Difference between eluviation and illuviation pdf

Continue Iluvius is a material displaced through the soil profile, from one layer to another, by the action of rainwater. Removing material from the soil layer is called eluvation. The transport of the material can be both mechanical and chemical. The process of deposition of the illuvium is called an illustration. This water transport is mostly vertical in the direction, compared to alluviation, horizontal running water. The resulting deposits are called illusory deposits. Cutans are a type of illusory deposits. Ilvium includes organic matter, silicate clay and hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum. The illuve deposits of clay, oxides and organics accumulate in the bowels as distinctive soil horizons classified as horizons B or zone illustration. Mechanical illustration When rainwater seeps reaches the dry horizon of the soil, water from the suspension is removed by the capillary action of microchannels, leaving thin deposits (kutans) oriented along the seepage of macrochannels. Examples of Mesar Plains, Crete, Greece Chemical Illustration Transport Soil Solutions are called leaching. Soluble components are deposited due to differences in soil chemistry, especially soil pH and redox potential. See also Alluvium Eluvium Colluvium Diluvium Links - Glossary terms: I - Glossary soil science Conditions. The Society of Soil Science of America. Archive from the original 2006-09-27. Received 2006-11-10. Extracted from the The emergence of the eluvation process is associated with the dynamics of water, inside the soil. This process results in the removal of thinner soil components from surface horizons and is deposited in the deepest horizons (such as oxides and organic compounds) that can occur horizontally or vertically (Figure 1). The process of eluvation occurs in connection with the process of illusion, the first is to remove nutrients and organic material from surface horizons, promote their impoverishment, which makes them more sandy, and the second consists of deposition of these nutrients and organic materials in the deepest horizons, forming horizons rich in clay, oxides and organic materials. These processes usually occur on more surface soil horizons, where the influence of climatic conditions is felt most sensed, the evolution of this process leads to the formation of horizons with certain characteristics, in terms of color, texture, chemical compositions and others. An example of this process is subsols, where the emergence of the eluvization/ilation process leads to the formation of a more sandy and white horizon formed by the removal of oxides and organic matter from the profile, followed by a darker horizon as a result of the accumulation of material removed from the upper horizon (Figure 2). elevuvation | As nouns, the difference between eluvation and illusion is that eluvation (soil science) is a lateral or downward movement of dissolved or suspended material in soil caused by precipitation, while illusion (geology) is the accumulation of hanging material and soluble compounds leached from an excessive layer. (Wikipedia's Eluvation) (soil studies, counted) Side or downward movement of dissolved or suspended material in the soil caused by precipitation (geology, incalculable) Creation of geological deposits (eluvial deposits) by weathering or weathering at the site of gravitational movement or accumulation. (en noun) (geology) Accumulation of hanging material and soluble compounds leaching from the excessive layer of Eluvium in geology, eluvium or eluvial sediments are those geological deposits and soils that flow from weathering or weathering in place plus gravitational motion or accumulation. The process of removing materials from geological or soil horizons is called eluvation or leaching. There is a difference in the use of this term in geology and soil science. In soil science, eluvation is the transport of soil materials from the upper layers of the soil to lower levels by descending water sediments across soil horizons, and the accumulation of this material (iluvial tide) in lower levels is called a disease. In geology, the remote material does not matter, and the deposit (eluvial deposit) is the remaining material. Eluvation occurs when precipitation exceeds evaporation. The soil horizon formed as a result of eluvization is an eluvial zone or eluvial horizon. In a typical soil profile, the eluvial horizon refers to a light zone located (depending on context and literature) either at the bottom of horizon A (symbol: Ae) or within a separate horizon (E horizon) below A, where the process is most intense and fast. However, some sources consider the eluvia zone to be horizon A plus (distinct) horizon E, as eluvization technically occurs in both. Strict eluvial horizon (E horizon), usually light gray, clay depleted, contains little organic matter and has a high