or in part, and many require that specialized services that they could hardly afford major industrial plants have their own fire bri- on their own. gades. By spreading such requirements to other Regionalization. Contracts between govern- classes of buildings, communities can reduce fire ments are but one route to a very successful losses without further taxing the capabilities of the method of improving the fire services. Another fire department. In many countries, we might add, route is through regionalization. preventing destructive fire is regarded primarily The experience of Great Britain with regionali- as the responsibility of the property owner, not the zation is instructive. During World War II, that fire department. country’s fire services were nationalized for the Private contracting. A further choice, laden sake of defense. After the war, the fire services with controversy, is to contract for fire services were denationalized but, rather than being di- with a private firm. Many of the Nation’s early vided into the 1,500 jurisdictions that had existed fire companies were incorporated under State law before the war, they were consolidated into about and provided their services on a contract basis. 150 fire jurisdictions. Resources were pooled, and Private contract companies exist in parts of Ten- economic efficiency was gained through the elimi- nessee and Arizona. nation of duplicated services. In particular, the Some city managers have been attracted to the advantages cited of the British experience were: idea of private contracting on the grounds that a l More efficient manning through the combining private company is more likely to exhibit sound of small companies; management practices, efficiency, and innovation l Greater operational effectiveness through bet- ter manned companies, uniform fire suppres- 2Crescent City, Ill., learned this painful lesson in the summer of 1970. when a derailed tank car filled with pro- sion methods, direct control of response of all Dane gas tore open and burned. and six other tank cars companies (rather than depending on mutual exploded in a chain reaction, sometimes hurtling like rock- ets hundreds of feet. Despite the efforts of 250 firefighters aid arrangements like those in many American and 58 pieces of apparatus, 64 people were injured, 24 communities), and the ability to concentrate living quarters were destroyed, and 90 percent of the busi- ness district was wiped out. manpower rapidly at major fires;
AMERICA BURNING 23 l Better communications; operative arrangements among local jurisdic- l Better training facilities as a result of a larger tions. The Commission recommends that laws tax base supporting them; which hamper cooperative arrangements among l More uniform regulatory code enforcement; local fire jurisdictions be changed to remove the l Economies effected through large volume pur- restrictions. chases and standardization of parts; Fire Protection Planning l Better recordkeeping with less total effort. While regionalization has succeeded in some Which, if any, of the foregoing alternatives is areas of the United States, it has been stoutly appropriate for a community will depend on its resisted in other areas. Fire departments, especially careful analysis of present conditions and direc- volunteer departments, have developed an esprit tions of future growth. de corps and a pride in their achievements, and Fire protection is only one of many community they are understandably reluctant to sacrifice services. Not only must it compete for dollars with the measure of autonomy that regionalization other municipal needs, such as the education sys- would require. Having raised, through donations, tem and the police department, but, in planning $50,000 to buy a fire truck, they are reluctant to for future growth, the fire protection system must relinquish any control of it. Companies that have take into account the changes going on elsewhere developed personnel and operational policies in the community. For example, if a slum area is which they feel are superior to those of other com- to be torn down and replaced with high-rise panies in the region fear they might have to give apartment buildings, that will change the fire them up for the sake of regional uniformity. protection needs of the area. Changes in zoning Others argue that enlarged jurisdictions put con- maps will also change the fire protection needs in trol in the hands of people not familiar with local different parts of the community. conditions, lessen civic interest in the fire services, To cope with future growth, local administra- and introduce morale problems as a result of less tors are turning increasingly to the concept of personal relationships in the larger organization. muster planning of municipal functions. Such And some fear that regionalization would phase plans include an examination of existing pro- out some companies in the name of efficiency, grams, projections of future needs of the commu- thereby increasing response distances to fires in nity, and a determination of methods to fill those some areas. needs. They seek the most cost-effective alloca- With careful planning, however, fears can be tions of resources to help assure that the needs abated and the real problems overcome. Further- will be met. more, if the protection of the public is not first- A major section of a community general plan rate, then the effort needs to be made. It behooves of land use should be a Master Plan for Fire county governments, and municipal governments Protection., written chiefly by fire department in which several independent fire companies still managers. This plan should, first of all, be consist- exist, to explore means of effecting regionaliza- ent with and reinforce the goals of the city’s over- tion of their fire services, At a minimum, such ex- all general plan. For example, it should plan its plorations should cover formal arrangements for deployment of manpower and equipment accord- mutual aid, especially during large fires; the shar- ing to the kind of growth, and the specific areas ing of management and of specialized functions, of growth, that the community foresees. It should such as arson investigation and fire safety educa- set goals and priorities for the fire department. Not tion; centralization of purchasing and training; only is it important to set objectives in terms of uniformity in all important practices; standardi- lives and property to be saved, but also to decide zation of reporting procedures; and the institution allocations among fire prevention inspection, fire of an area-wide communications and dispatching safety education, and fire suppression as the best system. way to accomplish the objectives. State governments have an obligation to pro- Having established goals, the plan should seek mote regional approaches to fire protection. As to establish “management by objectives” within it is now, many States have laws that hamper co- the fire department. This operates on the principle
24 ARE THERE OTHER WAYS? that management is most effective when each per- dictions that operate from a federally approved son is aware of how his tasks fit into the overall master plan for fire protection. goals and has committed himself to getting spe- The Commission recognizes that the planner cific jobs done in a specified time. who sets out in search of the most cost-effective Because fire departments exist in a real world solutions to his local fire problems is faced with where a variety of purposes must be served with scanty data on which to make such decisions. a limited amount of money, it is important that What is the difference in performance, if any, be- every dollar be invested for maximum payoff, The tween a fire station that serves a 12-block radius fire protection master plan should not only seek to and one that serves a six-block radius? How is provide the maximum cost-benefit ratio for fire performance affected by the addition or subtrac- protection expenditures, but should also estab- tion of one man on a pumper? What are the haz- lish a framework for measuring the effectiveness ards most important to eliminate through building of these expenditures. and fire prevention codes and enforcement? Lastly, the plan should clarify the fire protection There is a ‘dearth of systematic studies of meth- responsibility for other groups in the community, ods of fire protection. We have advocated that both governmental and private. master plans include provisions for evaluating The Commission recommends that every local various approaches to fire protection, but until fire jurisdiction prepare a master plan designed such time as evaluation can be made, master plan- to meet the community’s present and future ning will be a very inexact approach to rationaliz- needs in fire protection, to serve as a basis for ing fire protection. The need is not only for more program budgeting, and to identify and imple- systematic studies of methods of fire protection, ment the optimum cost-benefit solutions in fire but for a centralized office to collect and dis- protection. Wherever possible, this should be a seminate evaluation data, so that communities regional jurisdiction embracing several political can learn from each other. The Commission rec- jurisdictions-for example, county-wide or larger ommends that the proposed United States Fire in rural areas and metropolis-wide in urban areas. Administration act as a coordinator of studies (In Chapter 4 we discuss the tools to carry out this of fire protection methods and assist local juris- program.) In other chapters we recommend Fed- dictions in adapting findings to their fire protec- eral assistance, in the form of grants for equipment tion planning. In this endeavor the U.S. Fire and training, to local fire departments to improve Administration should work closely with other their reduction of fire losses. Federal agencies, such as the National Bureau of Such assistance should be in response only to Standards, the Department of Agriculture, and well-substantiated needs. Hence, the Commission with private fire protection groups such as the recommends that Federal grants for equipment Joint Council of National Fire Service Organiza- and training be available only to those fire juris- tions and the National Fire Protection Association.
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THE FIRE SERVICES
4 PLANNING FOR FIRE PROTECTION
Setting sights upon the future of fire protection in l Adequate level of fire protection.. The ques- this Nation, as this Commission is charged to do, tion of “adequacy” addresses itself not only to brings into focus a major need underlying many day-to-day normal needs, but to major con- others: Planning. tingencies that can he anticipated and to future Fire protection has been largely a local respon- needs as well. What is needed is a definition of sibility, and for good reasons it is destined to re- “optimal” protection-in contrast to “mini- main so. Each community has a set of conditions mal” protection, which fails to meet contingen- unique to itself, and a system of fire protection cies and future needs, and “maximal” protec- that works well for one community cannot be as- tion, which is more than the community can sumed to work equally well for other communities. afford. To be adequate, the fire protection system must l Reasonable community costs. Fire, both as respond to local conditions, especially to changing threat and reality, has its costs: property losses, conditions. Planning is the key: Without local- deaths, injuries, hospital bills, lost tax revenues, level planning, the system of fire protection is apt plus the costs of maintaining fire departments, to be ill-suited to local needs and lag behind the paying fire insurance premiums, and provid- changing needs of the community. ing built-in fire protection. Each community Excellent fire protection-for example, in the must decide on an appropriate level of invest- form of automatic extinguishing systems-lies ment in fire protection. Some costs beyond the within technical grasp, and certainly lies within public’s willingness to bear should be trans- the resources of most communities to provide. ferred to the private sector-as when buildings Even with considerable public support, this pro- over a certain size or height or with a certain tection would require many years to accomplish. occupancy are required to have automatic ex- In the meantime, in every fire jurisdiction- tinguishing systems. whether a municipality, county, or region- l Acceptable risk. A certain level of losses from standards aiming at a significant increase in fire fire must be accepted as tolerable simply be- protection must be set. Among the concepts to cause of the limited resources of the community. be defined: Conditions that endanger the safety of citizens
AMERICA BURNING 27 and firefighters beyond the acceptable risk must l Life safety-paramedical services. Capabili- he identified as targets for reduction. ties needed during fires and other emergencies Consideration of these matters helps to deter- include first aid, resuscitation, and possibly par- mine what functions and emphasis should be as- amedical services. (By “paramedical services” signed to the fire department, other municipal we mean emergency treatment beyond ordinary departments, and the private sector, both now and first aid, performed by fire service personnel in the future, It helps to define new policies, laws, under supervision-through radio communica- or regulations that may be needed. Most impor- tion, for example--of a physician.) tant, consideration of these matters makes clear l Fire prevention. This includes approving that fire safety is a responsibility shared by the building plans and actual construction, inspect- public and private sectors. Because the fire depart- ing buildings, their contents, and their fire ment cannot prevent all fire losses, formal obliga- protection equipment, public education, and tions fall on owners of certain kinds of buildings investigating the causes of fires to serve as a to have built-in fire protection. For the same rea- guide to future priorities in fire prevention. son, private citizens have an obligation to exercise l Fire safety education. Fire departments have prudence with regard to fire in their daily lives. an obligation to bring fire safety education, not But prudence also requires education in fire safety, only into schools and private homes, but also and the obligation to provide that education ap- into occupancies with greater than average fire propriately falls in the public sector, chiefly the potential or hazard to people, such as restaur- fire department. The public sector-again, chiefly ants, hotels, hospitals, and nursing homes. the fire department-also has an obligation to see l Deteriorated building hazards. In coordina- that requirements for built-in protection in the tion with other municipal departments, fire de- private sector are being met. partments can work to abate serious hazards to A fire department, then, has more than one re- health and safety caused by deteriorated struc- sponsibility. Nor are the responsibilities just men- tures or abandoned buildings. tioned exhaustive. At least eight important func- l Regional coordination. Major emergencies tions for fire departments can be identified: can exceed the capabilities of a single fire de- l Fire suppression. Firefighters need proper partment, and neighboring fire jurisdictions training and adequate equipment for saving should have detailed plans for coping with such lives and putting out fires quickly, and also for emergencies. But effectiveness can also be their own safety. improved through sharing of day-to-day opera-
Master Planning for fire protection requires consideration of a community’s future pattern of growth and its likely needs.
28 PLANNING FOR FIRE PROTECTION tions--as, for example, an area-wide communi- A look at how one city has developed a master cation and dispatching network. plan is instructive. Several years ago, the city of l Data development. Knowledge of how well a Mountain View, Calif.,² began to prepare its fire department is doing, and of how practices General Plan of Land Use. As a statement of fire should change to improve performance, de- department needs, the city manager’s office was pends on adequate record-keeping. prepared to accept the recommendations of the l Community relations. Fire departments are American Insurance Association (which at that representative of the local community that sup- time had responsibility for the Grading Schedule). ports them. The impression they make on citi- These recommendations called for eight fire sta- zens affects how citizens view their government. tions in Mountain View, with five men per engine Volunteer departments dependent on private company and six to seven men per truck company donations must, of course, also be concerned if the city wanted to improve the insurance with their community relations. Moreover, since grading. fire stations are strategically located through- The fire chief interceded to suggest that deeper out the community, they can serve as referral study would lead to a different set of goals for the or dispensing agencies for a wide range of muni- fire department. He proposed a “philosophy of fire cipal services. protection” for Mountain View with two aspects. As communities set out to improve their fire First, emphasis should be on preventing fire losses, protection, it is not the fire department alone they chiefly through code enforcement and control of must consider. The police have a role in reporting contents and activities within structures. Second, fires and in handling traffic and crowds during the fire department can cope with emergencies fires. The cooperation of the building department only to a certain level. “Where the normal antici- is needed to enforce the fire safety provisions of pated potential for emergencies exceeds the building codes. The work of the water department planned capability of the on-duty fire force, de- in maintaining the water system is vital to fire sup- velopers and operators of buildings and businesses pression. In the realm of fire safety education, the will be responsible for providing the balance of public schools, the department of recreation, and fire protection.” Usually this would mean some the public library can augment the work of the fire form of built-in fire protection. department. Future development and planning In developing a master plan for fire protection, will influence the location of new fire stations and the Mountain View fire chief and his staff took a how they will be equipped. careful look at recent fire experience. From that These are just the obvious examples of inter- study, they were able to project that apartment dependence. So seemingly trivial a matter as the house and industrial fires would be an increasing manner in which house numbers are assigned and burden on the department. By examining the posted can affect the ability of fire departments to causes of recent fires, they were able to set priori- respond quickly and effectively to emergencies. ties for fire safety education and code enforcement. They were also able to arrive at a definition of The Master Plan for Fire Protection “adequate” fire protection service, which included In Chapter 3 we proposed that each local fire the provision that firefighting forces arrive within jurisdiction in the Nation develop a master plan 4 minutes after the emergency has been reported. for fire protection. The master plan, we pointed The chief and his staff also examined the capa- out, should set goals and priorities for the fire serv- bilities of the fire department’s equipment to sup- ices, designed to meet the changing needs of the press large fires. This led to recommendations that community. It should seek to allocate resources the building code be amended to require all non- for the maximum payoff in fire protection, and it residential occupancies over 5,000 square feet to should provide for a data system for continual have approved fire detectors, and all over 10,000 monitoring of cost-effectiveness. square feet to have automatic sprinkler systems
1 As we recommended there, wherever possible this should be a regional jurisdiction embracing several polit- 3 Appendix VI contains the Mountain View Master ical jurisdictions-for example, county-wide or larger in Plan for Fire Protection. This is part of the overall General rural areas, and metropolis-wide in urban areas. Plan of Land Use.
AMERICA BURNING 29 DEVISING A FIRE PROTECTION PLAN The following can serve as guidelines to fire department administrators for developing and presenting a master plan for fire protection: Phase I 2. Present the proposed municipal fire pro- 1. Identify the fire protection problems of tection system to the city administration for the jurisdiction. review. 2. Identify the best combination of public 3. Present the proposed system for adoption resources and built-in protection required to as the fire protection element of the jurisdic- manage the fire problem, within acceptable tion’s general plan. The standard process for de- limits : velopment of a general plan provides the fire (a) Specify current capabilities and future department administrator an opportunity to in- needs of public resources ; form the community leaders of the fire protec- (b) Specify current capabilities and future tion goals and system and to obtain their requirements for built-in protection. support. 3. Develop alternative methods that will Phase III result in trade-offs between benefits and risks. 4. Establish a system of goals, programs, and In considering the fire protection element the cost estimates to implement the plan: governing body of the jurisdiction will have to (a) The process of developing department pay special attention to: goals and programs should include maxi- 1. Short- and long-range goals, mum possible participation of fire de- 2. Long-range staffing and capital improve- partment personnel, of all ranks; ment plans, (b) The system should provide goals and 3. The code revisions required to provide fire objectives for all divisions, supportive of loss management. the overall goals of the department; (c) Management development programs Phase IV should strive to develop increased ac- The fire loss management system must be ceptance of authority and responsibility reviewed and updated as budget allocations, by all fire officers, as they strive to ac- capital improvement plans, and code revisions complish established objectives and occur. Continuing review of results should con- programs. centrate on these areas : 1. Did fires remain within estimated limits? Phase II Should limits be changed? 1. Develop, with the other government agen- 2. Did losses prove to be acceptable? cies, a definition of their roles in the fire pro- 3. Could resources be decreased or should tection process. they be increased?
in addition. In recognition that most deaths in seminars. To make sure the fire prevention bureau residential fires are from smoke inhalation, they and firefighters understood their responsibilities recommended that smoke detectors and sprinkler in fire inspection, they listed every kind of occu- heads be required at the top of the stairwell in all pancy in the city and assigned each category to two-story residences. one or the other. Another detailed listing set forth The Mountain View chief and his staff inven- clearly the fire protection responsibilities of other toried the fire department, in terms of both per- city departments, such as the police, water, engi- sonnel and equipment, and then projected addi- neering, and planning departments. tional needs of manpower and capital investments The kind of study Mountain View has been over a lo-year period. In developing the master conducting is not costly. Certainly it is not ex- plan, the chief and his assistants made a detailed pensive in light of the cost-effectiveness it promises list of objectives, in order of priority, not only for taxpayers of that city. The data from which its the department as a whole, but for the chief, as- projections are derived are mostly data fire depart- sistant chiefs, battalion chiefs, and captains. They ments ought to be collecting every day as a means established a timetable for implementing special of continually monitoring their effectiveness. Yet events, such as company inspections and arson we recognize that many local and county govern-
30 PLANNING FOR FIRE PROTECTION ments are financially strapped ; they are hard The Impetus for Change put to provide adequate services for today, much less to plan for better services tomorrow. They will Every system has advantages and disadvantages. need help tomorrow to improve fire protection, No one is motivated to change a system or pattern but they need help today to determine what those of behavior when the advantages seem to lie with improvements should be. the status quo and the disadvantages with the The planning we have called for does more contemplated change. Change toward fire loss than place fire department activities on a rational management will be attractive only if the rewards footing; it requires fire departments to consider of the proposed practices and the penalties of means of reducing fire losses beyond mere fire existing practices are seen to outweigh the re- suppression. It calls for a broader approach, wards for existing practices and the penalties as- which may require changes in laws and codes sociated with change. If the opposite holds true, as well as increased emphasis on fire prevention then there will be little impetus to move in the and fire safety education by fire departments. direction of fire loss management. This broader approach, which might be termed One of the jobs of the US. Fire Administra- “fire loss management,” is a radical departure for tion will be to persuade local governments that many communities. the rewards lie in a change toward fire loss Some fire departments will lack the expertise management, penalties in the status quo. A few and management ability to devise master plans of the advantages of the fire loss management on their own. If they have been relying solely on approach deserve mention here. It puts planning the Grading Schedule, they will find that the mas- for the future on a sound basis and makes it easier ter plan involves attention to many more factors to defend budget requests each year. It brings the and calls for custom-tailoring future priorities to top levels of local government, who don’t under- meet local conditions. For the first time, they may stand fire department program needs, into active find it necessary to call in fire protection engineers participation in planning the community’s total and management consultants to aid in establish- fire protection. It brings from “under the carpet” ing levels of fire protection and methods to obtain emergency situations beyond the capabilities of those levels. The Commission recommends that the fire department and makes clear what will be the proposed United States Fire Administration done in such cases. The approach provides fire provide grants to local fire jurisdictions for de- departments with a management system that can veloping master plans for fire protection. Fur- weed out outmoded practices and justify the prac- ther, the proposed U.S. Fire Administration tices they retain. Lastly, it can restructure fire- should provide technical advice and qualified fighters’ jobs to make them more productive to personnel to local fire jurisdictions to help them the citizenry-and more rewarding to the fire- develop master plans. fighter.
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THE FIRE SERVICES
5 FIRE SERVICE PERSONNEL Common sense tells us that, once a destructive fire not only the addition or subtraction of firemen, has begun, the effectiveness of the fire department but changes in departmental entrance require- in reducing life and property losses depends, to a ments, changes in training, changes in physical large extent, on ( 1) how soon firefighters arrive conditioning, and changes in the way manpower at the scene and (2) what they and their equip- is deployed. ment do after they have arrived. But precisely how do such changes affect fire Thus, manpower is a key factor in fire suppres- losses or firefighter injuries? As was true of some sion. Quick response requires not only that fire of the questions in Chapter 3, good answers do stations and fire trucks be placed in enough loca- not exist. Almost no data-gathering and almost tions, but that the fire houses be adequately no systematic studies have been performed to manned. And while it is important that equip- correlate various manpower strategies with ment at the fire scene be adequate to the task (a effectiveness. concern we discuss in Chapter 7), it is equally Such questions are not idle ones. In a poll con- important that there be enough firefighters, ade- ducted for Nation’s Cities in February 1972, quately trained, to use the equipment effectively. 33 percent of the responding cities reported that Manpower is also a key factor in fire preven- their fire departments were manned at under au- tion. Efforts to inspect buildings for fire safety thorized levels. The International Association of and to educate the public about fire hazards re- Fire Fighters, among others, is concerned that quire the actions of specially trained people, cuts in manpower, made in the name of economy, Common sense tells us, therefore, that changes may be exposing firefighters to greater risks of in manning of fire departments (especially if injuries. Fire chiefs worry because layoffs of they have responsibilities for fire prevention as younger men are robbing their departments of well as suppression ) affect the ability of those future leaders. The fire insurance industry is con- departments to control life and property losses cerned that manpower cuts may lead to an in- from fire. Changes in manning, one would ex- crease of large-loss fires. Citizens, too, worry about pect, also affect the rate at which firefighters sus- reduced fire protection and the effect of under- tain injuries. By changes in manning we mean manning on their insurance rates.
AMERICA BURNING 33 In the absence of cost-effectiveness studies of various manpower strategies, who can say what the effects of manpower cuts are likely to be? But this is not solely a scientific question; it has a moral dimension as well. Saving lives, reducing property losses, and preventing firefighter injuries are far more important considerations than effi- ciency in government. It is far better to err on the side of overmanning than to risk the public’s safety through manpower cuts. Economy-minded gov- erntments should be concerned with getting greater productivity from their fire departments, not with saving dollars to the possible detriment of their citizens’ safety.
Pressure Toward Better Utilization Fire departments cannot continue to base their manpower practices on past experience and hunches. The economic pressures on local govern- ments translate into a need to base manpower policies on a firm foundation of proven cost-effec- tiveness, There are other pressures in this direc- tion as well : Public expectations. Fire departments are not the only municipal service under pressure to jus- tify their policies. The fact that other departments of local government are under similar pressure suggests that the departments that come forward with the best analyses are likely to convince local officials and the public that their needs are valid. If fire departments lag behind, they are likely to be treated with indifference. If fire departments come forward with bond issues for new equip- ment and facilities based on inadequate studies, they are apt to encounter stiff resistance from those public officials and influential citizens who live in a world of cost-benefit analyses and trade- off studies. department manpower is not worth its costs to Other pressures arise when public expectations taxpayers. exceed what the fire department is delivering. The changing environment. Another pres- Many citizens arc bothered by their perception sure toward placing manpower practices on a of the paid firefighter as one who spends most of more rational basis stems from changes that have his duty time in idleness. While in many commu- occurred in our urban society and in fire prob- nities this impression is out of date, the fact that lems. Take, for example, the high-rise building, the impression lingers should concern fire depart- a special problem to which more and more fire ment administrators. In some communities, on departments are being introduced. Heights ex- the other hand, the public has come to expect the ceed ladder reach. Air and heating ducts, in fire service to handle any life safety emergency. If many cases, rapidly spread fire and smoke, some- the fire department does not live up to this times faster than a heavily populated building expectation, the public may conclude that fire ran be evacuated. Windows may be sealed, caus-
34 FIRE SERVICE PERSONNEL Using firefighters in fire prevention work increases their productivity and helps to reduce fire losses. ing heat to build up. These and other special desirability of specialization within the depart- problems require not only an adequate number ments increases. of firefighters at the scene, but firefighters who are Equal opportunity considerations. Moral con- trained to deal with the special hazards and who siderations dictate, and Federal law requires,’ are effectively managed in the team effort to put that entrance-level requirements for fire depart- out the fire. Fire departments have been growing larger as 1 the Nation becomes more urbanized. Shopping The equal employment opportunity provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (as amended) apply to all fire centers and other commercial complexes are departments except those that are purely volunteer and sprouting up in rural areas, putting increased de- without any quasi-governmental attributes, and those de- partments with fewer than 15 employees. In court de- mands on their fire departments, With the grow- cisions, purely volunteer departments have been found ing size of fire departments and the growing exempt from the provisions only if they function without any significant governmental sponsorship or aid and with- complexity of the hazards in the environment, the out any privilege to claim government benefits.
AMERICA BURNING 35 ments be related only to the performance require- In all these areas of research, a very useful ments of the job. This is to prevent discrimination method is to compare the performance of fire de- against minorities in hiring. It is our observation partments using different strategies in attacking that many fire departments have quite some dis- the problem under study, and then to isolate the tance to go to fulfill this need. Too many entrance factor that makes the difference in perfomance. tests expect skills unrelated to firefighting; some This means that fire departments under study put so much emphasis on administrative skills that must keep adequate records of their performance. they appear to be saying, “In every firefighter Impact must be considered. In evaluating the rel- there must be a fire chief waiting to be dis- ative importance of a particular fire hazard, for covered.” Too few tests, on the other hand, relate example, it is not enough to record the number of to the skills a firefighter needs. Only recently, in inspections made (input) and then the frequency fact, have any attempts been made to correlate with which the unsafe practice occurs (output). entrance examination scores, fire school scores, It is necessary that the number of fires attributable and on-the-job performance. to-or aggravated by-the unsafe practice be evaluated (impact), (Note that input over im- What Can Be Done? pact in dollars is the cost-benefit ratio.) What we have said thus far about manpower con- Since the research needs are urgent and should siderations in the fire services suggests several not await pursuit until a U.S. Fire Administration areas of research that need to be pursued. is established, the Commission urges the Federal Specifically, the Commission recommends that research agencies, such as the National Science the proposed United States Fire Administration Foundation and the National Bureau of Stand- sponsor research in the following areas: ards, to sponsor research appropriate to their productivity measure of fire departments. respective missions within the areas of produc- How do various manning strategies affect the tivity of fire departments, causes of firefighter in- ability of a fire department to put out fires and juries, effectiveness of fire prevention efforts, and rescue fire’s victims? How can firefighters’ re- the skills required to perform various fire depart- sponsibilities be extended into new areas, espe- ment functions, cially into fire prevention efforts or non-fire The emergence of guidelines for fire services de- emergency rescue, without jeopardizing fire velopment through federally sponsored research suppression and rescue? will be a long step forward. But to implement the job analyses. Different fire departments ren- findings to meet local conditions, expert leader- der different kinds of services, depending on ship in fire departments is needed. their assigned responsibilities and the kinds of The linking of “expert” with “leadership” is hazards that exist in the environment they serve. vital. Most American fire departments are strong What skills are required of firefighters and in leadership and weak in management expertise. officers under these varying conditions? How The typical hiring and promotion system-in should candidates be screened for these which everyone from the chief on down started positions? as a rookie fireman-has guaranteed good lead- firefighter injuries. How can injuries be re- ers who understand the needs of the men under duced? For example, are firefighters taking un- them and are respected by their subordinates. But necessary risks to save abandoned buildings? fire departments could profit from competition for (In this area there is a need for studies of fire- certain leadership positions from outside fire de- men’s protective equipment, which we discuss partments. They need qualified planners whose in Chapter 7.) expertise lies in fire protection engineering, oper- fire prevention efforts. What kinds of edu- ations research, and systems studies rather than cational programs effectively reduce burn in- firefighting. This is especially true in larger de- juries? What kinds of hazards are most partments where, further, specialists in budgeting, important to eliminate? How can fire depart- personnel, and community relations need not be ment inspections and educational programs be firefighters. The experience of other kinds of orga- made most effective? nizations, moreover, shows that thinking can be-
36 FIRE SERVICE PERSONNEL come stale and practices inbred when no outside fire jurisdiction should be required to present a entry is permitted. The Commission recommends master plan for fire protection substantiating the that the Nation’s fire departments recognize ad- need for further training. vanced and specialized education and hire or As we indicated earlier, entrance requirements promote persons with experience at levels com- for the Nation’s fire departments also vary widely, mensurate with their skills. and too few tests meet the Federal requirements Presently, the retirement systems of most fire that they be related only to the performance re- departments discourage hiring from outside at quirements of the job applied for. Because of the any level above that of basic firefighters. For ex- conservative hiring and promotion practices of ample, in many departments, only those who join fire departments, too many tests emphasize the between the ages of 21 and 30 arc eligible for re- applicant’s potentiality for moving far up in rank. tirement benefits. Seldom are retirement system Better training programs, together with greater credits portable; a fireman who transfers to an- willingness of departments to hire at all ranks other department must begin building credits from outside, would diminish the need for this anew, as though he were a rookie firefighter. TO emphasis. A fair and job-related test, which the encourage greater opportunity for. choice for fire- Joint Council of National Fire Service Organiza- fighters and officers, the vesting of retirement tions is now working on, will, in turn, create pres- rights and transfer of retirement credits to other sures for better training and more liberal hiring jurisdictions needs to be made possible. The sub- and promotion practices, ject of lateral transfer should be studied in detail It is our concern for the rights of America’s through a project sponsored by the proposed U.S. racial minorities which prompts our urging that Fire Administration. A major objective should be entrance tests be fair and job-related. But we be- to determine ways in which personnel can transfer lieve even further steps are necessary to overcome between fire departments and retain all retirement the effects of years of discrimination in many de- rights. partments. It is not enough for fire departments As important as we consider flexible hiring to establish fair standards in hiring; they must practices, we do not mean to depreciate the value reach out to minority communities and actively of training within fire departments. At the outset seek recruits. In the administering of Federal of this chapter we said that one of the important funds for training or other assistance to local ways to change fire department manning is to fire departments, the Commission recommends change training programs. Improvements in that eligibility be limited. to those departments training can favorably influence a department’s that have adopted an effective, affirmative effectiveness-in saving lives, reducing property action program related to the employment and losses, and preventing injuries to firefighters. promotion of members of minority groups. The quality of training given America’s fire- fighters and officers varies widely. It is not diffi- Increasing Productivity: Two Possibilities cult to see why. There are no national training The nature of the job of most firefighters requires requirements for firemen, and only 15 States have much standby time which is not devoted to reduc- training standards which all firemen must meet. ing fire losses. Most leaders in the fire services For volunteer firefighters there are no financial in- agree that the productive time of firefighters centives and sometimes little opportunity to ought to be increascd. And most agree that what- further their training. For paid departments as ever additional services firefighters are called well as volunteer ones, training is an expensive undertaking that removes the trainees from useful service for a period of time. Many communities, if a In the next chapter, we recommend the establishment called upon to augment their fire department of a National Fire Academy. primarily to provide special training for fire department management. It would be training, simply could not afford to. The Com- appropriate for the U.S. Fire Administration, through the National Fire Academy, not only to channel funds to mission recommends a program of Federal fi- local and regional training programs, but to develop cur- nancial assistance to local fire services to upgrade ricula for local use. train local instructors. and provide special instructors ‘to local and regional’ fire training their training.’ To qualify for this assistance, a centers.
AMERICA BURNING 37 upon to render, the services ought to utilize fire- Another kind of activity that meets the criterion fighters’ special capabilities. Painting street signs of utilizing firefighter’s special capabilities is and registering bicycles are useful activities, but emergency ambulance and paramedical service. they don’t meet this criterion. From time to time, nearly every fire department is Activities which meet this criterion, and which called upon to respond to emergencies having ought to receive topmost priority in extending nothing to do with fire. Indeed, in some depart- firefighters’ productivity, lie in the area of fire pre- ments, responding to non-fire emergencies is an vention. A recurring theme of this report is that official responsibility and a major part of the de- a much heavier investment of time and resources partment’s workload. But many departments in fire prevention is the most expeditious route to have moved gradually toward heavier assump- reduce life and property losses from fire. While tion of this responsibility without adequate plan- many departments recognize responsibilities in ning and preparation. As a result, they are still fire prevention, too few are doing all they should responding to non-fire emergencies with fire trucks or could. -an expensive and inappropriate use of equip- There are many fire prevention activities that ment. Or they are requiring firefighters to handle fire departments can undertake. They can con- some patients they are not trained to handle. Or duct inspections to enforce local codes, ordi- they are compiling a poor record of response to nances, and common-sense fire prevention prac- non-fire emergencies because they have an inad- tices. They can supplement the efforts of other equate communications and deployment system. code inspectors-for example, by reviewing build- There are sound reasons for fire departments ing plans in cooperation with the building de- assuming emergency ambulance and paramedical partment. They can inspect special items of functions. If fire stations are logically located to importance, such as hydrants, sprinkler systems, guarantee quick response to fires, then ambulances and standpipes. They can check high-risk areas, placed in fire stations will be logically deployed such as wooden-structured slums and areas where as well. Secondly, firefighters are, by temperament buildings are under construction. For the sake and training, people-rescuers, and handling all of pre-fire planning, they can conduct familiariza- emergency patients is not a major shift of respon- tion inspections of structures and areas where sibility. Thirdly, a communications system de- their services may be needed someday. signed to get emergency vehicles to the fire scene is Last but not least, fire departments can con- well along the way to sufficiency for handling all duct educational programs-not only to teach emergencies. Lastly, a consideration not to be dis- school children and heads of households, but also counted : The provision of ambulance services will to teach employees of hospitals, hotels, and other enhance the value of the fire department in the public buildings of their special responsibilities. eyes of the community that supports it. These programs should be continuing, year-round The Commission recommends that fire de- efforts, not simply projects for fire prevention partments lacking emergency ambulance, para- week. medical, and rescue services consider providing The payoffs of such efforts lie in reduced de- them, especially if they are located in communi- mands for fire suppression, and reduced deaths, ties where these services are not adequately pro- injuries, and property losses. Which of these ef- vided by other agencies, We recognize that forts have the greatest payoff is, as we have in- assumption of these responsibilities requires invest- dicated, a question on which appallingly little ment in new equipment, in additional training research has been done. But greater efforts in fire programs, and-most likely-in additional man- prevention cannot await the arrival of better data. power. Also, careful planning is required to en- Not for the sake of productivity alone, but for the sure that the general rescue responsibility does not sake of the public’s safety, the time to get on with compromise the fire department’s responsibilities it is now. in fire protection-and vice versa.
38 FIRE SERVICE PERSONNEL Paramedical and rescue services have, in many communities, become an important part of firefighters’ duties.
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THE FIRE SERVICES
6 A NATIONAL FIRE ACADEMY
Fire department managers have difficult tasks be improved, at little cost, if they followed the thrust upon them. Every second counts in the example of outstanding programs. At present, battle against a fire, and they must make quick however, there is no systematic, interchange of in- but well-informed decisions affecting, at the same formation among educators in the fire services. time, the outcome of a fire and the safety of the One possible remedy has almost ananimous firefighters under their command. They must see support within the fire suppression and protection to it that their firefighters arc adequately fields—namely, a National Fire Academy. What trained---not only to fight fires, but to handle most experts envision is an institution that not frightened fire victims and administer first aid. only has advanced education programs of its own, Since firefighters have other duties, especially in but also lends help to State and local training and fire prevention education and inspections, their educational programs. In addition to conducting officers must ensure that the duties are carried out classes and seminars at its own facility, the Acad- effectively. Fire department managers must also emy would serve as the hub of an educational deal with the public—making sure that the de- network. The Academy system would use existing partment meets public expectations, and seeking, fire training school programs, fire science educa- in turn, public support of the department. What tion programs in community colleges, and fire makes these responsibilities particularly difficult management and fire protection engineering pro- is that, in thousands of smaller departments, they grams at the college or university level in each are bound up in a single individual, the fire chief, State. The Academy would function as the core often a man elected from among the volunteer of the Nation’s efforts in fire service education-- membership. feeding out model programs, curricula, and in- Those who bear these responsibilities know that formation, and at the same time receiving helpful the key to their performance, and the perform- advice from those schools and the fire services. ance of those under them, lies in training. At both The list of advocates of a National Fire State and local levels in this Nation, the quality of Academy includes the International Association training ranges from excellence to total absence. of Fire Chiefs and the International Association Usually the quality of training is tied to economic of Fire Fighters. It includes, as well, the National circumstances. But poor training programs could Fire Protection Association, the Committee on
AMERICA BURNING 41 Fire Research of the National Research Council, sound record keeping methods that prove that the Joint Council of National Fire Service Or- they work. ganizations, the National Association of Mu- l Officers educated by the Academy probably tual Insurance Companies, and many more. As would be sought far and wide, with the effect other organizations have done, the Commission that fire departments would be encouraged to recommends the establishment of a National abandon parochial hiring practices. Fire Academy to provide specialized training in Volunteer as well as paid fire departments have areas important to the fire services and to assist need of a National Fire Academy. Many volun- State and local jurisdictions in their training teer departments lack the resources for training programs. beyond a rudimentary level. Indeed, there are A National Fire Academy could have a number many volunteer firefighters who, having never of salutary effects upon the fire services. For been exposed to adequate training, don’t fully example: appreciate how it could improve their perform- l The Academy would help fire departments to ance and their safety. Their communities harbor reduce injuries, deaths, and property losses. In- the same lack of appreciation, believing that dividual fire departments have discovered “adequate” fire protection is wholly a matter of superior techniques for coping with fires, but trucks and men to ride them. Because volunteers their successes have not been shared with other are part-time firefighters with insufficient time to departments except through informal channels. undertake fire prevention activities, training in Academy courses in command strategy and tac- that area has often been neglected. With a lim- tics could be attuned to specific categories of ited vision of their community role, many volun- risk, such as congested cities, industrial com- teer departments-but many paid departments as plexes, and wildlands. Courses in such fields well-have neglected training in such important as arson investigation, code enforcement, and fields as arson investigation and fire-safe design of fire safety education would address themselves structures. to major ways of reducing fire losses. As we have indicated, the Academy would not l The Academy would increase the attractive- supplant State and local training programs but ness of fire service careers. The training oppor- would assist them: by identifying and making tunities offered by the Academy would make available course material and demonstration proj- positions in the fire services intellectually more ects, by accrediting programs, and by lending stimulating. special instructors to these programs. In general, l Academy training would equip fire service offi- State and local programs would continue to train cers with the technical expertise they need in firefighters; the Academy’s own specialized today’s competitive environments. Courses in courses would be for officers and officer management techniques would help chiefs of candidates. paid departments compete for budgetary dol- In addition, the National Fire Academy could lars with other municipal departments; such assist in the development of effective materials courses would also help them recognize anti- for public education in fire safety. Assistance to quated practices that should be abandoned community fire prevention efforts could include, Special engineering courses would help fire in addition to information, financial support and service managers to assess the relative advan- the lending of special personnel. The Academy tages of different pieces of equipment on the could also offer architects, engineers, code writers, market. and code inspectors short courses in the fire as- l At the same time, the Academy could help fire pects of those professions. departments shift priorities toward fire preven- One problem that cries out for Academy at- tion. One major barrier to such a shift has been tention is that of arson. As we pointed out in official doubt about the effectiveness of fire Chapter 1, the National Fire Protection Associa- prevention measures. Academy courses could tion estimates that about 7 percent of the Na- acquaint fire services officers, not only with fire tion’s fires are likely the work of arsonists. Many prevention practices that work, but also with urban fire chiefs believe the local incidence of
42 A NATIONAL FIRE ACADEMY deliberately set fires is far higher. To mount a One thing is certain: Federal support of the concerted attack on arson will require the com- National Fire Academy, both in its own programs munication of intelligence and expertise from and those it assists at local levels, is vital. Volun- every region and locality of the Nation. The teer firefighters and officers should not be ex- Commission recommends that the proposed Na- pected to pay for their specialized training and tional Fire Academy assume the role of develop- would probably be unable to take advantage of ing, gathering, and disseminating, to State and the Academy’s offerings in great numbers if they local arson investigators, information on arson were required to do so. Paid firemen in many incidents and on advanced methods of arson in- communities are in no better position to get local vestigations. Short courses, newsletters, and bul- funds to subsidize their special training. The letins would be appropriate means of Commission recommends that the full cost of communication. operating the proposed National Fire Academy Lastly, through newsletters and other media of and subsidizing the attendance of fire service continuing education, the Academy could bring members be borne by the Federal Government. to the attention of the Nation’s fire service leader- Federal assistance for members of paid and volun- ship emerging problems and trends of the fire teer fire departments would cover cost of travel, services, pioneering efforts by individual fire de- tuition, teaching materials, and accommodations. partments, and new developments in fire protec- Paid fire departments would be obligated to con- tion technology. tinue to pay the salaries of students. Full Federal While there is near-unanimity among fire pro- financing would not preclude acceptance by the tection organizations on the need for a National Academy of grants and other forms of support Fire Academy, proposals regarding its structure from government and private sources. vary widely. The Commission recommends that Federal support of the National Fire Academy the National Fire Academy be organized as a is a worthwhile endeavor. Through the Academy, division of the proposed United States Fire Ad- the management capabilities of the fire services ministration, which would assume responsibility can be improved. Priorities of fire departments for deciding details of the Academy’s structure can be effectively shifted, through Academy train- and administration. We see the Academy as a ing, in the direction of more fire prevention effort, growing organism, the pattern of its growth being Man’s environment can be made less hazardous determined by a careful and continuing assess- through special courses in fire-safe design. And ment of the fire services’ needs. The U.S. Fire Ad- most important, the National Fire Academy can ministration would be in the best position to con- help to reduce life and property losses and injuries duct this assessment. from fire.
