Improving on Nature

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books and arts attempts either to explicate or fend off tacit value-driven concerns and opinions. Artificial intelligence? In Global Change and the Earth System, Alchemists sought to knowledge claims — that contemporary create life in the form of views are actually true — are often presented a homunculus, like that as definite explanations; examples include in Goethe’s Faust. the huge extinction rate in Figure 1.7,and the reliance on the often-used but nevertheless questionable ‘wiggle matching’ technique. Another example is the claim that climate (in AKG-IMAGES/GOETHEANUM/STUTEN terms of an unexplained “Atmospheric Cir- culation Index”) is the only factor that affects catches of Japanese or European sardines, with social factors, such as the Second World War, playing only a minor role. The authors often adopt the unsatisfactory practice of relating a host of changes to ongoing anthro- pogenic change,without systematic attempts at formal detection and attribution. The examples that are adduced in this way seem to be biased towards deleterious effects. Thus, the book is a good demonstra- tion that the environmental sciences are driven not only by curiosity and reductionist interests for detailed processes, but by an endeavour to integrate different sorts of often uncertain and contested knowledge claims from a broad field of disciplines — in an area that has high stakes. The result is an effort with a normative agenda of improving or saving the world. I am sympathetic to this message,but as a nature go back much further than this, how- scientist I think we must strive for objectivity ever. Whereas we come to these debates (as far as possible) and avoid any overselling. Improving on nature through modern chemistry and biology, Downplaying uncertainty is not useful, Promethean Ambitions: Alchemy medieval and early modern authors except perhaps for a limited time and a small and the Quest to Perfect Nature approached them through alchemy.Modern audience. In the long term, this is not a by William R. Newman chemists tend to look at alchemy askance, as sustainable approach. We can already see University of Chicago Press: 2004. 352 pp. delusion, confidence trickery or occultism, that large parts of the public and politicians, $30, £21 leading to disgrace, beggary and early death. in both Europe and the United States, no David Knight But some, Michael Faraday among them, longer trust many of the knowledge claims had a degree of sympathy with the idea that advanced by environmental scientists.Public There is nothing new under the sun, or so all the metals could not be irreducibly concern about the state of the environment we are told. People worry about the artifi- different indestructible entities, and Ernest has begun to decline in recent years. Some cial and the synthetic, as opposed to the Rutherford cheerfully referred to his work may even erroneously see Bjørn Lomborg’s natural; they pay extra for organic food, as modern alchemy. Newman is prominent The Skeptical Environmentalist (reviewed in are concerned about genetic modification, among the historians of science who have Nature 414, 149; 2001) as the other side of and pontificate about bioethics, stem-cell shown how important alchemy was as part the coin to this IGBP volume. research and cloning. All these things seem of the serious ‘chymistry’ of Robert Boyle, The authors of Global Change and the very modern, the fruit of progress in bio- Isaac Newton and their contemporaries. In Earth System believe that “any complete chemistry, molecular biology and genetics; this book, he looks at the divide between analysis of the consequences of global the oldest example would seem to be Justus ‘art’, which used to mean anything produc- change must go well beyond scientific and Liebig’s advocacy of inorganic fertilizers in tive involving artifice and forethought, and economic considerations to fundamental the hungry 1840s. ‘nature’,as illuminated in discussions of, and moral and ethical values”. This is certainly Not long before that, his friend Friedrich laboratory and clinical practice in,alchemy. true, but the book lacks an analysis of the Wöhler had synthesized urea, in an attempt If something were to be made from base complex history of the moral ideals in the to provide evidence for atoms and their metal that had all the properties of gold, cultural, ideological and political founda- rearrangement, rather than to break down would it be gold? Or is there some essence tions of the modern environmental sciences. the organic/inorganic distinction. Processes that distinguishes the natural from the For this, readers can turn to such books and conditions in living organisms are very ersatz? Are ‘species’,whether of metals or of as Ludwik Fleck’s Genesis and Development different from those in test-tubes, however, creatures,God-given and immutable? of a Scientific Fact (University of Chicago so although the end product might be the Astronomy, contemplating the starry Press, 1979) or Clarence Glacken’s Traces same, he did not replicate the reaction that heavens,was well-suited to natural theology, on the Rhodian Shore (Cambridge University creates urea in organisms.Human artfulness for God could be praised for His wisdom Press,1967). ■ was still limited;perhaps nature was not after and grandeur. But alchemy, and the practi- Hans von Storch is at the Institute for Coastal all a laboratory. cal spin-offs that led to pigments, drugs Research, GKSS Research Centre, Geesthacht William Newman shows that debates and distillates, including alcohol, seemed to 21502, Germany. about simulating, replicating and perfecting be an attempt to improve the world; God

Science in culture Magnificent mayflies

Gaylord Schanilec is hooked on fishing flies that imitate nature.