concentration of silt and sand particles consisting of quartz and other resistant minerals. Eluvial ore deposits are such as tungsten and gold placenta deposits formed by settling and enriching as a result of winnowing or removing lower density materials. Diamonds in yellow earth (weathered parts of kimberlites) can be considered eluvial deposits. Cassiterite and columbitite-tantalit deposits are also found as residual or eluvial concentrations. Piting's tin deposit the eluvial deposit is one of the largest tin mines in the world. The weathering of the supergene enrichment of apatite-rich carbonate in Ontario has resulted in a significant eluvial ore deposit. Illuviation Illuvium is a material moved through profile, from one layer to another, under the influence of rainwater. Removing material from the soil layer is called eluvation. The transport of the material can be both mechanical and chemical. The process of deposition of the illuvium is called an illustration. This water transport is mostly vertical in the direction, compared to alluviation, horizontal running water. The resulting deposits are called illusory deposits. Cutans are a type of illusory deposits. Ilvium includes organic matter, silicate clay and iron and aluminum hydrous. The illuve deposits of clay, oxides and organics accumulate in the bowels as distinctive soil horizons classified as horizons B or zone illustration. Henry Lin, in Hydropedology, 2012Fundamental Thermodynamics can provide a general explanation for the formation and evolution of soil architecture (Lin, 2010, 2011). This is because pedogenesis is an energy-intensive process, and the simultaneous occurrence of dispersal and organization has long been recognized in pedogenesis (e.g., Hole, 1961; Volobuev, 1963; Runge, 1973; Smeck et al., 1983; Johnson and Watson-Stegnaner, 1987; Johnson et al., 1990; Addiscott, 1995; Rasmussen et al., 2005; Lin, 2010). Related to energy dispersal, double separation occurs during pedogenesis (Lin, 2010, 2011):1) Organizing processes such as aggregation, accumulation of peregnation, horizontalation, flocculation, illusion-eluvation and secondary mineral formation; and2) Scattering processes such as cumulative degradation, peregration decomposition, homogenization, variance, mixing and primary weathering of minerals. The first set of processes facilitates the formation of structural units of soil, while the second set of processes tends to generate soil matrix; The two combined soil architectures of different kinds. This double separation of the pedogenes is consistent with the theory of dissipating structure proposed by Prigozhin (1967), which assumes that the system forms its structure away from thermodynamic equilibrium by dispersing energy. Soil systems with aggregates, horizons and profiles formed over time represent more orderly states than their predecessors (until the soil begins to degrade or when a regressive process occurs). Thus, the formation and evolution of the soil can be conceptualized as consuming energy and export entropy (i.e. degrading energy) in order to grow and maintain its internal order in order to function (Lin, 2011). As energy dissipates and entropy exports through the self-organization of the soil system, complex structures are formed to improve the processing efficiency of available free energy (see chapter 8 of this book). Self-organization means a process of attraction and repulsion in which the internal organization of soil increases in complexity, not guided by an external source. Soils use use ordered solar energy (through direct shortwave radiation or indirect photosynthetic organic matter) that fuel pedogenesis and then return to the environment degraded energy to maintain or further develop its internal order to function. Interestingly, for the most part solar radiation tends to concentrate soil components on the soil surface (through processes such as evaporation, transpiration, photosynthesis, biocycling and leaf drop), while gravity tends to move soluble and suspended soil components further down in or out of the soil profile (Smeck et al., 1983). As a result of these two opposite trends, some soil components have a bio-distribution in soil profiles (i.e. one peak of the soil surface and the other peak near the bottom of the lard). In addition, the soil surface interacts with the atmosphere and interacts most significantly with the Earth's biosphere; thus, soil surface horizons tend to accumulate energy and matter (e.g. organic carbon) (unless they are broken or eroded). On the other hand, the soil bottom solum interacts with the lithosphere, which usually limits the further vertical downward movement of water and materials and, in sloping landscapes, allows a sideways flow of energy and mass from the surrounding areas; thus, the lower part of the sulum or the upper part of the substrate or saprolite tends to accumulate energy and mass. This leads to