The National Fire Academy would not supplant local training programs but would provide guidance and assistance.
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THE FIRE SERVICES
7 EQUIPPING THE FIRE FIGHTER
Of the fire chiefs and firefighters who responded l “Turnout” coats can be virtual sweat boxes, to our nationwide survey early in 1972, more than even when there are air vents under the arms. seven out of ten said there is a need for greater in- To the extent that turnout coats hinder body novation to improve the equipment and protec- movements or build up body heat, they con- tive clothing they use every day. tribute to the firefighter’s exhaustion. And no wonder. A quick glimpse at firefighting l A fireman manipulating the controls of an practices yields a sampling of where improve- aerial ladder must peer upward many stories ments can be made: to see how to guide the ladder into position. If l The breathing apparatus designed for 30 min- the smoke is too thick to see through, he must utes’ use typically weighs 30 pounds. Often have another firefighter, perched precariously firefighters reach exhaustion long before their at the top of the ladder, giving him instructions 30 minutes are up, The weight of the appara- as he swings the ladder into position. AS tus, it seems likely, contributes to the exhaus- Howard W. Emmons, professor of mechanical tion. In actual use, moreover, a 30-minute engineering at Harvard, pointed out in 1968, apparatus often provides less than 20 minutes’ "A man in Houston, Tex., can manipulate a protection because great exertion requires more space ship photographing the moon, but the air. fireman must climb up to the top of a 100-foot l Most firefighters’ helmets readily conduct heat ladder to find out just where it is.” to the inside of the helmet. Beyond certain tem- These and many other deficiencies have been peratures, helmets made of hard plastics lose around for years, despite the great power of strength and begin to deform. American ingenuity to innovate to overcome l Helmets and breathing apparatus alike tend to technological problems. Few equipment manu- get snagged by protruding objects. In many facturers can afford to invest heavily in research instances, firemen wearing face masks cannot and development, especially when the payoff in put on their helmets; the two don’t fit together. a fragmented and conservative market is so un-
AMERICA BURNING 45 certain. Marketing is affected by the fact that four following : saving more lives, reducing deaths many fire departments simply cannot afford to and injuries to firefighters, reducing property buy innovative equipment. Others purchase con- losses, and protecting the public at lower cost. servatively because they lack the technical ex- Clearly, reducing life loss, reducing firefighter pertise to evaluate innovative equipment. Because injuries, and reducing property losses are prime firemen typically spend their careers with one de- considerations. Improvements in these areas can partment, they become attached to the “tried and be made simultaneously. A firefighter better pro- true” methods of that department. tected against injury to himself is, of course, better Of course the fire services are not alone in fac- equipped to suppress fires and rescue people. No ing barriers to innovation. In recent years there technological innovations designed to reduce life has been growing recognition that the innovative and property losses should create new risks to process-by which needs get translated into re- firefighters. search and development projects, and the results In all research and development efforts, then, of research and development get translated into effectiveness in lowering firefighter injuries as well new products or processes-throughout American as life and property losses should rank ahead of society can be improved. In his Message on Sci- dollar savings as a goal. Current technology, for ence and Technology in March 1972, the Presi- example, makes feasible automated control of hose dent assigned to the National Science Foundation pressure at the scene of a fire and could free an and the National Bureau of Standards responsi- additional fireman-the one now operating the bilities for finding ways to spur innovation. In controls on the truck manually-for service at the response, the National Science Foundation estab- nozzle end of a hose. Yet the job of the man on the lished an Experimental Research and Develop- pumper is a complicated one. He must see to it ment Incentives Program to seek ways of “in- that men holding a hose line do not get thrown creasing the efficiency and speed of conversion of by surges in pressure caused by unequal demands research and development to new or improved from different hose lines. He must cut water pres- products, processes, and services.” The National sure when crews are endangered by ladder sway Bureau of Standards launched a similar effort, and cut pressure when hoses rupture. He must act called the Experimental Technology Incentives as a relief man for crews, a reserve for rescue of Program. fire victims, and a protector of the pumper from The blockages to innovation in the fire serv- vandalism. An automated system that left any of ices are many, and they offer a rich vein for these protective functions unprovided would be scientific prospectors. Moreover, the blockages an unacceptable substitute. together form a major impediment to “improve- A second requirement of research and develop- ments in the quality of life,” which the National ment is that they stem from an accurate assess- Science Foundation lists foremost among the kinds of innovations to be spurred along. The Commission urges the National Science Foun- dation, in its Experimental Research and Devel- opment Incentives Program, and the National Bureau of Standards, in its Experimental Tech- nology Incentives Program, to give high priority to the needs of the fire services.
Guidelines for Research and Development The fire services do not need innovation for the sake of innovation, the way car manufacturers need styling changes to assure themselves new customers. The fire services need innovations in equipment to improve their performance. Im- With few exceptions (such as this one), firefighters’ helmets have changed little proved performance, in turn, can mean any of the in design and materials in 50 years.
46 EQUIPPING THE FIRE FIGHTER ment of fire service needs. Almost any piece of suits, would afford optimum protection. On the fire apparatus, for example, can be built bigger, other hand, the hard realities of costs and ready better, and more expensive, with a greater capac- availability of the equipment must be considered ity to perform its expected functions and impress in approaching the ideal. The National Aeronau- the citizenry. But in the real world of tight fire tics and Space Administration, in fact, has put its department budgets, trade-offs are needed. Thus, space exploration capabilities to work on the prob- the chief emphasis in the development of im- lems of developing better breathing apparatus and proved firefighting equipment should be on ap- better protective clothing for firefighters. As for paratus designed to meet most potential fire situa- helmets with built-in communications systems, tions, rather than on equipment rarely needed. they have long been in use by fighter pilots. To More research is also needed to help settle ques- provide protection from impact injuries, technol- tions of diversity versus standardization. Stand- ogy might be borrowed from bulletproof vests ardization of fire engine components is desirable or even from football players’ protective gear. from the standpoint of bringing down costs. Di- At the same time, research and development versity may be needed to meet the varying needs of are needed to make incremental improvements different communities. The best solutions may lie in existing kinds of equipment. The search for in the middle-that is, with standard modules major departures from existing equipment, based that permit add-on features. on a systems approach, should not be pursued at One fire department need that should not be the expense of development of improvements in subjected to trade-off or compromise is safety. A traditional equipment. There are two reasons for two-step program of research is needed: to iden- this. First, the search for major departures is a tify features of firefighting equipment that do not long-term investment, and results are not likely to adequately protect firemen, then to explore means reach the market for several years to come. Sec- of providing such protection. ondly, fire departments cannot afford to discard Thirdly, research and development must take all the equipment they have now, and adoption whole systems, rather than piecemeal, ap- of major departures will be a slow process, ex- proaches. The complete firefighter’s uniform tending over many years. Better versions of current consists of turnout coat, trousers, boots, breathing types of equipment will be needed for some time apparatus, gloves, and helmet. It may also consist to come. of a walkie-talkie radio strapped to the body ‘and A single example will suffice. Tests of six types a hand-held flashlight. Each of these elements has of turnout coats by the Boston Fire Department been designed separately without thought to its have shown that, in each case, the material fails relation to other parts of the uniform. One result the flammability test for drapery fabrics used in has already been cited: a breathing apparatus so places of public assembly. That more firefighters’ incompatible with the helmet that the two cannot coats do not catch fire is due largely to the fact be worn together, whereas a face mask and helmet that the heat on the fireman’s exposed hands and could be an integrated unit. Turnout coat, trou- face drives him from flames before his coat is sers, and boots are separate items that take time endangered. If hands and face can be adequately to don, whereas they could be replaced by a one- protected-and the technology exists to do just piece, zip-up suit. Walkie-talkies and flashlights that-then there will have to be a corresponding are cumbersome appendages, whereas both could improvement in the flame resistance of turnout be integrated into the helmet. A further example: coats. Only the helmet is designed to protect against im- A fifth consideration for research and develop- pact injuries (and that, very inadequately), ment: improvements must be acceptable to fire whereas many impact injuries occur on the trunk departments. Barriers to acceptance of an inno- of the body. vation are of several kinds. A new piece of equip- Much of the technology exists for better protec- ment may be too expensive in absolute terms: tive gear. Ideally, product development of an in- simply beyond a fire department’s budget. It may tegrated system, not unlike the life support system ‘be too expensive in relative terms-that is, offer built into the individually tailored ‘astronauts’ too little improvement in performance for the in-
AMERICA BURNING 47 vestment required. It may require skilled opera- tors which fire departments are unable to provide without further training. There can be psycho- logical barriers as well; if an innovation departs too radically from traditional practice, it will be resisted. A related consideration is that developed prod- ucts need to be adapted to users’ capabilities. Human factors engineering-that is, the modifi- cation of equipment design so that the equipment is comfortable, safe, and easy to use-has been applied with success to military and industrial equipment but never, to our knowledge, to fire trucks and other firefighting equipment. A purchaser of fire equipment must be able to make comparisons among different pieces of equipment competing for his dollars. This means that names for particular kinds of equipment, descriptions of their functions, and measure- ments of their capacities should be uniform throughout the fire protection field. While some standardization exists, confusing discrepancies are commonplace. One result of these discrepan- cies is that data cannot be compared across dif- ferent fire jurisdictions; for example, a “rescue truck” is an ambulance in some places, a pickup that carries firefighters’ rescue equipment in an- other. The National Fire Protection Association has published many standards for fire equipment and an excellent guide called Fire Terminology. But long-established traditions and local custom have not given way totally to NFPA standards. The Commission recommends that the proposed United States Fire Administration review cur- rent practices in terminology, symbols, and equipment descriptions, and seek to introduce standardization where it is lacking.
Equipment R. & D.: Reducing Fire Losses Research and development priorities ought to stem from careful assessment of the needs of the fire services. We can only suggest therefore, not define, areas where research would be useful. The following discussion is a mixture of subjects on which little or no research is being done, subjects on which progress is being made, and, indeed, subjects in which demonstration projects have already proved successful. Notification. The beginning step in a fire department’s effort to put out a fire is notifica-
48 EQUIPPING THE FIRE FIGHTER Space Age wonders of automation have not yet supplanted the firefighter perched dangerously atop a 100-foot ladder.
AMERICA BURNING 49 tion of the fire’s whereabouts-usually by tele- fire is little understood. More important, lack of phone or alarm. Systems exist which sense smoke, knowledge in flame chemistry inhibits progress products of combustion, heat, or water flow (in toward radical departures from present extin- an activated sprinkler system) and notify the guishing methods, such as the use of sound waves. fire department automatically. Improvements in Lastly, development efforts should be directed the technology of such systems, especially in bring- toward reducing the weight of suppression equip- ing down their cost, might encourage more wide- ment, especially hoses and couplings. spread use. Systems based on human activation might be developed which ( 1) meet the criterion Equipment R. & D.: Reducing Fire Fighter of universal accessibility (as private telephones Injuries do in many communities) and, at the same time, Especially in the realm of fire suppression, tech- (2) discourage false alarms (which account for nological improvements which reduce firefighter a third of the fire calls in many cities), and (3) injuries will improve the effectiveness of fire de- provide for the transmittal of qualitative infor- partments in saving lives and reducing property mation about the fire. Some cities are already losses. Such improvements are worthy of pursuit using public telephones which require no coins in their own right, since the risks we currently for emergency calls. These telephones (if ade- ask firefighters to take are unconscionable. In quately maintained against breakdowns and van- many cases, we must assume, the proper protec- dalism), together with private telephones, would tive equipment is not available to firefighters-or, substitute for fire alarm boxes. if available, is not being worn. When firefighters Response. Computerized systems for dis- do not wear equipment because it is cumbersome patching firefighters and fire trucks have been in- or uncomfortable, that is, to some extent, an in- stalled in a number of cities. Into such systems dictment of the equipment. are being built retrieval mechanisms that transmit Toxic fumes. The inadequacy of breathing to firefighters floor plans and other helpful infor- apparatus systems is shown by studies which in- mation about the building on fire. dicate that face masks used by fire departments Suppression. Lights, periscopes, or closed- leak to some extent. The National Bureau of circuit TV might be mounted atop aerial ladders. Standards has proposed a program of research Sensors to locate trapped victims and chemical to improve breathing apparatus systems, taking detectors to warn of dangerous concentrations of into account the physiological, human factors, toxic gases are other possibilities. Infrared sensing and engineering elements important to their de- devices are available that can locate fires in smoke- sign. The Commission urges rapid implemen- filled rooms and fires inside walls, but they need tation of a program to improve breathing appa- development and demonstration of their useful- ratus systems and expansion of the program’s ness to the fire services. scope where appropriate. More research is needed on extinguishing Impact injuries. The only standard piece of agents, hardware, and techniques, to improve the equipment meant to protect against injuries from effectiveness of existing agents and to investigate falling objects or other blows is the helmet. The the chemical and physical mechanisms of new most common standard (which many helmets fail agents. Water, particularly in its droplet or stream to meet) is resistance against 40 foot-pounds of state, requires further study; there is a controversy, impact. The British standard is three times as for example, as to whether keeping buildings high. No attention has been paid to impact pro- closed and applying water fog is a suitable alter- tection in turnout coats, despite a Bureau of Labor native to ventilating the fire and attacking with Statistics study which shows that impact injuries water streams. to the trunk occur 26 times as often as trunk burn Additives that reduce friction losses in hoses injuries. have proved their effectiveness, but are not widely Over-exertion. While the very nature of fire- used. Foams and dry chemicals have proved their fighting invites over-exertion, there are technologi- effectiveness and are being continually improved, cal improvements that undoubtedly would reduce but exactly how these agents operate to extinguish instances of over-exertion. Protective gear could be
50 EQUIPPING THE FIRE FIGHTER improved from the standpoint of weight and free- the Department of Commerce under the provi- dom of bodily movement. In addition, lightweight sions of the Fire Research and Safety Act of 1968. power tools-for example, for prying open doors Capabilities for research and development to or cutting through walls-would also reduce the improve the effectiveness of the fire services lie in need for physical exertion. many places : universities, Federal agencies, non- Strains and sprains. Lightweight power tools profit research firms, and the fire equipment in- would likely reduce strains as well. In addition, dustry. Research and development in these places failure to apply human factors engineering to the will be useful if they are guided by clearly identi- design of firefighting equipment has led to strains fied needs of the fire services. and sprains, as it has to over-exertion and other kinds of casualties. What is needed, for these and other classes of injuries, is thorough study of the kinds of movements and stresses the body sustains in firefighting. Heat and burns. Equipment that leaves any part of the body exposed, or which is easily ignited, openly invites burns and heat injuries. Develop- ment of protective clothing to reduce these haz- ards should be accompanied by the development of sensing devices that can warn the firefighter when surrounding temperatures are getting dangerous.
Getting on With the Job The foregoing discussion is hardly exhaustive. There needs to be undertaken a definitive study of the needs of the fire services. Such a study would have to do more than aggregate what fire departments say they want; it would have to identify needs growing out of demonstrable short- comings of current equipment. The Commission recommends that the pro- posed U.S. Fire Administration undertake a continuing study of equipment needs of the fire services, monitor research and development in progress, encourage needed research and de- velopment, disseminate results, and provide grants to fire departments for equipment pro- curement to stimulate innovation in equipment design. As an interim measure, pending estab- lishment of a U.S. Fire Administration, the Com- mission urges the Join Council of National Fire Service Organizations to sponsor a study to identify shortcomings of firefighting equipment and the kinds of research, development, or tech- nology transfer that can overcome the defi- ciencies. Funding would be appropriately sought Especially as firefighting equipment grows more complex, it must be designed from the National Science Foundation or from to be comfortable, safe, and easy to use.
AMERICA BURNING 51
FIRE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
8 THE HAZARDS WE HAVE CREATED
The United States is an advanced nation techno- potential. Fumes from their gasoline, their paint logically and is increasingly urban in character. thinner, or their cleaning fluid fill the atmosphere Another way of saying this is that most Americans with combustion potential. The structures in live in an environment of concentrated man-made which they live and work, through flaws in design objects. Their homes-which are generally close and poor maintenance, often encourage entrap- to neighboring homes (and sometimes in the ment rather than escape from fire. Few give these same building) -are complexes of building mate- hazards any thought-until a fire occurs. rials, finishes, chemicals, paper, foodstuffs, and Available statistics give some idea, if not a com- utility systems, all composed of objects processed plete picture, of where the hazards lie in the built by man. When the American breadwinner goes environment. Certainly the vast majority-close off to work in the morning, he may cross over a to 95 percent-of America’s fire losses, both life small patch of natural environment called a lawn. and property, result from fires in the built en- But when he arrives at the carport or the street vironment. Fires in buildings (as opposed to ve- corner, he enters another complex, man-made hicle fires)’ account for most of these losses. Of environment : a car, a bus, or a subway. At the nearly $2.7 billion in property losses sustained work-whether it is a factory bench, an office yearly, about 85 cents out of every dollar lost is desk, or a sales counter-he is usually among a attributable to a building fire. About two-thirds of concentration of people in a similarly complicated the 12,000 deaths that occur annually result from environment of man-made objects, And when the building fires. What types of buildings are in- vacationing urbanite seeks escape from this man- volved offer a key to where the emphasis should made environment, the usual conveyance is a lie in the effort to reduce the Nation’s fire losses man-made enclosure: if not a car or bus, then a (Table 8-1) . train or airplane. In this built environment, as it is called, Americans live side by side, day and night, with ¹ In 1971, 3,950 died in motor vehicle fires; property losses from such fires amounted to $112.7 million or about ignitable materials, combustible furniture and up- 4 percent of the total national fire problem. Fires in other holstery, and products and appliances which transportation systems, such as airplanes, were insignificant in number. but are of concern to us because of the many through wear or misuse may offer dangerous fire lives risked in each fire incident.
AMERICA BURNING 53 Table 8-1. Estimated 1971 Building Fire Losses and Relationship to Total Fire Record *
Life loss Property loss Fires Category Number Percent Dollars, Percent Number Percent of total Millions of total of total
Residential (houses, apartments and hotels). 6,600 56 874.1 31.9 699,000 25.6 Commercial (Public assembly, educational, 580.5 21.1 141,400 5.2 institutional, mercantile and office). 970 8 industrial (basic industry, storage, manufac- turing and miscellaneous) 811.6 29.6 156,500 5.7
Building total 7,570 64 $2,266.2 82.6 996,900 36.5
* From published and unpublished NFPA data. Refer to Appendix V for complete table of fire losses in U. S. Residences Of the nearly 1 million building fires that occur- The experience of every urban fire department red in 1971, almost seven out of ten occurred in confirms what statistics only suggest: that a dis- residential occupancies (Table 8-1)². The proportionate number of residential fires-and chances are that the average family will experi- fire deaths-occur in low-income neighborhoods. ence one fire every generation serious enough to It is not difficult to see why. Crowded conditions, have the fire department respond. Residential dilapidated buildings, unsafe heaters, and the fires account for about half of all fire deaths and heavy use of alcohol-all contribute to a higher a third of all property losses. (If the losses from incidence of fire and a heavier toll in injuries and non-building fires are excluded, residential fires deaths. The higher proportion of working mothers account for about 87 percent of the deaths and 39 means more children are left unattended and, percent of these property losses [Figure 8-1]) hence, more exposed to fire accidents. The From the standpoint of life loss particularly, the ignorance among the poor about fire hazards is structures in which Americans live must be the matched by the indifference or inability of land- prime focus of the national effort to reduce fire lords to get rid of the hazards. losses. But as every urban firefighter can attest, fire does not victimize the poor only. There is no ³ This includes apartments, dwellings, hotels and motels, ground for complacency about residential fires rooming and boarding houses, summer cottages, trailers, mobile homes, and miscellaneous structures. among more affluent citizens. There, too, Figure 8-1. Fires in Buildings, 1971, United States*
*Estimates from published and unpublished NFPA data.
54 THE HAZARDS WE HAVE CREATED Fire knows no class distinctions. In this 16-room home in Ohio, it caused $150,000 in damages in 15 minutes. ignorance breeds indifference. No less than in a as a major fire one in which three or more die, slum, a single spark can set off a chain of events or one in which property losses are $250,000 or that guts a mansion and kills its inhabitants. Fire, greater. (Some fires, of course, meet both like sin, knows no class distinctions. criteria.)
3 In 1971, there were 208 fires in which three or Commercial and Industrial Fires more persons died, but together these fires ac- While commercial occupancies make up about counted for 8 percent of the fire deaths that 14 percent of all building fires, they result in 25 occurred during that year. In eight out of ten percent of the Nation’s property loss in building cases, these major fires occurred in residences. In fires. Likewise, industrial fires are only about 16 many instances, late detection of the residential percent of all building fires but account for 36 per- fires contributed to the heavy losses in lives and cent of the building property loss. Together, in- property-as indicated by the fact that about 80 dustrial and commercial fires account for 13 per- percent of the multiple-death fires occurred be- cent of deaths in building fires (Figure 8-1) . tween 11 p.m. and 6 a.m. when most people are asleep, as compared with the 20 percent that Major Fires occurred between 6 a.m. and 11 p.m. when peo- The National Fire Protection Association defines ple are active. Those fires producing major property losses ³“Commercial” includes public and institutional oc- cupancies, and“industrial” includes storage occupancies. were also a tiny fraction of total fires (0.02 per-
AMERICA BURNING 55 Industrial and warehouse fires occur infrequently, but are difficult to control and often result in huge losses.
56 THE HAZARDS WE HAVE CREATED cent), but they accounted for 11 percent of the dollar losses in 1971. In all these cases the Building was not sprinklered in the area where the fire originated.
Causes and Remedies It appears that considerably more than half the Nation’s fires are caused by the careless actions of man. The rest have environmental causes, such as hazardous products, defects in the home, and lightning. A more detailed analysis of the causes of building fires is provided annually by the Na- tional Fire Protection Association (see Table 8-2). These are approximations only, based on experience in typical States. As for causes of fire- related deaths, data from Canada (there are no comparable U.S. statistics) attribute 71 percent of deaths to man’s actions, 9 percent to products or processes, and 20 percent to defects in buildings.
Table 8-2. Estimated U.S. Building Fire Causes*
Percent of Percent of fires dollar losses
Heating and cooking 16 8 Smoking and matches 12 4 Electrical 16 12 Rubbish, ignition source unknown 3 1 Flammable liquid fires and explosion 7 3 Open flames and sparks 7 4 Lightning 2 2 Children and matches 7 3 Exposures 2 2 Incendiary, suspicious 7 10 Spontaneous ignition 2 1 Miscellaneous known causes 2 6 Unknown 17 44
Total 100 100
*NFPA estimates.
The consequences of a fire depend, however, not only on how it starts, but on what happens after ignition. Human beings can intervene to lessen the consequences of a fire caused by a de- fective product. Products can be designed to les- sen the consequences of human carelessness, as for example, with matches and cigarettes. And whatever the cause of a fire, buildings can be designed and maintained to ease fire suppression and the evacuation of potential fire victims. The
AMERICA BURNING 57 is appropriate to consider one aspect of the man- INDUSTRIAL FIRE SAFETY environment interaction that tends to be over- Although it is recognized that there are still looked. The ways in which man acts upon the other important areas for problem solving, it environment to cause fire come readily to mind. would be a serious omission if no note were What is not so obvious is that the built environ- taken of the many positive strides which have ment influences the behavior of man in a way been made in the prevention and control of fires that aggravates the fire problem. by industry, Comparisons of the industrial and residential losses in the United States show that The modern urban environment imparts to industry appears far in advance in terms of the people a false sense of security about fire. Crime relative number of lives lost and the dollar may stalk the city streets, but certainly not fire, amount of property destroyed. In 1971, for ex- in most people’s view. In part, this sense of secu- ample, the National Fire Protection Associa- rity rests on the fact there have been no major tion reported the dollar losses to basic industry and manufacturing occupancies to be $390,- conflagrations in American cities in more than 700,000, versus $874,100,000 for residential oc- half a century. In part, the newness of so many cupancies; and of the 11,850 lives lost to fire in buildings conveys the feeling that they are invul- 1971, it is estimated fewer than 1,000 were lost nerable to attack by fire. Those who think only in industry. In addition, the chart below shows a of a building’s basic structure (not its contents) trend in decreasing numbers of fires annually in industry. are satisfied, mistakenly, that the materials-con- crete, steel, glass, aluminum-are indestructible Industrial Fire Record” by fire. Further, Americans tend to take for granted that those who design their products, in Number of basic Year Industry and this case buildings, always do so with adequate Manufacturing fires attention to their safety. That assumption, too, is incorrect. 1968 66,000 1969 58,500 Around the turn of the century, in the wake of 1970 56,200 many conflagrations so-called fireproof buildings 1971 41,300 began to be constructed. They had thick walls and *NFPA published estimates. floors to keep fire from spreading. Like older Industry’s success in lowering fire incidence is buildings, they still had windows that could be attributable to the incorporation of features opened to allow heat and smoke to escape. They such as sound construction, special attention to had fire escapes or internal fire stairs, and seldom hazards, emergency planning, and wide use of automatic detection, alarm, and extinguishing were they too tall for the topmost occupants to devices. escape. Fires, some of them disastrous, occurred in these buildings nonetheless. Then, after World consequences of fire, in short, depend on man- War II, a new generation of buildings began to environment interactions. appear : the modern high-rise building. Lighter We have already addressed the issue of what construction systems and many new materials fire departments can do to reduce fire losses. In were used, especially for interiors. Windows were Chapter 20 we discuss what citizens can do to permanently sealed so that central air condition- reduce fire losses. In this and the next four chap- ing would operate efficiently. Walls and floors ters, our concern is not with the human factors were left with openings for air conditioning ducts but with ways of altering the built environment and utility cables. Each of these features com- to reduce fire hazards-through changes in fire promised the fire safety of these buildings. safety technology, materials characteristics, build- The built environment was created to serve ing design and construction, and code regulation the needs of people. When a portion of that en- and enforcement. vironment goes up in smoke, those needs are not being served. How the hazards in the built en- The Environment as a Security Blanket vironment can be reduced is the subject to which Before turning to environmental factors alone, it we now turn.
58 THE HAZARDS WE HAVE CREATED Major turn-of-the-century fires, such as Baltimore’s in 1904, aroused concern about fire safety in buildings.
AMERICA BURNING 59
FIRE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
9 THE HAZARDS CREATED THROUGH MATERIALS The dazzling terminal buildings at New York’s But 3 months later, a synthetic material was im- John F. Kennedy Airport are virtually a museum plicated in a fire that killed 145 teenagers. It hap- of contemporary architecture. But one of those pened in a door-locked dance hall in St. Laurent- buildings has demonstrated that man’s monu- du-Pont, France, that had been lavishly sprayed ments to his technological genius can turn on him with a plastic foam to give the appearance of a with a vengeance, at the mere touch of a flame. cave. The fire raged furiously within seconds after The new west wing of the British Overseas Air- it began, leaping “like a red panther in a small ways Corporation building at Kennedy Interna- cage,” in the words of one survivor, tional had not yet been opened to the public when, By no means do synthetics stand alone as haz- on August 26, 1970, it caught fire-probably at ardous materials. A frame house can be a tinder- the hands of an arsonist. Swiftly, flames moved box. Restaurants decorated with natural ma- from one seat to the next along the 330-foot length terials, basements full of old newspapers and of the wing. Gases from the incomplete combus- warehouses storing lumber or paper products pro- tion of the seats gathered in clouds along the ceil- vide the fuel for major fires. Inadequately pro- ing. When flames approached the clouds, the tected structural elements of steel or concrete still gases ignited explosively, spreading the fire and collapse if a fire is intense enough. Burning silk igniting other groups of seats. The explosions and wool release deadly quantities of carbon knocked out the terminal’s huge glass windows. monoxide and cyanide gas-and these and many As the ceiling melted, combustible liquid dripped other natural materials ignite at lower tempera- toward the floor, further spreading the fire. In the tures than many synthetics do. Plastics manufac- end, all 600 seats in the wing were consumed. turers contend that synthetics based on carbon, Damages totaled $2 million. The seats, which hydrogen, and oxygen exclusively are generally played the predominant role in spreading the fire, no more toxic, when burned, than natural ma- were like those in many airline terminals: layers terials. On the other hand, other synthetics con- of plastic and rubber foam covered by plastic taining sulfur and the halogens are not so upholstery material. innocuous No lives were lost in the BOAC terminal fire. Although plastics production has doubled in the
AMERICA BURNING 61 In the modern environment of synthetic materials, smoke and toxic gases have become increasingly important hazards. past 7 years, it is only about one-tenth that of attention to the special fire hazards they present. wood, paper, and associated products. The con- The major investigation of the ‘fire problem of tribution of plastics to the fuel load in buildings, some plastics by the Federal Trade Commission especially older buildings where fires occur more has highlighted a form of misleading representa- frequently, is therefore certainly well under 10 tion of the combustion behavior of certain plastics. percent. But their use is increasing. Wool rugs are giving way to synthetic fibers, wooden desk tops How to Die in a Fire to plastics made to look like wood, glass lighting Most people, when they think of fire as a killer, diffusers to clear plastic panels. There is hardly a think of flames. Those who have set fire safety use to which “classical” materials have been put standards for materials have emphasized flame that has not been challenged by synthetics. resistance. Yet, in a list of the five ways in which Clearly, the advantages which plastics offer to fire can kill, when arranged in declining impor- consumers and manufacturers are many, and plas- tance, flames rank last.¹ tics will fill an increasingly large proportion of the Asphyxiation. Fire consumes oxygen from the built environment. surrounding atmosphere, thus reducing its con- What makes plastics relevant to our discussion centration. If the oxygen concentration falls below of materials is not only that many of them have introduced hazards previously uncommon, but 1 This ranking and much of the following discussion is from Irving N. Einhorn, director of the Flammability Re- that they are sold and used without adequate search Center, University of Utah.
62 THE HAZARDS CREATED THROUGH MATERIALS 17 percent, thinking may be an effort and coordi- spread flames-may have increased the life nation difficult. Below 16 percent, attempts to hazard, since the incomplete combustion of many escape the fire may be ineffective or irrational, materials treated to increase fire retardancy re- wasting vital seconds, With further drops, a per- sults in heavy smoke and toxic gases. The tech- son loses his muscular coordination for skilled nology of fire-retardance is often unsatisfactory movements, and muscular effort leads rapidly to in other respects: The additives are generally fatigue. His breathing ceases when the oxygen costly, can reduce the strength and weather re- content falls below 6 percent. At normal tempera- sistance of the material to which they are applied, tures, he would be dead in 6 to 8 minutes. and often lose their effectiveness through washing Attack by superheated air or gases. With tem- or prolonged exposure to the elements. peratures above 300° F., loss of consciousness or death can occur within several minutes. In addi- Where There’s Smoke, There’s Damage tion, hot smoke with a high moisture content is a That concern about flames alone is insufficient is special danger since it destroys tissues deep in the pointed up by the ample evidence that smoke and lungs by burning. toxic gases are powerful forces of destruction. Smoke. Inhalation of smoke-or, more cor- Smoke from restaurant fires renders uncontain- rectly, of the products of incomplete combus- ered food unusable ; fabrics permeated by smoke tion-kills people who suffer no skin burns at all. can be altered beyond use even after cleaning. In addition to carrying toxic products, such as And a little smoke can go a long way: A depart- carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide, thick ment store recently lost $100,000 of its mer- smoke may be laden with organic irritants, such chandise and 3 days’ business for cleanup-all as acetic acid and formaldehyde. In the early because of smoke that seeped through walls from stages of a fire, the irritants, which attack the mu- an adjoining building on fire. cous membranes of the respiratory tract, are often Again, efforts to make materials flame-resistant the more important danger. Smoke often blocks have not always been beneficial. The sooty smoke the visibility of exits. given off by many of these materials leaves a thick, Toxic products. Many toxic components of black coating on whatever it touches. Moreover, smoke are responsible for the damage done-in- the chemical compounds added to reduce com- cluding oxides of nitrogen, aldehydes, hydrogen bustibility often contain halogens (bromine, chlo- cyanide, sulfur dioxide, and ammonia, to name rine, and fluorine) which are corrosive and toxic. only a few. There is ample evidence that the haz- ard of two or more toxic gases is greater than the Why Be Half Safe? sum of the hazards of each. Moreover, low oxygen According to the Society of Plastics Industry, Inc., and high temperatures increase the toxic effects. manufacturers of plastics spend $40 million an- In addition to toxic gases that attack the lungs, nually on research to improve the fire safety of there are irritants that attack the eyes with blind- their products. That organization issued to manu- ing effect, preventing escape. Some fire gases dull facturers, in 1964, a fire safety bulletin setting the senses of the victim or his awareness of injury. flammability standards for cellular plastics, Fire Flames. Since the aforementioned factors can resistance or fire classification standards for all debilitate, confuse, blind, or kill without warning, sorts of construction materials are set by such the person who goes to sleep confident that ad- organizations as the American Society for Testing vancing flames will provide sufficient warning for and Materials and the National Fire Protection escape may be taking a fatal gamble. Association. Building codes incorporate many of Until such time as all five of these hazards these standards. Underwriters’ Laboratories, Fac- have been well-studied and controlled by ma- tory Mutual Research Corp., and other organiza- terials standards, too little will have been done to tions test materials to see that they comply with control the built environment and thus reduce such standards. the gamble Americans take in their daily lives. Yet, for all these efforts, the American public Ironically, efforts to make materials fire- remains inadequately protected from combustion retardant-that is, with less tendency to ignite or hazards in their midst.
AMERICA BURNING 63 Smoke and toxic gases have been underrated The economic interests of manufacturers, in- hazards. Recognition of these hazards has come stallers, vendors, and others often run counter to belatedly, with the result that there is still little stringent fire safety requirements. For example, understanding, and hence little quantifiable in many West Coast communities, because of in- knowledge, of the destructive effects of smoke dustry pressures and public preferences, building and toxic gases. codes do not outlaw untreated wood shingle roofs, As a result, there are no nationally recognized despite their potential for spreading fire. test methods for measuring smoke production Some important hazards are not covered by (both rate and amount), The American Society building codes. The fire safety requirements of for Testing and Materials does have a tunnel test building codes apply mostly to construction mate- which measures the density of smoke produced. rials and interior materials used on walls and ceil- Development of more sophisticated tests-for ings. Comparatively little attention has been paid example, ones which would measure toxic and to floors and floor coverings, since in the past their corrosive products of combustion-is hampered contribution to fire spread was minimal. The ad- by the complexity of the smoke problem. A single vent of synthetic rugs and tiles has made greater material can give off many different products of attention to floors imperative. combustion under varying conditions of tempera- Building codes do not cover interior furnish- ture, humidity, pressure, and other factors; bum- ings. While most political jurisdictions that have ing cellulose, for example, can produce 96 building codes also have fire prevention codes, different compounds. designed to ensure fire safety after a building is Most tests do not simulate complexities of real constructed and occupied, the fire prevention fires. Nationally recognized test methods for codes, too, have little to say about interior furnish- evaluating the ignition and flame-spread hazards ings. Moreover, seldom do fire prevention codes of conventional materials in conventional appli- apply to private dwellings. Interior furnishings cations may not be appropriate for evaluating are not regulated partly because they are felt to these materials when used in new ways or for be the province of the owner or tenant and partly evaluating new materials. because until recently there was no motivation to For example, the ASTM’s tunnel test for develop tests on which to base code provisions. building materials, devised long before the ad- They would, indeed, be difficult to regulate, since vent of plastics, would register a low rate of flame they are subject to continuing change. spread for a particular plastic, whereas, in a real While furnishings are likely to remain outside fire environment, that same material will bum of code provisions, the fact that they contribute with an explosive intensity. As a result, archi- significantly to combustion hazards means that tects, design engineers, building contractors, and building codes only partly satisfy the demands of ultimately the consuming public may grossly mis- fire safety. The present practice can be compared interpret or inappropriately extrapolate those test to installing a burglar alarm at the front door and results as indicative of fire safety. leaving the back door wide open. Only to a lim- Existing large- and small-scale tests suffer from ited extent is this mitigated by Federal flam- an inability to predict exact consequences of a mability standards for fabrics. real fire, particularly those involving foamed Consumers use materials with inadequate plastics. Improvement of test methods is de- knowledge of their combustion hazards. Except pendent, to a large degree, on a better under- for flammable liquids and the materials that are standing of the basic processes of ignition and used in appliances and wiring, few of the mate- combustion and the mechanisms of fire retard- rials that go into the home carry labels vouch- ancy and smoke generation and correlating these safing their fire resistance or warning of their with actual fire experiences, The Commission hazards. The unlabeled hazards are found in recommends that research in the basic processes draperies, rugs, storage cabinets, upholstered of ignition and combustion be strongly increased chairs, and other furniture. At present, the house- to provide a foundation for developing improved wife working at the kitchen range has no way of test methods. knowing that her shiny new kitchen cabinets over-.