Colin Martin

Inspiration can be found anywhere. Gaylord Schanilec, wood engraver, fine printer and trout fly-fisherman found it on a river bank, in the form of the common mayfly. Schanilec owns Midnight Paper Sales, a private press that publishes small, limited editions of illustrated books, often related to local history or geography. He designs, engraves and prints the books, and often writes the text. Each book pro- ject begins with an idea that evolves gently into the shape of the final book, a process that can take and Dry Fly Entomology, the highly prized special same block, rather than carve a separate years. He is now hard at work illustrating and writ- edition of which includes samples of dry flies. block for each colour. This technique ing an as-yet untitled book on the species of Entomologists have now identified about ensures exact registration but prevents mayflies (Ephemeroptera) found in his local rivers. 2,000 species of mayfly, some 150 of which reprinting, as the areas that have been cut The idea for the book came to him in the sum- can be found near Schenilac’s home in the away cannot be reused. mer of 2001 when, as usual, he spent as much time river hamlet of Stockholm, on the southern Using a letterpress printing press, as he could fishing. This gave him plenty of time to prairie of Minnesota and Wisconsin. Schanilec balances text and illustration contemplate the artificial fishing flies, hand-tied to Throughout the 2002 fly-fishing season, on the pages he prints. The mayfly book, imitate mayflies, with which he baited his hook. Schanilec collected hundreds of speci- which will include engravings of 12 Trout are a major natural predator of mayflies in mens, using information provided by mayflies, including one of E. inermis the wild, and trout fishermen have for centuries local fly-fishermen on where and when (shown here), will be published in used local knowledge to tie appropriate artificial to find particular species, such as Hexagenia autumn next year in three editions: a large edi- flies, called dry flies, as bait. This year, for example, limbata on the lower Rush River and Ephemerella tion of portfolios of loose prints; a standard book, is the sesquicentennial of Greenwell’s Glory, a dry subvaria on particular stretches of the south branch including both Garry’s taxonomic descriptions and fly first tied by William Greenwell in 1854. of the Whitewater River. He has so far selected trout fishermen’s folklore for each species bound Not wishing to rely solely on fishermen’s folk- seven of these species for wood-cutting, including alongside the prints; and a special edition, issued lore, in the winter of 2001 Schanilec consulted E. subvaria. Garry described them taxonomically with hand-tied flies imitating each species, and an Clarke Garry, a biologist at the University of Wis- and identified them for him. extra set of prints. consin at River Falls, who studies insect life in local Schanilec makes painstakingly detailed draw- There is something rather magnificent about trout streams. Under Garry’s guidance, Schanilec ings. He then carves his final images into hard Schanilec’s enterprise in capturing this most bought a microscope, specimen vials and preser- blocks of end-grain wood using sharp, metal goug- ephemeral order of insects between the covers vative agents, and developed techniques for ing tools, to produce precisely detailed engravings of finely bound books. It recalls the remarkable collecting, preserving and documenting mayflies. from which he prints distinctive images in several eighteenth-century collaborations between artists He also read widely around his subject, including colours. Reduction cutting — carving away more of and scientists in the Enlightenment. two late-nineteenth-century books by Frederick the surface of the wood block between printings — Colin Martin is a writer based at 32 Woodstock M. Halford, Dry Fly Fishing in Theory and Practice allows him to print two or more colours from the Road, London W4 1UF, UK. had left it to us to discover oil paints, milk words.A golem lacked a rational soul,and so tube babies, Dolly the sheep and a vast array of magnesia and whisky. We were (perhaps) was not human. The other tradition was a of synthetic chemicals,they are real enough. better off as a result, but the natural theolo- kind of male parthenogenesis, in which Newman ends with a learned discussion gian might be uneasy at the busy chymists’ women (the source of flesh and blood) could of experiment — emphasizing that alchemy activities. And when naturally occurring be bypassed and a homunculus grown in a was an investigative science,carried on in the substances were apparently made artificially, glass vessel from semen. The homunculus laboratory rather than the armchair — from some were sceptical about whether they were often appeared in alchemical pictures, and medieval times up to Francis Bacon, Boyle, exactly the same. Alchemists claimed that most famously in Johann Wolfgang von Newton and Margaret Cavendish. We meet the processes by which gold was supposed Goethe’s play Faust.The homunculus was a artisans such as Bernard Palissy (who was to be generated in the bowels of the Earth spirit, unable to survive outside his flask; but ‘making’ fossils), as well as scholastic logi- were merely speeded up in their furnaces, from within it he could expound wisdom cians. We are reminded that the ‘scientific but critics were not convinced, some seeing that was unavailable to ordinary mortals revolution’ was not simply a matter of a devilment lying behind any apparently weighed down by their bodies. In this con- new astronomy and a new physics. Rather, it successful transmutation. nection, Newman provides an interesting was heavily dependent on the experimental Alchemists were not simply fixated on section on Paracelsus, the genius or charla- tradition and critical thinking about analysis gold; they also sought not only to prolong tan who brought chymistry into medicine, and synthesis. Alchemy would ultimately life, but to synthesize it. Newman explores with his sexual hang-ups and fascination give birth not to a homunculus, but to the two routes to this end. The first was based on with phoenix-like ‘rebirths’through fire. new chemistry. ■ Jewish stories about the golem, made like The ethical problems facing Newman’s David Knight is in the Department of Philosophy, Adam from the dust and brought to life (and cast of characters were hypothetical — after University of Durham, 50 Old Elvet, destroyed when necessary) through Hebrew all,alchemy didn’t work.But in an age of test- Durham DH1 3HN, UK.