the fact that the middle of many soil profiles may be the least active zone in soil processes (e.g. Runge and Riken, 1966; Smeck et al., 1983; Fluler et al., 1996; Lin et al., 2008). This has important implications for understanding soil architecture and modeling soil functions. Jian Feng Ma, Eiichi Takahashi, soil, fertilizer, and silicon plant research in Japan, 2002Behavior silicon in rice soils depends on the discharge of flooded water, the degree of contraction, pH and soil temperature and so on. By draining flooded water, solubilized Si in the soil paddy eluviated together with K, Ca, Mg, etc., and with the progress of soil reduction, solubilized Fe and Mn eluviated, leading to the eluviation of the solubilized Si. These are processes taking place in degraded rice soils. The amount of solubilized Si increases with the decrease of the soil, suggesting that Fe plays an important role in solubilizing Si. Although Imaizumi and Yoshida (1958) reported that part of The Fah is related to Xi, it is assumed that Xi is mostly related to Al from the quantitative relationship between Xi, Fe and Al solubilized. This means that Fe is present as a membrane covering complex Si-Al particles, and the reactive surface of these particles increases with the decrease of the soil, leading to an increase in solubilization Si.In the rice field, the soil must supply enough Si for rice plants. Despite the fact that Si the main component of the soil, the so-called Si Si compounds extremely low, and a large amount of water will be needed to solubilize enough Si.Takahashi (1974) investigated the effect of soil moisture conditions on the presence of Si soil for rice plants. The soil was kept at three levels of soil moisture: on land (50% of the maximum water-with-control capacity (MWHC), saturated (100% MWHC) and submerged (150% MWHC) conditions with distilled water. After 1 month of cultivation on these soils, the amount of Si taken on the rice plant and the acetate buffer soluble Si, Fe, and Al in the soils have been identified. , was the largest in the soil submerged in water, followed by saturated water and that in cooking conditions, in this order, suggesting that the absorption of Si increases as the moisture of the soil increases. The high level of Si absorption in conditions of water saturation and dives may be associated with an increase in solubilization Si with a large amount of water, an increase in diffusion of solubilized Si to the roots, and an increase in the solubility of Si soil due to contraction. Table 3.1. Effect of soil moisture on si absorption by seedlings riceSoal moisture conditionsTo the amount of water supplied 4 (ml pot-1) Dry weight top (mg pot-1)Number of SiO2 in the top (mg pot-1)Number of buffer acetate soluble Si, Al, Fe in the soil after harvest (mg pot- 1)SiO2Al2O2O2O2OUpland1305011154071312136Saturated2422512225122222In the other side, Si buffer-extracted acetate in the soil was less under saturated and submerged conditions than that under the upland condition , that in accordance with higher absorption of rice plants in saturated and flooded conditions. The amount of Al extracted was not influenced by soil moisture (table 3.1), while the extracted Fe was significantly increased in saturated and submerged conditions, suggesting that Fe is solubilized by reducing soil. The amount of xi soluble in the soil is an important parameter in the formation and degradation of rice soils. However, research in Polder has shown that si soil solubilization is also associated with the pH of the soil in addition to the solubilization of Al and Fe. In the Kojima area of Okayama Prefecture, there are fields of polder paddy, drained from 1 to 324 years ago. Miake and Yoneda (1976a, b) investigated the correlation of soil pH and the amount of soluble Si. They found that the amount of acetate buffer soluble Si in the soil, rice harvest, and Si absorption of rice plants decreased as the years passed after drainage (table 3.2). The pattern of changes in the amount of soluble Si was similar to that of the pH of the soil (Figure 3.1). This suggests that the soil silicate is first decomposed by acid for soluble Si, and then picked up by rice plants or eluviatated. In addition, soluble Si is converted into insoluble silicon with reduced soil 3.2. Changes in SiO2 content and rice plant yields, Kojima polder over time (years) after drainageYears after drainage SiSoluble SiO2 (mg 100g-1 top soil) aYield rice (kg 10a-1)SiO2 in stem and leaves ()SiO2 in panic (%)22 7.360014.13.76013.755013.13.31509.154012.52.22528.44808.82.5Figur 3.1. Changes in soluble SiO2 (A) and pH (B) in Kojima polder rice fields with expiration time (years) after drainage. For four years from 1968 to 1972, the soil was acidified to about pH 4, and the soluble Xi in the soil eventually decreased in both cultivated and unspoiled soil from the second year of the study. that indicates that the soil