64 THE HAZARDS CREATED THROUGH MATERIALS Although considered “safe” by standard tests, this foamed plastic wallboard burns furiously in a “corner” test.
AMERICA BURNING 65 The plastic drawer fronts lack the fire resistance of the wood they simulate, and some synthetic garments burn furiously. head are an invitation to a disastrous fire if their surface is a hot-dip polystyrene coating. A sudden flare-up from burning grease in a skillet might readily ignite the finish on the cabinets, and in no time at all fire could spread explosively through- out the kitchen. Clearly, homeowners and building tenants need to know the relative hazards of furnishings as well as other materials so that they can minimize the risks, Fire inspectors, whether enforcing a fire pre- vention code or educating homeowners and ten- ants, need to know the hazards to carry out their tasks effectively,
New Efforts by Government and Industry Federal initiative is needed to help close the gaps left by the voluntary action of industry and the loopholes in material standards and building codes. In 1972 Congress created the Consumer Prod- uct Safety Commission, authorizing it to “con- duct research, studies, and investigations on the safety of consumer products and on improving the safety of such products.” The Commission can set standards of composition and design which
66 THE HAZARDS CREATED THROUGH MATERIALS consumer products must meet; it can require thing, the program we have recommended is ex- labeling of hazards or instructions for safe use; tensive and long-range. Protection of the public it can ban products that present “an unreason- cannot await completion of such a program; able risk of injury.” other steps must be taken. Material producers The materials that go into the built environ- owe to various publics----building designers, code ment come under the purview of the Consumer officials, fire service personnel, and consumers Product Safety Commission. This Commission an expanded and more candid effort to explain recommends that the new Consumer Product the fire charactertistics of the materials they sell. Safety Commission give a high priority to the Further, the emergence of labeling require- combustion hazards of materials in their end use. ments for materials will not eliminate the need for Specific needs are refined understanding of the technical reports-that is, papers describing test destructive effects of smoke and toxic gases, de- data in detail. There will continue to be a body velopment of standards to minimize those effects, of technically oriented users who need detailed development of labeling requirements for mate- analyses. rials, and outright ban of materials in uses that Technically oriented users will, for example, present unreasonable risks. have to have knowledge of fuel loads beyond that The development of a labeling system identify- provided by the labeling system. In this con- ing combustion hazards is especially important. nection, the Commission recommends that the The purpose of such a system is not to regulate present fuel load study sponsored by the Gcn- the lives of Americans, as an overly rigorous set era1 Services Administration and conducted by of standards would do, but to enable consumers the National Bureau of Standards be expanded to evaluate the combustion hazards of the ma- to update the technical study of occupancy fire terials and products they bring into their homes. loads. The information in the National Bureau Further, in public buildings, nursing homes, and of Standards’ “Building Materials and Structures other occupancies subject to regulation, the label- # 149,” a report on various fire loads found in dif- ing system would enable inspectors to verify ad- ferent occupancies, published in 1957, is now herence to fire load requirements. Though con- largely out of date. siderable research and testing would be needed, Flammable Fabrics the eventual goal of the labeling program should be to identify fuel contribution, smoke produc- In 1971, the Department of Health, Education, tion, and the production of toxic and corrosive and Welfare reported that, in recent years, more gases, as well as such characteristics as ignition than 3,000 Americans die annually after their temperature and flame spread. clothing catches on fire, and more than 150,000 We feel we should be candid in expressing our are injured from this cause. One out of four concern that, because the Consumer Product whose clothing catches fire is a child under 10. Safety Commission is still in its formative stages, Those 65 and over account for 15 percent of the and because other hazards (many of them better clothing fires, even though they are less than 10 publicized than combustion hazards) will be percent of the Nation’s population. The very competing for attention, the problem of fire safety young and the old are also the persons least able may become a delayed priority. The Consumer to tolerate burns. Product Safety Commission could, on the other When clothing catches fire, the extent and hand, give early and deserved attention to the depth of burns arc more severe than skin burns problem of fire safety by tapping the research on uncovered areas; from the standpoint of fire capabilities of the National Bureau of Standards, safety, the human species would be better off universities, the national standards and testing naked. A recent study by the National Burn In- organizations, and private industry, through con- formation Exchange showed that clothing burn tracts and cooperative arrangements. victims were four times more likely to die than Indeed, we do not see the Consumer Product burn victims spared clothing fire. Their burns Safety Commission supplanting the efforts in the covered nearly twice as much body surface. private sector, but complementing them, For one The power to set flammability standards for
AMERICA BURNING 67 fabrics now resides with the Consumer Product (NFPA 494L), which, where enacted, prohibits Safety Commission. During the 5 years that the the use of all fireworks except those in supervised flammable fabrics program was shared by the public display?. Today, a majority of Americans Department of Commerce, the Federal Trade remain insufficiently protected from fireworks Commission, and the Department of Health, accidents, since only 18 States have laws as strin- Education, and Welfare, only a few standards gent as the NFPA's model law and an additional were promulgated : those for young children’s eight have laws similar to the model but with sleepwear (up to size 6X), rugs, small carpets, exceptions. The Commission recommends that and mattresses. all States adopt the Model State Fireworks Law These standards do nothing to protect the of the National Fire Protection Association, thus elderly smoker, the housewife whose sleeve passes prohibiting all fireworks except those for public over the kitchen burner, or the group of 8-year- displays.” olds playing with fire in a vacant lot. Notably they bypass most children between the ages of The Importance of Research five and nine, who account for 13 percent of Adequate regulation of materials in the built clothing fire accidents. environment depends upon adequate testing, The Commission recommends that flammabil- and adequate testing, in turn, depends on ity standards for fabrics be given high priority adequate understanding of combustion and its by the Consumer Product Safety Commission. hazards. That is not to say, however, that prog- Specific needs are research to improve fire retard- ress cannot be made at all three levels simul- ant processes, extension of flammability standards taneously. to further categories of fabric use, development of Improved testing methods are being pursued. labeling requirements for other categories, and Scientists and engineers at the National Bureau educational efforts to make consumers aware of of Standards, for example, are utilizing a smoke fire hazards from clothing and other fabrics. The chambler which measures, in addition to the Commission does not favor unbridled extension density and rate of smoke produced by a sample, of flammability standards to all categories of the concentration of specific gases emitted. Ex- fabrics. Only grossly hazardous fabrics and fabrics perts there and elsewhere arc improving devices implicated in a very large number of fire acci- for measuring heat release, ignitability, flame dents should be banned from the marketplace. spread, and fire endurance. Other scientists are A preferable direction of emphasis is toward working on model testing techniques to simulate labeling requirements as to combustion hazards. the conditions of full-scale fires, This would honor the cherished principle of free The technology for more sophisticated testing choice, while at the same time informing consum- and the technology for basic research on fire over- ers of potential risks and reminding them of the lap, and the two activities go hand-in-hand. It is importance of fire. If reinforced by consumer appropriate that the National Bureau of Stand- education on fire safety, labeling requirements ards continue to provide leadership in both these would have the effect of spurring manufacturers areas. The Consumer Product Safety Commis- to improve the flame-resistance of fabrics. sion should champion the strengthening of NBS efforts in these areas. At the same time, ongoing Fireworks efforts of university scientists, manufacturers, and One material hazard that has declined over the industrial testing laboratories should be encour- years, but not to the point of negligible concern, aged and expanded. is fireworks. In recent years, fireworks have ³ The National Society for the Prevention of Blindness. claimed an average of about 600 reported injuries Inc., lists the following groups as supporting the limitation of all fireworks to licensed public displays only: the and 10 deaths annually. Sixty years ago the an- American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Public nual toll from fireworks was more than 5,000 Health Association, the California Fire Chiefs Association, the Fire Marshals Association of North America, the In- injuries and 200 deaths. ternational Association of Fire Chiefs. the National Fire In 1938, the National Fire Protection Associ- Protection Association, the National Safety Council the National Society for the Prevention of Blindness, Optimist ation published its “Model State Fireworks Law” International.
68 THE HAZARDS CREATED THROUGH MATERIALS One basic goal of research should be to improve corporate appropriate objectives in its own re- understanding of the dynamics of fire-not of search programs, and to transmit to the Consumer flames alone, but of smoke, heat, toxic gases, and Product Safety Commission pertinent research oxygen depletion, which together cause more results. deaths than flames do. The Commission recom- mends that the Department of Commerce be A Question of Priorities funded to provide grants for studies of com- The hazards of materials in the built environ- bustion dynamics and the means of its control. ment will never be eliminated completely, and Medical research is also pertinent. In Chapter 2 they cannot be significantly reduced overnight. we recommended that the National Institutes of Tinderbox houses will remain in the environ- Health undertake a major program of research ment until economic circumstances favor their concerning smoke inhalation injuries. One out- replacement or until wear and tear dictate their growth of that research should be new knowledge removal. In settings where we are forced to live concerning human tolerances of various products with hazardous materials, we must turn to en- of combustion. From this knowledge standards gineering means-automatic sprinklers, for can be derived setting maximum allowable out- example, or early-warning detection and alarm puts of various products of combustion for ma- systems-to compensate for the dangers. But for terials. The Commission recommends that the the future, we as a Nation cannot rely on these National Bureau of Standards and the National systems alone to protect us; the materials them- Institutes of Health cooperatively devise and im- selves must be improved for fire safety. True, a plement a set of research objectives designed to building constructed of fire-safe materials and provide combustion standards for materials to having an automatic extinguishing system as well protect human life. It would be appropriate for offers a certain redundancy of protection. But one NIH to bring these objectives to the attention without the other leaves open possibilities of of the community of medical scientists, to in- disaster.
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FIRE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
10 HAZARDS THROUGH DESIGN
In the afternoon of August 5, 1970, fire broke out later, 16 died and 375 were injured when fire on the 33rd floor of One New York Plaza in lower consumed a high-rise in Sao Paulo, Brazil. As Manhattan. The air conditioning system spread more and more Americans choose to live or work smoke throughout the building. Smoke and hot in high-rise buildings, their importance as a fire gases shot upward through the gaps between floor problem will increase. slabs and exterior walls. An elevator was auto- But high-rise buildings are not the only modern matically summoned to the 33d floor, the products creation in which design impairs fire safety. In of combustion activating the call button. The many homes, stairwells help to carry fire and the elevator jammed there, and two people died. products of combustion upward to sleeping areas. Other features of high-rise design contribute Slim horizontal windows under the eaves of single- to the hazards of fire: sealed windows that cause story dwellings-a fashionable feature of ranch- heat to build up, interior materials that give off style homes-hamper rescue efforts. Two children thick smoke and toxic gases when afire, utility died in a Maine fire because firemen couldn’t channels and other gaps in walls and floors that get through windows of this type. Tragedies of spread smoke and gases. Elevators can be death this sort have recurred many times, traps. Exitways can very quickly become over- Clearly, fire safety lags behind other considera- crowded. When fire breaks out on upper floors, tions, such as aesthetics and economy, in the de- beyond the reach of ladders, firefighters must lug sign of buildings. There are a number of reasons heavy hoses up the stairways. for this. From the standpoint of life loss, high-rise build- Fire safety analysis is lagging behind innovation ings have made a very small contribution until in building design. For example, there is an now. But they are a matter of special concern. understandable trend toward ever-lighter struc- Recent high-rise fires in other countries with tural members which reduce the cost without sig- heavy life loss suggest that luck may run out for nificantly reducing strength. Building designers the United States. On Christmas Day, 1971, 163 introduce these innovations while two important died in a hotel fire in Seoul, Korea. Two months questions go unanswered. First, arc the structural
AMERICA BURNING 71 members adequately protected from fire for the fire experience and on a limited range of condi- entire life of the building as well as during a fire tions used in testing. They are based, in other that may occur tomorrow? Second, are existing words, on empirical knowledge rather than tests for fire safety adequate for measuring the fundamental understanding of the behavior of fire protection afforded by the particular fire. This lack of theoretical and experimental un- innovation? derpinnings contrasts sharply with such fields as There is little incentive to invest in fire mechanical or electrical engineering. In the latter safety. Clients of building designers, to the ex- field, for example, the effects of changing the tent that they think of fire safety at all, believe diameter of a wire, or the design of a circuit, or fire is a small risk in the future of their building. the amount of current pushed through the system Or they judge that potential losses are adequately can be expressed as mathematical equations and covered by their insurance policies. Owners of predicted quite accurately. If such equations private homes might build in fire protection if could be written to predict the effects of fire and their insurance premiums were thereby reduced, its combustion products, then changes in a mate- but no such incentive exists. While the reduced- rial or its use would lead to known changes premium exists for builders of commercial and in- in fire safety characteristics-without expensive dustrial building?, the fire safety requirements for testing. reduced rates often are not extensive. From Research to Application For the designer, the chief goals are to plan a building that serves its intended architectural In 1969, the Committee on Fire Research of the function, as pleasing in appearance as can be National Research Council published its report, done, and as cheaply as possible. With top priority A Proposed National Fire Research Program. being placed on these goals safety becomes, for Thorough in its scope, the report will provide a most designers, nothing more than a necessary helpful guide to fire research priorities in the evil for compliance with local codes. decade of the Seventies. Much of the basic re- Building codes have characteristics which en- search on fire behavior recommended by the courage the outlook that they are nuisances. report will have a bearing on how buildings New requirements are piled on top of old and ought to be designed to minimize fire hazards. outmoded ones, with the effect that the codes Four years have passed since the report was become increasingly inflexible. Often the require- issued. An assessment of what has been accom- ments are excessive : For example, in places where plished thus far is imperative. In areas of research the contents that will be added would all burn in where an added push is needed, additional re- about half an hour, requirements for 3 to 4 search should be encouraged. In areas where re- hours of fire resistance in bearing walls are not sults have begun to come in, efforts should be uncommon. While excessive requirements exist made, to incorporate the new information into a for some characteristics, early warning of occu- systematic body of fire analysis and to explore the pants, smoke movement, and toxic gas production implications for codes and building design. are virtually ignored. The Commission urges the National Bureau Tested uses and actual uses of materials can of Standards to assess current progress in fire be two different things. The set of conditions research and define the areas in need of addi- under which materials are tested by manufac- tional investigation. Further, the Bureau should turers and private test laboratories may represent recommend a program for translating research only a segment of the uses to which those mate- results into a systematic body of engineering rials are actually put. When a designer uses a principles and, ultimately, into guidelines useful material in a way that has not been tested, he to code writers and building designers. No less has no way of knowing how or whether the fire important than the needs of designers of large safety characteristics are different. structures are the needs of designers of single- The knowledge on which fire safety standards family houses. The National Bureau of Standards are based is deficient. Fire safety standards are should carry out these responsibilities in coopera- based mostly on judgments gained from actual tion with other government agencies, nationally
72 HAZARDS THROUGH DESIGN This new Third Avenue building met New York City’s building code, yet three died and 20 were injured in the fire. recognized testing and research laboratories, and backup measures are provided in case part of the with the major standards-writing organizations : system fails. But redundancy for the sake of re- the National Fire Protection Association, the dundancy is avoided. American National Standards Institute, and the A systems approach was taken in the design of American Society for Testing and Materials. San Francisco’s Transamerica Building in 1971. In addition to a full sprinkler system, smoke detec- What Can Be Done Today tion devices, and a central alarm system, the The present state of fire protection engineering designers provided the building with emergency does not leave today’s building designer in a con- refuge areas, two-way voice communications with dition of helplessness. Much of what is known public areas, and an underground communica- about fire safety is simply being ignored. Indeed, tions and command control center. Windows enough is known about fire safety to permit a pivot so that burning rooms can be vented. In the reliable application of a sophisticated systems ap- event of a power failure, diesel pumps will main- proach to fire safety design. In the systems ap- tain water pressure, and a diesel-run generator proach, in contrast to the “that’s the way it’s al- will light exitways and power the elevators. ways been done” approach, objectives are set for Should city fire mains be disrupted, there is an the building as a whole, and then the most cost- emergency water supply. While these provisions effective technology is applied to meet those ob- are costly, they are offset by savings they allowed : jectives, In such an approach, relationships lower fire resistance requirements for floors and among components are important, and trade-offs corridors, the elimination of fire dampers from are sought. For example, if alarm and sprinkler the air conditioning system, and a sprinkler sys- systems are installed to provide quick and effective tem that permitted the use of smaller pipes. response to a fire, then fireproofing requirements The General Services Administration has also for walls and floors may be reduced. Another im- adopted a systems approach, its first result being portant aspect of the systems approach is that the Federal Office Building in Seattle. The build-
AMERICA BURNING 73 “NOTHING MYSTERIOUS” Poor judgment often results in unnecessary fire lower level. In addition, exhibitions in McCor- potential in buildings. In the fire that consumed mick Place often added a heavy fuel load in the McCormick Place, Chicago’s convention hall, in form of flammable displays, yet the building 1967, two gross errors in design contributed to had no sprinkler system. the extensive damage. On the assumption that As a result of its investigation the National temperatures could not reach a level to threaten Fire Protection Association concluded that “the the roof structure, the designers left the steel principles of good fire protection have been joists unprotected ; the roof collapsed during the known for many years and there was nothing fire. Second, large aluminum space dividers mysterious about the destruction of McCormick were installed directly over expansion joints in Place. The building was almost entirely unpro- the floor, with the result that molten aluminum tected from a fire hazard so great that one flowed through the expansion joints into the wonders why it was not obvious all along.”
74 HAZARDS THROUGH DESIGN ing was given a structural integrity three to four ness statements are particularly important for times as strong as the most severe situation will high-risk structures, such as shopping centers, call for it to withstand. Each story was made a public buildings, fuel storage depots, tankers, and self-contained, fire-resistant compartment. When chemical plants. a fire breaks out-and the GSA estimates that The Federal Government, through the Gen- about 100 ignitions will occur in the next 50 eral Services Administration, has set a valuable years-one of several alarm systems will notify example for the private sector through its pioneer- the Seattle Fire Department and the emergency ing work in fire safety systems analysis. A govern- control center in the building. Immediately, a mentwide example should also be set in the area prerecorded tape will broadcast instructions to of fire safety effectiveness statements. Accordingly, people on the fire floor. Air flow will be adjusted the Commission recommends that, in all con- to prevent smoke and other products of combus- struction involving Federal money, awarding of tion from spreading. Elevators will be “captured” those funds be contingent upon the approval of and reserved for handling the emergency. As with a fire safety systems analysis and a fire safety the Transamerica Building, the costs of these pro- effectiveness statement. The funding agency visions are largely offset by savings in other aspects would certify that the analysis and effectiveness of the building’s design. statement have met its fire safety standards. The systems approach used by the architects of the Transamerica Building and the GSA Applies Product Design to one class of buildings. Similar approaches It is not just the large structures of the built could be devised for other classes of buildings, in- environment that need improved design if fire cluding one-family residences. The Commission losses are to be reduced. Many products need recommends that the National Bureau of Stand- design improvement. Heating and cooking equip- ards, in cooperation with the National Fire ment, faulty wiring, and electrical appliances are Protection Asssociation and other appropriate major causes of fires. Together with fires caused organizations, support research to develop guide- by smoking and matches, these categories account lines for a systems approach to fire safety in all for nearly half the fires that occur (see Table types of buildings. 8-2). A different kind of study, though a natural Over the years, manufacturers and standards- outgrowth of a fire safety systems analysis, is what writing organizations have developed ever-im- we have designated as a fire safety effectiveness proving safety standards in the design of consumer statement. This is an attempt to state, in quanti- products. Yet some hazards have not been ade- fied terms, the potential losses of life and property quately covered. The National Commission on (both inside and surrounding the structure) Product Safety, in its 1970 report, identified color should the structure catch fire. The better the television sets, floor furnaces, hot-water vapor- design and built-in fire protection of the build- izers, and unvented gas heaters as specific fire or ing, the closer these quantities will approach zero. burn hazards. Under “unfinished business”- The effectiveness statement should pay particular possibly hazardous products the Commission did attention to the consequences of fires starting in not study-were listed electric blankets, dryers, areas of the structure where people or highly hotplates, extension cords, and space heaters. flammable materials are concentrated. An addi- Further studies of fire experience might bring tional set of calculations, designed to measure the other hazards to light, particularly those that arise adequacy of back-up measures, should be based from wear and tear. Such studies now lie within on assumptions of system failures, such as power the purview of the Consumer Product Safety blackouts or non-functioning smoke detectors. Commission. While revealing whether adequate safeguards The business of making consumer products safe have been provided, the effectiveness statement from fire and burn hazards is, in many cases, has the added value of stating, through implica- recognizably a complicated matter. When kitchen tion, the demands that would be put on local fire range controls were at the front of the stove, chil- services should a fire occur. Fire safety effective- dren could reach them and cause burner acci-
AMERICA BURNING 75 dents; now that they are at the back, they can be pans. (Here, too, one must settle for imperfection; hazardous to the clothing and skin of people there is residual heat in the burner once the pan reaching for them over hot burners. No doubt is removed.) Further, scientists are working on today’s appliances could be made completely safe, the principle of generating heat within the sub- but food wouldn’t get cooked, toast wouldn’t get stance to be heated, through induction of friction toasted, and clothes wouldn’t get ironed. But between molecules. advances are possible. Within the grasp of tech- Technology is also being developed to treat nology are burners that can only be activated by cigarettes and matches to minimize their potential the weight of specially designed, snugly fitting for accidentally igniting destructive fires. Fed- eral support may be needed to perfect these de- velopments, and legislation may be needed to ban untreated cigarettes and matches if manufac- turers fail to adopt the improvements voluntarily. As we pointed out in Chapter 9, the Consumer Product Safety Commission is authorized by law to “conduct research, studies, and investigations
For the Federal Office Building in Seattle, the General Services Administration has used a systems approach to fire safety.
76 HAZARDS THROUGH DESIGN on the safety of consumer products and on im- of fire protection engineering to qualify for State proving the safety of such products.” Since burns licensing for appropriate disciplines within archi- are a major form of injury from consumer prod- tecture and engineering. After a suitable time to ucts, it will be appropriate for that Commission allow local initiative on this recommendation, to devote a significant portion of its energies and Federal funds for engineering and architectural resources to fire and burn hazards. This Commis- schools might be contingent upon those schools sion urges the Consumer Product Safety Com- having adequate fire protection engineering re- mission to give high priority to matches, quirements as part of the degree curriculum. cigarettes, heating appliances, and other con- We recognize that, at present, if the emphasis sumer products that are significant sources of is to be on basic principles, there is not a great burn injuries, particularly products for which deal available to be taught to architects and en- industry standards fail to give adequate protec- gineers in the realm of fire protection engineer- tion. All of the Commission’s important weapons ing. Deciding what can be taught-and what might be brought to bear against these hazards: should be taught-requires careful study. The the setting of standards of performance, design, Commission urges the Society of Fire Protection or materials for consumer products; the require- Engineers to draft model courses for architects ment of adequate warning labels and user- and engineers in the field of fire protection en- instructions; and the banning of products that are gineering. To this end, the Society should call unreasonable risks to consumers. together educators in architecture and the prin- cipal engineering disciplines to discuss what in- Educating the Designer formation would be desirable to teach architects Few formal education programs anywhere in the and engineers. United States for architects and engineers have Since it will take several years to develop fire course requirements in fire protection engineering. safety courses in architectural and engineering (Only the University of Maryland and the Illi- schools, then several more years before those who nois Institute of Technology offer 4-year Bachelor have had this training begin to practice, the im- of Science degree programs in fire protection engi- pact of these curricular additions will not be felt neering.) While some professional societies have for some time to come. Practicing building de- committees concerned with fire safety, few de- signers must also be educated in fire safety. The signers take an interest in the committees’ work. Commission recommends that the proposed Na- For lack of training, many designers are unable tional Fire Academy develop short courses to to understand highly technical reports in fire educate practicing designers in the basics of fire safety design. safety design. This absence of training helps to explain the There is presently enough information and a unenthusiastic attention which architects and wide range of technological choices (for example, engineers, when designing buildings, give to fire total communicationssystems, fire retardants, fire- safety provisions. If the situation were turned resistant coatings) to permit architects, engineers, around--that is, if architects and engineers were and other building designers to plan buildings schooled in the principles of fire safety--then un- that are safeguarded from fire. What is needed, doubtedly they would participate enthusiastically in many cases, are incentives. in the search for alternative solutions and better Positive incentives are likely to come about codes consistent with the principles of fire safety. through example. We are encouraged that the The Commission recommends to schools giv- Federal Office Building in Seattle is serving as a ing degrees in architecture and engineering that beacon to the community. Now owners of Seattle they include in their curricula at least one course office buildings still on the drawing boards are in fire safety. Further, we urge the American applying the same kind of systems approach to Institute of Architects, professional engineering provide the best building possible as a way of societies, and State registration boards to imple- insuring full rental. They feel they must be able ment this recommendation. Registration boards to show potential renters that their building is, could require a specific number of credit hours among other things, fire-safe.
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FIRE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
11 CODES AND STANDARDS For centuries, governments have exercised the building code. It had no legal status of its own, right to regulate how buildings are built for the but was intended to provide guidance to State and sake of the public’s protection. In the time of local jurisdictions for the enactment of legal codes. Julius Caesar, Roman laws regulated the height Because its concern was principally central city of buildings and the distances between them. Dur- areas, the code emphasized converting downtown ing Queen Anne’s reign, the English found it areas from combustible construction, providing necessary to have a code to require non-combusti- adequate separation between buildings, and pro- ble roofs. By the time of America’s settlement, the viding area limits and fire-resistive separations legal concept of codes was well-established. In within buildings. 1796, for example, the city of New Orleans, then Other model codes have been developed over a Spanish province, passed an ordinance against the years: that of the Pacific Building Officials the use of wood roofs. Conference (now the International Conference of The public interest justifies these intrusions on Building Officials) in 1927, that of the Southern individual liberty, but what constitutes the public Building Code Congress in 1945, and that of the interest has been a subject of debate and change. Building Officials Conference of America (now Is continuity of business operations in the public the Building Officials and Code Administrators interest? States maintain that it is, thus justifying International, Inc.) in 1950. All of these codes strict code requirements in private industrial are subject to periodic updating. plants. None of the model codes is sufficient unto itself. Fire safety is only one aspect of the public in- All make references to extensive lists of standards terest-and, hence, only one of many matters developed by other organizations. These stand- governed by codes-but in the wake of major ards usually specify the performance a material or conflagrations that struck a number of American structural member must achieve under certain cities at the turn of the century, it became a con- conditions. Standards are written by such organi- cern of major importance. In 1905, the National zations as the American National Standards In- Board of Fire Underwriters (now the American stitute, the American Society for Testing and Insurance Association) developed and published Materials, and the National Fire Protection the National Building Code, the first “model” Association.
AMERICA BURNING 79 In addition to the model building codes, there In a city there may be as many kinds of in- exists the Life Safety Code, published by the Na- spectors as there are codes, of which only the fire tional Fire Protection Association. Its intent is to prevention inspectors are likely to be members of strengthen provisions for protecting the occupants the fire department. of buildings, rather than saving the building itself. The two most important codes from the It covers construction, protection, and occupant) standpoint of fire safety arc the Building code and features relative to life safety. the fire prevention code. Typically, two-thirds to Model codes are not the only source of con- three-fourths of the provisions of a building code struction regulations. The Federal Government apply to fire safety, as do all the provisions of a exerts leverage on the construction industry fire prevention code. through such documents as the Minimum Prop- How these codes are adopted varies from one erty Standards of the Department of Housing and jurisdiction to another, but generally there are Urban Development, the safety standards of the public hearings preceding action by the city coun- Occupational Safety and Health Administration, cil or the State legislature. Material manufac- and the minimum requirements of the Depart- turers, suppliers, contractors, labor unions, trade ment of Health, Education, and Welfare for grant associations, and civic groups are given the chance programs or social security assistance. to support the proposed code or recommend changes. Considering that these groups often dif- Local Code Provisions fer in their degree of expertise, that they make The situation of the model codes is complicated, conflicting claims, and that some do not have but not nearly as complicated as matters at the fire safety uppermost in their minds, it is hardly local level of code adoption. In addition to the surprising that codes are products of compromise building code, for which the model codes are in- amid competing aims and viewpoints. Nor is it tended to provide guidelines, State and local surprising that there are wide differences among jurisdictions may have more than half a dozen the 14,000 local building codes that exist in this other codes. A building code, of course, applies country. As the National Commission on Urban principally to new construction and alterations, Problems remarked in its 1968 report, “Building though it is sometimes made retroactive and ap- code jurisdictions are thousands of little king- plied to existing buildings if past deficiencies are doms, each having its own way; what goes in one discovered to be critical. Once a building is con- town won’t go in another-and for no good structed, a fire prevention code may govern the reason.” maintenance of the building and the introduction Evidence of the diversity in local codes was of materials into the building for the sake of fire discovered during that Commission’s survey of safety, the Nation’s 52 largest cities. Only 14 were using Frequently there are other codes as well : one of the model codes, 20 had regulations based l The housing code, which is concerned with on the model codes but with significant changes, livability and sets standards for sanitation and 13 had adopted codes of their own, and one fol- health facilities and building maintenance; lowed a State-recommended code. (Four cities l The electrical code, which sets requirements did not reply to the survey. ) Differences among for the materials and equipment used in the these local codes are not inconsequential; often electrical system; the process of political compromise leads to seri- l The plumbing code, which provides for the de- ous compromise in fire safety. Here and there in livery of potable water and the safe disposal of this report we cite examples of tragic fires in flushed wastes; buildings that met all local building code l The mechanical code, which applies to the requirements. heating, ventilating, and air conditioning Feeding the diversity among local codes are the systems; differences among the national model codes. The l The elevator code, which governs the materials, model codes differ markedly in such matters as equipment, and installation of elevators and permissible heights and areas, interior finish re- their use. quirements, and specifications of safe travel dis-
80 CODES AND STANDARDS tances for occupants. At the local level, then, a have in force an adequate building code and fire spokesman for a particular point of view, whether prevention code or adopt whichever they lack. on the side of leniency or stringency, can appeal to the authority of the one model building code Local Implementation of Codes which among the four best matches his position. A law is effective only to the extent that it is If his subject is fire prevention codes, he has three enforced, and so it is with a fire prevention or model codes to pick from. building code. Attempts to develop some uniformity among Many serious building fires have been the re- the model codes have had limited success. The sult, not of code deficiencies, but of lax enforce- Model Code Standardization Council, which in- ment (sometimes because of corruption). A fire- cludes representatives from the Nation’s building resistant floor, for example, is an insufficient bar- standards-writing organizations, has been working rier to smoke and fire if the architect allows gaps on uniform definitions of building construction in the floor or a workman punches a big hole in terms and a common format for the model codes. the floor to allow a pipe to pass through. Vigi- The National Conference of States on Building lance is needed in the review of plans and in in- Codes and Standards is working toward more uni- spection during construction. Once construction formity in building codes on a state-wide basis. is finished, compromises in fire safety may be The Conference of American Building Officials is hidden from view. seeking to fill gaps in existing standards and to The training of inspectors is, in many places, devise a system to promote and approve research woefully inadequate. In one major city, the only toward better standards, training for fire prevention inspectors consists of The most promising start toward greater uni- sending them out for a few days with a senior in- formity came in 1971, when the four model code spector. Architects and engineers complain about groups jointly published a “One- and Two- inflexibility in the codes, but one reason codes Family Dwelling Code.” Having eliminated many tend toward rigidity and detailed specifications of the past differences among model codes, the is that local building officials and inspectors are joint code has thus diminished the justification for not equipped, because of their inadequate train- wide differences in codes between one jurisdiction ing, to evaluate alternative solutions and trade- and another for single- and two-family resi- offs. dences. However, it has practically no fire safety provisions. More disturbing than the wide differences among local codes is the fact that many jurisdic- tions have no codes whatsoever. When the Na- tional Commission on Urban Problems surveyed local governments in the United States ( 18,000 units surveyed), it found that only 46 percent had a building code. On the other hand, a more recent survey of 2,000 cities with over 10,000 population indicates that 97 percent of these cities have building codes.l It is the sparsely settled areas, it can be surmised, which are chiefly without building codes, Though there are no statistics on how many jurisdictions have a fire prevention code, it appears there are a significant number of communities which do not have one in force. The Commission recommends that all local governmental units in the United States A fire-resistant ceiling is not effective 1 Milton Applefield, “Fire District Use in North Central if an architect or a workman allows Region Cities,” Fire journal, January 1973, p. 28. wide holes for a pipe to pass through,
AMERICA BURNING 81 The effectiveness of codes is also compromised spectors, and coordination among the various by lack of coordination among inspection pro- departments involved to enforce effectively the grams. The building department generally has local building and fire prevention codes. Repre- responsibility for enforcing building codes, the fire sentatives from the fire department should par- department for enforcing fire prevention codes. ticipate in reviewing the fire safety aspects of Because fire prevention bureaus are responsible plans for new building construction and altera- for fire safety throughout the life of a building, tions to old buildings. they ought to be consulted by building depart- ments during the design and construction phases. Strengthening the Model Codes In many local jurisdictions, however, building Since the model codes exert a powerful influence departments act unilaterally, implementing the on local codes, the quality of the model codes is building code during these crucial stages without a nationwide concern of considerable importance. requesting the suggestions and advice of the fire Historically, major changes in the model codes prevention bureau. Since the two codes influence have been made when a particular fire problem each other but require expertise specific to the achieves a certain magnitude (as is happening in enforcement of each, coordination of efforts be- response to high-rise fires) or when a dramatic tween the two departments is needed to provide fire or two focuses public attention on a problem optimum fire protection. The Commission rec- (as happened in the wake of the Coconut Grove ommends that local governments provide the nightclub fire in Boston in 1942). The problem competent personnel, training programs for in- of smoke generation, which has been aggravated
Adequate fire safety in buildings depends upon cooperation between inspectors in the building and fire departments.
82 CODES AND STANDARDS in recent years by the increased use of synthetic change is proposed, a code change committee materials, has yet to receive adequate attention. holds hearings to consider opposing views, then Slowness of change except during crisis is typical studies the matter further and issues its recom- of social institutions, but the consequences of that mendation While the recommendation is voted characteristic are, in this instance, vital to public on by the organization’s membership, the com- safety. mittee’s recommendation is usually adopted. One consequence of this mode of change is that Sitting on these committees are local building new requirements tend to be piled upon old in- officials, who often lack expertise in fire protection, stead of replacing them. The result can be need- and who in some instances are understandably less redundancy and added expense. In some reluctant to impose stringent requirements on in- model codes, for example, the addition of an auto- dustries which would directly affect local pro- matic sprinkler system has not been accompanied grams. The committee process is, moreover, a by trade-off provisions on other fire safety features, slow one. such as height and area limitations, maximum While the Commission has no suggestions for travel distances, or the degree of fire-resistive improving the process whereby the model codes construction. are amended, we do have two specific recommen- The model codes have also been slow to respond dations for strengthening the model codes. We to the rapid changes in materials and construc- are firm in our conviction that many lives could tion technology. Here the fault does not lie ghiefly be saved, and many injuries averted, if homes with the code-writing organizations, since their were equipped with early-warning fire detectors requirements in these areas usually make refer- and alarms. These can be effective sentinels, espe- ences to the standards set by other organizations. cially at night when so many tragic fires occur. As we pointed out in Chapter 9, changes in mate- No less important are early-warning detectors rials and construction technology have threatened coupled with automatic extinguishing systems in to outrun the standards-setting organizations and buildings where many people congregate. Auto- testing laboratories striving to keep up with the matic sprinklers can pay for themselves in dam- changes. As we have also pointed out, a firmer ages prevented, and the model codes should per- grounding of standards in a scientific understand- mit other savings by relaxing requirements for ing of fire and its effects would streamline the other fire safety features when automatic sprin- process of approving for use new materials and klers are installed. The Commission recommends technology. Progress in this direction would also that, as the model code of the International Con- improve the codes. As it is now, both specification ference of Building Officials has already done, requirements (such as 1/2-inch thickness for all model codes specify at least a single-station gypsum sheathing) and performance standards early-warning detector oriented to protect sleep- (such as 3 hours of fire-resistiveness in certain ing areas in every dwelling unit. Further, the bearing walls) arc the product of judgments model codes should specify automatic fire ex- based on past experience or speculation, rather tinguishing systems and early-yarning detectors than firm knowledge of fire behavior.’ for high-rise buildings and for low-rise buildings The mechanisms for change to the model codes in which many people congregate. (Examples of are similar in the International Conference of this last category include buildings of public as- Building Officials, the Building Officials and sembly, such as theaters and exhibition halls, Code Administrators International, and the restaurants, and enclosed shopping center malls.) Southern Building Code Congress. When a These recommendations apply as well to State and local jurisdictions, whether or not they follow one of the model building codes. 2 The use of more scientifically based information would Of all the actions that can be taken to provide function both to increase the validity of code requirements fire safety for Americans in their built environ- and to perpetuate a more uniform scientific base for all codes. ment, these, we believe, are the most important.