keeps xi's concentration in the soil solution at a constant level even after it has been taken by rice plants. Si's concentration in seeping water increased as pH rapidly decreased. The amount of Si eluviated from rice-cultivated soil was 1/2 to 1/4 of that from non- cultivated soil. However, compared to Si's absorption of rice plants, the amount of Si eluviated was extremely low; 1/16 in the first year and 1/30 for the second year. It was also found that more Si was eluviated during the summer season (flooded state) than during the winter season. This may be because the solubility Si has been increased at a higher temperature and in a flooded state. Silicon in irrigation water and silicate fertilizers can react with active aluminum, which leads to changes in soil properties after a long period. Since volcanic ash soils, widespread in Japan, are rich in active aluminium, attempts have been made to improve the soil of volcanic ash through the use of Xi (Onikura, 1959). Xi's influence on the active Al was also investigated by Takahashi et al., (1986). They grew rice plants in a pot filled with or without compost soil. The acetate buffer content of the soluble Si was 21.2 and 4.8 mg of SiO2/100 g in the soil, followed by the use of compost and without it, respectively. Rice straw (0.5% soil) or slag (si amount corresponding to Si in rice straw), or enriched Si irrigation water (containing an additional 14 ppm SiO2 as silic acid) has been applied to these soils. At the end of the experiment, the content of 1N buffer-soluble Al acetate in the soil was defined as the active Al. Content of active Al in soil without applied compost was twice as high as in the soil of the sequential compost (table 3.3). In addition, in both soils, the active Al content has been reduced by the use of rice slag and enriched Sea irrigation water compared to soil control soils distilled water. These results show that Si plays an important role in reducing the amount of active Al in the soil. Table 3.3. The effect of Si on the active Al content in soilTreatmentContent active Al (mg/100 g of soil)Without compost is appliedControl (irrigated distilled water)22.010.8Si enriched irrigation water19.98.5Rice straw19.37.6Slag13.08.3F.O. Nachtergaele, in the reference module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2017Set 8 contains brownish and grayish soils of moist temperate areas. The soils in this set indicate the redistribution of clay and organic matter. The cool climate and short phedogenetic history of these soils explain why some of them are still rich in bases, despite the pronounced leaching process (Luvisols). In the more sandy material, the elouvation and illusion of the metallic humus compounds lead to grayish colors of eluvial horizons and blackish colors, where compounds (Subsols accumulate).1.Acid subsols (from Russian, pod, pod, pod, pod and ash, ash), with discolored elouvial horizon over the horizon of accumulation of organic matter with aluminum and iron (akin horizontal) flat, smooth), with a bleached top layer of sharply dense, slowly permeable bowels;3.Basic rich Luvisols (from Latin, luo, for washing), with a distinct accumulation of clay and an argyric horizon with high Saturation base;4.Basic-poor podzoluvisols (from Podzols and Luvisols), with bleached eluviation tonguing in a clay- enriched subsurface layer. Although originally developed as a legend for a particular map rather than as a soil classification system, THE Legend of FAO has found rapid recognition as an international soil correlation system and has been used, for example, as a basis for national soil classifications and regional soil reserves, as in the Soil Map of the European Communities. Daniel Hillel, in soil in the environment, 2008Soils perform several functions of water and nutrients on the bicycle and gas exchange with the atmosphere. They support all forms of terrestrial vegetation (trees, shrubs, grasses, algae, etc.) that, in turn, support the life of animals. As more and more land has been transferred to human control for cultivation, grazing or construction (roads, houses, factories, seaports, airports and recreational facilities), the land left for natural ecosystems has diminished, fragmented and impoverished. The challenge we now face is to preserve and strengthen the remaining natural ecosystems by limiting the further usurpation of land by human efforts. Where possible, we must repair the damage caused by the restoration of natural habitats and the relief of pressure on marginal or degraded land. To do this, we need to step up and improve production efficiency at the most lands and do it in sustainable ways without harming Domains. For example, fertilizers should be used in measured doses and at rates designed to meet the variable needs of crops and promote soil fertility, while avoiding wasteful leaching and runoff that can contaminate aquifers, streams and lakes. Soil