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FIRE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
12 TRANSPORTATION FIRE HAZARDS Ever since man learned there was a better way Table 12-1 ) . That was 20,950 more fires, and $63 than a pair of feet to get from here to there, he has million more in losses, than the year before. developed a propensity for not getting there at Several factors have contributed to the growth all. As he has honed his technology of transport, of transportation fires. First, a citizenry growing he has also dropped from the sky like a lead in affluence and mobility is using transportation weight, sunk to the bottom of the sea, tumbled as never before. During the 1960’s, passenger from the sides of mountains, and met in disastrous miles on U.S. airlines more than tripled, from 34 collision his fellow man traveling in the opposite billion passenger miles in 1960 to 123 billion in direction. In the process he has managed to de- 1970. Motor vehicle registrations went from 74 stroy a considerable amount of the wealth that million in 1960 to 108 million in 1970, an increase he felt it necessary to carry from here to there. He of 46 percent. A second factor, related to the first, has also destroyed human lives. is the Nation’s rapidly increasing consumption of Fire is not the inevitable consequence of a goods, which requires more transport vehicles to transportation accident, but in an age of combus- travel more frequently to meet the demands. tion fuels it is a frequent accompaniment. In 1971, Third, hazardous materials which once traveled about 4,260 Americans, or about one-third of solely on one mode of transportation are now all who died in fires, lost their lives in burning often exposed during transit to two or more (for planes, trains, ships, or motor vehicles. The ma- example, “piggyback” truck-rail arrangements, jority of these were lost on the highways. The and containerized shipping), increasing the National Fire Protection Association estimates amount of handling and straining the capacities of that, in that year, 521,800 transportation fires the containers. Fourth, new materials and new caused property losses exceeding $332 million (see forms of old materials (such as liquefied petroleum
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495-792 O - 73 - 7 Table 12-1. Estimated 1971 Transportation Fire Losses*
Life loss Property loss Fires
Category Number Percent Dollars- Percent Number Percent of total million of total of total
Aerospace vehicles and aircraft 125 1.1 $192.0 7.0 200 0.0 Motor vehicles-farm/construction 16.12 0.6 19,200 0.7 3,950 33.3 Motor vehicles-pleasure/transportation {96.54 3.5 482,400 17.7 Ships, railroads, etc l85 1.5 27.60 1.0 20,000 0.7
Transportation (total) 4,260 35.9 $332.26 12.1 521,800 19.1
*National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control staff estimate for 1971. gas) are being introduced at a rate that chal- National Transportation Safety Board expand lenges regulatory measures and firefighting tech- its efforts in issuance of reports on transportation niques to keep up. accidents so that the information can be used to improve transportation fire safety. Transport of Hazardous Materials Despite the absence of complete statistics, some About 10,000 new chemical products are de- generalizations are possible: veloped every year. Most never reach the com- l There are more fires and explosions involving mercial market; some do. And of those that do, tank vehicles during loading and unloading there are some that can present severe fire threats than during actual transit. as they are moved from place to place. l Routine transportation presents little hazard; Real facts about the frequency and causes of it is the interruption to smooth transit that transport fires involving hazardous cargoes are causes accidents. hard to come by. Within the Department of l Regulations concerning the transportation of Transportation, such agencies as the Federal hazardous materials lag behind current needs; Aviation Administration, the Federal Railroad as one commentator has put it, “the regulatory Administration, and the Federal Highway Ad- system is a part of the problem and not part of ministration investigate accidents in their respec- the solution.” 1 tive areas of concern. In a study of reporting In addition, the hazards that are covered can systems issued 4 years ago, the National Trans- be bewilderingly complex. Whether it is the State portation Safety Board, another arm of the De- police, another enforcement authority, or the fire partment of Transportation, complained of the department that responds to an emergency, rudi- “parochialism” of accident reports, and the fact mentary knowledge is not sufficient. Complica- that they “have not contained information ap- tions are often present: propriate in character, depth, and detail to have Physical properties. A liquefied gas, for ex- much value in preventing hazardous accidents in ample, may have widely different fire and ex- other modes.” plosion hazards from those that exist when the Some of this is changing. The Office of Haz- fuel is shipped in a vaporized form. ardous Materials, still another Department of Mixture of hazards. A material may well be Transportation entity, has developed a system toxic, flammable, and reactive all at the same for receiving, storing, and retrieving information time, yet marked for only one of the hazards. on hazardous materials accidents. The National Similar names, divergent hazards. One ma- Transportation Safety Board has the duty to in- terial with a name quite similar to another may vestigate causes of transportation accidents (ex- present quite different hazards. cluding aircraft and marine accidents), yet in 1971 the Safety Board reviewed and issued only ‘22 reports of separate rail, highway, and pipeline 1 W. M. Haessler, “The Four Problems of Transporta- incidents. The Commission recommends that the tion of Goods,” Fire Journal, November 1971, p. 29.
86 TRANSPORTATION FIRE HAZARDS Firefighters and the public alike would also minimal. The Commission recommends that the be better served if trucks, tank cars, and other proposed National Fire Academy disseminate to vessels for transporting hazardous materials car- every fire jurisdiction appropriate educational ried clearly visible, readily understandable mark- materials on the problems of transporting haz- ings indicating the hazards therein. The two most ardous materials. universally recognized means of identification of Even with adequate labeling and considerable hazardous materials are the National Fire Pro- training, fire departments may face new or un- tection Association’s “704M System” and the usual hazards in transportation accidents for Department of Transportation’s “Hazard Infor- which their knowledge of appropriate handling is, mation System” (HI). While the systems are not at best, uncertain. In such instances, they should dissimilar in the important respects, the Nation be able to telephone for advice from a source would be better served if a single system, incorpo- knowledgeable about the particular hazard. rating the best aspects of each, were adopted uni- The Chemical Transportation Emergency versally. The Commission recommends that the Center (Chem-Tree) of the Manufacturing Department of Transportation work with inter- Chemists Association is a long step forward to ested parties to develop a marking system, to be meeting this need. By tapping its own resources adopted nationwide, for the purpose of identify- and those of others (such as DOT’s Office of ing transportation hazards. In carrying out this Hazardous Materials and the Environmental recommendation, the Department of Transporta- Protection Agency), it is able to provide instant tion should seek the cooperation and agreement information for handling emergencies involving of the Department of Labor, which, under the hazardous substances. The full potential of this Occupational Safety and Health Act, is charged system will not be realized until an adequate with developing a labeling system for hazardous labeling system tells fire departments exactly materials for protection of employees. Since those what is inside the containers involved in acci- who must utilize the information gained from dents. The Commission recommends the exten- these markings often must do so under poor light- sion of the Chem-Tree system to provide ready ing and hazardous conditions, representatives of access by all fire departments and to include the fire services should also be consulted. hazard control tactics. The hazard control tactics The complexity of hazards complicates fire- must come from joint efforts of the proposed Na- fighting. While spillage of a highly flammable tional Fire Academy and representatives of the liquid into a stream may actually reduce hazards, Manufacturing Chemists Association. spillage of a toxic liquid into a stream creates a The public, too, should become more aware of new and major problem. Chemical foams effec- the risks in accidents involving hazardous ma- tively extinguish some tank fires, but are rendered terials. An incident that happened near Waco, useless if certain solvents are present. For their Ga., in June of 1971, illustrates the importance own safety, firefighters need to know the particular of this. As a result of an accident, a truck carrying hazards and proper tactics to use with each ma- 25,000 pounds of dynamite caught fire. Cars terial, so that they can cope with what is likely stopped, and people got out to watch. The driver, to happen next. who escaped the fire, shouted to them to get In a word, then, firefighters must be well- away-but to no avail. Six people died and 33 informed about the hazards they are asked to deal were injured when the explosion came. with. While the National Fire Protection Associa- The awareness can be attained in many ways. tion, State firefighter schools, and some industry Public fire safety educational materials should representatives have attempted to educate fire de- contain pertinent information. Basic markings partments on chemical hazards and proper tactics (once one system is adopted) can easily be in- to use on transportation fires, the results have cluded in school fire safety education. Groups been very uneven. Training is likely to be superior such as the American Association of Motor Vehi- in urban areas. But trucks and trains cross vast cle Administration, the American Driver and patches of rural America (at greater speed than Traffic Safety Education Association, the Ameri- in urban areas), where training is likely to be can Automobile Association, the North American
AMERICA BURNING 87 Professional Drivers Association, and the Na- Association, and the National Fire Protection As- tional Safety Council can, if given the proper in- sociation, have attempted to educate drivers and formation, include it in literature going to their trucking companies to high standards of fire safe- audiences. ty in the use and maintenance of motor vehicles. Interstate and, in fact, most intrastate trans- Power to prescribe safety features and levels of port can be effectively controlled by the Depart- safety-related performance resides with the Na- ment of Transportation, but the system some- tional Highway Traffic Safety Administration, times breaks down at international borders. established by the Highway Safety Act of 1970. Loading and unloading sometimes occurs in In January 1971, that Administration published streets and lots, because the Bureau of Customs a flammability standard for the interior materials doesn’t have the proper storage facilities. To cor- of passenger cars, trucks, and buses, to take effect rect this situation, the Commission recommends September 1, 1972. that the Department of the Treasury establish The Traffic Safety Administration also asked adequate fire regulations, suitably enforced, for the Oklahoma University Research Institute to the transportation, storage, and transfer of haz- evaluate the new standard. The Institute found ardous materials in international commerce. the standard lacking, in that it requires “too mild These efforts must be coordinated with local fire a test to achieve a significant reduction in property services. loss, much less injuries or fatalities, from vehicle fires.” All that the standard accomplishes, the Motor Vehicle Safety Institute’s report said, is to “discourage use of The problem of transporting hazardous materials new materials for vehicle interiors which are more is dramatic, and failure of the system often causes flammable than those currently employed.” large losses of life and property in a single incident. Since gasoline spillage is a common cause of However, fires in motor vehicles cause almost 35 vehicle fires, the location, construction, and secu- percent of all fire deaths in the United States. In rity of fuel tanks are important design features fact, more than 450,000 fires occurred in cars and for fire safety. The most severe losses, in terms of trucks in the United States in 1971, causing both life and property, occur from fires following upward of 3,500 deaths and average losses of rear-end collisions. Next in importance are roll- $200 per fire. That same year, the Bureau of over accidents, followed by front-end collisions. Motor Carrier Safety received 729 reports of Fuel tanks for passenger cars must meet a Federal truck accidents involving fire. These accidents standard, which specifies a fixed collision barrier caused 132 deaths, 309 non-fatal injuries, and test and the allowable amount of fuel spillage $7,831,728 in property damage. from the tank and its connections in the test. For the truck accidents, principal ignition (Somewhat more stringent requirements are im- sources, in declining order of frequency, were posed on large trucks and buses. ) Studies made for collision impact, defective wiring, hot tires, and the Department of Transportation have indicated defective or hot bearings. Fires originating in car- that the current procedure is not adequate to go spaces were the most frequent, followed by evaluate the performance of a car’s total fuel those originating in other vehicles or objects, system in a fire situation. Studies by the Cornell and those starting at tires or wheels. Aeronautical Laboratory have shown that, while Records kept by Oregon’s State Fire Marshal a mid-vehicle location for a fuel tank is probably indicate that the most frequent ignition sources in best, location alone is not the total answer to the automobile fires are backfires, electrical short cir- fire problem. Improvements can come only cuits, hot mufflers and exhaust pipes, smoking ma- through a consideration of the entire system : fuel terials, and incendiarism-in that order. The tank location, fuel line, electrical system and ex- materials first ignited are gasoline and other haust routing, and configuration of the surround- flammable liquids, electrical insulation, and ing structure. Consideration must also be given to upholstery. the evaporation emission control devices installed A number of organizations, such as the Na- on all cars in recent years. tional Safety Council, the American Trucking The indications, then, are that motor vehicles,
88 TRANSPORTATION FIRE HAZARDS especially cars, are not as fire-safe as modern Reduce chance of ignition. The fuel tanks, the technology would allow. Improvements could be fuels used, and the interior materials are the made in design and materials, without significant critical considerations in efforts to reduce the additional costs. The Commission recommends likelihood of fire in aircraft accidents. that the Department of Transportation set Increase the chance of survival. Once a fire mandatory standards that will provide fire safety has started, the buildup of poisonous fumes and in private automobiles. Both materials and struc- heat is dependent upon many things, including tural design should be considered in these compartmentation, ventilation, and materials standards. used. Standards of construction must consider not only how easily something can be ignited, Aircraft Fire Safety but also the effect on survival once it is ignited. On December 8, 1963, a Pan American Airways Detection and suppression of fires. When on jet exploded and burned near Elkton, Md., kill- the rare occasion fire occurs during a flight, de- ing all 81 aboard. The frightening aspect for pas- tection and suppression are normally swift and sengers contemplating such an occurrence is that effective. Aircraft fires during servicing and there is no escape: no running from the scene, as maintenance are often not so efficiently dealt on land, no climbing into a lifeboat, as at sea. with. Early automatic detection and suppres- Yet fire is the greater killer when it happens sion systems for parked aircraft, including bet- after a crash landing. There have been numerous instances when the impact of the landing did not kill passengers, but the ensuing fire did. One such accident cost 43 lives when a commercial aircraft crash-landed near Salt Lake City in November of 1965. From the standpoint of dollar losses, the most serious fires occur at airports and in hangars, usu- ally during the course of maintenance operations. A spectacular fire of this sort occurred in April of 1969 at the Mercer County Airport, N. J. Before it was discovered, the flames were 25 feet high; before it was contained, it had destroyed 49 air- craft (mostly of the single-engine type), 13 heli- copters, a large hangar, the passenger terminal facilities, and the offices of the airlines for a total loss of over $3 million. Considering the many materials available to burn (propulsion fuels, hydraulic oils, lubricat- ing oils, and ordinary combustibles and plastics), the many sources of ignition (electrical, contami- nation of oxygen lines or valves, lightning and electrostatic charges, hazardous cargoes, and human carelessness), and the many ways an igni- tion source can come in contact with the com- bustibles, it is obvious that there are a large number of potentials for disastrous fires in the relatively confined space that constitutes the air- craft environment. There are a number of areas in which research and development could improve the fire safety of Every year, more than 3,500 Americans die in automobile fires. Better design aircraft : for safety could reduce these tragedies.
AMERICA BURNING 89 Fire results from many airplane crashes. This Boeing 737 crashed near Chicago’s Midway Airport in December, 1972. ter fire suppression agents, seem to be needed 13 cases were firefighters able to rescue passengers. at many airports. The chief emphasis in aircraft fire safety, there- Presently, research on various aspects of aircraft fore, will have to be improved design of airplanes fire safety is scattered among several Federal agen- and continuation of the careful operation of air- cies, both civil and military, and aircraft manufac- craft that has resulted in an admirably low acci- turers. Much research not specifically connected dent rate for commercial aviation. Still, much with aircraft fire safety will nonetheless have a can be done to improve the firefighting capabili- bearing on future improvements in that field. Co- ties at airports. The National Fire Protection ordination of these research efforts is important- Association, the Federal Aviation Administration, first, to ensure that research priorities reflect the the Air Line Pilots Association, and the Inter- scale of needs for aircraft safety, and second, to national Civil Aviation Organization are upgrad- promote the transfer of technology among the ing standards for airport firefighting. Many air- many segments of the aircraft industry and from ports lag behind current standards. It would he outside the industry. appropriate for airport authorities to review their Many fire chiefs express considerable doubt fire suppression and rescue needs, to produce that they can save lives in an aircraft crash if fire plans for coordinating the firefighting resources of erupts before suppression forces arrive. Their the airfield and surrounding areas, and to set up fears are supported by Federal Aviation Admin- capital improvement budgets to bring their fire- istration records, which show that of the 57 air- fighting capabilities up to NFPA, FAA, and carrier accidents during the decade 1959 through ICAO standards. The Commission recommends 1968 involving ground fire and fatalities, only 13 that airport authorities review their firefighting occurred at airports and thus within reach of air- capabilities and, where necessary, formulate ap- port firefighting equipment. In only one of these propriate capital improvement budgets to meet
90 TRANSPORTATION FIRE HAZARDS current recommended aircraft rescue and fire- through Crete, Nebr., and derailed cars struck a fighting practices. We recognize that a firefight- tank car loaded with anhydrous ammonia stand- ing capability adequate to handle a major disaster ing on a siding. Escaping ammonia gas killed six is expensive, particularly in terms of manpower, persons and injured 53. In both instances, the considering the rarity of fire accidents. There are cause of the accident was a mechanical failure; available, however, multiple turret fire vehicles the results were thermal and toxic nightmares. which require smaller crews than the several Chronic problems with railroads are fires along trucks they replace, and progress is being made in rights-of-way, usually started by brake shoe sparks the development of automated apparatus for air- or hot carbon sparks from diesel stacks. In 1970, port fire safety. there were reported 6,645 such fires in or near forest lands; unreported thousands of fires burned Marine Fire Safety grass and croplands. The position of the Coast Guard in maintain- Responsibility for preventing fire accidents ing a high level of marine fire safety is a difficult must reside with the railroads themselves. Sound one. Many factors work against them. Long ex- maintenance practices are well known, but often perience in handling hazardous materials by not followed. Rights-of-way should be well-main- crews and longshoreman can lead to complacency tained, kept free of flammable materials, and in- and carelessness. Pushed by schedules and finan- spected frequently; malfunctioning equipment cial incentives to unload quickly, shippers often should be quickly removed from service. The fail to use the expertise of chemical tankermen, Commission recommends that the railroads be- who are certified by the Coast Guard, or marine gin a concerted effort to reduce rail-caused fires chemists, who are certified by the National Fire along the Nation’s rail system. Equipping non- Protection Association. Since the incentives are turbo locomotives with exhaust spark arresters, often contrary to good fire safety practice, the reducing the frequency of mechanical and rail Coast Guard needs the support of all who can failures, adopting braking procedures and equip- help. Attention should be called to the fact that ment designed to prevent hot brake shoe frag- the Department of Labor has safety responsibili- ments from spewing, training crews in fire ties for the shipbuilders, repairers, and longshore- suppression, and providing trains with appro- men. The presence of increasing amounts of high priate fire suppression tools are measures for energy fuels and other hazardous substances consideration. passing through ports demands special attention. San Francisco’s Bay Area Rapid Transit, The Commission recommends that the Depart- known as BART, has signaled the beginning of ment of Transportation undertake a detailed a new era of mass transit construction in the review of the Coast Guard’s responsibilities, United States. As, these systems are developed, authority, and standards relating to marine and as existing systems arc modernized, there will fire safety. be a need to protect the lives of those who must travel through tunnels and over elevated tracks. Railroad Transportation Fire Safety Tunnels, especially, can be traps: In a Boston With 200,000 miles of main track lines, the Na- subway tunnel fire in February 1973, one person tion’s rail network is vital to the economy. A fire died and more than 100 had to be treated in hos- accident that incapacitates even a small portion pitals, mostly for smoke inhalation. of the rail system has an effect far beyond the In a special study in 1970, the National Trans- actual scene of the accident. portation Safety Board found that no safety con- An accident can be a local disaster if hazardous ditions were being attached to Urban Mass materials are involved in the fire. Usually the fault Transportation Administration grants for rapid is not with the materials themselves. In January Tail transit systems. In support of the Board’s of 1969, 15 exploding tank cars wreaked havoc findings, the Commission recommends that the in Laurel, Miss., all because of a defective wheel Urban Mass Transportation Administration re- on one of the cars. Three weeks after that inci- quire explicit fire safety plans as a condition for dent, a misaligned track derailed a train passing all grants for rapid transit systems.
AMERICA BURNING 91
FIRE AND THE RURAL WILDLANDS ENVIRONMENT
13 RURAL FIRE PROTECTION About a quarter of the American people, ac- politan areas is half again as great as the rate for cording to the 1970 census, live on the Nation’s whites in metropolitan counties (4 per 100,000 420 million acres of rural land.’ For many of versus 2.7 per 100,000). Among non-whites, the these Americans, fire protection is woefully inade- disparity is even greater: 15.3 per 100,000 in quate. The same is true of many suburban non-metropolitan counties, 8.1 per 100,000 in dwellers whose political institutions and com- metropolitan counties. In New Hampshire, where munity services have not kept pace with rapid 56 percent of the land is classified as urban, 29 population growth. out of the 32 deaths from fire in 1971 occurred Rural areas and rapidly developing suburbs in rural areas. can be plagued with many problems: insufficient Fire officials in New Hampshire estimate that water supplies, lack of adequate building codes if all rural homes had early-warning detectors, or too few inspectors to enforce them, insufficient rural fire deaths would decline by as much as funds to pay firefighters or replace antiquated 75 percent. In Chapter 11 we recommended that equipment. Even where a strong volunteer fire model building codes call for early-warning de- department exists, inadequate alarm facilities and tectors and alarms in every dwelling unit; in great distances to fires often result in response Chapter 16, in addition to urging all Americans times of 15 to 30 minutes or more. to install such devices, we recommend incentives Because many volunteer departments keep to encourage their installation. Here it is appro- scanty records or no records at all, the seriousness priate to note the special plight of many of of the fire problem outside of metropolitan areas America’s rural and suburban dwellers. As in is difficult to gauge. According to the Depart- urban areas, most rural fire deaths occur at night ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, the fire during sleeping hours. A few minutes’ difference fatality rate for white Americans in non-metro- inawakening to a fire can be a matter of life or death. But what is especially critical for rural 1 By including communities of up to 10,000, the con- dwellers is that if they awake belatedly and are gressional authors of the Rural Development Act of 1972 trapped, it may be many minutes before the fire encompassed 37 percent of Americans within their defini- tion of rural. department arrives to rescue them. In the event AMERICA BURNING 93 of a power or telephone failure, even notification excellent training, there are many who do not. of the fire department may come too late. With The risks to these men can be reduced and their special urgency, the Commission recommends effectiveness improved by proper training. The that rural dwellers and others living at a distance Commission received many pleas for improved from fire departments install early-warning de- training in our survey of the Nation’s fire depart- tectors and alarms to protect sleeping areas. ments. Unlike those in urban areas, one rural fire Publishers of newspapers and magazines for farm- department usually cannot afford to support a ers and country dwellers could perform a valuable fire school. The consolidation of fire departments public service by publicizing the importance of into county-wide or regional jurisdictions, as we these devices. urged in Chapter 3, would permit better training The best fire equipment, properly located, can- programs at less cost to the individual volunteers not be effectively utilized without well-trained or their sponsoring departments. Strengthening firefighters. While many rural volunteers receive of training programs would also come about
A couple surveying their destroyed home typify the plight of rural citizens with inadequate fire protection.
94 RURAL FIRE PROTECTION through the activities of the proposed National area can represent a huge jump in the demands Fire Academy and under Title IV of the Rural that could be placed on the fire department’s sup- Development Act. pression capabilities. It is especially important to plan the location of future fire stations to mini- The Rural Development Act mize the distances fire engines must travel and to In its provisions for revitalizing the economy provide for built-in protection. Since funds, of rural America, the Rural Development Act of whether tax-based or volunteer, are generally 1972 recognizes that fire protection in rural areas scarce in rural areas, coordinated planning is must grow apace. One section provides loans for needed to maximize the payoff in fire protection. water supply systems for industrialized areas There are special problems to which master being constructed in rural communities. Title IV plans for fire protection in rural areas should be of the law, called Rural Community Fire Protec- addressed. One is transportation fires, as dis- tion, provides for assistance in organizing, train- cussed in Chapter 12. Provisions should be made ing, and equipping local fire protection forces. in the plan for training and for equipment ade- The assistance is both technical and financial, quate to handle these fires. The second special with the Federal Government assuming up to 50 concern should be buildings that have outlived percent of the costs. Full and continuing funding their usefulness. Rural areas abound with them: of the fire protection provisions of the Rural schools not needed because of consolidation, vil- Development Act is, in the Commission’s judg- lage stores closed by nearby shopping centers, and ment, essential. farm buildings now unused because a number of The Rural Development Act also specifies that small farms have combined into a large one. These all applications for proposed water systems and structures are enticing to mischievous arsonists other essential community fire protection facili- and to property owners for whom burning down ties must be submitted to the agency that has a building is convenient disposal or even a source been designated by the State as the appropriate of profit. The master plan for fire protection clearinghouse. The Commission recommends should specify the limits of fire department re- that U.S. Department of Agriculture assistance sponsibility when such fires occur. to such projects be contingent upon an approved Only through planning for fire protection will master plan for fire protection for local fire the impact of new structures on insurance and fire jurisdictions. (The master plan concept is dis- service costs be controlled. Only in this way will cused in detail in Chapter 4. ) This recommenda- the responsibility of the public and that of the pri- tion is not meant to preclude Federal assistance, vate sector (for example, company-supported fire including financial assistance, to help local juris- brigades in industrial plants, automatic extin- dictions develop master plans for fire protection. guishing systems in larger buildings) be specified. Wherever possible, the master plan should be the Only in this way will a fire in a shopping center product of county-wide or regional coordination. or other large complex no longer be the first time There are several reasons why master plans for anyone realizes the water mains are too small and fire protection are vital for rural communities. the fire companies too few to stop a controllable The first shopping center or first factory in a rural fire from becoming a major disaster.
AMERICA BURNING 95
FIRE AND THE RURAL WILDLANDS ENVIRONMENT
14 FOREST AND GRASSLAND FIRE PROTECTION Despite the urbanization of the United States, eroded by wind and water, pollutes the air and vast areas of the country still resemble the prime- streams, Erosion delays natural regeneration, val wilderness. Of the two billion-plus acres that sometimes stopping it altogether, leaving the soil make up the Nation, more than half consist of for- sterile. ests and grasslands. (Cities, highways, and water- As urban sprawl encroaches on wildland areas, ways constitute only 500 million acres, farmlands forest and grassland fires can pose a direct threat and small wooded lots roughly the same amount.) to man. In southern California during a l-month In recent years, forest and grass fires, ignited period of critical fire weather in 1970, 1,260 fires at the rate of about 300 a day, have been destroy- burned more than 600,000 acres, killed 14 people, ing an average of 4.7 million acres annually, In destroyed more than 900 houses and other struc- national forests alone, resources lost by fire tures, and generated the potential for an after- amounted to more than $700 million in 1970. math of erosion, floods, and mudslides. That same Fire destroys the prized hardwoods of the north- year, the Laguna Hills fire in San Diego County cm forests, the pines that supply pulp mills in the burned 225,000 acres and caused an estimated South, the western species that go into plywood $100 million damage to dwellings, other build- and other lumber supplies. The losses, already ings, field crops, utilities, bridges, and other considerable, will grow critical as the Nation’s facilities. consumption of industrial wood products rises. As with other kinds of fires, man is the chief cul- Presently that consumption amounts to 10.7 prit. Nine out of ten forest and grassland fires billion cubic feet of timber annually. By the year are caused by human action (Figure 14-l). 2000, that consumption will nearly double to About a fourth of these man-caused fires are set 20.8 billion cubic feet. by arsonists; a slightly smaller fraction results from Grassland fires destroy valuable range land, people burning debris. Those fires not caused by robbing domestic animals and wildlife of their man are usually caused by lightning-l0,000 such food supply. Not only is vegetation removed, but fires a year, resulting in about $100 million losses heat from range fires often dries out root systems annually. In the West, in fact, lightning is the and lays the soil bare. In turn the barren soil, leading cause of forest fires.
AMERICA BURNING 97 Figure 14-1. Percent of Fire Starts by Cause in 1971* problem. That view now threatens to be replaced by an equally erroneous notion: the romantic idea that the best management of nature is no management at all. In a year’s time, an acre of forest can convert solar energy into vegetable matter equivalent to as much as 300 gallons of gasoline in potential energy. Like a helium balloon being inflated, a forest accumulates an ever-greater fuel load with each passing year. To leave forest preservation to the whims of nature, or to depend solely on campers being careful in forests, simply courts disaster. Man must intervene directly with forest and grassland environments to preserve these im- portant resources. Accumulated residue, as we have mentioned, can be burned off-through prescribed burning or piling-and-burning. Both require skilled oper- ators, careful control, and favorable environmen- “Source: Forest Service, USDA. tal conditions. Another approach is to replace Lightning-caused forest fires were a natural vegetation that is highly flammable with low- and frequent occurrence in North America over lying plants of low flammability. In addition to the millenia prior to the arrival of the first ocean- reducing fire hazards, such conversion projects crossing settlers. But European civilization can improve soil stability, increase water yield, brought with it a propensity for making this nat- improve the habitat for wildlife, and increase the ural phenomenon a problem: Over the years, production of forage. debris from logging and land-clearing-treetops, Still another method of intervention is to clear limbs, and chips-multiplied the accumulation strips of forestland of all vegetation to create of “dead fuel” waiting to be ignited and to rage firebreaks. A modification of this is the fuel break : with great intensity, The encroachment of home- strips of land in which only plants of low flamma- sites on wildlands and the use of forests for rec- bility are allowed to thrive. reation have continued, and they have magnified A very different approach to discourage forest the threat of devastating fires. and grassland fires lies in weather modification- Ironically, our Nation’s efforts in the twentieth specifically, in inducing rain to counter the haz- century to save our forests has contributed to the ards pf a dry season or in suppressing lightning. problem also. For the longer a forest remains But the approach is controversial: first, because protected from fire, the more dead fuel accumu- effects are unpredictable; second, because efforts lates on the forest floor, thereby increasing the that have good effects in one place may have hazard of a major blaze. The chaparral forests bad effects elsewhere. In Colorado, for example, of southern California, for example, deposit as potato growers have taken barley growers to court, much as 1.3 tons of litter per acre every year. claiming that the latter’s efforts to suppress hail Other species in the Sierra Nevada deposit twice storms reduced precipitation so drastically that that amount of litter. In recent years, the practice potato crops were ruined. of “prescribed burning”-to make forests more The Bureau of Land Management, an arm productive as well as to dispose of dead fuel- of the Department of Interior, has launched an has won more and more adherents. effort to abate lightning and to increase precipi- With forestlands in such abundance, the tation in Alaska. (Tests in the mid- 1960’s showed prevailing view in nineteenth century America that seeding clouds with silver iodide nuclei could was that forests could be harvested without re- reduce cloud-to-ground lightning strikes by as placing trees and that forest fires posed no serious much as 60 percent.) These efforts will have to
98 FOREST AND GRASSLAND FIRE PROTECTION be carefully monitored to determine whether they program, which has been credited with saving have any undesirable effects. $17 billion in fire losses, Further, the Forest Service has a Fire and At- The Agencies that Protect Wildlands mospheric Sciences Research and Development Responsibility for fire protection on Federal land Program. It supports basic and applied research lies, primarily, within the Departments of Agri- on a broad range of subjects, from fire prevention culture and Interior. Other agencies, such as the to forest surveillance, and from hazard reduction Department of Defense and the Tennessee Valley to suppression methods. In addition to research Authority, are involved to a lesser extent. Each in its three major laboratories, the program sup- of the 50 States also has an agency responsible ports work by university scholars, industrial re- for fire protection of wildlands. search groups, and fire control agencies. The Forest Service, a division of the U.S. De- A total of 545 million acres comes under the partment of Agriculture, protects 203 million jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior. acres in 154 national forests and 3.8 million acres Its Bureau of Land Management provides fire in 19 national grasslands. The Forest Service has protection for 455 million acres, and its Bureau a Congressional mandate to seek a balance among of Indian Affairs protects 48 million acres. competing needs, such as timber, watershed man- Through contracts, these two Bureaus protect an agement, protection of wildlife, and recreation. additional 110 million acres of State and private To provide fire protection, the Forest Service does lands. Finally, the National Park Service and the not hesitate to alter the natural environment. For Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife provide example, in fiscal year 1970, it converted 34,941 protection to 14 million and 30 million acres acres of highly flammable brush to perennial respectively. grasses. At the end of that year, the Forest Service As Table 14-1 indicates, the protection record reported that the national forests contained 3,882 of the 50 State fire agencies and the two major miles of fuel and firebreaks. Government ex- Federal agencies-the Forest Service and the Bu- perts, however, estimate that an additional 22,000 reau of Land Management-has been improving miles of fuel breaks are needed to prevent decima- significantly. tion of our forests. The improvements over the past two decades The Forest Service also has cooperative agree- would be even more impressive were it not for a ments with each of the 50 States to provide fire number of very large fires in 1968 and 1969. In- protection for lands in all major watersheds- deed, it is the occasional fire that “gets away” 575 million acres, all told. Federal support to which presents the greatest problem in wildland the States takes the form of financial assistance management. An accumulation of highly flamma- (on a cost-sharing basis), training, inspection, im- ble vegetation or a long dry season are open in- plementation of research results, and the develop- vitations to such fires. While large fires-over 300 ment and procurement of fire equipment. acres-account for less than 1 percent of total Also in cooperation with the States, the Forest fires, they account for 60 percent of the acres Service conducts the Smokey Bear educational burned and a high percentage of the total loss of
Table 14-1 Effect of Fire Protection in Forests and Wildlands
Average number Average number of acres burned per year-all causes of man-caused Period fires per National State and Bureau million acres forest private of Land protected Management
1950-59 139 261,264 8,074,797 1,235,996 1960-69 99 196,000 3,704,871 874,342
Source: Forest Service, U.S.D.A.
AMERICA BURNING 99 life and resources. Firefighters also have their dience reached is not precisely known. This audi- hands full when there are multiple ignitions-as, ence must be identified and a program devised to for example, when lightning strikes in several extend the coverage to other groups who cause places or when sparks from damaged train wheels forest and grassland fires. In support of such an set fires along a railroad right of way. effort, the Forest Service has conducted studies Nearly every wildland fire is a candidate for concerning the personalities and background of status as a major fire if the conditions are right. those persons known to have caused wildland Against that possibility measures must be taken. fires. The results of these efforts must find a way First in order of priority is fire prevention-re- into all school courses that deal with the ecology, ducing the number of starts. Second is prepared- and into other appropriate educational media. ness; this includes intervening in the environment Hence, the Commission recommends that the so that, if a fire starts, it will not rage out of con- proposed United States Fire Administration join trol ; it also includes early detection and response. with the Forest Service, U.S.D.A., in exploring Third in order of priority is initial attack-that is, means to make fire safety education for forest stopping fires while they are small with ade- and grassland protection more effective. quately trained and equipped forces. The fourth The effectiveness of fire prevention on non- measure is suppression of major fires. Federal wildlands, in fact, depends heavily on the adequacy and enforcement of State fire laws. Fire Prevention At present, several States-California, Florida, Smokey Bear is a great success story in the field Georgia, and Oregon among them-have ex- of wildland fire protection. Yet the average of cellent fire laws. Other States lag far behind. The 300 forest and grassland fires a day shows that Commission recommends that the Council of the message is not getting through to everyone. State Governments undertake to develop model While much information has been gathered con- state laws relating to fire protection in forests cerning the effectiveness of Smokey Bear, the au- and grasslands.
Prescribed burning is one way of reducing the accumulation of needles, branches, and other dead fuel from forests.
100 FOREST AND GRASSLAND FIRE PROTECTION Air tankers, dropping water or chemical retardents, have proved especially valuable in limiting the spread of fire.
These laws should require, as a minimum: Preparedness permits for debris burning, the use of fire safety The rate at which natural fuels build up depends, devices for mechanical equipment operating in in part, on the type of vegetation, its growth rate, wildlands, strict zoning and building regulations, and its rate of decay. It also depends on climate. the construction and maintenance of firebreaks, Rainfall and temperatures obviously influence and the establishment of access and escape routes. growth rates. What is not so obvious is the fact Provision should be made for such emergency that decay is faster in warm-moist than in warm- measures as shutting down logging operations or dry or cold-moist weather. Were it possible, on rescheduling the hunting season during times of the basis of a few indicators, to predict far in ad- severe fire danger. vance which wildlands are building up fuel to Once these laws are enacted, they will only be hazardous levels, then it could be determined as effective as the enforcement. Several have testi- which wildlands should get first priority for fied to this Commission that, in many high- modification-whether prescribed burning, fuel hazard areas, enforcement and court cooperation breaks, or other appropriate means. Educated are inadequate.’ The Commission urges inter- guesswork for such predictions already exists; ested citizens and conservation groups to ex- what is needed is firmer grounding in science. amine fire laws and their enforcement in their The Commission recommends that the Forest respective States and to press for strict Service, U.S.D.A., develop the methodology to compliance. make possible nationwide forecasting of fuel If fire prevention efforts are to be effective, buildup as a guide to priorities in wildland they must be aimed at the real, rather than imag- management. ined, causes of fire. This, in turn, means that One element important to the success of such accurate and detailed reports of forest and grass- forecasting is long-range weather prediction. land fires must be gathered and analyzed. The That elusive goal is the subject of numerous Fed- national data collection system, recommended in eral research projects. In the meantime, the Na- Chapter 1, applies to wildland fires no less than tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to other kinds of fires. is devising a National Fire Weather Service to
AMERICA BURNING 101 aid fire control agencies. The forecast and ad- towers are being supplemented by aircraft sur- visory field services portion of the program is veillance, including planes equipped with infra- lagging and another portion that should be red sensors. The feasibility of using satellites for pushed is a research and development program infrared detection of fires merits exploration. to apply improvements in weather technology to Over the years, the Forest Service has given in- fire weather forecasting. The Commission sup creased emphasis to preparedness. In general, ports the development of a National Fire larger investments in pre-suppression efforts Weather Service in NOAA and urges its should be matched with a downward trend in the acceleration. cost of emergency suppression of large-scale fires. Preparedness also depends upon adequate sur- Evidence of the value of preparedness comes from veillance of fire-prone lands. Increasingly, lookout a long-term look at the record of the Forest Serv-
A forest fire out of control, like this one near Los Angeles, can become a direct threat to whole communities.
102 FOREST AND GRASSLAND FIRE PROTECTION ice (Table 14-2). If 1971 fires had burned at the forest and grassland fires. The capabilities of Fed- 1951 average acreage per fire rate, 172,000 acres eral, State, and local control agencies are excel- would have been lost, instead of the 36,266 acres lent. More heartening still, Americans have taken actually burned over. At the 1956 average acre- a new interest in the preservation of the Nation’s age per fire rate, 102,000 acres would have been unspoiled wildlands. lost. They are visiting State and national parks as never before, thus straining the parks’ capacities Initial Attack and Suppression and leaving them a little worse for wear. As the Under conditions of drought or high winds, forest Nation’s population grows, pressures will grow to and grassland fires can move with unbelievable give over wildlands to human settlement. Yet it speed. Winds have been known to carry fire along is clear that future generations will need more treetops more than a mile from where the fire is unspoiled recreation lands, not less. burning at ground level. Fires have leapt 300 Americans know their obligations to others. yards across freeways. A vital ingredient in effec- They know that litter left behind today will be an tive suppression, therefore, is early detection, fol- annoyance to park visitors tomorrow. They know lowed by swift initial attack with sufficient fire- that a carelessly tossed cigarette or a campfire not fighting forces. adequately doused can turn a rich natural en- In addition to well-trained firefighters, effective vironment into a black wasteland. Care with fire initial attack depends on access by road or trail, is more than a moral imperative. It is a sound plus the equipment that can be deployed- principle of ecological management. tractors, plows, and aircraft, for example. Air tankers and helicopters, dropping water or chemi- cal retardants, have proved especially valuable in limiting the spread of fire. The efficiency and effiectiveness of amphibious air tankers have been increased in many areas through the use of water- scooping capabilities. Helicopters have also proved valuable for rescue operations and trans- port of firefighters. Recognizing the important role of these air- craft, the Forest Service and cooperating agencies have begun a program to upgrade aircraft, pro- vide more landing strips, and improve the effec- tiveness of retardants. In addition, some Air Force planes are being equipped with modular tank equipment to supplement strike forces for severe emergencies.
The Ecology-Minded Public More than for most kinds of fires, there are grounds for optimism about the efforts against
Table 14-2. National Forest Fire Record
January 1-July 31
1951 1956 1971
Number of fires 1,263 1,765 2,319 94,011 77,679 36,266 Acres burned A carelessly tossed cigarette or a campfire Average acreage per fire 74 44 16 not adequately doused can turn a rich natural environment into a black wasteland.