protection and nurturing must be recognized as a major component of environmental protection. Increased organic content in soils can not only help mitigate the effects of climate change, but also increase agricultural productivity and environmental quality. In a broader context, soil is not just a passive environment, private ownership and exploitation of farmers to produce crops, but is indeed a common environmental asset providing ecosystem services such as wildlife support and the conversion of pollutants. Thus, the soil must be protected by targeted policies aimed at preventing its erosion, loss of organic matter, sealing and compaction, and pollution. This should apply not only to the agricultural sector but also to the soil in the urban sector, which is particularly at risk of pollution. Positive incentives are needed, along with mandatory regulations, to ensure the ecological and functional integrity of the soil. Soil is the ultimate, fragile resource. Its proper treatment is a condition for the survival and success of human civilization. According to Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1934): A nation that destroys its soil is destroying itself. We decided to paraphrase his statement in a positive way: a nation that saves its soil saves itself. According to Genesis 2:15: The Lord God placed the man Earthling (Adam) in the Garden of Delight (Eden) to serve and preserve him. BOX 16.3 Summary of soil functions in the environmental regulation of the hydrological cycle: SedimentationInfiltration against surface-water excessInse of surface runoffDisparrection by land by flowConcentrated flow in rills and gulliesTorage and the location of water in the root zoneDirector evaporation from the surface Transpiration by plantsDraina behind the root zoneFrection of water-table Recharge of underground aquifers distributed through springs, rivers and wellsConic components: Hydration, dissolution, re-loss of mineralsSorbtion and exchange of ionsDecomposition, re-composition of organic compoundsOxication-reducing reactionsAcicrification-al Reaction to salinity-desalination processesLuvia-illusion of soluble soluble soluble solubles in the soil profileIndulcsolation of soluble water and streams Into the atmosphereCycling particles:Filtering suspended particles in percolationMigration and lodging inside the soil profileClea-coating (deposition) of air particles (aerosols)Erosion of soil surface by water and windOverland transport water-suspended water-suspended Suspended matter in depressions/limanacSililness of lakes and reservoirsAccess of energy: Absorption of incoming solar (short-wave) radiation Reflecting the share of solar radiation (albedo)Emission of The Earth (longwave, thermal) radiationTransmission and exchange of reasonable heat, atmosphere, hydrosphereMitigation or strengthening of the greenhouse effectSsimiliation of chemical energy in the biomassEmission CO2, CH4, N2O (greenhouse gases)Supporting biota: Providing substrate, water, nutrients for the microbial communityProstute anchorage, water, nutrients to the roots of higher plants Regulatory biotic respiration (O2, CO2) Aerobiciosis and anaerobiosisDeveli plant and animal residues, the release of nutrientsAbsorbizing and neutralizing pathogenic and toxic agentsHenry Lin, in hydropedology, 2012 Hydropedology encapsulates the joint development of rapid and slow changes in multiphase soil systems (Figure 10), where rapid and cyclical soil functioning processes (SFPs) include mainly fluids, gases and biota (in which circulating water is a key factor) , while slow and irreversible specific adogenous processes (SPPs) include predominantly solids (Targulian and Goryachkin, 2004; Lin, 2011a). Soil formation mainly refers to trend changes over long periods of time, while soil functions are mainly affected by periodic and random changes on shorter time scales. However, short-term and long-term soil changes are linked, with interaction and feedback between them and cumulative and threshold effects in soil evolution (Figure 10). Each specific pedogenic process is characterized by a set of solid-state pedogenous features formed over hundreds of thousands or more years, while soil functioning processes dominate one-off, seasonal and annual changes (Targulian, 2005). As Rode (1947) notes, many soil processes and associated cycles are not completely closed, and many input and production flows are not necessarily balanced in open, dissipating soil systems. Such closed cycles and unbalanced flows of soil functioning processes over time generate residual solid phases of products in soil profiles. Each individual cycle (such as a seasonal water table) can generate only a micro-quantity of converted or newly formed solid products that are unlikely to be detected; but produced repeatedly over a long period of time, these micro-amounts can gradually accumulate in macro quantities that can be