AMERICA BURNING 103
FIRE PREVENTION
15 FIRE SAFETY EDUCATION Among the many measures that can be taken these fires caused by human action account for to reduce fire losses, perhaps none is more im- more than $800 million in property losses (Table portant than educating people about fire. Ameri- 15-l). It is these fires that should be the special cans must be made aware of the magnitude of target of educational efforts designed to prevent fire’s toll and its threat to them personally. They them from happening. must know how to minimize the risk of fire in The prevention of fires due to human careless- their daily surroundings. They must know how ness is not all that fire safety education can hope to cope with fire, quickly and effectively, once to accomplish. Many fires caused by faulty equip it has started. Public education about fire has ment rather than carelessness could be prevented been cited by many Commission witnesses and if people were training to recognize hazards. And others as the single activity with the greatest many injuries and deaths could be prevented if potential for reducing losses. people knew how to react to a fire, whatever its In the Commission’s poll of those who live cause. daily with destructive fire-fire service person- As one writer has summed up the problem, nel-98 percent of those who replied agreed that “A significant factor contributing to the cause there is a need for greater education of the public and spread of fire is human failure-failure to in fire safety. Two-thirds agreed that most fires recognize hazards and take adequate preventive occur because of public apathy toward good fire measures, failure to act intelligently at the out- prevention practices. (The larger the population break of the fire, failure to take action which served, the stronger was the tendency to be in would limit damage.”2 These failures cannot be agreement with this view. ) To what extent apathy would be better labeled “ignorance” or merely “low priority concern” can only be guessed, 1 The Commission’s estimate is at variance with other estimates, but all such efforts involve approximations, if In the Commission’s estimate, about 70 percent only because a large number of building fires are reported of the fires that occur in buildings can be attrib- in which the cause is unknown. 2 Deuel Richardson, “The Public and Fire Protection,” uted to the careless acts of people,’ and together NFPA Quarterly, July 1962, p. 4. AMERICA BURNING 105 Table 15-l. Estimated Percentage of Building Fires and Losses Attributable to Human Action
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Cause Percent Number Number Property loss 1 Property loss attributed of fires 1 of fires attributed to to human attributed human action action to human (Cal. 1X4) action (Col. 1X2)
Heating and cooking equipment 75 157,700 118,275 $172,895,030 $129,671,250 Smoking and matches 100 118,400 118,400 98,344,OOO 98,344,OOO Electrical 50 160,900 80,450 271,269,OOO 135,634,500 Rubbish, ignition source unknown 75 34,400 25,800 21,754,OOO 16,315,500 Flammable liquid fires 75 64,900 48,675 53,931,000 40,448,250 Open flames and sparks 75 74,100 55,575 100,156,OOO 75,117,000 Lightning 0 22,200 40,335,000 Children and matches 100 70,400 70,400 72,285,OOO 72,285,OOO Exposure (to another fire) 0 23,200 42,148,OOO Incendiary (suspicious) 100 72,100 72,100 232,947,000 232,947,000 Spontaneous ignition 33 15,700 5,233 25,606,OOO 8,535,OOO Gas fires and explosions (not re- ported elsewhere) 50 8,200 4,100 21,074,OOO 10,537,000 Explosions (miscellaneous and un- classified) 50 4,400 2,200 5,212,000 2,606,OOO
Totals 826,600 601,2082 $1,158,046,000 $822,440,5003
1 Loss data from “Fires and Fire Losses Classified,” Fire Journal, September, 1972 (pp. 65-69). Data in this table exclude two categories where human action cannot be estimated (i.e.: “Unknown or Unidentified” and “Miscellane- ous Known”). - 2 72.8 percent. 3 71.2 percent.
legislated out of existence; they must be dealt America. And still, thousands of Americans die with through education. needlessly every year. Day in and day out, firefighters see the evidence of human failure. They see pennies in fuse boxes Public Education Reduces Deaths and Injuries and 30-ampere fuses where 15-ampere fuses A cynic might remark that this widespread igno- ought to be. They see the tragic consequences of rance shows that Fire Prevention Week, school trash or flammable liquids stored near furnaces, programs in fire safety, and all the posters and overloaded electrical circuits, gas heaters im- pamphlets on fire prevention are wasted efforts. properly vented. They find the victims of fire who Yet we do not know how much worse the Nation’s have died in their sleep because they failed to take fire record would be if there were no educational the routine precaution of always sleeping with efforts. Moreover, we do know that public educa- bedroom doors closed. And when they can get tion programs can dramatically reduce fire losses. to them, they find the charred bodies of those who Two studies supported by the Bureau of Com- took a fatal gamble with fire: who opened a munity Environmental Management, an arm of hot door, who dashed through smoke instead of the Department of Health, Education, and Wel- crawling along the floor, who might have sur- fare, provide evidence of this. Though small in vived the gauntlet if they had held a wet cloth scope, the studies are among the few in which over nose and mouth. Organizations like the results of fire prevention efforts have been National Fire Protection Association and the Na- measured. tional Safety Council have based their fire safety Between 1966 and 1969, an intensive fire messages on these common failings (see box, page safety education program was directed at an area 115). Firefighters and others have brought these of southeast Missouri where the fire death rate messages into the homes and classrooms of was far higher than the national average. The
106 FIRE SAFETY EDUCATION first step was to study the pattern of fires and duced from about 200,000 annually to about burn injuries and their causes. Then a field staff 105,000 in 1971. This reduction was achieved was trained to administer the program, Civic even though the land area for which statistics are groups, fire departments, local officials, and the kept has doubled and the number of days of rec- mass media cooperated with the program. The reation use has increased about tenfold. A dou- public got fire safety messages every way they bling of the acreage alone would be expected to turned-from audiovisual demonstrations, educa- have resulted in 400,000 fires annually, but, as tional programs, and media broadcasts. The re- indicated, only 105,000 occurred. This overall sult: The fire death rate dropped 43 percent in reduction by 75 percent in the number of fires 3 years-from 12.9 to 7.4 per 100,000 popula- which would otherwise be expected to occur (as- tion. For each dollar invested in the program, 20 suming that the increased exposure to people dollars were saved in anticipated property losses, leads in equal measure to chance of fire and the medical expenses, and earning losses. Two years chance of early detection) has helped save $17 after the pilot program was terminated, the death billion in natural resources over the 30-year pe- rate was still falling-five times faster than that riod. The cost of this program to Federal and of the rest of the State. State agencies is about $488,000 per year, with A similar study had been carried out 8 years approximately $40 million in service donated by earlier in Mississippi County, Arkansas. There, the Nation’s radio and television stations, news- studies showed that misuse of electrical wiring sys- papers, magazines, and the Advertising Council, tems and petroleum products, plus use and storage of flammable products near heating units, led Current Efforts to Reach the Public other causes of fire. The public education program Though we as a Nation have not made the com- emphasized these problems. Following the first mitment to fire safety education that we ought, a year of the education program, there were only number of efforts-by professional societies, the half as many burn injuries requiring medical insurance industry, fire departments and other treatment as the year before. This favorable trend governmental agencies-are reaching some por- continued during ensuing years. tion of the American people effectively. A number of incidents in recent years have Private organizations. Through posters and demonstrated that when people have fire safety pamphlets (17 million distributed last year), the on their minds, fires decrease in number. In each National Fire Protection Association brings a fire incident, people were fire-conscious because they safety message to millions of Americans every knew normal fire protection was not available to year. The National Fire Protection Association is them. It happened in a midwestern city when a instrumental in promoting the annual Fire Pre- severe snowstorm immobilized all traffic, includ- vention Week campaign, the Sparky the Fire Dog ing fire trucks. It happened in several American campaign in schools, and seasonal fire prevention cities in the late 1960’s when fire departments campaigns in the spring and at Christmas. were tied up in riot-torn areas. It has happened The American Insurance Association annually when fire departments have been battling land- distributes more than 26 million pamphlets to slides or coping with floods. In each case, the schools, hospitals, and other organizations. Its number of fires dwindled to a fraction of the films reach an audience of more than two million normal. people each year. Through the special training it A striking example of long-term success in fire provides to thousands of fire inspectors working safety education is the Smokey Bear campaign. for insurance companies, the American Insurance That effort, supported by Federal and State Association has an indirect but considerable effect forest agencies, has been described as the coun- on public education. try’s most successful program of environmental Insurers in the industrial and commercial sec- protection. tors, notably the Factory Mutual System and the For 30 years public service advertising has Factory Insurance Association, affect the safety urged Americans to prevent forest fires. During of millions of Americans at their places of work, these years man-caused forest fires have been re- through counsel on fire prevention engineering,
AMERICA BURNING 107 Sparky the Fire Dog, a creation of the National Fire Protection Association, teaches fire safety to children. inspections, and distribution of publications, films, tion-except as it affects Government installa- and posters. tions. Each Federal agency has responsibility for In addition, a number of insurance companies internal fire prevention. There is a Federal Fire reach the public with fire safety messages. Pilot Council that pulls together Federal fire-loss statis- efforts have been made to teach fire safety in tics, serves as a clearinghouse and central library deteriorated neighborhoods where the Fair Access of fire literature for the Federal agencies, and to Insurance Requirements (FAIR) plan is in sponsors a limited program of fire safety training operation. (Under the FAIR plan, subject to the for Government personnel. Unfortunately, the ac- Federal Insurance Administration, companies tivities of the Federal Fire Council have been agree to insure properties that would not qualify extremely limited in recent years. There is no under ordinary requirements.) Limited experi- program in the Federal Government directed ence has shown that the efforts work only if sup- toward the public at large to prevent fire losses. port is won from local community leaders. Fire departments. Local fire departments Lastly, the Fire Equipment Manufacturers make significant contributions to public educa- Association distributes about 200,000 fire ex- tion--through inspections of dwellings and com- tinguisher selection charts and several million mercial establishments, through distribution of extinguisher operation manuals every year. reading material on fire safety, and through co- The Federal Government. With the very con- operation with schools. trasting exception of the Forest Service’s Smokey In sum, a variety of ways are being tried to Bear program, the Federal Government is in- heighten public consciousness of fire safety. The volved in only a limited way in fire safety educa- very fact that the educational efforts come from a
108 FIRE SAFETY EDUCATION multiplicity of sources in a variety of ways prob- New York law calls for 15 minutes of fire educa- ably serves to heighten public awareness of fire tion a week in all grades, kindergarten through safety. Yet it is safe to assume, given the sheer ninth grade (over and above time spent on fire number of efforts, that some programs are far drills), while Minnesota requires 60 minutes a less effective than others. What is needed is a week of health and fire education. While some mechanism for evaluating these programs so that States do have legal requirements and well de- weak efforts can be replaced by coordinated sup- veloped curricula, conversations with State offi- port of efforts of proven effectiveness. cials reveal that implementation of these pro- grams is not well enforced or programs are Fire Safety Education in the Schools non-existent in many schools. One State teaches Habits of fire safety are best instilled during the the dangers of ammunition, homemade bombs, years of childhood, especially since youngsters are and fireworks in the second grade but does not particularly prone to fire accidents, That fire get around to the subject of matches until the safety education in schools can be effective is third grade. illustrated by a pilot study supported by the Bu- We need to point out that the absence of a reau of Community Environmental Management statewide fire education program does not neces- of HEW. sarily mean that there is no fire education in the In 1971, a demonstration project was begun in State. Local school boards, fire departments, or Memphis, Tenn., to determine the effectiveness other groups may be filling the void-at least in of teaching safety concepts to young school chil- part. Some communities have exemplary pro- dren. Forty-three elementary school teachers at- grams. In Santa Ana, Calif., a city of 165,000 tended a 22-hour series of workshops on an injury people, an imaginative program in the classrooms control curriculum. Emphasis was placed on is supplemented by demonstrations by the fire teaching burn prevention concepts. The teachers department, a parade at the end of Fire Preven- returned to their classes and taught what they tion Week, a poster contest, and a carnival for had learned to 1,016 children, ranging from kin- schoolchildren in May. Civic groups are as deeply dergarten to the third grade. In the study area, involved in the program as the schools and the burn injuries have decreased by 17 percent, while fire department. in a control area with similar population, burn But the Santa Anas are the exception, not the injuries have increased by 100 percent. Because rule. The Nation’s widespread ignorance about of the success of the pilot project, safety education fire safety and the failure of many States to pro- is now being taught to all elementary school vide even minimal education in the subject un- children in the Memphis school system. derscore the need for Federal intervention. The How do other schools measure up? In an Commission recommends that the Department attempt to learn how much fire safety education of Health, Education, and Welfare include in in schools is required throughout the Nation, we accreditation standards fire safety education in wrote to the board of education in each of the the schools throughout the school year. Only 50 States, asking about programs in fire safety. schools presenting an effective fire safety educa- Forty-two States replied to our request. Of these, tion program should be eligible for any Federal seven reported that they have no State program financial assistance. of fire education. Four of these-Arkansas, Kan- Because fire safety has been ignored in the edu- sas, Tennessee, and Alaska (which has the high- cation of teachers, there are few educators with est fire fatality and personal loss record in the the knowledge or qualifications to teach it. The Nation) --expressed interest in starting a fire edu- Commission recommends that the proposed cation program and asked the Commission’s help. United States Fire Administration sponsor fire It seems safe to assume that the eight that did safety education courses for educators to provide not reply have no program. a teaching cadre for fire safety education. Among the States requiring fire safety educa- The Commission recommends to the States the tion, Iowa, Minnesota, and New York appear to inclusion of fire safety education in programs ed- have the most complete curricula in the field. ucating future teachers and the requirement of
AMERICA BURNING 109 As a prelude to teaching fire safety to children, many fire departments demonstrate their apparatus for them.
110 FIRE SAFETY EDUCATION knowledge of fire safety as a prerequisite for elderly. The campaign should cover seasonal fire teaching certification. hazards, and should be geared through language, Our concern over the lack of public education, background, and program timing to the impor- and particularly education of the young, is by no tant recipients. Mass media education should not means new. In fact, it was expressed a quarter of only create an awareness of fire hazards and fire a century ago by the 1947 President’s Conference safety, but should provide specific instruction on on Fire Prevention, many of whose recommenda- what to do and what not to do and motivate tions, unfortunately, remain to be implemented. changes in attitudes and behavior. That the Federal Government shows more Evaluation is an especially important phase of interest in protecting its trees than its citizens the recommended programs. Effectiveness of fire from fire merely reflects the long-standing indif- safety messages is best not left to guesswork. The ference of Americans to the problem of fire losses. best techniques of persuasion (admittedly, a field But the imbalance deserves to be rectified. While undeveloped as a science) must go into the mes- the National Fire Protection Association and sage; the most exacting standards of testing must others are doing significant work in fire safety edu- go into the evaluation of results. The latter is true cation, the Nation is not realizing anywhere near whether results are being measured in terms of the benefit of the potential loss reduction possible attitude changes, elimination of hazards, or de- through fire safety education. The Commision cline in fire accidents. In all such testing, results believes that a significant increase in effort is should be compared with a control group, con- necessary and that this will only come about by sisting of a similar population, that has not re- the involvement of the Federal Government. ceived the fire safety message. It would be appro- The Commission recommends that the pro- priate for the U.S. Fire Administration to assist posed U.S. Fire Administration develop a pro- non-profit organizations, such as the National Fire gram, with adequate funding, to assist, augment, Protection Association, in evaluating their efforts and evaluate existing public and private fire in fire safety education, It would also be appro- safety education efforts. The program should be priate for the US. Fire Administration to under- directed, first of all, toward encouraging local write basic studies of techniques for motivating governments and the private sector to do more, target audiences. reinforcing efforts with incentives when necessary. Secondly, it should seek effective ways to reach Special Opportunities critical target areas where special educational While it is premature to say what techniques efforts are warranted, such as young children and work best, two pilot projects sponsored by the the vast numbers of the poor whose education is Department of Health, Education, and Welfare limited. Thirdly, it should develop model pro- suggest approaches that could be adopted on a grams and guide local governments in their adap- much wider scale. The first of these was tried in tation to local circumstances. Norfolk, Va., in 1969. Specially trained parapro- Further, the Commission recommends that the fessionals, called Injury Control Technicians, went proposed U.S. Fire Administration, in conjunc- from house to house in the target area in the com- tion with the Advertising Council and the Na- pany of housing-hygiene inspectors. The techni- tional Fire Protection Association, sponsor an cians acted as home environment counselors to all-media campaign of public service advertising help residents of the area identify injury hazards designed to promote public awareness of fire and, where possible, eliminate them. (All kinds safety. In developing this campaign, the U.S. of hazards were pertinent, but fire hazards were Fire Administration should provide for test mar- a major consideration.) The advice of the techni- keting, evaluation, and periodic revision of the cians was welcomed by the residents and, as a messages. Major emphasis should be placed on result, an average of five important hazards per fire prevention in the home. This campaign household were eliminated. should include national and regional efforts by In the second project, now in its fifth year, 500 all communications media directed toward spe- specially trained paraprofessionals, called Health cific fire-prone groups, such as the young and the Educator Aides, are working in 36 cities. Re-
AMERICA BURNING 111 cruited mostly from the poor neighborhoods they ally funded National Center for Housing Man- serve, they have proven effective in reaching the agement. If these resident managers had special poor and altering their behavior for their own training in fire safety, they could affect the well- good. While most of their work has been in ro- being of 10 million Americans who live in these dent control, HEW’s Bureau of Community En- federally assisted housing projects. vironmental Management is confident H.E.A.‘s These special situations merit special attention. could be used to improve fire safety in poor neigh- The Commission recommends that the proposed borhoods. If H.E.A.‘s spent 10 percent of their U.S. Fire Administration develop packets of time on fire safety, as the Bureau recommends, it educational materials appropriate to each occu- would cost $14.6 million to bring fire safety edu- pational category that has special needs or op cation to the Nation’s 15 million disadvantaged portunities in promoting fire safety. In many in- families. The Bureau estimates that if the pro- stances, these packets could be distributed by gram reduced fire losses among this population by professional organizations in the private sector on only 2.6 percent, the expenditure would be a shared-cost basis. economically justified, but that a reduction of 10 While Health Educator Aides and other para- percent is easily attainable. professionals can supplement the residential in- In addition to health aides, there are a num- spection programs of fire departments by calling ber of other Americans in occupations where, if citizens’ attention to hazards and sound practices they had special training in fire safety, they could of fire safety, they in no way diminish the need favorably influence the safety of others: for thorough inspection programs by fire depart- l Attendants in nursing homes, hospitals, and in- ments. Trained firefighters can bring to residential stitutions for the handicapped should have inspections an expertise exceeding that of para- special training to handle their difficult respon- professionals for whom fire safety is a part-time sibilities during fire emergencies. Evacuation is concern. usually a slow process and, with certain pa- A National Program for Fire Safety Education tients, sometimes impossible ; and emergencies can be compounded by irrational behavior of The Commission believes that an overall reduc- patients. tion of at least 2 percent per year in life loss,
l Employees of restaurants, hotels, and places of property loss, and injuries is a realistic and con- public assembly should be trained to lead pa- servative goal for a national fire safety education trons to exits, to extinguish small fires, and to program. We believe that the three-part program render first aid. outlined in Table 15-2 will reach that goal in the
l Physicians are valued counselors on a host of early years of implementation, based on current subjects ranging from nutrition to behavioral fire loss statistics. We emphasize that parts of the problems. Their advice on fire safety could be program must be designed to provide feedback especially important to families with young information on program effectiveness-informa- children or elderly relatives in their care. tion which is essential to achieving optimum
l Millions of preschool children spend part of benefit, yet is usually not collected. their time under the care of teachers and work- Multimedia public service education. This ers in nursery schools, day care centers, and nationwide program should be directed to the Head Start programs, In these contacts lie valu- public at large through all forms possible, with able opportunities for lessons in fire safety ap- an approach similar to the Smokey Bear cam- propriate to the preschool age group. paign. The $1.5 million annual cost is a realistic l There are approximately 20,000 resident man- estimate, based on previous public service agers of major (150-330 units) federally as- campaigns. sisted housing facilities for low-income families. Intensive local education. This part of the Currently these managers are being offered program should be aimed at that 5 percent of training opportunities in such subjects as ad- the Nation’s population in areas suffering the ministration, management of physical facilities, highest loss of life from fire: Alaska, several and human and family relations by the feder- Southern States, and the poor sections of large
112 FIRE SAFETY EDUCATION Table 1-52. Estimated Annual Savings and Costs of a Fire Safety Education Program
Estimated savings Estimated Program Federal Lives Injuries Property cost
Nationwide multimedia public service education program 120 3,000 $27,000,000 $1,500,000 Intensive local education programs (directed to 5 percent of Nation’s population with highest life loss risks) 76 1,900 4,300,000 2,100,000 Nationwide elementary schoolchild education 66 1,600 8,700,OOO 6,000,OOO
Total 262 6,500 $40,000,000 $9,600,000 cities. Various pilot projects have achieved sig- volunteers are used or the media donate space nificant reductions of fire incidence and burn in- or time, cost-benefit ratios can be even higher. juries and deaths. The Arkansas pilot project Past experience shows that the 760 lives lost mentioned earlier achieved a 50 percent reduc- in the high risk 5 percent of our population could tion in burn injuries, while the one in Missouri be reduced by 10 percent year year. An invest- resulted in a 14 percent reduction per year in fire ment of $2.1 million each year to reach this deaths. The volunteer fire department of East segment of the population could be expected to Aurora, N.Y., reported a 28 percent reduction in reduce fire injuries by 1,900 and property losses the number of fires and a 52 percent reduction in by $4.3 million annually. dollar losses, achieved through a public education Education of children in schools. Continuous campaign. In Rochester, N.Y., spot announce- education of children of elementary school age ments on television during station breaks con- can, we believe, result in an annual 10 percent tributed to a 15 percent annual reduction in reduction in deaths and injuries within that group smoking-related fires and an 18 percent annual and an equal reduction in child-caused fires, es- reduction in fires caused by children and matches, pecially those involving children and matches. We Cost-effectiveness as high as 20 to l-that is, have estimated that for an annual cost of $6 mil- $20 saved in losses prevented for every dollar lion, specialized training can be provided for a spent on education-has been reported. Where corps of fire safety educators, including both teachers and firefighters. While the payoffs from $9.6 million: a cost-benefit ratio for property of these expenditures will not be especially high in four dollars return for every dollar invested, not t.he beginning, the attitudes and habits instilled to mention the incalculable savings in lives and should last a lifetime, thus having a cumulatively injuries. greater effect in future years, We recognize that not everyone will respond to The projected program should result in an an- or even be reached by public education, but we nual saving of at least 260 lives, 6,500 injuries, firmly believe that it can contribute significantly and $40 million in property at an annual cost of to reduction of fire losses.
Educational efforts must be made to reach those especially prone to fire accidents, such as the poor in cities
114 FIRE SAFETY EDUCATION FIRE’S DO’S AND DON’T’S Educational materials distributed by the Na- garments, such as children’s sleepwear, that tional Fire Protection Association, the National meet Federal flammability standards as they Safety Council, the American Insurance As- become available, Do not wear (or permit sociation, and others emphasize the major gaps children to wear) loose, frilly garments if in everyday knowledge and practice: there is any chance at all of accidental contact with a stove burner or other source of fire. Before the Fire Starts l Exercise extreme care with smoking mate- l Remove trash and stored items of outlived rials and matches, major causes of destruc- usefulness, particularly from the vicinity of tive fire. Do not leave these where children furnaces and heaters and from hallways and can reach them. exit areas. l Invest in fire extinguishers, escape ladders, l Exercise care in the use of electricity. Do not and-most important-early warning (smoke overload electrical outlets with many appli- or products-of-combustion) fire detector and ances, use only appropriate fuses, and do not alarm devices. hang electrical cords over nails or run under carpets, Have cords replaced when they begin After a Fire Starts to fray or crack, and have electrical work l If you see, smell, or hear any hint of fire, done by competent electricians. evacuate the family immediately, but don’t l Do not store gasoline or flammable cleaners compound tragedy by attempting a rescue in glass containers, which can break, and through a gauntlet of flames or thick smoke. avoid storing them inside the home. Do not Call the fire department as soon as possible. keep more flammable liquids on hand than Don’t attempt to extinguish a fire unless it is you really need. confined to a small area and your extinguish- l To avoid the danger of spontaneous ignition, ing equipment is equal to the task. dispose of rags wet with oil, polishes, or other l If your clothing ignites, roll over and over on flammable liquids in outdoor garbage cans. the ground or the floor. Running will just l Inspect your home and workplace often for fan the flames. Teach the proper procedure these and other hazards. to your children. l Plan for escape from every area of the home, l Before opening your door when you suspect discuss escape routes with your family, and fire in another part of the building-as in a actually rehearse escape. Look for exits upon hotel, for example-feel the inside of the entering restaurants, theaters, and other pub- door with the palm of your hand. If it’s hot, lic buildings. You might have to find your don’t open it. Summon aid, if possible, and go way out in thick smoke or darkness. to a window and await rescue. If smoke is l Sleep with bedroom doors closed. In the pouring ‘into the room under the door, stuff event of a fire, you will gain precious minutes bedding or clothing into the crack. to escape. l In smoke, keep low. Gases, smoke, and air l Learn how to extinguish common fires in heated by fire rise, and the safest area is at the early stages the best way. Roll a person whose floor. Cover mouth and nose with a damp clothing is on fire; use a proper portable cloth, if possible. Don’t assume that clear air extinguisher or even a handful of baking soda in a fire situation is safe. It could contain car- to extinguish a fire on your stove. bon monoxide, which, before it kills you, l Clothing afire is a prelude to tragedy. Buy affects judgment, hampering escape.
AMERICA BURNING 115
FIRE PREVENTION
16 FIRE SAFETY FOR THE HOME
Of the 8,000 Americans who die in building fires safety contribute to the heavy toll. The ignorance, every year, nine out of ten die at home. Firefight- confusion, or panic in people’s response to fire ers find their bodies beyond the wall of fire or helps to account for the fatalities. So does the lack smoke that blocks escape, sometimes only a few of even elementary precautions, such as never feet from a window or door. But often, too, they smoking in bed and never leaving children home are found where they slept: Smoke and toxic alone. So, too, does the lack of positive steps, such gases never gave them a chance. as installing early-warning fire detectors or extin- The nearly 700,000 fires that occur in Ameri- guishing devices and rehearsing with the family can homes annually produce losses exceeding various escape plans. $874 million. That figure tells only part of the story. In addition to structural damage, the losses Fire Awareness in the Home include personal possessions-often acquired after In Chapter 15 we recommended a concerted na- years of work and saving, often objects of senti- tional effort in fire safety education, including a mental attachment whose value cannot be de- multiple-media public service advertising cam- scribed in dollar figures. paign. Obviously a major emphasis in this broad- The losses will grow. Presently there are about based effort should be fire safety in the home. 68 million occupied dwelling units in the United Americans must be educated to sound practices States, and new units are being added at the rate in the home to prevent fires from starting, and of 2 million a year. Considering this growth and they must also be educated to react properly when taking into account the demolition of old units, a fire is discovered to save their lives and those of we can project annual property losses from resi- their families. dence fires approaching $1 billion by 1980-un- Thousands of Americans die needlessly be- less major steps are taken to combat the problem. cause they react counterproductively when they Residence fires are not a simple problem but a discover a fire. Many waste precious minutes try- welter of interacting factors. Combustible interior ing to put out a fire before awakening the family finishes and furnishings, flammable clothing, and or calling the fire department. Others open hot poor interior design from the standpoint of fire doors, attempt a dash through thick smoke, or,
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495-792 0 - 73 - 9 in confusion (or under the influence of a toxic fying hazards-could save thousands of lives a gas), fail to think of the most obvious measures year. The Commission recommends that annual for escape. home inspections be undertaken by every fire The National Fire Protection Association and department in the Nation. Further, Federal fi- the Fire Marshals Association of North America nancial assistance to fire jurisdictions should be have devised a program called Operation contingent upon their implementation of effec- EDITH (Exit Drills In The Home). In a tive home fire inspection programs. This recom- community that adopts Operation EDITH, well- mendation is not meant to preclude Federal plan- publicized efforts are made to encourage families ning and implementation assistance to help fire to devise-and rehearse-plans for getting the jurisdictions undertake a program of residential family out of the house in the event of a fire. The inspections. publicity often includes demonstration of such Small and volunteer fire departments that have steps as installing escape ladders and, when a fire manning problems, particularly during daytime happens, covering the nose and mouth with a wet hours, should be encouraged to use women volun- cloth and crawling along the floor to avoid smoke. teers as residential fire prevention inspectors. The Commission supports the Operation Cities that have health educator aides or other EDITH plan and recommends its acceptance community workers in low-income neighborhoods and implementation both individually and (as described in Chapter 15 ) could utilize these community-wide. workers to supplement the fire department’s resi- dential inspection program, Dwelling Inspections by Fire Departments It is important that inspectors be carefully Though regrettably few fire departments conduct selected and trained, They must be able, not only adequate evaluations of their programs, some to spot hazards, but to deal graciously and effec- have reported as much as 15 to 30 percent re- tively with the public. In this regard, it would be duction in dwelling fires or life loss as a result of appropriate for the proposed National Fire undertaking a program of home inspections. In Academy to develop model curricula for the train- 1972, Baltimore reported a 47 percent decrease in ing of residential inspectors, Care must also be dwelling fires and a 38 percent reduction in lives taken to assure citizens that the inspections are lost from the year before, and attributed a sig- advisory only and limited to matters of fire safety. nificant portion of these reductions to the city’s (Inspectors will not be welcomed into homes dwelling inspection program, Not surprisingly, in- when they are suspected of searching for un- spection programs appear to be most effective in licensed dogs or housing code violations.) neighborhoods where losses are ordinarily high. To be successful, inspection programs must be Only a portion of the Nation’s 27,500 fire de- evaluated. It is important for the Nation to know partments conduct residential inspections. In the what kinds of inspection programs work and what Commission’s survey of fire departments, only 20 kinds don’t. At the very least, comparisons should percent of the 10,000 respondents reported in- be made between the 12 months’ preceding a new specting more than 10 percent of the residences in inspection program and the first 12 months fol- their community each year. lowing, as well as between the last year of a pro- In addition to locating fire hazards in the home, gram and the year after it is dropped. residential inspections can serve to heighten citi- zens’ awareness of fire’s threat and to teach them Home Fire Detection life-saving precautions and emergency procedures. Most Americans who die in home fires die during Inspections can promote respect for the fire de- the nighttime hours. Usually it is smoke, toxic partment and underscore its interest in saving gases, or lack of oxygen-not fire itself--that kills lives and minimizing losses. In addition, inspec- them. tions can serve to attract new members to the fire In countless instances these lives would be service. saved if the victims were awakened to the pres- Most important, residential inspections-used ence of a fire in its early stages. There are on the as educational opportunities as well as for identi- market approved devices designed to detect smoke
118 FIRE SAFETY FOR THE HOME or other products of combustion-not heat alone, The National Fire Protection Association, the which can be detected only in a fire’s advanced Department of Housing and Urban Develop- stage-and sound an alarm. In a Canadian ment, and the International Association of Fire study,’ the investigators concluded that 41 per- Chiefs, among others, support the use of early- cent of recent fire victims in Ontario could have warning detectors in homes. Those who testified been saved if their dwellings had been equipped to this Commission on fire safety in the home were with early-warning detectors. Extrapolated to the unanimous in favoring widespread use of early- United States, this would be a saving of 2,600 warning detectors. At a minimum, most advo- lives every year. cates feel, there should be an early-warning de- tector on the ceiling near each sleeping area in the 1 J. H. McGuire and B. E. Ruscoe, “The Value of a house. Some believe a system of heat detectors is Fire Detector in the Home,” Fire Study No. 9 of the Divi- an adequate substitute, but only if there are many sion of Building Research, National Research Council, Ottawa, December 1962. more of them located throughout the house. There is a consensus that only devices approved by nationally recognized testing laboratories, such as Underwriters’ Laboratories or Factory Mutual Research Corporation, should be used. The Commission urges Americans to protect themselves and their families by installing ap- proved early-warning fire detectors and alarms in their homes. Fire departments should encourage the instal- lation of approved early-warning fire detectors in the course of their residential inspections. In the course of subsequent inspections, they should then check to see that the devices are in working order. Representatives of numerous insurance com- panies have expressed to the Commission the de- sire to increase their efforts to reduce life and property losses and injuries by fire. Encouraging Americans to provide fire protection in their homes would be a major contribution, and the Commission recommends that the insurance in- dustry develop incentives for policyholders to in- stall approved early-warning fire detectors in their residences. There could also be tax incentives. The Com- mission urges Congress to consider amending the Internal Revenue Code to permit reasonable de- ductions from income tax for the cost of in- stalling approved detection and alarm systems in homes. Such a provision would not only offer a financial incentive but would serve to draw pub- lic attention to the importance of fire safety in the home. Public awareness of the value of early-warning fire detectors would be enhanced if, as we recom- In addition to locating fire hazards in mended in Chapter 11, all of the Nation’s model the home, residential inspections can serve to heighten citizens’ awareness of fire’s threat. codes would specify at least a single-station early-
AMERICA BURNING 119 warning detector outside sleeping areas in every warning detection with household commodities, dwelling unit. such as electrical wiring or telephones, or with Here and there fire detection systems have be- such commonly used objects as lamps or light come legal requirements for residences. Since bulbs. 1958, Quincy, Mass., has required fire detection In addition to on-premises detectors and and alarm devices in all new single-family dwell- alarms, another avenue of exploration is the cou- ings. The Village of Bayside, Wis., has a similar pling of fire detection with cable television. The ordinance, and also requires that occupants per- Federal Communications Commission requires form maintenance checks on the detection systems commercial suppliers of cable TV to provide the and report on a standard form to the chief of pub- capability to transmit a signal “upstream” from lic safety annually or face a $200 fine. In Ohio, the subscriber as well as “downstream” from the the State fire code now requires a single-station transmitter. Several cities, including Pensacola fire detector in all new one-, two-, and three- (Florida), Atlanta, and a suburb of Chicago, are family dwellings. At the Federal level, the De- experimenting with means of transmitting fire partment of Housing and Urban Development alarms automatically by cable to summon aid. requires early-warning fire detectors in multiple- family dwellings and care facilities, such as hos- Automatic Fire Extinguishing Systems pitals and nursing homes, insured or assisted by Where early-warning detectors and automatic the Department. HUD recently extended the re- extinguishing systems are used in combination, quirement to insured or assisted one- and two- the protection to lives and property is enhanced family dwellings. greatly over that afforded by detectors alone. The 18,000 mobile homes that HUD provided Automatic sprinklers are expensive; while they to Pennsylvania’s victims of Hurricane Agnes in are feasible for high-rise and other large build- 1972 were equipped with early-warning detectors ings, they are too costly for installation in the and are serving as a testing ground for the de- average home. Research and development are vices. The National Bureau of Standards is collect- needed toward automatic extinguishing systems ing data on the experience with these detectors to that will be cheap, aesthetically acceptable, and evaluate their performance (including any tend- adaptable to existing homes as well as new con- ency of causes other than fire to activate the struction. The Commission recommends that the alarm) and to aid in the development of installa- Proposed U.S. Fire Administration support the tion and maintenance requirements. development of the necessary technology for im- Certainly the technology of early-warning de- proved automatic extinguishing systems that tectors can be improved, and with a substantial would find ready acceptance by Americans in all market assured, the costs of these devices can be kinds of dwelling units. brought within the reach of low-income families. Automatic extinguishing systems in residences Manufacturers are working toward improve- would not only save lives and reduce direct losses ments in both directions, and their efforts are from fire, but would also reduce other expenses likely to accelerate when the devices “catch on.” to the Nation, such as the costs of treating burn The National Aeronautics and Space Adminis- and smoke injuries, insurance costs (both pre- tration, the National Science Foundation, and miums and payouts), and the costs of maintain- the National Bureau of Standards are supporting ing fire departments. The developers of Disney work to improve the detectors. All of these efforts World in Florida, who have installed sprinkler deserve coordination, and the Commission rec- systems in residential buildings such as hotels and ommends that the proposed United States Fire apartments (and smoke detectors in single-family Administration monitor the progress of research dwellings), report that there have been savings in and development on early-warning detection sys- insurance rates and, just as important, savings in tems in both industry and Government and pro- the costs of maintaining fire departments. vide additional support for research and devel- opment where it is needed. Long-term studies Protection of Mobile Homes might investigate the possibility of coupling early- Mobile homes possess some special fire danger
120 FIRE SAFETY FOR THE HOME EARLY-WARNING (SMOKE) AND “Three types of fire detectors are most com- HEAT DETECTORS monly used in this country. These are known by the generic terms as heat detectors, smoke detectors, and flame detectors. Only heat and smoke detectors appear to have application to the household fire detection system. Heat detec- tors may be of the type that sense temperature of the environment, rate of rise of the environ- ment temperature, or combinations of these. Smoke detectors of two different types are avail- able. Optical detectors are designed to sense the scattering of a light beam by smoke par- ticles; combustion products detectors are designed to detect the presence of particu- late products of combustion by electrical means., Each detector type has advan- tages and disadvantages associated with any particular application. . “In the late 1950’s, self-contained non-electri- cal fire alarm units were being sold door-to- door. A unit of this type consisted of a heat detector.... a horn or bell to sound the alarm, and a source of stored energy.... Because these units respond only to a tempera- ture rise, they are intended for use in areas where a fire producing a great deal of heat is likely to occur, such as near a furnace, but they have also been employed throughout other rooms in a home. Hard sell techniques were employed in marketing these units. . . . “In order to be of value in providing life safety, a fire detection system must make pro- vision for detecting a small smoldering fire soon enough that alarm can be given and the build- ing evacuated before untenable smoke condi- tions are reached. In addition, but of less rela- tive importance, the fire detection system ought to be capable of early detection of rapidly de- veloping hot fires. “Smoke detectors of the photoelectric and ionization types provide means for detecting smoke from either type of fire; and the most critical factor in determining the speed of re- sponse is the location of the detector. Heat detectors, on the other hand, provide early warning of hot fires in their immediate area only. . . “The most favorable locations for smoke detectors which protect the bedroom area, either alone or in conjunction with detectors located throughout the house, depend of course on the building configuration. In general, the smoke detectors should be located so that smoke from any fire which originates outside of the bedroom area must pass over the smoke detec- tor before entering the bedrooms.” ----From testimony to the Commission (Oct. 4, 1972) of William J. Christian, consulting engineer, Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc.
AMERICA BURNING 121 characteristics. Among these are their small size, close proximity of heaters and kitchens to sleeping areas, the concentration of combustible materials, lack of adequate escape doors in many cases, and a higher combustibility of interior finishes than in most site-built homes. Mobile homes are the fast- est-burning of all homes. More than seven million Americans live in mobile homes, and mobile homes currently ac- count for 95 percent of homes sold for under $15,000. Mobile homes presently are being manu- factured at a rate well exceeding 500,000 per year. While the incidence of fire in mobile homes is about the same or less than in conventional homes, data indicate, results are often more serious when a fire occurs. The office of the State Fire Marshal of Oregon has compiled some of the most com- plete records available on fire losses in mobile homes. They have reported, from data covering the period 1965 through 1971:
l The ratio of fatalities per fire in mobile homes is 2.74 times greater than for standard dwellings; l The loss-to-value ratio per fire in mobile homes is 3.84 times greater than standard dwellings; l Average mobile home fire losses are greater than average losses in standard dwellings by a ratio of 1.62 to 1 ($1,477 per fire average to $909 average for standard dwellings). A number of individuals and organizations have pursued improvements in mobile home safety. Congressman Lou Frey, Jr., of Florida, in- troduced in 1972 the first national mobile home safety act. Federal action to protect owners of mobile homes is justified, since the Federal Gov- ernment buys mobile homes for disaster victims and other uses and, through the Federal Housing Administration, provides mortgage insurance for a limited but growing number of mobile homes. In addition, the National Fire Protection Asso- ciation has devised a standard, NFPA 501B, which has been approved by the American Na- tional Standards Institute for the design and con- struction of mobile homes to provide fire safety. This standard has been criticized as not stringent enough; for example, there are no interior finish requirements for molding, doors, trim, cabinets, and splash panels, all of which can contribute to the rapid spread of fire. Nor are early-warning fire detectors required. The Commission recom- mends that the National Fire Protection Asso-
122 FIRE SAFETY FOR THE HOME Many deaths from fires in the home can be attributed to ignorance of how to react and escape when a fire happens.