detected morphologically and/or analytically (Targulian and Goryachkin, 2004; Lin, 2011a). Such residual products, generated as a result of specific pedogenous processes, may reverse to change the functioning of the soil, mainly gradually, but some of them can lead to threshold changes in the soil system (Lin, 2011a). FIGURE 10. The scheme of joint evolution of rapid and slow changes in complex soil systems over time, with interactions (solid small arrows) and feedback (dashed small small Fast and cyclical processes of soil functioning (actors and reactors) include mainly liquids, gases and biota, while slow and irreversible specific pedogen processes (recorders) include mostly solids. Three types of soil change are illustrated - irregular (or accidental) variability, cyclical fluctuations and trend changes (Modified from Lin, 2011a). Both the long-term formation of the soil and the short-term function of the soil are strongly controlled over time by soil moisture and their cumulative effects. For example, infiltration, leaching and drainage may be considered short-term soil functioning processes, but repeated actions over time can lead to different specific pedogenous processes (which will depend on site conditions, geological materials and other soil formation factors), such as (Buol et al., 2003): Eluvation (formation of the albic horizon), Illusion (formation of the argyllic horizon), decalcification (reactions removed by calcium carbonate), Salinization (accumulation of soluble salts),pedolyization (chemical migration of aluminum and iron and/or organic matter), gleization (reduction under bad drainage) and reduction (reduction of iron under bad drainage). Because of the different types of soils forming around the world, and the heterogeneity of each of these soil types, it is necessary to link the theory of soil formation of Dockovchav-Jenny (Dokuchaev, 1893; Jenny, 1941) with the Darcy-Buckingham law on the flow of water in changingly saturated soils (Darcy, 1856; Buckingham, 1907), whereby different types of soils can exhibit contrasting flow mechanisms, paths, and patterns. This link, if successful, could significantly improve the modelling of flows and transport, as well as the quantifying and predicting of soil changes on a short- and long-term time scale. Lin (2010a) took the first step in this direction, exploring the links between the principles of soil formation and current modes. Reconciliation of geological and biological processes (significantly different in time) is important for understanding the complexity and evolution of the soil system (Lin, 2010b).R.P. Voroney, R.J. Heck, in soil microbiology, ecology and biochemistry (Fourth edition), 2015During formation, soils develop horizontal layers, or horizons that appear different from each other (figure 2.3). The horizons in the soil profile vary in thickness depending on the intensity of the soil-forming factors, although their boundaries are not always easy to distinguish. The upper layers of mineral soils are the most altered, while the deeper layers are most similar to the original parent material. Changes in som, the maternal material most affected by soil formation, include (1) decay substances from plant residues and roots and accumulation as dark color (organic material-enriched horizons closest to the surface of the soil are called horizons); (2) water soluble and colloidal inorganic and organic components from surface soils at different profile depths; and (3) the accumulation of inorganic and organic precipitation in underground layers. These underlying, enriched layers are called Horizons B. Horizons C are the least weathered from the mineral soil profile. Organic soils are usually saturated with water and are mostly composed of mosses, sogues or other hydrophytic vegetation, and the upper material is called layer O. In wooded areas where drainage is better, organic materials derived from folic acid accumulate as a layer of L-F-H.Fig. 2.3. Profiles of common mineral and organic soils: Mollisol (top left), Spodozole (top right), Oxysol (bottom left) and histozole (bottom right). The vadoza zone is a basic, unsaturated parent material that extends down from the soil surface to where it reaches water level and the soil becomes saturated. Below solum, this region contains relatively unweathered parental material, low in organic matter and nutrients, and intermittently lack in O2. The thickness of the vadoza can fluctuate significantly during the season, depending on the soil texture, soil content and soil height of the water table. When a water table is near the surface, for example, as in wetlands, it may be narrow or absent. But in arid or semi-arid areas where soils are well drained, the vadoza zone can stretch for several meters. Harold. Collins... Upendra M. Sainju, in the management of agricultural greenhouse gases, 2012Soils are the largest carbon basin (C) in the Earth