AMERICA BURNING 123 ciation and the American National Standards Institute jointly review the Standard for Mobile Homes and seek to strengthen it, particularly in such areas as interior finish materials and fire detection. The NFPA/ANSI standard is advisory only, and many State and local jurisdictions have failed to enact a code for mobile homes equivalent to that standard. The Commission recommends that all political jurisdictions require compli- ance with NFPA/ANSI standard for mobile homes together with additional requirements for early-warning fire detectors and improved fire resistance of materials. These requirements will be effective only if they are enforced adequately- through inspection both at the point of manu- facture and the final site of each mobile home. Because of zoning requirements, mobile home parks are frequently located outside of cities and, hence, far from fire departments and adequate water supplies. This means that the parks them- selves must provide safeguards against destructive fire, as the National Fire Protection Association has recognized in its Standard on Mobile Home Parks (NFPA 501A). The Commission recom- mends that State and local jurisdictions adopt the NFPA Standard on Mobile Home Parks as a minimum mode of protection for the residents of these parks.
Citizens’ Responsibilities There are millions of Americans who invest heavily in chain locks and burglar alarms, who keep guns in their homes and under store counters to supplement the protection they get from police departments. Very few of these Americans have paused to consider the wisdom of providing their own fire protection. Consistent with the prevailing American atti- tude toward fire protection in the home, the burden of protecting lives and property in resi- dential fires is borne overwhelmingly by the pub- lic, in the form of fire departments. The inade- quacy of this reliance is conveyed by a single word: time. It takes time to discover a fire, time to notify the fire department, time for the fire department to reach the scene, and time for fire- fighters to bring the fire under control. Every One important measure for averting tragedy passing second weighs the odds more heavily in is to rehearse, with all members of the family, plans for escaping various kinds of fires. favor of the fire and against the victims.
124 FIRE SAFETY FOR THE HOME The attitude of the Japanese, who for cen- turies built their homes of very flammable mate- rials, contrasts sharply. There, a destructive fire disgraces the person who allows it to happen; once upon a time, it was sufficient cause for cru- cifixion. A Japanese proverb translates: “There is no one who fails to get excited when the neigh- bor’s house is on fire.” That is, distant troubles do not interest people; it is only when a problem comes close to home that they are willing to do something. Before Americans will take the steps to protect themselves and their families, the threat of fire must be brought “close to home.” Thus, a need underlying many others is to educate Americans to recognize the dangerous enemy they have in destructive fire. If fire consciousness could be instilled in Ameri- cans, then one could envision the day when every American home will have its own automatic fire department: an alarm that rescues the family and automatically activates the extinguishers that put out the fire. Then thousands of lives would be saved every year, millions of dollars of the Na- tion’s resources would be saved from ruin, hospi- tals could be emptied of beds for burn and smoke injury patients, fire departments could be pared to a fraction of their present size, and fire insur- Other measures for averting tragedy include using and storing flammable liquids ance might he as cheap as dog licenses. away from potential sources of ignition.
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FIRE PREVENTION
17 FIRE SAFETY FOR THE YOUNG, OLD, AND INFIRM
There are millions of Americans against whom buildings not designed for the purpose of child fire holds heavy odds. These are people with care. limited capacities-the very young, the old, the The National Fire Protection Association has physically and mentally handicapped. Lacking amended its Life Safety Code (NFPA 101) to the ability to cope adequately with fire accidents, govern construction, exit facilities, and fire de- these Americans deserve protective watchfulness tection systems in facilities for groups of pre- from their families-that is, when they are with school children in day care centers, group day their families. When they congregate with peers of care homes, and family day care homes. In- similar disabilities, a fire accident can threaten cluded are provisions for early-warning fire detec- many lives. The situation is ripe for major trage- tion devices where children sleep. The Depart- dies in nursery schools, day care centers, homes ment of Health, Education, and Welfare has for the physically or mentally retarded, and homes urged the States to adopt these provisions as for the elderly. licensing requirements for these facilities. The In many such institutions, a combination of Commission strongly endorses these new pro- built-in fire protection and attentive staff has kept visions of the Life Safety Code for child day fire accidents under control, But there are poign- care centers and recommends that they be ant exceptions. In February of 1972, six chil- adopted and enforced immediately by all the dren died in an apartment in Chicago that had States as a minimum requirement for licensing been licensed by the State of Illinois as a day care of such facilities. center. At the time of the fire, the operators of Among fire’s victims, one large group stands the day care center had won two delays of a out as a special and growing concern: the oc- court case involving code violations found by the cupants of nursing homes and homes for the Chicago building department. Many such pro- elderly. Annually, 3,500 to 4,000 fires break out grams for preschool children are not subject to in these facilities. During the 20 years from 1951 strict building code requirements because they to 1970, 496 residents of facilities for the aged are located in private homes, churches, or other died in multiple-death fires (those killing three
AMERICA BURNING 127 or more). No one keeps a national record of meet the appropriate provisions of Atlanta’s single-fatality fires in nursing homes, but by con- building code, the NFPA Life Safety Code, and servative estimate the toll is 500 persons a year. the standards of the Department of Housing and According to Government and industry esti- Urban Development for housing for the elderly. mates, about one million older Americans live in Moreover, many safeguards meant to avert 23,000 nursing homes and other care facilities multiple-death fires by limiting the spread of fire across the Nation. Most of these facilities are li- and smoke do not prevent the accidents that censed by their respective States and hence may cause single deaths. Safeguard which only pre- be regulated, to some degree, concerning fire vent multiple deaths cannot be considered ade- safety. About 14,000 of these are subject to Fed- quate to the needs of the elderly. eral certification (under Medicare and Medicaid It is not difficult to see why the elderly are programs) and must comply with the 1967 especially prone to tragic fire accidents. Many edition of the Life Safety Code of the National lack the physical coordination to handle matches, Fire Protection Association. cigarettes, or hot appliances safely. Others, Perhaps another million elderly Americans live mentally impaired or despondent, set fires delib- in “housing for the elderly” insured or assisted erately. When a fire occurs, physical or mental by the Department of Housing and Urban De- impairment can hamper the chances of escape. velopment and thus subject to some fire safety As firefighters have discovered over and over, requirements, though not as stringent as they many elderly patients are reluctant to leave the could be. room that houses their few worldly possessions. Untold hundreds of thousands of older Ameri- Compounding the problem of fires in nursing cans live in nursing homes that are not State- homes is the fact that many homes are sparsely regulated (usually because they dispense no nurs- staffed, especially during the nighttime hours. ing services) and in unregulated boarding houses, Better Protection is Needed hotels, and other room-and-board facilities that cater mostly to the elderly. The National Fire Protection Association recently Thus, fire protection for the elderly ranges from revised the Life Safety Code and, in so doing, excellent to totally inadequate and, on balance, gave added attention to the problem of single- is far less than senior citizens deserve. It is a death fires. Stricter flammability requirements blemish on the American conscience that those have been imposed on gowns, bedding, cubicle who contributed to our prosperity are allowed curtains, and draperies. Early-warning detectors to live their retiring years where even minimal arc recommended requirements for all new nurs- fire safeguards are absent. The problem of fire ing homes, hospitals, and ocher care facilities. In safety in special housing for the elderly deserves recognition that building alterations and extin- attention, with growing urgency each passing day. guishing systems are expensive, the fire protection The elderly population is expanding, as is the por- standard is flexible, permitting reduction in com- tion of Americans living out their years in nursing partmentation requirements if automatic sprin- homes and housing for the elderly.’ A stronger klers are installed or deleting the sprinkler Federal role in attacking the problem is justified, requirements where compartmentation standards since many homes for the elderly receive assist- are met in fire-resistive and protected non-com- ance from HUD or old age assistance payments. bustible buildings. Fire-resistive building construction, we should The Department of Housing and Urban Devel- add, is not a panacea. In November of 1972, 10 opment, too, has revised its standards for institu- people died of smoke inhalation in an Atlanta tional and residential occupancies for the elderly, fire in a new 1l-story apartment house that cost to require more extensive, yet not complete, cov- $3.5 million to build. It appeared, in general, to erage by automatic sprinklers and early-warning detectors. ‘The over-65 group is expected to increase 30 percent by 1985, while the total population will grow by only State requirements vary widely. Since 1967, 18 percent. In the 6 years from 1963 to 1969, while Massachusetts, which has some of the most the elderly population grew by 21 percent, the number in nursing homes increased by two-thirds. stringent standards, has required that all new and
128 FIRE SAFETY FOR THE YOUNG, OLD, AND INFIRM existing facilities for the aged (except those strictly cost of carpeting, we recognize that the cost providing housing for the elderly) be equipped could be burdensome to many owners of facili- with automatic sprinklers if they have three or ties for the aged, particularly if the owners must more residents. On the other hand, there are seven also invest in early-warning detectors. Such fa- States with no sprinkler requirements of any kind. cilities are an expanding need in our society, Reliable estimates place the cost of automatic hence any increase in financial burdens must be sprinkler systems between $0.65 and $1.25 per carefully weighed against its possible effect of square foot, depending on the difficulty of in- discouraging private enterprise to provide these stallation. While this is roughly similar to the facilities, Yet the fire safety of the elderly should
Lack of mobility or physical coordination compounds the problem of rescuing nursing home patients from a fire.
AMERICA BURNING 129 yield to no compromise. The Commission rec- The crippled person in a wheelchair needs ready ommends that early-warning detectors and access to a safe refuge from fire that does not total automatic sprinkler protection or other require the USC of stairs or elevators. Audible and suitable automatic extinguishing systems be visual fire alarms, wide doorways, and ramps are required in all facilities for the care and hous- some of the needs. The Commission recommends ing of the elderly. that the special needs of the physically handi- The recommendation applies to residences for capped and elderly in institutions, special hous- the elderly as well as to care facilities. Some finan- ing, and public buildings be incorporated into cial incentives may be necessary. Federally guar- all fire safetey standards and codes. anteed low-interest loans, tax incentives such as No standards are useful, of course, if they are accelerated depreciation and exclusion of fire ex- not enforced. The Commission recommends that tinguishing systems from tax assessments, reduced the States provide for periodic inspection of fire insurance premiums, and concessions in struc- facilities for the aged and infirm, either by the tural fire protection requirements would offer State’s fire marshal’s office or by local fire de- desirable inducements to builders and owners. partments, and also require approval of plans In putting forth this recommendation, the for new facilities and inspection by a desig- Commission recognizes that it exceeds standards nated authority during and after construction. of the NFPA Life Safety Code at a time when Lowering the amount of combustibles in nurs- Federal agencies and many States still lag behind ing homes-including interior finishes, furnish- current provisions of the code. We believe the ings, and fabrics-is a matter of utmost priority. Federal agencies and States should be making Here the experience of the Veterans Administra- every effort to keep up with changes in the NFPA standards. The Commission recommends to the Federal agencies and the States that they establish mechanisms for annual review and rapid upgrading of their fire safety requirements for facilities for the aged and infirm, to a level no less stringent than the current NFPA Life Safety Code. It is appropriate to pause and note here that the recommendations we have thus far put forth in this chapter, and the ones that are to follow, could apply equally well to other kinds of facili- ties for the infirm and handicapped in our society. We have focused on nursing homes and housing for the elderly because these have been a major source of tragic fires. But other kinds of institu- tions, such as homes for the physically or mentally handicapped, have conditions very similar to those of facilities for the aged. Thus, it would be appropriate for Federal and State authorities also to review periodically the extent of coverage provided by their fire safety regulations-that is, to include various kinds of institutions for the handicapped as well as facilities for the elderly. The limited capabilities of the physically handicapped and the elderly to escape from fire in institutions and public buildings need special attention. A deaf person cannot hear a fire alarm Though set afire simultaneously, the flame-resistant pajamas burn far bell. A blind person cannot see an exit sign. more slowly than standard cotton pajamas.
130 FIRE SAFETY FOR THE YOUNG, OLD), AND INFIRM tion is instructive. The VA is furnishing every unless an attendant is present. one of the 80,000 patients in its hospitals with State and local governments can regulate the pajamas made of a flame-resistant cloth. Even- location of nursing homes-prohibiting them at tually all bath robes will be of this material, and great distances from fire departments. They can the VA is evaluating the material for possible use require that alarm systems be tied directly and in bedding. While the fire-resistant material used automatically to the local fire departments. The is four times as expensive as cotton, it lasts 10 to 15 Commission recommends that political subdivi- times longer. The garments have been readily ac- sions regulate the location of nursing homes and cepted by patients; while the 1 percent of patients housing for the elderly and require that fire who are risks to themselves (most because of their alarm systems be tied directly and automatically smoking habits) are required to wear fire-resistant to the local fire department. clothing, few of the others reject the garments. The Department of Health, Education, and Among the elderly in nursing homes, accept- Welfare, and other governmental bodies which ance of uniform garments is less likely. Many inspect Medicare and Medicaid institutions, can have developed sentimental attachment to their aid local fire departments by transmitting their own clothing and to the individuality it gives findings relating to fire and life safety to the them. It would still be appropriate, however, to departments. require fire-resistant clothing on patients prone Finally, loss of life can be reduced through the to fire accidents. Other fabrics in nursing education of staff, residents, and families of resi- homes, such as bedding and draperies, should dents on fire safety. It is particularly important to meet high standards of non-flammability, as train staff how to handle a fire emergency, and in should furnishings and interior finishes. The Chapter 15 we recommended that the proposed Commission recommends that the National United States Fire Administration develop train- Bureau of Standards develop standards for the ing aids for just this purpose. flammability of fabric materials commonly An incident that happened in Virginia several used in nursing homes with a view to providing years ago underscores the importance of educa- the highest level of fire resistance compatible tion for all who enter nursing home doors. After with the state-of-the-art and reasonable costs. returning home from visiting an elderly relative, Other measures can be taken to reduce the life a man called the nursing home to confess that he losses from fires in nursing homes. Specially pro- had given forbidden matches to the relative. The tected, supervised areas can be set aside for call was too late. The patient had already burned smokers. Smoking can be prohibited in bedrooms to death.
Multiple-death tragedies could be averted if all nursing homes were required to have built-in fire protection.
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PROGRAM FOR THE FUTURE
18 RESEARCH FOR TOMORROW’S FIRE PROBLEM
In both the public and private sectors, the Nation the Committee on Fire Research of the National spends about $105 million annually on research Research Council noted a dearth of basic research and development related to fire (see Appendix directed toward a fundamental understanding of VII). It would be difficult to define an ade- the phenomena of ignition, fire growth, and fire quate level of investment against which this spread. The Committee recommended a “na- figure could be compared. But evidence mar- tional program emphasizing those areas not ade- shaled earlier in this report of laggard progress quately covered by current efforts of military and in the technology of firefighting, the treatment of civil agencies.” During the 1960’s, most of the burn and smoke victims, and fire protection of basic research on fire pertained to forest fires, the built environment suggests that the Nation is since the forest environment was easier to deal seriously under-investing in fire-related research. with and properly preceded attention to the more Much of the research is devoted to narrow- complex environment of urban fires. By 1969, and short-term goals. Industrial research and the Committee on Fire Research was able to re- development, for example, is largely devoted to port “small but significant” progress in basic fire ensuring that materials and products meet exist- research. ing codes rather than more ambitious standards In the mid-1960’s, research interest in the built of fire safety. Of the $27 million spent on fire re- environment was spurred by new Federal laws search and development by the Federal Govern- dealing with fire safety, in particular with certain ment, about $18 million is directed to the specific fabrics and the materials in aircraft interiors. An missions of the sponsoring agencies-for example, expanding role for the Federal Government was in the Atomic Energy Commission, to the pre- defined when the Fire Research and Safety Act vention and control of fires in nuclear reactor of 1968 authorized the National Bureau of Stand- facilities. ards to undertake a more comprehensive research Comparatively little has been done in the program. When the National Science Foundation realm of basic research and other research in established its Research Applied to National which, if a technological improvement is a possi- Needs program in 1971, it opened the way to bility, it is a long-term payoff. As far back as 1959, more extensive fire research.
AMERICA BURNING 133 Some notable achievements have been made. understanding of this range of behavior would For example, some of the reactions that take greatly aid the apprehension of arsonists, the place in a flame are now understood, which opens search for safeguards against arson, and the the way to understanding how the addition of search for alternatives-that is, less destructive chemicals might inhibit flames. The basic mecha- outlets for the mentally sick arsonist, and attrac- nisms of heat radiation are understood almost to tive economic alternatives for those who deliber- the point where the distances at which other fuels ately set fire to their own property. in a room will ignite by the radiative energy from Fire dynamics. To the extent that materials a fire can be predicted. In the realm of techno- in the built environment are controlled at all, logical improvements, additives for water have they are controlled by voluntary standards and been developed which reduce friction in a hose. building codes, each of which can be no better Other additives make water “light” so that it than the test methods specified for measuring fire floats on top of liquid fuels and smothers flames. performance. Unfortunately, present test methods often yield numbers that tell little more than how Some Areas for Exploration materials or structures behave in idealized test There is much to be done in the broad field of configurations. Actual fire performance in a fire research. We have indicated important areas building depends critically on such factors as for specific research throughout the report. physical layout, interactions between walls, floors, One basic need is to strengthen this grounding and ceilings, fuel loads, and the presence of com- of knowledge about fire in a body of scientific plicating components such as air conditioning and engineering theory, so that real-world prob- ducts. Thus there is a need for research toward lems can be dealt with through predictive analy- the development of test methods that more accu- ses. The development and testing of new materials rately predict real-world fire performance. and assemblies, the teaching of fire protection, Smoke and toxic gases. The physiological the creation of new architectural designs, the effects of smoke inhalation and tolerance limits engineering design of more effective fire control are not known adequately. Neither is much systems, and the development of fire prevention known about the chemical nature of combustion programs could be greatly expanded and im- products, nor how smoke and gases are influenced proved if more fundamental understanding of by combustion conditions, such as temperature fire behavior were available. and turbulence. Smoke and toxic gases are im- Human Behavior. Because so many fires are portant hazards, and a better understanding of due to human carelessness, and because so many their chemical and physical nature, how they are people react counterproductively when a fire oc- generated, how they move with lethal effect for curs, the Commission has placed great emphasis great distances through a building, and their on education as a means of reducing the Nation’s physiological effects would provide a foundation fire losses. But “carelessness” blankets a range of of knowledge needed for the development of test behavior from relative innocence and helpless- methods, standards, and countermeasures. ness to subconscious attention-getting or self- Automatic detection. Of basic importance is destructiveness. Effective educational efforts will finding the best harbinger of fire. Three consider- depend on a much firmer knowledge of why ations enter in: reliable early warning, low cost, people cause fires than now exists. Moreover, and a triggering mechanism that will not be acti- those efforts will require studies of what kinds vated by causes other than fire. The best early- of fire safety messages work--that is, which kinds warning detectors now on the market use optical of presentations alter human behavior to reduce detectors to sense smoke or electrical means to fire accidents and their consequences-rather detect the particulate products of combustion. than cause citizens to “tune out” (as can happen Largely as a result of contracts from the National if the messages are too scary), or blunt their sensi- Aeronautics and Space Administration, a num- tivity through too much repetition. ber of industrial and Government laboratories Likewise, “arson” covers behavior from pyro- are investigating carbon monoxide detection by mania to fire-setting motivated by greed. Better spectroscopic techniques. Another possible ap-
134 RESEARCH FOR TOMORROW’S FIRE PROBLEM. proach is detection of microscopic particulates, tunity for field testing of new research ideas in called aerosols, which are known to be produced the real world, serving as a mechanism for dem- in copious quantities by combustion, but which onstrating the practicality of technological inno- themselves are little understood. vations to the fire services, and providing train- Additional basic knowledge is needed on how ing to assist the fire services in their use. fast detectors must react, what they must be sen- sitive to, and how they should be placed to be Goals for Research maximally effective. Most discussions about fire research focus on Fire services. As we discussed in detail in particular research problems, rather than on Chapter 7, there is room for improvement in the larger questions of what the research can accom- technology of every aspect of firefighting: in the plish. Yet for new initiatives in fire research to be means by which fire departments are notified of justified, the potentials of fire research ought to fires, in the ways in which men and equipment be clearly stated. are dispatched, in firefighters’ personal equip- One need only consider the chief causes of fire ment, in the trucks and hoses and suppression losses-carelessness and shortcomings of design- agents used to put out fires. to realize that losses could be significantly reduced State and local pilot programs. To ensure the through research. The National Bureau of prompt introduction of research results, a major Standards has suggested that a 50 percent reduc- effort in translating research into operational tion in all categories of losses is possible. A more practice is essential. We envision pilot programs detailed and ambitious set of goals for research at the State and local level providing the oppor- would include the following:
When their products can cause fire to spread rapidly, manufacturers should conduct research to make them safer.
AMERICA BURNING 135 l Reduce fires clue to human behavior by 80 and, hence, more likely sponsored by nonprofit percent; foundations, universities, or the Federal Govern- l Increase in-hospital survival of burn patients ment. This includes exploratory research into by 50 percent through improved burn care; highly unconventional solutions for which the l Decrease firefighter injuries by 50 percent risks of arriving at a dead end are too great for through better personal protective equipment; industry to undertake. It includes basic medical l Eliminate 90 percent of all large property losses research several steps removed from any new through improvements in building design; pharmaceutical or other therapeutic develop- l Reduce fire injuries and fatalities at the acci- ment. It includes research to serve the Govern- dent site by 80 percent through safe fabrics, ment’s own nonprofit ends, such as the pilot design of products, detection devices, and on- studies that should accompany the development the-scene care; of new programs in fire safety education. l Increase the fire control capability of fire de- The Federal Government has developed strong partments by 50 percent by faster response and programs in basic and highly exploratory re- more effective extinguishing methods. search concerning fire, notably in the National These are long-term goals which, in the absence Bureau of Standards, the National Science of major breakthroughs or absence of implemen- Foundation, and the National Institutes of tation, might never be attained. But they are Health. Their programs fill important voids left guideposts for action. It is relevant to note that if by research in the private sector. Desirable as it the United States had undertaken its space pro- might be from the standpoint of economizing, gram with the idea “We might get to the moon” it is not likely that the private sector could fill instead of “We will land men on the moon,” that the gaps if the programs were diminished in any event would probably still lie far in the future. way. The Commission recommends that the Federal Government retain and strengthen its The Federal Role in Research programs of fire research for which no non- With annual allocations of about $27 million, governmental alternatives exist. This is not to the Federal Government accounts for one-fourth say that all federally sponsored research should be of the Nation’s expenditures on research related done “in-house.” Throughout the academic and to fire. There are kinds of research it would be technological communities there are excellent re- inappropriate for the Federal Government to search resources, and the turning away of research undertake. The development of specific products from defense and aerospace programs provides a should remain in the private sector, as should fire great source of expertise to be tapped. endurance testing of materials and products. There ought to be a clear set of priorities in It is appropriate for the Federal Government federally sponsored research. Presently there is to undertake research that could lead to new prod- no group in the Federal Government looking at ucts in the long run, especially when industry can the total picture of fire research needs-including only afford modest research for gradual refine- the physics and chemistry of fire, as well as medi- ment of its products. Studies on incentives and cal, behavioral, and technological problems-and harriers to innovation, now under way in the Na- advising the budgetmakers on what programs de- tional Science Foundation and the National Bu- serve what level of support. This is an im- reau of Standards, may lead to strategies of portant function which the proposed U.S. Fire government-industry cooperation that could shift Administration would perform. As it is now, every to industry a greater share of the research toward agency’s research program is, in effect, competing long-term improvements. How to encourage in- for dollars with every other fire research program. novation among the manufacturers of firefighting Details of how the U.S. Fire Administration and related equipment would be one of the would carry out this function are discussed in the major concerns of the proposed ‘United States next chapter. Certain important aspects deserve Fire Administration. mention here. First, the U.S. Fire Administration Many areas of research will continue to lie would have a system of data-collecting which beyond the interest of profit-seeking organizations would serve to guide research priorities. The de-
136 RESEARCH FOR TOMORROW’S FIRE PROBLEM tailed information it gathered on firefighter in- extent do manufacturers share in the obligation juries, for example, would indicate which injuries to make the built environment fire-safe. happen most often and deserve the most attention, The Government can require that manufac- as it would also indicate what must be changed turers make materials fire-safe, as it has done with to reduce those injuries. certain fabrics and as we have recommended Second, the U.S. Fire Administration would that the Consumer Product Safety Commission be an important clearinghouse of information, for do for a whole range of materials and products. both the public and private sectors. Thus it would But industry should accept its responsibilities in know what research industry was pursuing, and the absence of coercion. Accordingly, the Com- it would also know what research problems are mission recommends that associations of mate- not being pursued and possibly deserve Federal rial and product manufacturers encourage their attention. It would have the important function member companies to sponsor research directed of disseminating research information to fire re- toward improving the fire safety of the built searchers everywhere, so that investigators could environment. benefit quickly from the accomplishments of their People tend to think of research as an expend- colleagues and avoid duplicating each other’s able luxury, an activity that can be cut off when work. In these ways would the entire Nation’s today’s problems, rather than tomorrow’s, cry out efforts in fire research be strengthened. for solution and total consumption of monetary In the next chapter we also discuss the alloca- resources. Behind this view there sometimes lies tion of Federal resources for various purposes, in- resentment that, in supporting research, society cluding research. That analysis calls for a near- pays well-educated men and women to do what doubling of the Federal research effort; specifi- they enjoy doing, purely for their own satisfaction. cally, the Commission recommends that the The view is extremely shortsighted. Many of Federal budget for research connected with fire today’s problems could be quickly solved-or be increased by $26 million. Our recommenda- averted altogether-if yesterday there had been tion is based not solely on what federally spon- an adequate investment in research. For many sored research could accomplish in the reduction years there was an under-investment in research of fire losses, but also on the importance of re- to develop pollution-free automobile engines, and search relative to other kinds of efforts to reduce now the Nation is forced to a headlong rush, ex- losses. pensive and laden with problems, to develop those engines in time to meet Federal deadlines. Not a Federal Responsibility Alone Likewise, problems for tomorrow can be staved As important as Federal research is for combat- off through adequate investments in research to- ing the Nation’s fire problems, the responsibility day. There is hope of arresting the so-called energy is not solely the Government’s crisis through research on alternative, untapped Social and legal responsibilities are borne by sources of energy. the private sector as well. For example, car manu- Through progress in medicine, automobile de- facturers are held responsible for defects in design sign, and pollution control, Americans are fighting or assembly that can lead to accidents. They are against their destroyers. Some day they will not held accountable, of course, for the stupid or awaken to the realization that they need not ac- careless actions of drivers. By the same token, the cept destructive fire passively. Research must go manufacturers of materials that go into the built forward now so that, when that day arrives, effec- environment are not responsible for the careless tive countermeasures against fire will be ready. actions that lead to fire accidents. But what hap- Indeed, there are already many Americans who pens to those materials as a fire progresses can do not accept destructive fire passively. They make the difference between a small loss and a would have welcomed tomorrow’s research ac- huge one, indeed between life and death. To that complishments many years ago.
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PROGRAM FOR THE FUTURE
19 FEDERAL INVOLVEMENT
Time and again this report has made evident the ance-so that State and local governments and need for Federal initiatives to help combat the private enterprise can more effectively reduce Nation’s fire problem, and also for coordination to deaths, injuries, and property losses from fire. strengthen programs now scattered among Fed- Paramount among the objectives is to assist local eral agencies. These considerations point to an fire services to improve their effectiveness and overriding need : a permanent Federal agency broaden their responsibilities from primarily fire specifically concerned with fire. suppression to a “fire loss management” orienta- Emphatically, what is not needed is a Federal tion designed to prevent fires from happening and bureaucracy assuming responsibilities that should reducing their consequences when they occur. be retained by State and local jurisdictions. Fire The United States Fire Administration, as we prevention, fire suppression, and public education have proposed to call the Federal instrumentality, on fire safety should remain primarily responsi- would have other important functions as well: bilities of local governments, where familiarity l To evaluate the Nation’s fire problem, through exists with local conditions and the people data collection and analysis, research, and con- being served. Communities have already invested ferences, and to keep the public and all heavily in manpower and equipment for fire pro- branches and levels of government informed tection, in recognition that it is a local responsi- on current matters concerning destructive fire; bility. Likewise, regulatory responsibilities for fire l To analyze and report on programs related to prevention and code enforcement should remain fire in other Federal agencies and recommend at State and local levels. Codes and regulations changes that would strengthen the Federal must respond to changes in the built environment, effort; and past experience illustrates that State and local l Through the creation of a National Fire Acad- governments are likely to be more dynamic and emy, to provide improved training and ed- responsive to changing needs for different juris- ucation for fire service personnel, building dictions than a single Federal regulatory agency. designers, code officials, and others; The Federal Government can help, however, in l To strengthen public awareness of fire’s threat; being a national advocate of fire protection and l To provide bloc grants to State government in providing better training and financial assist- units for disbursement to local governments.
AMERICA BURNING 139 (These grants should not be overburdened merce is an example of good intentions and in- with Federal criteria but contain simple guide- adequate support. 1 lines for each State fire agency to administer.) TO provide effective advocacy of fire prevention Parallels to the intergovernmental relations en- and control, and firm executive control, responsi- visioned for the U.S. Fire Administration exist in bility, and accountability, the U.S. Fire Admin- the field of criminal justice. The Law Enforce- istration ought to be an Administrator-headed ment Assistance Administration awards grants agency. Figure 1991 proposes an organizational for the strengthening of local law enforcement. scheme for the agency. Functions to be provided, LEAA gathers crime data, keeps criminal records as discussed in previous chapters : and statistics for use by local law enforcement Planning and Evaluation. To provide effec- agencies, lends advice to those agencies, and, tive management, the organization must have a through the Law Enforcement Education Pro- regular process for evaluating the success of its gram, trains local law enforcement officers. programs. It is from these evaluations that future Counterparts are needed in the field of fire priorities in the allocation of resources are derived. protection. General Counsel and Administrative Process. Having given considerable thought to the ob- General Counsel provides the legal counsel for jectives of the U.S. Fire Administration, the the agency, while Administrative Process handles Commission has concluded that the Adminis- the budget, accounting, and personnel, as well as tration would best be placed in a Federal depart- the technical review of local and State assistance ment that has a primary responsibility for urban programs. affairs, urban planning, local government as- National Fire Academy. The Academy, dis- sistance, and housing, as well as knowledge of cussed in Chapter 6, has an important function as building requirements. Hence, the Commission a conduit of Federal assistance to local communi- recommends that the proposed U.S. Fire Ad- ties. Its educational programs could have a pro- ministration be located in the Department of nounced effect on fire prevention, fire safety in Housing and Urban Development. Under the buildings, and the performance of local fire de- President’s Departmental Reorganization Pro- partments. All segments of the field of fire protec- gram, the proposed successor to HUD, which tion, both public and private, will benefit from would be known as the Department of Com- the Academy, and all should have a part in its munity Development, would also retain the urban development. affairs responsibilities. Research and Development. This division Attachment to a Cabinet-level department is sponsors and encourages research in the be- preferable to an independent commission. There havioral, physical sciences, and engineering areas, is considerable feeling in the Executive branch which have the greatest potential for reducing that the growth of independent commissions future fire losses. It works in cooperation with the ought to be arrested and reversed. Moreover, in- technically oriented research programs at the Na- dependent commissions, as a rule, have a history tional Bureau of Standards and the National Sci- of early attention to their needs and later con- ence Foundation, and with private groups. By solidation into departments to achieve support also ensuring the flow of information among in- from the Executive branch. With a Cabinet-level vestigators in fire research, in both government spokesman for its programs, the U.S. Fire Admin- and private laboratories, the division can hasten istration would, over future years, have a better progress in research and discourage waste and chance of continuing support. duplication. A close interface with local, State, At the same time, the U.S. Fire Administration and Federal programs, the Academy, and in- would suffer inattention if buried many organiza- formation functions is essential. tional levels down in its sponsoring department. Information System. Before effective man- The Fire Technology Division of the Institute for agement of a fire loss reduction program can be Applied Technology under the National Bureau accomplished, good information is vital. Local of Standards within the Department of Com- and State feedback is essential to program evalu- 1 See Minority Report of Commissioner Phillips. ation. The fire data base for the Nation’s fire
140 FEDERAL INVOLVEMENT Figure 19-1. Proposed Organization of the U.S. Fire Administration
Department of Housing and Urban Development
services and the Federal and State governments division. Federal assistance is envisioned here in should reside in the U.S. Fire Administration. the form of education, information, and program This function will provide for a nationwide grants. Assistance to public fire education, local exchange of information pertaining to fire and master plan development, and statewide informa- life safety and have data collection, storage, re- tion systems are examples. A bloc grant system trieval, and dissemination capability. A uniform administered by each State fire agent is antici- reporting system should be required for all’ fire pated. A State fire agency may be a State fire jurisdictions and would provide the first compre- commission or the office of the State fire marshal. hensive fire data base in the Nation. The Com- mission recommends that Federal assistance in Present Federal Roles support of State and local fire service programs The Federal Government is concerned with de- bc limited to those jurisdictions complying with structive fire in numerous ways. Research and de- the National Fire Data System reporting require- velopment activities are scattered among many ments. The development of this program could different agencies: fire suppression (mostly to pro- be contracted to a private organization skilled in tect Federal property), laws affecting the sale and information systems. The National Bureau of shipment of hazardous materials, and testing flam- Standards will continue to have a role in data mability of materials for the purpose of setting collection to support its research and engineering- standards are examples of Federal involvement. based technology. Fire prevention and control. Fire prevention Local and State Model Programs. This divi- is oriented toward protecting Federal buildings sion will have the primary responsibility for acting and installations. In addition, the Forest Service as liaison with local and State model programs of the U.S. Department of Agriculture main- developed through the Academy or the research tains fire control capabilities to protect the Na- division. Programs that provide assistance to tion’s forests and sponsors educational efforts to school fire prevention education, community col- reduce forest fires. The Department of Defense lege fire science, fire service master plan programs, is concerned not only with the, protection of mili- and public media education would fall into this tary equipment and bases, but with the use and
AMERICA BURNING 141 control of fire in warfare. The fire activities within Loss Data System. some departments are complex and not always Federal efforts in this area have, however, been easily identified. For example, the National Aero- fragmentary-each division collecting only that nautics and Space Administration does not have information it has use for. No national, uniform, a fire program per se, but undertakes work re- comprehensive data collection and analysis sys- lated to fire problems as part of mission projects at tem exists. a number of different research centers. Advisory Panels. Generally, each agency with The Federal Fire Council was originally es- an extensive research and development program tablished as an interagency advisory group on (of which fire research may be a part) has ad- matters relating to fire safety. It formed a medium visory panels composed of experts from outside for pooling talent from agencies for mutual aid the Government. They advise on the nature and in solving fire problems unique to the Federal direction of the agency’s programs. There also ex- Government, In reality, it has operated at a mar- ists the National Research Council’s Committee ginal level for several years. The U.S. Fire Ad- on Fire Research, which is specifically concerned ministration will assume this responsibility and with promoting and coordinating fire research. perform this important function for the agencies. Research. In the realm of fire research, the The U.S. Fire Administration and Federal Government is a dominant force. In Existing Programs Chapter 18, we estimated that the fire-oriented The Commission does not propose that all Federal research, development, testing, and evaluation fire roles transfer to the US. Fire Administration. activities in the Federal Government for fiscal Certainly the U.S. Forest Service has conducted year 1972 amounted to nearly $27 million. Most an excellent fire program and should continue to of the research is oriented to hardware solutions; do so. The Department of Health, Education, and there is comparatively little work on such behav- Welfare has an excellent medical research and ioral questions as why people ignore fire safety, public education capability; this should be sup- why they start tires, or how hardware systems ported and augmented. The research and engi- could be used more efficiently. neering-based technology programs presently Both the National Bureau of Standards and underway at the National Bureau of Standards the National Science Foundation (under its Re- should continue to provide the base needed for search Applied to National Needs program) have improved fire safety. The research program of small but significant fundamental research pro- the National Science Foundation is making a grams in combustion and on test methods. The significant contribution to needed fundamental Forest Service has a major research program in scientific knowledge, and should continue. The forest fire prevention and control. Department of Housing and Urban Development Data and Information. Fire information re- should continue to encourage fire safety through lating to burns and deaths is collected by the the standards it has developed for its housing pro- Center for Vital Statistics in the Department of grams. The proposed U.S. Fire Administration Health, Education, and Welfare, and by the For- would complement and help coordinate these est Service relating to fire experience in forests and many activities; it would provide the comprehen- wildlands. The Occupational Safety and Health sive evaluation and guidance necessary to deter- Administration collects information on work- mine areas of greatest need and then mobilize related fire injuries. The Consumer Product Safety efforts in that direction; it would act as the central Commission collects information and conducts in- point in a program of information exchange that vestigations on fire accidents involving products would strengthen all the Federal programs having and flammable fabrics. Lastly, the National Bu- to do with fire. And it would fill the voids, pro- reau of Standards analyzes data relating to viding Federal help where it does not presently flammable fabrics and also operates a partly auto- exist-such as providing assistance to local fire mated Fire Information Reference Service for services. The recommended responsibilities of use within the Federal Government. Additionally, Federal agencies, and of the private sector, are NBS is developing a conceptual design for a Fire shown in Table 19-1, on pages 144 and 145.
142 FEDERAL INVOLVEMENT Implementing the U.S. Fire Administration Table 19-2. Annual Program Operating Budgets
New legislation will be required to create the U.S. U.S. Fire Administration $124,840,000 Fire Administration. Federal involvement will Local fire master plan development 30,000,0001 have to be phased, initially attacking the high State and local training assistance 30,000,0001 priority problems where there is agreement on Research 26,000,0002 1 solutions. Establishment of the Administration Equipment upgrading assistance 15,000,000 Public education 9,600,000 will be a giant first step in the right direction. Firefighter personal protective equip- The programs of the U.S. Fire Administration ment 4,000,0001 1 will also be subject to evolution and changing National fire data system 3,740,000 National Fire Academy 4,000,000 priorities. It is important, and should be a mat- Administration 2,500,000 ter of continuing policy, that vitally affected Other programs 28,250,000 groups, both in and out of government, partici- Burn treatment center, unit and pro- pate in the planning of the agency’s programs; gram development (HEW) 5,000,000 that includes fire service organizations, the insur- National Institutes of Health program (burn and smoke research) (HEW) 3,250,000 ance industry, fire equipment manufacturers, Rural fire protection (USDA, Title IV of codes and standards organizations, and especially Public Law 92-419) 7,000,0003 the National Fire Protection Association. For the Detection and alarm systems and built-in protection loan insurance (HUD) 10,000,000 agency as a whole, this participation can be in- Research and engineering-based tech- formal; but for the National Fire Academy, a nology program (NBS) 3,000,000 formal advisory board should be established. Total $153,090,0004 The projected costs in Table 19-2 can serve as an indication of minimum operating program 1 These Federal programs require State and local gov- needs and as a starting point for discussion. ernments to provide matching participation. 2 Some of the amounts in the table should be The $26 million does not include the current fire research budgets of Federal agencies. Funds shown here thought of as “seed” monies-that is, funds to aid would be used to contract with public and private agen- and encourage State and local governments to cies where appropriate. 3 improve their programs and to sponsor research This was the recommended annual funding level for a 3-year conservative rural fire protection program. and information exchange. The funds in the Fed- Funds have not, as yet, been appropriated and the Com- eral portion are also intended to overcome present mission feels that funding is more than justified by the barriers to innovation by creating the climate that losses in the areas covered. 4 This budget is an estimate of the average annual ex- provides the incentives to private enterprise to penditure for the first 5 years. The mix of expenditures turn their attention to neglected needs in fire pro- will vary as staffs are recruited and trained. tection, For example, paid fire departments typically spend less than 1 percent of their budgets on capital and equipment investments. By en- totals of the year preceding, which is a slower at- couraging them to spend 2 percent, the proposed trition than 5 percent this year, 10 percent next program should enlarge the market for new year, 15 percent the year thereafter.) In the first equipment to the point where industry can afford year, about 600 lives would be saved; at the end major investments in improving firefighting of 5 years, a cumulative total of 8,300 lives would equipment. be saved; at the end of 10 years, a total of 28,000 The most important aim of the proposed ex- lives would be saved. During that lo-year period, penditures is to reduce the Nation’s tragic losses 119,000 Americans would be spared the trauma from fire. The Commission believes that a reduc- of serious burn injury. Of importance from the tion of 5 percent a year in deaths, injuries, and standpoint of cost-effectiveness is that fact that a property losses is an attainable goal. That rate of 5 percent reduction in dollar losses due to prop- reduction cannot be sustained indefinitely, and erty destruction, personal earnings losses, and might be expected to level off as losses approach burn treatment costs would be $350 million the half of what they are today, It would take about first year-which is considerably more than we 14 years to reach that plateau, (Bear in mind have projected for the annual costs of a Federal that the goal is a 5 percent reduction from the program for each of its first 5 full years.
AMERICA BURNING 143 Table 19-1 • Major Federal and Private Responsibility by Proposed U.S. Fire Administration Divisions
Agency Academy Information systems
Department of Housing and Establish Academy Develop National Fire Data System Urban Development, (De- Academy functions: • tied in with State and local partment of Community (1) Fire service leadership edu- systems. develop uniform sys- Development) cation and training tems of rep porting (2) Develop curricula and model • research information collection programs for: • investigatory responsibilities • training fire service instruc- for information gathering tors - • disseminate information • training fire management • publish report to President Establish U.S. Fire Adminis- • fire suppression and Congress yearly on fire tration • fire prevention prevention and control status • master plan program • review all Federal or federally • information systems sponsored fire pro rams an- • entrance and promotional ex. nually and report to O MB aminations • public education • paramedics and emergency medical services • arson investigation • fire safety design for engineers and architects • standardize firefighting termi- (3) Advocate for fire services
Department of Commerce Act as technical support arm for Research and engineering based (Department of Economic the Academy technology fire information sys- Affairs) Report status of programs and fire budgets to USFA Investigatory responsibilities to gather information to support program
Department of Health, Coordinate fire prevention pro- Burn and smoke injury and death Education, and Welfare grams with Academy information s stem (Department of Human Report status of programs and fire Resources) budgets to USFA Fire facts
Department of Agriculture Coordinate rural and wildlands fire Report status of programs and fire (Department of Natural training with Academy budgets to USFA Resources)
Federal building fire experience General Services Adminis- Participate with Academy information tration Report findings of merit to USFA
PRIVATE Participate with Academy Contract for development and im- plementation of information sys- tem; commercially distribute information (NFPA)
National Science Foundation Participate with Academy (RANN)
National Academy of Participate with Academy Sciences
Department of Defense Act as disaster research arm for Academy
Consumer Product Safety Participate with Academy National Electronic Injury Surveil- Commission lance System
Department of Transporta- Participate with Academy in fire Provide transportation fire data tion protection and safety activities for all transportation modes
144 FEDERAL INVOLVEMENT Local and State model programs Research and development
Urban fire protection and educa- Sponsor research in urban fire tion program Implement at State and local level: (1) Fire prevention and educa- information systems grants tion: state fire training grants fire caused by people (arson master plan for fire protec- negligence) tion effective fire prevention prac- local code enforcement pro- tices grams public education (with HEW) fire euipment grants (2) Fire services: fire safety systems analysis fire equipment and impact statements fire management home fire alarm systems firefighter injuries improved fire protection stan- fire suppression. dards in focal and State codes (3) fire safety design. information systems (UFIRS) Develop residential fire protection code for minimum property stand.
Assist State and local building and Conduct research and development fire code groups in the develop- ment of standards systems approach to fire safety principles of fire detection and alarm systems principles of fire retardants fire behavior models principles of built-in protection systems new test methods nature of basic flammability fire equipment standards building fire safety Evaluate and classify: building materials fire hazard properties Standardize: fire research physical Science terminology Sponsor special education for teachers Sponsor research in: Assist local fire departments and burn and smoke treatment code enforcement agencies public education for fire Safety through notification of hazard (with USFA) Implement health department fire prevention programs at local levels Improve quality and availability of fire injury medical care Rural fire protection and fire ed. Conduct research in forest fire be- ucation program havior and control weather fore- develop water systems, fi. cast and early-warning nance fire equipment, fire pre- systems vention planning, advocate for the rural environment Forestand wildlands fire protection program Implement Federal building fire Sponsor research in Federal build- safety design ing fire safety design
Sponsor and conduct research in Model code groups implement im- all fire areas including: proved fire protection standards Proprietary interests Materials testing Product development Sponsor research in fire technology application and basic fire re- search Serve as a review committee on fire needs
Model program for disaster pre. Research for disaster preparedness paredness
Flammable fabric and test method development
Conduct research for transportation fire safety
AMERICA BURNING 145
PROGRAM FOR THE FUTURE
20 WHAT CITIZENS CAN DO It is an accepted principle of our society that for themselves and decide more for themselves.” government ought to intervene to protect citi- Where the Government should act, he also zens when voluntary safeguards are inadequate. pledged, it “will act boldly and lead boldly.” As long as there are drivers who drink, there will Consider the relevance of public concern to be a need for government efforts to keep them these observations. First, history has demonstrated off the highways. As long as there are unscrupu- over and over that the pressure of public concern lous merchants, there will be a need for laws and lies behind voluntary self-regulation. The rating court procedures to protect consumers. As long as code of the movie industry is a convenient exam- food processors use additives of unknown hazards ple. Second, government regulation has wide to health, there will be a need for government to acceptability only when it is backed by consid- test these chemicals and ban them when erable public concern. It is public concern that appropriate. encourages voluntary regulation and legitimates And yet, two themes in American thinking government regulations. about government run counter to acceptance of This Commission harbors no illusions about the this principle. First, we as a people do not want amount of public concern over the deaths, in- government regulating every aspect of our lives. juries, and property losses from the Nation’s de- Second, we regard government regulation as a structive fires. That concern is minuscule when last resort, a morally inferior solution to voluntary compared with the magnitude of the problem. safeguards. We would prefer, in other words, that We hope, of course, that this report will serve to in our society merchants and manufacturers want broaden and invigorate public concern over fire to protect the public rather than be required to safety. The task to educate and sensitize Ameri- do so. In brief, we want government that is not cans to the problems of fire safety, both by gov- paternalistic and all-encompassing, ernment and by private groups, must begin now. A balance must be struck. As President Nixon To make a difference, public concern must be pointed out in his Second Inaugural, there is no channeled toward specific objectives. Any num- “purely government solution for every problem” ber of this Commission’s recommendations might and individuals must be encouraged “to do more serve as focal points for public pressure. At the
AMERICA BURNING 147 Federal level, for example, proposed new actions Extension of the number of hospital facilities that could be hastened through “grassroots” sup providing burn treatment and support of re- port include : search to improve the treatment of burn and Extension of flammability standards or label- smoke inhalation injuries. ing requirements beyond rugs, mattresses, and Citizens can also press for improvements at the children’s sleepwear to other kinds of fabrics State and local levels: and to other classes of materials, such as those Strengthening of the fire safety provisions of that go into home furnishings; building codes; Undertaking of a long-term, multiple-media, Shifting of fire department priorities toward public service advertising campaign to make fire prevention, with emphasis on inspection Americans more conscious of fire safety; and educational programs; Establishment of a United States Fire Adminis- Encouragement of regional cooperative ar- tration to improve the fire services and of a Na- rangements among fire departments; tional Fire Academy to upgrade their training, Providing adequate fire safety education in the together with programs of financial assistance schools and to preschool youngsters in nursery to local fire departments; schools and day care centers.
Americans can take action to protect themselves from fire.
148 WHAT CITIZENS CAN DO The Commission is confident that every con- changed for gold and gold for wares.” cerned citizen who has access to pen and paper Today we would put it differently: that heat can find an appropriate avenue of expression, energy is involved in the processes of creation and whether it is a letter to an editor or a letter to a transformation, as it is involved as well in de- public official elected to serve him. Arousing the struction and decay. Heat is both friend and foe. interest of the press is important for two reasons: Lumber, petroleum and its distillates, electrical The press has the investigative tools to explore energy : Name any major source of destructive the adequacy of fire protection, particularly at the fire, and one realizes at once that we cannot get local level; it also has considerable power to mold along without them. But we live in a tenuous public opinion. relationship with them. Through most of American history, resources Where Fire Safety Begins were so abundant that we were blind to that In this report we have tried to make clear that tenuous relationship. What fire consumed could fire is a potential threat to the life and well-being easily be replaced. Coincidentally, this Nation of every American, that while it has victimized grew to maturity during a century and a half the poor disproportionately no one is immune to when death was accepted stoically. Whether harm from fire. by diphtheria, typhoid, or fire, death was entitled But prudence in daily living can minimize the to its toll, even among young children. Advances chance of fire and make the difference between in medical science changed American hopes and life and death if fire strikes. The minimal precau- expectations, though fire never received the at- tions in the home are well-established, if seldom tention that went into the major diseases. As for observed: a well-maintained heating system, no material resources, only recently has the United overloaded electrical circuits, flammable liquids States been converted to the view forced on other stored in tightly fitting containers and away from nations long ago: that resources are limited and heaters and furnaces, absence of rubbish, unob- need to be carefully managed. structed stairways, matches out of reach of chil- During the years of America’s development, dren. Beyond these minimal precautions lie posi- one noble view has prevailed: that a citizen is tive steps: the installation of fire extinguishers, entitled to any behavior that is not injurious to his fire escapes, or escape ladders, and-most im- neighbors. What has changed over the years is the portant-early-warning detectors. Another meas- concept of what is injurious behavior, and it has ure, costing not a cent, is a family discussion- been broadened as a result of attention to ecologi- and rehearsal-of steps to be taken during various cal considerations. A dramatic example of how kinds of fire emergencies. that concept has widened is the restrictions im- Prudence must be exercised outside the home paced on major fuel users during the winter of as well. If there appear to be dangerous conditions 1972-73. What might come to prevail, in future at the place of work, these should be reported to years, is the view that a fire caused by one Ameri- the Occupational Safety and Health Administra- can is a danger and an unfair cost to his fellow tion. A conscious effort to note the location of fire citizens. exits when entering a building or a restaurant It is appropriate to close with a reminder of an will likely become, in time, an ingrained habit. observation made earlier in this report. Many Lastly, acquainting friends with the subject of Americans, referencing the Second Amendment, fire safety may help to save a life or two some day. vehemently defend their right to possess guns as protection against intruders. Happily, it has not America’s Future been a task of this Commission to debate gun Twenty-five hundred years ago, the philosopher control. What is worthy of remark is that Ameri- Heraclitus observed : “All things are exchanged cans have a duty, much more than a right, to for fire, and fire for all things-as wares are ex- protect themselves and others from fire.
AMERICA BURNING 149 MINORITY REPORT Minority Report of Anne Wight Phillips, M.D., MINORITY REPORT OF COMMISSIONER Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Gen- ANNE W. PHILIPS, M.D. eral and Youville Hospitals. Mr. President and Members of the Congress of TO KEEP THEM SAFE the United States: This minority, although endorsing many of the conclusions and recommendations of the majority of the Commission, cannot approve the following : I, The magnitude of the projected budget for the majority’s program ($153,090,000) II. The location of responsibility for all of the na- tion’s fire problems within a single agency and department III. The proposed paramount objective for the new U.S. Fire Administration and the resulting dis- tribution of resources recommended IV. The proposed interim budget for the National Bureau of Standards I. The Minority Opposes the Projected Budget The saving of a single life is not justified, if for the same expenditure of funds and effort, it is pos- sible to save more than one. Neither in direction nor A Tribute.-This minority of the National Com- magnitude can I support the majority’s projected mission on Fire Prevention and Control commends budget, for I believe that the saving in lives, proper- the President and the Congress for their concern ty, and human suffering, which would be achieved for public safety and wishes to express her esteem by the Commission majority’s program, can be for the dedicated majority of the Commission with equalled or exceeded with a significantly smaller some of whose recommendations she concurs al- budget. though taking the liberty of disagreeing with others. II. The Minority Opposes the U.S. Fire Administration At the end of the first half year as a member of the Commission I was in favor of the creation of a single Federal agency to coordinate the activities of all agencies concerned with fire in the Federal GOV- ernment. The need for careful planning for the Na- tion’s fire programs and the prospect of economy through reduced duplication and administrative overhead seemed to justify it. Reluctantly, I have come to take the opposite position for the following reasons : 1. Likelihood of neglect of important aspects of the fire problem In whatever department the proposed U.S. Fire Administration settles, it must, inevitably, (unless it is very large) lack expert knowledge and special interest in those fire problems, which are primarily concerned with the interests of other Federal de- FIGURE 1 partments. Even with the best of intentions, needed I am indebted to Patty and her parents for permission programs outside the major thrust of the Adminis- to present this series of pictures, which emphasize, more adequately than words can tell, the urgency of our fire tration and the interests of the chosen department problem. This picture was taken at age 8, before her will be down-graded or neglected, receiving less burn injury. attention and funding than they merit-in part be- Top photo by Frank Kelly, Boston Herald American cause the department and the administration will 151 not have the background to see their importance and 5. White knight effect in part because the outside department will have The fire problem has wide ramifications-social, less interest in pursuing fire programs, considering political, scientific, economic, and so on. The pro- them Fire Administration matters. posed multifaceted US. Fire Administration, by Judging from the proposed budget, this down- taking on all aspects of the fire problem, may, like grading process has already begun. the white knight, gallop off in all directions, spread- ing itself too thin to prove the master of any. It 2. Limited national resources would seem that there is more to be gained by tackling smaller aspects of the problem and handling At its first meeting, the National Commission on that little well. Fire Prevention and Control unanimously adopted as its objective the reduction of the losses of life and 6. The Commission recommendations run rough- property from destructive fires. A glance at the ma- shod over Title I jority’s proposed budget will indicate that any pros- Congress, by Title I of the Fire Research and pects of financial savings, due to better administra- Safety Act of 1968 (see App. I), authorized the tion or wasteful duplication, may be of fleeting Secretary of Commerce to conduct, directly, or benefit in the face of the high costs of the proposed through grants, fire research, educational programs, programs, some of which may have little impact on a fire information reference service, and so on. In the losses of life and property from destructive fires. that act Congress also assured the continuation of In view of our limited resources it appears wise to other existing Federal fire programs by stating that spend such funds as can be made available on solu- “nothing contained in this title shall be deemed to tions to the fire problem, using existing agencies, repeal, supersede, or diminish existing authority or rather than on creating a new administration and responsibility of any agency or instrumentality of the new demands for funds. Federal Government.” Congress, therefore, after due deliberation, felt it unwise to remove all fire problems to a single department, although giving 3. Existing agencies could make substantial strides the Department of Commerce the lion’s share of in fire prevention and control the responsibility. This Commission minority finds It is sound policy to give responsibility for any itself in agreement with them. enterprise to those with special knowledge and abil- ity in the field, but impossible in this case, since no single department has “expertise” in all aspects of the fire problem. There are many people with such specialized knowledge and ability in the various Federal departments and in the private sector, who are ready, willing, and able to go to work on re- ducing the Nation’s fire losses. It seems the part of wisdom to use them.
4. Loss of valuable volunteer effort It is apparent from the programs proposed for the U.S. Fire Administration that, if implemented as written, the Administration would take over many functions which are now carried out-with- out cost to the taxpayer-by private enterprise. This minority cannot contemplate with com- placency the demise of the National Fire Protection Association, for example, which in the 78 years of its existence, has, through its fire prevention efforts, its educational programs and its life safety codes, become a world leader in the continuing war against fire. No one will ever know the number of lives, jobs, and millions of dollars worth of property saved by their endeavors. If a U.S. Fire Administration is to be, let the FIGURE 2 enabling legislation be so drawn that maximum Patty’s face on her first admission to the Shriners’ Burns use is made of such private agencies. It would seem Institute in Galveston. She underwent more than 3 months of reconstructive surgery, costing approximately simpler and cheaper and quicker to call upon them $27.000. (The darkening of her hair at this age is nor- for their expert assistance now, without the cre- mal for her family coloring). Figure 3 shows her ap- ation of a new Government agency. pearance after many operations. 152 7. Inevitable delay applied research to produce a safer environment, Statistics tell us that 300,000 children are going basic research on the nature of fire and smoke, their to be seriously burned in this country in the next behavior and control, improved education for mem- 2 years. Their suffering depends upon our speed bers of the fire service, and so on, (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). Admittedly, we are never going The concept set forth in Chapter 19, that assist- to prevent all fire accidents, but there is sound evi- ance to local fire services should be paramount dence that many of the victims can be spared if among the objectives of the proposed US. Fire fire safety education programs are promptly initi- Administration I cannot accept. ated. With swift and adequate funding, the De- Tremendous credit should be given to the fire partment of Commerce might have the multimedia service for its ready acceptance of the concept that education campaign recommended by the Com- firemen should serve primarily as “fire preventers”, mission well underway before hearings on the pro- rather than “firefighters.” They will need help in posed U.S. Fire Administration can begin. changing to this new position. Even before this shift, there was a need for better education of the 8. Danger of pressure from special groups fire officer-better training in command, manage- Although in the majority of instances the interests ment, educational and training techniques, fire sup- of special groups in the fire field will run parallel pression, community relations, arson, and so on, to with the interests of the Nation, the situation should which the new emphasis on fire prevention must be not be created where the Nation’s fire interests added. could be subordinated to those of any special group. I believe that creation of a National Fire Academy III-A. The Minority Questions the Direction of is needed, but not as an objective ranking higher Emphasis for the U.S. Fire Administration than all others. If a secondary objective is to be as- signed, let it be to knowledge-new knowledge This Commissioner believes that, if there is to be through research and dissemination of existing an all-encompassing U.S. Fire Administration, its knowledge. Widespread public education in fire paramount objective should be the same as that safety principles should be our first concern. adopted by the Commission: the reduction of the There is an old saying in the fire service, cited in losses of life and property from destructive fires. the Commission report, that “The three principal Contributing to that objective should be programs causes of fire are men, women, and children.” Sta- such as firesafety education for the general public, tistics bear this out, making it crystal clear that most deaths, most injuries, and most fires are caused by people. Since people are the cause of the over- whelming majority of fires, it is reasonable to be- lieve that people must be included in the solution. Much can be done by making clothing fire re- sistant and by installing automatic extinguishing systems and early detection systems-there have been no recorded instances of multiple deaths in buildings fully equipped with operational sprinklers, for example-but man can, and does, circumvent the devices installed for his protection, painting over sprinkler heads, propping open smoke and fire doors and putting a penny in the fuse box. There is no substitute for understanding how to prevent fires and what to do when fires occur. What do Americans Know About Fire Safety? In the first months of the Commission’s existence, a search was made for data on the American pub. lic’s knowledge of fire safety principles, Surprisingly, the only studies discovered were made after small fire education campaigns. No one had probed our citizens’ basic fire knowledge. Since an incredible delay is necessitated by Fed- FIGURE 3. eral restrictions on questionnaires, a survey of our Results after extensive plastic reconstruction. Patty wishes citizens’ knowledge was undertaken independently no further surgery at this time. of the Commission and without its financial sup-
153 port.’ Initially several hundred adults and children 13. When is an electric cord dangerous? (give at least around the Nation were interviewed. Then a two examples) 14. When is a double plug dangerous? questionnaire was devised and is now being used in 15. What should you do if you discover a large fire in SO schools, together with an answer sheet, that stu- your basement? dents can learn, while correcting their own papers. 16. If you are trying to light a gas oven or burner and A copy of the questions will be found in Figure 4, the first match goes out too soon, what should you should the reader wish to sample his or her own do? firesafety knowledge before reading further, The 17. What is meant by “spontaneous combustion” or answers appear at the end of this minority report. “spontaneous ignition”? 18. How should you store oily or greasy rags? 19. Why should gasoline be stored only in metal cans with self-closing caps? 20. Should you put out an electric fire with water? Limited Survey Finds Alarming Voids in Public Fire Safety Knowledge Data from 2,109 Americans of all ages from Maine to Florida and New York to California fol- lows. 2 It would be presumptuous to generalize from this small sampling to the Nation as a whole, but 1. If your house began to fill up with thick, black smoke, thus far the findings have been surprisingly consist- what would you do? (answer fully) ent from State to State and from one school district 2. What would you do if you woke up at night, smelled, to another. smoke, and found that your bedroom door was shut, Less than 30, out of every 100 teenagers questioned, but hot when you touched it? knew that in the presence of smoke they should 3. Will the clothing you have on now burn? stoop low or crawl out of the fire area. 4. What would you do right now if your clothing caught Half of the youngsters from 7 to 18 questioned on fire? 5. If you were trapped in a bedroom on the fifth floor would do something dangerous if the frying pan with flames outside in the hall and smoke pouring caught fire, attempting to carry it or throw water in under the door (with no telephone and no fire on it. Teenagers were no more knowledgeable escape), what would you do? than children from 7 through 12. 6. (a) When you go to a strange place (movie house, Over 500 people questioned did not know that open- friend’s house for the night, hotel, restaurant, ing a hot door during a fire would almost cer- etc.), do you check to see where the exits or fire tainly expose them to heat above human toler- escapes are? ance. This group included 44 out of 177 teachers. (b) If the answer to 6(a) was “Yes,” do YOU depend Almost no children under seven knew that they on being able to see the exit to find it, or do you figure out how to find it in the dark or in thick should drop and roll if their clothing caught fire. smoke? Very few families had a well thought out escape 7. Do you have a family escape plan, including ways of plan, including a predesignated meeting place getting out of your house if the stairs or doors are outside the house. blocked by fire, and a meeting place outside the Three-quarters of the adults questioned recom- house? mended the use of too strong a fuse for an ordi- 8. What should you do (or should your wife or mother nary lighting circuit. do) if the frying pan catches on fire? Asked what they would do if trapped in a fifth floor 9. Carbon monoxide is produced by almost all fires. room with flames outside in the hall and smoke What effect does it have on you before it makes you sleepy and kills you? pouring in under the door (with no telephone and 10. Assume you plan to hang by your hands from a win- no fire escape), only 3 out of 10, old or young, dow ledge and then drop to the earth below. Esti- thought to stuff anything into the death-dealing mate in feet the distance you could drop and still crack. Some, of all ages, including teachers, said have a 50:50 chance of surviving without serious they would jump. injury. 39, out of every 100 adults questioned, would react 11. (a) What is the reason for having fuses in an electric dangerously if their clothing ignited, many failing circuit? to comprehend the speed with which fire can (b) What strength fuse should be used in an ordinary lighting circuit? spread to the neck and shoulders from the trouser 12. What number should you dial to report a fire by tele- cuff or hemline (Fig. 5) . phone, and how should you report it?
1 This Commissioner has paid for all printing and most 2 The author of this report wishes to express profound of the postage from her own limited resources. She is gratitude for assistance in this survey rendered by Chief indebted to Harvard Medical School for a small supple- Robert Fly of Kirkland, Wash., and Chief Merrill Hend- mentary outlay for postage. ricks of Dallas, Tex.
154 FIGURE 5
The need for public fire safety education is clear. cerns of the Nation’s fire chiefs.-In the early days That it can be effective is documented by the Com- of this Commission, a questionnaire was sent out to mission in Chapter 15. Other evidence is available. fire chiefs throughout the Nation. Replies from Hopefully, my objection to the direction proposed 10,000 chiefs have been tabulated, Under the head- for the U.S. Fire Administration now appears justi- ing “Evaluation of Fire Department Problems” the fied. chiefs were asked to rank “in order from most serious What of the budget? to least serious” the problem areas of concern to them. Unselfishly, the chiefs gave top ranking to III-B. The Minority Opposes the Budget “lack of effective public education on fire safety.” Allocations Inadequate training and education for fire service personnel was listed eighth and the need for im- My main objections to the proposed budget are proved fire department apparatus and personnel threefold : protective equipment ninth. The proposed budget 1. Proposed budget is not responsive to the con- fails to reflect their considered opinions.
155 2. Need for pilot projects.-The majority of the DISCUSSION Commission has recommended that every local fire jurisdiction prepare a master plan designed to meet I. Budget the community’s present and future needs, and $30 Although in my opinion the total budget pro- million are budgeted for local master plan develop- posed by the majority of the Commission is too ment. Similarly $15 million have been set aside for big, yet what has been spent on fire prevention and equipment upgrading and $10 million for detection control by the Federal Government in the past and alarm systems and built-in protection loan in- is too small. surance, We do not know whether these programs II. Measures To Reduce Injuries and Loss of Life will reduce the losses of life and property from de- and Property From Destructive Fires structive property. These, and untried educational programs, should be tested on a local or regional It is the conviction of this minority that without basis through pilot projects, before investing large a continuing massive program to educate the public amounts of money on their implementation nation- in simple fire safety measures, a substantial reduc- wide. Training of burn specialists should likewise, tion in our tragic American fire toll cannot be precede the development of burn centers. expected. The principal measures recommended to save lives, suffering and property are: 3. Inadequate provisions for public education.- 1. A massive multimedia, recipient-oriented public The budget allotment for public education will not education campaign. produce the type of program the Commisison has 2. Fire education in the schools. envisioned in chapter 15. There are 25 million chil- dren in this Nation between kindergarten and sixth grade. The $6 million specified for elementary school education on chart 15.2 is estimated by both private and Government experts to be insufficient to put one piece of effective material in the hands of each school child. Ten million would be required to supply effective graded materials to each of the Nation’s 1.3 million elementary school teachers. Other means, such as using existing films and visual aids, close-circuit TV, etc. should be explored, but it seems unlikely that the proposed budget will be adequate to achieve the desired results.
IV. Minority Finds Interim Budget Insufficient The setting of the interim budget at $3 million for research and engineering programs fairly well pre- cludes the National Bureau of Standards from act- ing in accordance with most of its mandate under Title I during the next year or two. Assigned an in- adequate budget of $5 million at the outset and underfunded at that, it can be reasonably expected to continue to do only those things for which it has the greatest research and engineering ability. The NIFE program (National Inventory of Fire Experi- ence) for cooperative effort between the Bureau of Standards and the National Fire Protection Asso- ciation will probably be left in abeyance because of the uncertainty of its future. If a national fire data system is to be set up under the US. Fire Adminis- tration, and essentially independent of them both, there may be little initiative to go forward. Comparisons of deaths in U.S. military personnel (Army, Almost certainly 2 years and more will pass Navy, Coast Guard, Marine Corps, and Air Force) resulting before any real Federal fire safety education pro- from actions by hostile forces in Vietnam, 1961 through gram is undertaken (whether through grants or 1972, and deaths from U.S. fires for the same period otherwise), while week after week more Pattys are (Statistics from the Department of Defense and the carried into the Nation’s hospitals (Figs. 2 & 3). National Fire Protection Association).
156 3. Fire department involvement in fire safety edu- This minority opposes the creation of a new Fed- cation of commercial, industrial, and institutional eral fire agency at this time. During the proposed personnel and in an optional inspection program review in 1983 it would be appropriate to consider for dwellings. whether the Nation’s interests would be better 4. Development of a reliable and inexpensive served by the establishment of a Federal agency for smoke and fire detection system for dwellings. fire research and education in the Department of 5. Reduction of the hazards of flammable wear- Commerce. ing apparel. This minority urges the President and the Con- 6. Use of noncombustible interior finish materials gress in considering these recommendations and in residences and places of business and assembly. those of the majority of the Commission, to use as 7. Complete automatic fire extinguishing systems your yardstick, the probable reduction of life and for homes (and hospitals) for the incapacitated and property losses if the measures suggested are for high-rise buildings. adopted. 8. A program of fire safety training for the health In conclusion, I support the position of the ma- educator aides of the Department of Health, Edu- jority of the Commission that expanded Federal cation, and Welfare, who, because of their rapport action is needed in the fire field and that, properly with the residents of high-risk areas may be able to teach fire safety principles on a person to person directed, the investment will pay off handsomely, A basis. few final words may emphasize the need: 9. Increased research on smoke and smoke in- As grim as were our losses due to enemy action halation injury which is responsible for more than in Vietnam, they were small compared with our Na- half of the Nation’s fire deaths. tion’s fire casualties for the same period (Fig. 6). Smoke and fire seriously injure 300,000 Americans every year and kill nearly 12,000. How many are III, Principal Measures To Improve the Fire 12,000? How many people could you call by name Services if you met them on the street? 2,000? 4,000? In this 1. Establishment of a National Fire Academy. Nation, fire and smoke kill more people each and 2. Research on better engineering of breathing every year than the average person knows and apparatus and protective clothing. gravely injures more than he has ever met. 3. Federal support for State and local fire in- Respectfully submitted,
spection programs. ANNE WIGHT PHILLIPS.
Minority Recommendations 1. Continued support of existing fire programs in SELF-SCORING THE FIRE SAFETY the Federal Government. QUESTIONNAIRE 2. Reduction of the projected total additional fire budget by $100 million during the build-up years and $75 million during the operating years, subject to subsequent review. 3. Retention of the Department of Commerce as the principal focus for the Federal fire effort, in accordance with the provisions of Title I of the Fire Research and Safety Act of 1968. 4. Swift and adequate funding of the Depart- ment of Commerce to permit early institution of a massive. multimedia fire safety education campaign. 5. Enactment of new legislation to assign respon- sibility, for direct support to the fire services, to the Department of Housing and Urban Development, including the establishment of a national fire academy. 6. Creation of a new temporary Commission in 1983 to assess the effectiveness of the Federal fire programs and make recommendations to the Presi- dent and the Congress for further steps to diminish the Nation’s annual toll from fire. 7. Increased use of the oversight function of the appropriate committees to assure assessment of ef- fectiveness and adequate planning by the depart- ments during the interim.
157 1 The pressure on a CO, extinguisher is generally about 600 lbs.; Pressure on an all purpose extinguisher is gen- erally about 300 lbs. Stand off from the fire 7 or 8 feet.
158 Add up your points to determine your fire safety score. Maximum possible score=100 (101 for parachute jumper).
159 APPENDIX I PUBLIC LAW 90-259 “(3) educational programs to- “(A) inform the public of fire hazards and (90th Congress, S. 1124, Mar. 1, 1968) fire safety techniques, and AN ACT “(B) encourage avoidance of such hazards and use of such techniques; To amend the Organic Act of the National Bureau of Standards to authorize a fire research and safety “(4) fire information reference services, in- program, and for other purposes. cluding the collection, analysis, and dissemination of data, research results, and other information, Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Repre- derived from this program or from other sources sentatives of the United States of America in Con- and related to fire protection, fire control, and gress assembled, That this Act may be cited as the reduction of death, personal injury, and property “Fire Research and Safety Act of 1968”. damage; TITLE I-FIRE RESEARCH AND SAFETY “(5) educational and training programs to im- PROGRAM prove, among other things- “(A) the efficiency, operation, and organiza- DECLARATION OF POLICY tion of fire services, and SEC. 101. The Congress finds that a comprehen- “(B) the capability of controlling unusual sive fire research and safety program is needed in fire-related hazards and fire disasters; and this country to provide more effective measures “(6) projects demonstrating- of protection against the hazards of death, injury, “(A) improved or experimental programs of and damage to property. The Congress finds that it fire prevention, fire control, and reduction of is desirable and necessary for the Federal Govern- death, personal injury, and property damage, ment, in carrying out the provisions of this title, to “(B) application of fire safety principles in cooperate with and assist public and private agen- construction, or cies. The Congress declares that the purpose of this “(C) improvement of the efficiency, opera- title is to amend the Act of March 3, 1901, as tion, or organization of the fire services. amended, to provide a national fire research and “(b) Support by contracts or grants the develop- safety program including the gathering of compre- ment, for use by educational and other nonprofit hensive fire data; a comprehensive fire research institutions, of- program ; fire safety education and training pro- grams; and demonstrations of new approaches and “ (1) fire safety and fire protection engineering improvements in fire prevention and control, and or science curriculums; and reduction of death, personal injury, and property "(2) fire safety courses, seminars, or other in- damage. Additionally, it is the sense of Congress structional materials and aids for the above cur- that the Secretary should establish a fire research riculums or other appropriate curriculums or and safety center for administering this title and courses of instruction. carrying out its purposes, including appropriate fire “SEC. 17. With respect to the functions authorized safety liaison and coordination. by section 16 of this Act- AUTHORIZATION OF PROGRAM “(a) Grants may be made only to States and SEC. 102. The Act entitled “An Act to establish local governments, other non-Federal public agen- the National Bureau of Standards”, approved cies, and nonprofit institutions. Such a grant may March 3, 1901, as amended (15 U.S.C. 271-278e), be up to 100 per centum of the total cost of the is further amended by adding the following sections: project for which such grant is made. The Secre- tary shall require, whenever feasible, as a condition “SEC. 16. The Secretary of Commerce (herein- after referred to as the ‘Secretary’) is authorized of approval of a grant, that the recipient contribute to-- money, facilities, or services to carry out the pur- “(a) Conduct directly or through contracts or pose for which the grant is sought. For, the purposes grants- of this section, ‘State’ means any State of the United “(1) investigations of fires to determine their States, the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth causes, frequency of occurrence, severity, and of Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, the other pertinent factors; Canal Zone, American Samoa, and the Trust Terri- “(2) research into the causes and nature of tory of the Pacific Islands; and ‘public agencies’ fires, and the development of improved methods includes combinations or groups of States or local and techniques for fire prevention, fire control, governments. and reduction of death, personal injury, and “(b) The Secretary may arrange with and reim- property damage; burse the heads of other Federal departments and
160 APPENDIX I agencies for the performance of any such functions, become progressively more complex and frequently and, as necessary or appropriate, delegate any of beyond purely local capabilities; and that there his powers under this section or section 16 of this is a clear and present need to explore and develop Act with respect to any part thereof, and authorize more effective fire control and fire prevention the redelegation of such powers. measures throughout the country in the light of “(c) The Secretary may perform such functions existing and foreseeable conditions. It is the pur- without regard to section 3648 of the Revised pose of this title to establish a commission to under- Statutes (31 U.S.C. 529). take a thorough study and investigation of this “(d) The Secretary is authorized to request any problem with a view to the formulation of recom- Federal department or agency to supply such sta- mendations whereby the Nation can reduce the tistics, data, program reports, and other materials destruction of life and property caused by fire in as he deems necessary to carry out such functions. its cities, suburbs, communities, and elsewhere. Each such department or agency is authorized to cooperate with the Secretary and, to the extent per- ESTABLISHMENT OF COMMISSION mitted by law, to furnish such materials to the SEC. 202. (a) There is hereby established the Na- Secretary. The Secretary and the heads of other tional Commission on Fire Prevention and Control departments and agencies engaged in administer- (hereinafter referred to as the “Commission”) ing programs related to fire safety shall, to the maxi- which shall be composed of twenty members as fol- mum extent practicable, cooperate and consult in lows: the Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary of order to insure fully coordinated efforts. “(e) The Secretary is authorized to establish Housing and Urban Development, and eighteen members appointed by the President. The individ- such policies, standards, criteria, and procedures and to prescribe such rules and regulations as he uals so appointed as members ( 1) shall be eminently may deem necessary or appropriate to the admin- well qualified by training or experience to carry out istration of such functions or this section, including the functions of the Commission, and (2) shall be rules and regulations which- selected so as to provide representation of the views “(1) provide that a grantee will from time to of individuals and organizations of all areas of the time, but not less often than annually, submit United States concerned with fire research, safety, a report evaluating accomplishments of activities control, or prevention, including representatives funded under section 16, and drawn from Federal, State, and local governments, “(2) provide for fiscal control, sound account- industry, labor, universities, laboratories, trade as- ing procedures, and periodic reports to the Secre- sociations, and other interested institutions or orga- tary regarding the application of funds paid under nizations. Not more than six members of the section 16.” Commission shall be appointed from the Federal Government. The President shall designate the NONINTERFERENCE WITH EXISTING FEDERAL Chairman and Vice Chairman of the Commission. PROGRAMS (b) The Commission shall have four advisory members composed of- SEC. 103. Nothing contained in this title shall ( 1) two Members of the House of Representa- be deemed to repeal, supersede, or diminish exist- tives who shall not be members of the same po- ing authority or responsibility of any agency or litical party and who shall be appointed by the instrumentality of the Federal Government. Speaker of the House of Representatives, and (2) two Members of the Senate who shall not AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS be members of the same political party and who SEC. 104. There are authorized to be appropri- shall be appointed by the President of the Senate. ated, for the purposes of this Act, $5,000,000 for The advisory members of the Commission shall not the period ending June 30, 1970. participate, except in an advisory capacity, in the formulation of the findings and recommendations TITLE II-NATIONAL COMMISSION ON of the Commission. FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL (c) Any vacancy in the Commission or in its ad-
FINDINGS AND PURPOSE visory membership shall not affect the powers of the Commission, but shall be filled in the same manner SEC. 201. The Congress finds and declares that as the original appointment. the growing problem of the loss of life and property from fire is a matter of grave national concern; DUTIES OF THE COMMISSION that this problem is particularly acute in the Nation’s urban and suburban areas where an increasing pro- SEC. 203. (a) The Commission shall undertake a portion of the population resides but it is also of comprehensive study and investigation to determine national concern in smaller communities and rural practicable and effective measures for reducing the areas; that as population concentrates, the means destructive effects of fire throughout the country in for controlling and preventing destructive fires has addition to the steps taken under sections 16 and 17
AMERICA ,BURNING 161 of the Act of March 3, 1901 (as added by title I of as the Commission deems necessary to carry out its this Act) . Such study and investigation shall include, functions under this title. without being limited to- (c) Subject to such rules and regulations as may (1) a consideration of ways in which fires can be adopted by the Commssion, the Chairman, with- be more effectively prevented through technolog- out regard to the provisions of title 5, United States ical advances, construction techniques, and im- Code, governing appointments in the competitive proved inspection procedures; service, and without regard to the provisions of (2) an analysis of existing programs admin- chapter 51 and subchapter III of chapter 53 of such istered or supported by the departments and agen- title relating to classification and General Schedule cies of the Federal Government and of ways in pay rates, shall have the power- which such programs could be strengthened so as (1) to appoint and fix the compensation of to lessen the danger of destructive fires in such staff personnel as hc deems necessary, and Government-assisted housing and in the redevel- (2) to procure temporary and intermittent opment of the Nation’s cities and communities: services to the same extent as is authorized by (3) an evaluation of existing fire suppression section 3109 of title 5, United States Code. methods and of ways for improving the same. in- cluding procedures for recruiting and soliciting COMPENSATION OF MEMBERS the necessary personnel ; SEC. 205. (a) Any member of the Commission, (4) An evaluation of present and future needs including a member appointed under section 202 (including long-term needs) of training and edu- (b) who as a Member of Congress or in the execu- cation for fire-service personnel; tive branch of the Government shall serve without (5) a consideration of the adequacy of cur- compensation in addition to that received in his reg- rent tire communication techniques and sugges- ular employment, but shall be entitled to reimburse- tions for the standardization and improvement of ment for travel, subsistence, and other necessary the apparatus and equipment used in controlling expenses incurred by him in connection with the fires ; performance of duties vested in the Commission. (6) an analysis of the administrative problems (b) Members of the Commission, other than affecting the efficiency or capabilities of local fire those referred to in subsection (a), shall receive departments or organizations: and compensation at the rate of $100 per day for each (7) an assessment of local, State, and Federal day they are engaged in the performance of their responsibilities in the development of practicable duties as members of the Commission and shall be and effective solutions for reducing fire losses. entitled to reimbursement for travel, subsistence, (b) In carrying out its duties under this section and other necessary expenses incurred by them in the Commission shall consider the results of the the performance of their duties as members of the functions carried out by the Secretary of Commerce Commission. under sections 16 and 17 of the Act of March 3, 1901 (as added by title I of this Act), and consult EXPENSES OF THE COMMISSION regularly with the’ Secretary in order’ to coordinate SEC. 206. There are authorized to be appropri- the work of the Commission and the functions car- ated, out of any money in the Treasury not other- ried out under such sections 16 and 17. wise appropriated, such sums as may be necessary (c) The Commisison shall submit to the Presi- to carry out this title. dent and to the Congress a report with respect to its findings and recommendations not later than two EXPIRATION OF THE COMMISSION years after the Commission has been duly organized. SEC. 207. The Commission shall cease to exist thirty days after the submission of its report under POWERS AND ADMINISTRATIVE PROVISIONS section 203 (c) Approved March 1, 1968. SEC. 204. (a) The Commission or, on the authori- zation of the Commission, any subcommittee or member thereof, may, for the purpose of carrying Legislative history out the provisions of this title, hold hearings, take HOUSE REPORT No. 522 accompanying H.R. testimony, and administer oaths or affirmations to 11284 (Comm. on Science and Astronautics). witnesses appearing before the Commission or any SENATE REPORT No, 502 (Comm. on Com- subcommittee or member thereof. merce) . (b) Each department, agency, and instrumental- CONGRESSIONAL RECORD: Vol. 113 ity of the executive branch of the Government, in- (1967) : Aug. 16, considered and passed Senate. cluding an independent agency, is authorized to Vol. 114 (1968) : Feb. 8, considered and passed furnish to the Commission, upon request made by House, amended, in lieu of H.R. 11284. Feb. 16, the Chairman or Vice Chairman, such information Senate agreed to House amendment.
162 APPENDIX I APPENDIX II HEARING WITNESSES Fire Issues (Old Senate Office Building, Washington, D.C., February 15-17, 1972) FEBRUARY 15, 1972 Hon. John J. Sparkman, Senator, Huntsville, Ala. Curtis Volkamer, President, International Associa- Capt. James Dalton, Arson Division, Newark Fire tion of Fire Chiefs, Chicago Fire Department, Department, Newark, N. J. Chicago, Ill. Hon. Robert H, Steele, Congressman, Vernon, Dr. Roswell Atwood, Director of Research and Conn. Education, International Association of Fire Mrs. Mary Fogarty, Mother of Burn Victim, Fighters, Washington, D.C. Lowell, Mass. David N. Francis, President, Fire Equipment Man- Charles Morgan, President, National Fire Protec- ufacturers Association, Inc., Evanston, Ill. tion Association, Boston, Mass. Hon. Hugh Scott, Senator, Philadelphia, Pa.
FEBRUARY 16, 1972 Hon. George P. Miller, Congressman, Alameda, Melvin Stark? Vice President for Government Af- Calif. fairs, American Insurance Association, New York, James T. Lynn, Undersecretary of Commerce, N.Y: Washington, D.C. Terry B. Hayes, Assistant Executive Secretary, Fire Herbert C. Yost, Director of Public Safety, Lan- Marshals Association of North America, Boston, caster, Pa. Mass. Raymond Hill, Chief, Los Angeles City Fire De- James R. Dowling, Director, Codes and Regula- partment, Los Angeles, Calif. tions Center, The American Institute of Archi- Truman G. Blocker, M.D., Burn Specialist, Galves- tects. ton, Tex. (New Senate Office Building, Washington, D.C.) FEBRUARY 17, 1972 Hon. J. Caleb Boggs, Senator, State of Delaware. Wilbur A. Sanders, Deputy Commissioner, Public Dr. Carl Walter, Chairman of the Fire Committee Buildings Service, General Services Administra- of the National Academy of Sciences, Washing- ton, Washington, D.C. ton, D.C. Lt. David Echols, Baltimore Fire Department, Bal- Hon. Jerry L. Pettis, Congressman, State of Cali- timore, Md. fornia. Quinton Wells, Assistant Commissioner for Techni- Henri O’Bryant, Jr., Clothing Manufacturer, Los cal and Credit Standards, Department of Housing \ Angeles, Calif. and Urban Development, Washington, D.C. Joseph Galvin, Fire Chief of Battalion 12, New Martin M. Brown, President, Society of Fire Pro- York City Fire Department, New York, N.Y. tection Engineers, Boston, Mass. Gerald Maatman, President, National Loss Con- James Gaskill, Lawrence Radiation Laboratories, trol Services Corp., Long Grove, Ill. Livermore, Calif.
Fire Services (Auditorium, Mercantile National Bank Building, Dallas, Tex., April 24-25, 1972) APRIL 24, 1972 Hon. John G. Tower, Senator, Wichita Falls, Tex. Robert E. Smylie, Chief, Crew Systems Division, Merrcll 6. 1 lendrix, Chief, Dallas Fire Department, Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA, Houston, Dallas, Tex. Tex. David Gratz, Chief, Silver Spring Fire Depart- Earle A. Phillips, Project Director, Tank Car Safety ment, Silver Spring, Md. Project, Railway Progress Institute-Association Dennis Smith, Douglas Court, Washingtonville, of American Railroads, Chicago, 111. N.Y. Martin Grimes, Director, Fire Service Division, Na- Mike B. Perez, Jr., Fire Chief, Laredo, Tex. tional Fire Protection Association, Boston, Mass. Dennis Parker, Fire Chief, Collegeville, Pa.
AMERICA BURNING 163 APRIL 25, 1972 Edwin N. Searl, Vice President, Insurance Services Matthew Jimenez, Chief, Hayward Fire Depart- Office, New York, N.Y. ment, Hayward, Calif. C. J. Winquist, Vice President, Gage-Babcock & As- Henry Smith, Chief, Fireman Training School, sociates, Inc., Westchester, 111. Texas A. & M., College Station, Tex. John A. Rockett, Chief, Fire Services Section, Fire Harvey Ryland, General Research Corp., Santa Technology Division, National Bureau of Stand- Barbara, Calif. ards, Washington. D.C. Philip Stevens, Philip Stevens and Associates, Skaneateles, N.Y.
Fire and the Built Environment (International Hotel, Los Angeles, Calif., June 27-28, 1972)
JUNE 27, 1972 Richard Patton, President, Patton Fire Protection John Ed Ryan, Engineer, National Forest Products and Research, Inc., Phoenix, Ariz. Association, Washington, D.C. Dr. Thomas G. Bell, Executive Vice President, G. R. Munger, General Manager, J. P. Carroll, American Nursing Home Association, Washing- Manager, and J, G. Degenkolb, Code Consultant, ton, D.C. Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc., New York, Richard E. Stevens, Director, Engineering Services, N.Y. National Fire Protection Association, Boston, Jasper Hawkins, Chairman of Codes and Standards Mass. Committee, American Institute of Architects, Los Irving Einhorn, Professor, Material Science Engi- Angeles, Calif. neering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah.
JUNE 28, 1972 Max L. Feldman, General Manager, and Jerry Robert E. Novick, Director, Health Services and McLinn, Manager of Technical Services, The Mental Health Administration, Department of Sierra Group, Santa Barbara, Calif. HEW, Washington, D.C. Merrill Butler, Member of Executive Committee, Kenneth Chan, Disney Enterprises, Glendale, Calif. and Alan R. Trellis, Technical Services Division, Richard Houts, Chief Engineer, Los Angeles County National Association of Home Builders, Wash- Fire Department, Los Angeles, Calif. ington, D.C. Douglas R. Leisz and Richard Mylars, Forest Serv- John Degenkolb, Code Consultant, Glendale, Calif. ice, U.S.D.A., Washington, D.C. T. II. Carter, Executive Director, International Lewis A. Moran, State Forester, and John Hastings, Conference of Building Officials, Pasadena, Calif. California Division of Forestry, Sacramento, Calif.
(Fairmont Hotel, San Francisco, Calif.)
JUNE 30, 1972 Keith Calden, Chief, San Francisco Fire Depart- Thomas R. Simonson, Consulting Engineer, San ment, San Francisco, Calif. Francisco, Calif. W. G. Kirkland, Building Research Advisory Board, Jack A. Bono, Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc., National Academy of Sciences, National Research Northbrook, Ill. Council. Robert E. Bishop, Assistant State Fire Marshal, State of California. .4lfred Goldberg, Superintendent of Building In- Dr. Robert Brady Williamson, Associate Professor spection, San Francisco, Calif. of Engineering Science, University of California, John M. Rhodes, Factory Mutual Research Corp., Berkeley, Calif. Norwood, Mass. Richard G. Gewain, Chief Fire Protection Engineer, Edward J. Reilly, Vice President, National Auto- American Iron and Steel Institute, New York, matic Sprinkler and Fire Control Association, N.Y. Inc., White Plains, N.Y.
164 APPENDIX II Fire Prevention (Palmer House, Chicago, Ill., October 3-5, 1972)
OCTOBER 3, 1972 Curtis Volkamer, Chief, Chicago Fire Department, Rolf Jensen, Professor and Chairman, Illinois In- Chicago, Ill. stitute of Technology, Chicago, Ill. Doug Wendt, Doug Wendt Foundation, Fargo, Ambrose B. Kelly, Retired General Counsel, Fac- N. Dak. tory Mutual Insurance System, Providence, R-1. Charles Cohn, Technical Processes Division, Robert E. May, Illinois State Fire Marshal, Divi- Colonial Alloys Co., Philadelphia, Pa. sion of Fire Prevention, Chicago, Ill. James W. Kerr, Staff Director, Support Systems Research Division, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Washington, D.C.
OCTOBER 4, 1972 Professor Howard W. Emmons, Gordon McKay Barbara Hill, Teacher, Fremont Elementary School, Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Harvard Santa Ana, Calif. University, Cambridge, Mass. Jack B. Haskins, Chairman, Graduate Studies and John O’Hagan, Chief of the New York City Fire Research, College of Communications, The Uni- Department, New York, N.Y. versity of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. Leslie Fisher, Director, Burns Prevention Program, William Christian, Consulting Engineer, Under- Burns Care Institute, Albany, N.Y. writers’ Laboratories, Inc., Northbrook, III. Howard Boyd, Metropolitan Fire Marshal, Nash- Robert E. Duke, Chicago Chapter of the Society ville, Tenn. of Fire Protection Engineers.
OCTOBER 5, 1972 W. G. Schultz, CPCU, Vice President, Engineering Stanley Emery, Inspector, State Fire Marshal’s Of- Communications and Education, Lumberman’s fice, Concord, N.H. Mutual Insurance Co. of Mansfield, Mansfield, Joseph N. Baker, City Manager, Burbank, Calif. Ohio. John R. Corcoran, President of the New York So- Ralf Hotchkiss, Center for Concerned Engineering, ciety of Fire Technologists, Newhurg, N.Y. Washington, D.C. Joseph A. O’Keefe, Director, Fire Science Programs, James C. Robertson, State Fire Marshal, Depart- The Commomwealth of Massachusetts Board of ment of Public Safety and Correctional Services, Regional Community Colleges, Boston, hlass. OEce of the Fire Marshal, Baltimore, Md.
AMERICA BURNING 165 APPENDIX III
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Contributing Agencies and Organizations New York City Rand Institute Office of Management and Budget Sierra Group Department of Agriculture Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. Department of Commerce Tall Timbers Research Station Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc. Department of Housing and Urban Development University of Maryland Department of Transportation University of Michigan Burn Center General Services Administration Urban Institute National Academy of Sciences Consultants Boston, Massachusetts, Fire Department Chicago, Illinois, Fire Department Howery, Baker, Simon and Murchison, Attorneys At Cincinnati, Ohio, Fire Department Law Dallas, Texas, Fire Department National Fire Protection Association Denver, Colorado, Fire Department Dr. Edwin G. Triner, Systems Management Analyst Huntington Beach, California, Fire Department David B. Gratz, Fire Management Associates, Inc. Independence, Missouri, Fire Department Gordon F. Vickery, Retired Chief, Seattle Fire Los Angeles City, California, Fire Department Department Los Angeles County, California, Fire Department Gage-Babcock and Associates, Inc. Metropolitan Dade County, Florida, Fire Depart- John Buck, editor ment Judy Harkinson, photographs Miami, Florida, Fire Department Jerry Dadds, design Mountain View, California, Fire Department Centers for Study New York City, New York, Fire Department Ambrose Kelly, Retired General Counsel, Factory San Francisco, California, Fire Department Mutual System Santa Ana, California, Fire Department Prof. Irving Einhorn, University of Utah Sarasota, Florida, Fire Department Dr. R. B. Williamson, University of California, Seattle, Washington, Fire Department Berkeley Silver Spring, Maryland, Fire Department Washington, D.C., Fire Department Department Representatives James Kerr-Department of Defense American Forestry Association Robert Novick-Department of Health, Education, American Iron and Steel Institute and Welfare Factory Mutual System Willard R. Tikkala-Department of Agriculture Insurance Services Office Quinton Wells-Department of Housing and Urban International Association of Black Professional Fire Development Fighters Dr. Karl Willenbrock-Department of Commerce International Association of Fire Chiefs International Association of Fire Fighters Picture Credits International City Management Association Model Building Code Groups Page 1 (opposite) -Bob Dean, Boston Globe. American Insurance Association Page 3-Ron Moscati, Buffalo Courier-Express. Building Officials and Code Administrators Page 10-Shriners Burns Institute. Page 39-Eli International, Inc. Canter, Santa Rosa Medical Center. Page 48- International Conference of Building Officials 49-Richard Swanson, Black Star. Pages 56-57, Southern Buildings Code Congress 60-Wide World Photos. Pages 62, 70, 73-New National Association of Mutual Insurance Com- York Daily News. Pages 89, 90-UP1 Photos. panies Page 116-Wide World Photos. Page 129-New National League of Cities York Daily News. Page 146-New York Times,
166 APPENDIX III APPENDIX IV RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE NATIONAL COMMISSION ON FIRE PREVENTION AND CONTROL
CHAPTER 1 only to those fire jurisdictions that operate from a federally approved master plan for fire protection. 1 . . . . the Commission recommends that Con- 12. The Commission recommends that the pro- gress establish a U.S. Fire Administration to provide posed U.S. Fire Administration act as a coordinator a national focus for the Nation’s fire problem and of studies of fire protection methods and assist local to promote a comprehensive program with adequate jurisdictions in adapting findings to their fire pro- funding to reduce life and property loss from fire. tection planning. 2 . . . * the Commission recommends that a na- CHAPTER 4 tional fire data system be established to provide a continuing review and analysis of the entire fire 13. The Commission recommends that the pro- problem. posed U.S. Fire Administration provide grants to local fire jurisdictions for developing master plans CHAPTER 2 for fire protection. Further, the proposed U.S. Fire Administration should provide technical advice and 3. The Commission recommends that Congress qualified personnel to local fire jurisdictions to help enact legislation to make possible the attainment of them develop master plans. 25 burn units and centers and 90 burn programs within the next 10 years. CHAPTER 5 4. The Commission recommends that Congress, in providing for new burn treatment facilities, make 14 . . . the Commission recommends that the adequate provision for the training and continuing proposed U.S. Fire Administration sponsor research support of the specialists to staff these facilities. in the following areas: productivity measure of fire Provision should also be made for special training departments, lob analyses, firefighter injuries, and of those who provide emergency care for burn vic- fire prevention efforts. tims in general hospitals. 15. . . the Commission urges the Federal re- 5. The Commission recommends that the Na- search agencies, such as the National Science tional Institutes of Health greatly augment their Foundation and the National Bureau of Standards, sponsorship of research on burns and burn treat- to sponsor research appropriate to their respective ment. missions within the areas of productivity of fire de- 6. The Commission recommends that the Na- partments, causes of firefighter injuries, effectiveness tional Institutes of Health administer and support a of fire prevention efforts, and the skills required to systematic program of research concerning smoke perform various fire department functions. inhalation injuries. 16. The Commission recommends that the Na- tion’s fire departments recognize advanced and CHAPTER 3 specialized education and hire or promote persons with experience at levels commensurate with their 7. The Commission recommends that local gov- skills. ernments make fire prevention at least equal to sup- 17. The Commission recommends a program of pression in the planning of fire department priori- Federal financial assistance to local fire servircs to ties. upgrade their training. 8. The Commission recommends that communi- 18. In the administering of Federal funds for ties train and utilize women for fire service duties. training or other assistance to local fire departments, 9. The Commission recommends that laws which the Commission recommends that eligibility be hamper cooperative arrangements among local fire limited to those departments that have adopted an jurisdictions be changed to remove the restrictions. effective, affirmative action program related to the 10. The Commission recommends that every employment and promotion of members of minority local fire jurisdiction prepare a master plan de- groups. signed to meet the community’s present and future 19. The Commission recommends that fire depart- needs in fire protection, to serve as a basis for pro- ments, lacking emergency ambulance, paramedical. gram budgeting, and to identify and implement the and rescue services consider providing them, es- optimum cost-benefit solutions in fire protection. pecially if they are located in communities where 11. . . . the Commission recommends that Fed- these services are not adequately provided by other eral grants for equipment and training be available agencies.
AMERICA BURNING 167 CHAPTER 6 strongly increased to provide a foundation for de- veloping improved test methods. 20. . . . the Commission recommends the estab- 30. This Commission recommends that the new lishment of a National Fire Academy to provide Consumer Product Safety Commission give a high specialized training in areas important to the fire priority to the combustion hazards of materials in services and to assist State and local jurisdictions in their end use. their training programs. 31. : . . the Commission recommends that the 21. The Commission recommends that the pro- present fuel load study sponsored by the General posed National Fire Academy assume the role of Services Administration and conducted by the Na- developing, gathering, and disseminating, to State tional Bureau of Standards be expanded to update and local arson investigators, information on arson the technical study of occupancy fire loads. incidents and on advanced methods of arson 32. The Commission recommends that flamma- investigations. bility standards for fabrics be given high priority by 22. The Commission recommends that the Na- the Consumer Product Safety Commission, tional Fire Academy be organized as a division of 33. The Commission recommends that all States the proposed US. Fire Admmistration, which would adopt the Model State Fireworks Law of the Na- assume responsibility for deciding details of the tional Fire Protection Association, thus prohibiting Academy’s structure and administration. all fireworks except those for public displays. 23. The Commission recommends that the full 34. The Commission recommends that the De- cost of operating the proposed National Fire Acad- partment of Commerce be funded to provide grants emy and subsidizing the attendance of fire service for studies of combustion dynamics and the means members be borne by the Federal Government. of its control. 35. The Commission recommends that the Na- CHAPTER 7 tional Bureau of Standards and the National 24. The Commission urges the National Science Institutes of Health cooperatively devise and imple- Foundation, in its Experimental Research and De- ment a set of research objectives designed to pro- velopment Incentives Program, and the National vide combustion standards for materials to protect Bureau of Standards, in its Experimental Technol- human life. ogy Incentives Program, to give high priority to the CHAPTER 10 needs of the fire services. 25. The Commission recommends that the pro- 36. The Commission urges the National Bureau posed U.S. Fire Administration review current prac- of Standards to assess current progress in fire re- tices in terminology, symbols, and equipment de- search and define the areas in need of additional scriptions, and seek to introduce standardization investigation. Further, the Bureau should recom- where it is lacking. mend a program for translating research results 26. The Commission urges rapid implementation into a systematic body of engineering principles and, of a program to improve breathing apparatus sys- ultimately, into guidelines useful to code writers and tems and expansion of the program’s scope where building designers. appropriate. 37. The Commission recommends that the Na- 27. The Commission recommends that the pro- tional Bureau of Standards, in cooperation with the posed U.S. Fire Administration undertake a con- National Fire Protection Association and other ap- tinuing study of equipment needs of the fire services, propriate organizations, support research to develop monitor research and development in progress, en- guidelines for a systems approach to fire safety in courage needed research and development, dissem- all types of buildings. inate results, and provide grants to fire departments 38. . . . the Commission recommends that, in for equipment procurement to stimulate innovation all construction involving Federal money, awarding in equipment desian. of those funds be contingent upon the approval of 28. . . . the Commission urges the Joint Coun- a fire safety systems analysis and a fire safety effec- cil of National Fire Service Organizations to sponsor tiveness statement. a study to identify shortcomings of firefighting 39. This Commission urges the Consumer Product equipment and the kinds of research, development, Safety Commission to give high priority to matches, or technology transfer that can overcome the cigarettes, heating appliances, and other consumer deficiencies. products that are significant sources of burn in- CHAPTER 8 juries, particularly products for which industry standards fail to give adequate protection. No recommendations. 40. The Commission recommends to schools giv- ing degrees in architecture and engineering that CHAPTER 9 they include in their curricula at least one course 29. The Commission recommends that research in fire safety. Further, we urge the American Insti- in the basic processes of ignition and combustion be tute of Architects, professional engineering soci-
168 APPENDIX IV eties, and State registration boards to implement 51. The Commission recommends that the De- this recommendation. partment of Transportation set mandatory 41. The Commission urges the Society of Fire standards that will provide fire safety in private Protection Engineers to draft model courses for automobiles. architects and engineers in the field of fire protec- 52. The Commission recommends that airport tion engineering. authorities review their firefighting capabilities and, 42. The Commission recommends that the pro- where necessary, formulate appropriate capital im- posed National Fire Academy develop short courses provement budgets to meet current recommended to educate practicing designers in the basics of aircraft rescue and firefighting practices. fire safety design. 53. The Commission recommends that the De- partment of Transportation undertake a detailed CHAPTER 11 review of the Coast Guard’s responsibilities, au- 43. The Commission recommends that all local thority, and standards relating to marine fire safety. governmental units in the United States have in 54. The Commission recommends that the rail- force an adequate building code and fire preven- roads begin a concerted effort to reduce rail-caused tion code or adopt whichever they lack. fires along the Nation’s rail system. 44. The Commission recommends that local gov- 55. . . . the Commission recommends that the ernments provide the competent personnel, train- Urban Mass Transportation Administration require ing programs for inspectors, and coordination explicit fire safety plans as a condition for all grants among the various departments involved to en- for rapid transit systems. force effectively the local building and fire preven- CHAPTER 13 tion codes. Representatives from the fire depart- ment should participate in revielving the fire safety 56. . , . the Commission recommends that rural aspects of plans for new building construction and dwellers and others living at a distance from fire de- alterations to old buildings. partments install early-warning detectors and 45. The Commission recommends that, as the alarms to protect sleeping areas. model code of the International Conference of 57. The Commission recommends that U.S. De- Building Officials has already done, all model codes partment of Agriculture assistance to [community specify at least a single-station early-warning de- fire protection facilities] projects be contingent upon tector oriented to protect sleeping areas in every an approved master plan for fire protection for local dwelling unit. Further, the model codes should fire jurisdictions. specify automatic fire extinguishing systems and CHAPTER 14 early-warning detectors for high-rise buildings and for low-rise buildings in which many people 58. . . . the Commission recommends that the congregate. proposed U.S. Fire Administration join with the Forest Service, U.S.D.A., in exploring means to CHAPTER 12 make fire safety education for forest and grassland 46. The Commission recommends that the Na- protection more effective. tional Transportation Safety Board expand its 59. The Commission recommends that the Coun- efforts in issuance of reports on transportation acci- cil of State Governments undertake to develop dents so that the information can be used to im- model State laws relating to fire protection in forests prove transportation fire safety. and grasslands. 47. The Commission recommends that the De- 60. The Commission urges interested citizens and partment of Transportation work with interested conservation groups to examine fire laws and their parties to develop a marking system, to be adopted enforcement in their respective States and to press nationwide, for the purpose of identifying trans- for strict compliance. portation hazards. 61. The Commission recommends that the Forest 48. The Commission recommends that the pro- Service, U.S.D.A., develop the methodology to make posed National Fire Academy disseminate to every possible nationwide forecasting of fuel buildup as a fire jurisdiction appropriate educational materials guide to priorities in wildland management. on the problems of transporting hazardous materials. 62. The Commission supports the development 49. The Commission recommends the extension of a National Fire Weather Service in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and urges of the Chem-Tree system to provide ready access its acceleration. by all fire departments and to include hazard con- trol tactics. CHAPTER 15 50. . . . the Commission recommends that the 63. The Commission recommends that the De- Department of the Treasury establish adequate partment of Health, Education, and Welfare in- fire regulations, suitably enforced, for the transpor- clude in accreditation standards fire safety educa- tation, storage, and transfer of hazardous materials tion in the schools throughout the school year. Only in international commerce. schools presenting an effective fire safety education
AMERICA iURNING 169 program should be eligible for any Federal financial ment of the necessary technology for improved auto- assistance. matic extinguishing systems that would find ready 64. The Commission recommends that the pro- acceptance by Americans in all kinds of dwelling posed U.S. Fire Administration sponsor fire safety units. education courses for educators to provide a teach- 76. The Commission recommends that the Na- ing cadre for fire safety education. tional Fire Protection Association and the American 65. The Commission recommends to the States National Standards Institute jointly review the the inclusion of fire safety education in programs Standard for Mobile Homes and seek to strengthen educating future teachers and the requirement of it, particularly in such areas as interior finish ma- knowledge of fire safety as a prerequisite for teach- terials and fire detection. ing certification. 77. The Commission recommends that all 66. The Commission recommends that the pro- political jurisdictions require compliance with the posed U.S. Fire Administration develop a program, NFPA/ANSI standard for mobile homes together with adequate funding, to assist, augment, and with additional requirements for early-warning evaluate existing public and private fire safety edu- fire detectors and improved fire resistance of cation efforts. materials. 67. . * . the Commission recommends that the 78. The Commission recommends that State and proposed U.S. Fire Administration, in conjunction local jurisdictions adopt the NFPA Standard on with the Advertising Council and the National Mobile Home Parks as a minimum mode of protec- Fire Protection Association, sponsor an all-media tion for the residents of these parks. campaign of public service advertising designed to CHAPTER 17 promote public awareness of fire safety. 68. The Commission recommends that the pro- 79. The Commission strongly endorses the provi- posed U.S. Fire Administration develop packets sions of the Life Safety Code which require specific of educational materials appropriate to each OCCU- construction features, exit facilities, and fire de- pational category that has special needs or oppor- tection systems in child day care centers and recom- tunities in promoting fire safety. mends that they be adopted and enforced immedi- ately by all the States as a minimum requirement CHAPTER 16 for licensing of such facilities. 69. The Commission supports the Operation 80. The Commission recommends that early- EDITH (Exit Drills In The Home) plan and warning detectors and total automatic sprinkler recommends its acceptance and implementation protection or other suitable automatic extinguish- both individually and community-wide. ing systems be required in all facilities for the care 70. The Commission recommends that annual and housing of the elderly. home inspections be undertaken by every fire de- 81. The Commission recommends to Federal partment in the Nation. Further, Federal financial agencies and the States that they establish mecha- assistance to fire jurisdictions should be contingent nisms for annual review and rapid upgrading of upon their implementation of effective home fire their fire safety requirements for facilities for the inspection programs. aged and infirm, to a level no less stringent than 71. The Commission urges Americans to protect the current NFPA Life Safety Code. themselves and their families by installing approved 82. The Commission recommends that the special early-warning fire detectors and alarms in their needs of the physically handicapped and elderly in homes. institutions, special housing, and public buildings ,be 72. , . . the Commission recommends that the incorporated into all fire safety standards and codes. insurance industry develop incentives for policy- 83. The Commission recommends that the States holders to install approved early-warning fire de- provide for periodic inspection of facilities for the tectors in their residences. aged and infirm, either by the State’s fire marshal’s 73. The Commission urges Congress to consider office or by local fire departments, and also require amending the Internal Revenue Code to permit approval of plans for new facilities and inspection reasonable deductions from income tax for the by a designated authority during and after construc- cost of installing approved detection and alarm tion. systems in homes. 84. The Commission recommends that the Na- 74. * . . the Commission recommends that the tional Bureau of Standards develop standards for proposed U.S. Fire Administration monitor the the flammability of fabric materials commonly used progress of research and development on early- in nursing homes with a view to providing the high- warning detection systems in both industry and gov- est level of fire resistance compatible with the state- ernment and provide additional support for research of-the-art and reasonable costs. and development where it is needed. 85. The Commission recommends that political 75. The Commission recommends that the pro- subdivisions regulate the location of nursing homes posed US. Fire Administration support the develop- and housing for the elderly and require that fire
170 APPENDIX IV alarm systems be tied directly and automatically to search directed toward improving the fire safety of the local fire department. the built environment. CHAPTER 19 CHAPTER 18 89. . . . the Commission recommends that the 86. The Commission recommends that the Fed- proposed U.S. Fire Administration be located in eral Government retain and strengthen its programs the Department of Housing and Urban Develop- of fire research for which no non-governmental al- ment. ternatives exist. 90. The Commission recommends that Federal 87. . . . the Commission recommends that the assistance in support of State and local fire service Federal budget for research connected with fire be programs be limited to those jurisdictions comply- increased by $26 million. ing with the National Fire Data System reporting 88. . . . the Commission recommends that as- requirements. sociations of material and product manufacturers CHAPTER 20 encourage their member companies to sponsor re- No recommendations.
AMERICA BURNING 171 APPENDIX V
1971 FIRE LOSS DATA
Life loss Property loss Fires
Category Number Percent Million Percent Number Percent of total Dollars of total of total
1 NFPA unofficial estimate for 1971. 2 No separate estimates; totals included in other categories. 3 No loss assumed for this type fire. 4 NFPA official estimate for 1971.
172 APPENDIX V APPENDIX VI
MASTER PLAN FOR FIRE PROTECTION, MOUNTAIN VIEW, CALIFORNIA
Fire Protection Section planning needs of cities, since individual community The community fire protection system includes pub- goals and capabilities are not considered. The City lic and private organizations, personnel, facilities, of Mountain View will consider fire insurance rates equipment, laws and policy, all coordinated for life and upgrading as one of the economic benefits re- safety and property protection from fire loss through sulting from adequate fire protection. control, detection and suppression of fire danger. The objective of the community fire protection sys- Fire Losses and Costs tem is to provide adequate level of fire protection at a reasonable community cost. Adequate fire protec- The number of fire department responses in Moun- tion for Mountain View is that specific combination tain View has grown in direct proportion to the of public and private resources which provide the population with approximately 22 emergency calls services and acceptable risks which meet the needs per thousand persons over the past 10 years. In- of this community. creased concentration of people and goods, resulting from urbanization, has increased fire loss potential and reduced the effectiveness of traditional public Means of Fire Protection fire protection methods. As concentration increases, Community fire “protection” is a combination of building design, on-site automatic detection equip- two factors-Public Sector Protection and Private ment, and private automatic and manual suppres- Sector Protection. sion facilities are of greater importance to reduce Public Sector Fire Protection consists of the man- fire risk. power and facilities supplied by the city. Tradi- Along with increased fire losses, community costs, tionally, the design of the system has reacted to which include equipment and manpower, have also problems rather than planning to manage prob- risen. With traditional community fire system de- lems. To be effective, the system must be designed signs, this trend of public cost can be expected to in light of the community’s goals and capablhties. continue to increase in accord with urbanization. In addition to the job of fire suppression, public Only by planning for both public and private fire protection, to be most effective, must include control responsibility can this trend be changed. In structural design review, control of hazardous con- this plan, fire loss management is stressed as opposed tents, fire code enforcement, continuing inspec- to systems which merely react to new problems by tion, and coordination of building, planning, law adding more firefighting resources. enforcement and public works activities as they relate to fire protection. Reflex Time Private Sector Fire Protection consists of fire resis- The concept of reflex time is useful in understand- tive design of structures and materials, as well as ing the public and private sector responsibilities with fire extinguishing, warning, and detection systems. respect to fire risks. Reflex time is the total time Fire resistive structural elements limit the size of which elapses between fire ignition and eventual the fire problem by dividing a structure into man- extinguishment, and is illustrated on the next page. ageable fire areas. Through automatic detection Upon ignition, fire intensity grows rapidly. While and suppression, built-in protection is intended to the rate of growth varies with the materials and con- limit the scope of the anticipated problem to that ditions, a dangerous fire will climb quickly to a point which is manageable. referred to as “flashover,” the critical point for life Fire insurance also serves an indirect function in safety and fire control. One of the primary objectives fire protection by compensation for losses. In addi- of adequate fire protection is to control fires prior tion, the fire insurance industry evaluates the capa- to flashover. Fire department response time can be bilities of cities to cope with conflagrations. The established by the system design. Historically, the Insurance Services Office maintains a 1 to 10 grad- time that elapses between ignition and alarm has ing system and establishes a basic insurance rate for been uncontrolled and fire extinguishment com- each city. In a Class 1 city fire insurance costs less menced only after arrival of firefighting forces. With than in a Class 10 city. Traditionally, cities have used automatic detection, a speedy alarm can be given this grading as the basis of their fire protection sys- and response time of firefighting forces can be re- tem design. Although the Grading Schedule pro- duced. With automatic suppression, fire danger can vides adequate guidelines for conflagration control, be controlled prior to flashover, and frequently prior it is not intended to meet the total fire protection to the arrival of firefighting forces.
AMERICA BURNING I73 THE COMMUNITY FIRE PROTECTION Mountain View fire stations, needed at full develop- PLAN ment. Distributed as shown, the stations provide a The plan which emerges involves a combination of first response and backup capability for fire suppres- public and private responsibilities. The city shall es- sion and rescue. Fire stations in Palo Alto and Los tablish a “normal firefighting capability” by build- Altos have also been shown, indicating the areas that ing a fire protection force and providing equipment may be served by mutual response agreements. to cope with an anticipated fire risk. Standards will These fire stations are highly visible community be set to define the level of public fire protection facilities which not only provide a base for firefight- which is adequate to meet the normal needs at a ing and prevention but also provide general com- reasonable community cost. Above that anticipated munity information and services. level of fire risk, built-in protection will be provided The proposed plan is a balance of fire codes, fire by the private sector. The community fire protection protection personnel, and capital improvements. system shall include necessary public ordinances, Under this plan, it is anticipated that the fire depart- codes, structural design review, and code enforce- ment resources needed at full development will be ment procedures. In addition, inspection and main- five engine companies, two truck companies, one tenance programs are required to assure the reliabil- rescue company and a battalion chief. A Fire Pre- ity of built-in protection. Fires which exceed antici- vention Bureau, Communications Division, Train- pated severity will require the implementation of ing Divisions, and administrative staff are necessary emergency operations pians which include mutual to provide specialized services to the community aid with neighboring cities, and the department personnel. There is an insurance rating that is optimal for this community at any point in time. The total com- Fire Station Locations munity cost of changing the rating will govern the Fire stations provide many direct services within decision to change. In 1972 the Class 4 rating is op- their assigned areas in addition to firefighting func- timum; however, the fire insurance rating shall re- tions. Among these are fire prevention and hazard ceive continual evaluation and changes may be control programs; fire safety education; and rescue, sought to improve community benefits. first aid and resuscitation service. Fire stations also The figure on page 175 depicts the locations provide communications and a service point between and fire prevention service areas for the City of city government and the community and, through
174 APPENDIX VI AMERICA BURNING 175 their strategic locations, they provide the quickest gencies. This capability shall include first aid, feasible response to citizen requests for service. resuscitation, cardio-pulmonary resuscitation, Headquarters Fire Station at Villa and Frank- and coordination of command at catastrophic lin houses the administrative offices, the Commu- medical incidents. nications Division and the Fire Prevention Bu- 3. Fire Prevention. The fire system shall include reau. The firefighting resources are: one engine building design and construction plan review, company, one truck company, a rescue company built-in private fire equipment and building and battalion chief. An expanded facility will be inspection, fire code enforcement, fire cause developed when funds are available. investigation, fire hazard control and fire code Station 2 at the intersection of Grant and updating, in order to provide the required fire Cuesta houses one engine company and one re- protection reliability of built-in protection. The serve engine. fire system shall provide education in fire Station 3 at the intersection of Rengstorff and safety, fire protection consultation, home safety Montecito houses one engine company and one programs, and first aid training for the public. reserve hose wagon. The bulk of the firefighter’s non-emergency Station 4 on Whisman Road also includes the time will be devoted to fire prevention activi- training facility and the city emergency operations ties. To assure the reliability of built-in fire center. This station houses an engine company and protection, a major commitment of fire depart- a reserve engine and reserve truck. ment personnel for inspection is necessary. Station 5. Property for this future station 5 4. Structural Rehabilitation. In coordination has been purchased at Charleston and Stierlin with other city departments, the fire depart- Roads. The construction of this station is related ment shall work to abate serious hazards to the rate of development of the area north of to health and safety caused by deteriorated Bayshore Freeway. structures. The service areas extend beyond the city limits 5. Regional Coordination. The capability to to include areas of mutual response with adjoining cope effectively and rapidly with major emer- communities of Palo Alto and Los Altos. Fire sta- gency incidents requires close coordination with tions are highly visible community facilities and shall and use of resources of neighboring jurisdic- represent the city within the neighborhoods as well tions. This includes sharing capabilities, facili- as provide the base for fire services. ties and equipment, standardization, opera- In order to implement the plan, the following tional coordination communications, and logis- programs shall be pursued : tical support. 1. Fire Suppression. Effective firefighting re- 6. Data Development. In order to better de- quires the training and maintenance of a wide sign the system (and measure results), ade- variety of manpower skills combined into an quate base data and feedback on fire danger, effective team. A high level of efficiency is es- building design and operation, fire cause, and sentials to the safety of the firefighter. Also es- fire prevention results are necessary. Emer- sential are the facilities and apparatus neces- gency operations require an extensive “on line” sary for use by the firefighters. data capability to enact efficient and safe 2. Life Safety/Paramedical Services. The fire control methods for fire and/or hazardous system shall have a rescue capability for emer- materials incidents.
176 APPENDIX VI APPENDIX VII
ESTIMATE U.S. FIRE RESEARCH FUNDS
Funds Sponsor Program area (thousand)
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1973-O-495-792
AMERICA BURNING 177