environment (Jobbagy and Jackson, 2000; Schlesinger, 1995). The amount of C stored in soils is twice the amount of C in the atmosphere and three times the amount of C stored in living plants (Kimble and Stewart, 1995). Thus, changing the size of the C soil basin can significantly alter the current concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere (Wang et al., 1999). The carbon stored in soils is derived from debris, root resources, sediment deposits and exogenous use of manure/mulch, while losses are the result of microbial degradation of soil organic matter, eluvation and erosion (Entry and Emmingham, 1998). As the ecosystem approaches, the potential of C sequestration is controlled by climate, topography, soil type and vegetation (Harmon et al., 1990; Dewar, 1991; Van Clive, et al., 1993). In equilibrium, the speed and quantity of C added to the soil from plant residues and roots, organic adjustments, as well as erosive deposits, equal to the speed and quantity of C lost as a result of organic decomposition and soil erosion processes (Henderson, 1995; Paustian et al., Within, C in the soil increases with the increase in groundwater and decreases with temperature (Wang et et 1999). Groundwater exposure is much greater than exposure to soil temperature (Liski et al., 1999). Increasing water within the temperature zone can increase plant production and thus C input into the soil by increasing plant debris and producing roots (Liski et al., 1999), but increasing water can also reduce soil C by increasing decomposition. Changes in land use can affect the amount of C stored in the soil, altering IR inputs and losses. The conversion of native vegetation into agricultural culture led to both a significant transfer of C into the atmosphere and the loss of soil C (Lal et al., 1999; Wang et al., 1999). Agricultural practices that can partially restore depleted organic soil carbon (SOC) include: (1) adoption of conservation activities, including non-tillage; (2) intensification of agriculture by eliminating replogs, increasing covered crops and incorporating more perennial vegetation (Sperow et al., 2003); and (3) improved biomass production through the use of soil amendments (manure), fertilizers and high-yielding crop varieties (Lal et al., 1998; Follett, 2001). David C. Coleman, ... Paul F. Hendricks, in Soil Ecology Basics (Second Edition), 2004 Abiotic and Biotic Factors, noted above, lead to certain chemical changes downwards through a few upper soil decimeters (Figure 1.6 (a), Figure 1.6(b), in many soils, especially in more mesy or humid regions of the world, the detoxification and repositioning of minerals and nutrients is often accompanied by a clear change in color (development). As one descends through the profile from the surface of the air debris, one passes through the litter (L), fermentation (F), and humification (H) zones (Oi, Oe, and Oa, respectively) and then reaches the surface of the mineral soil, which contains the predominance of the amount of organic matter (horizon). The upper part of horizon A is called the upper layer of soil, and in cultivation conditions the upper 12-25 centimeters (cm) is called a layer of plough or a slice of furrow. This is followed by a horizon of maximum leaching, or eluvation, of silicate clays, fe and al oxides, known as horizon E. Horizon B next, with deeper inhabited organisms and several weathering material. This is followed by Horizon C, an unconsolidated mineral material above the base. Solum includes horizons A, E and B, as well as some of the cemented layers of Horizon C. All of these horizons are part of the regolith, the material that underpins the foundation. More information on soil classification and profile formation is provided in soil textbooks such as Russell (1973) and Brady and Vale (2000). FIGURE 1.6. (a) Profile chart of Podzole (spodosol in North American soil taxonom) with accumulating in underground horizons. This is the characteristic soil of coniferous forests (from FitzPatrick, 1984). FIGURE 1.6. (b) Cambisol profile chart, with organic matter, well mixed mixed Horizon because of the mixing of fauna there is no accumulation of minerals in underground horizons. It is a characteristic soil of temperate deciduous forests (from FitzPatrick, 1984). The work of the soil ecologist is somewhat facilitated by the fact that the upper 10-15 cm horizon A, and the horizons of L, F and H (Oi, Oe and Oa) forest soils contain most of the roots of plants, microbes and fauna (Coleman et al., 1983; Paul and Clark, 1996). Therefore, most of the biological and chemical activity takes place in this layer. Indeed, most microbial and algae feeding fauna such as the protozoa (Elliott and Coleman, 1977; Kuikman et al., 1990) and rotifers and tardigrades (Leetham et al., 1982), are within 1 or 2 cm of the surface. Micro-troppods are most commonly found in the upper 5cm forest soils (Schenker, 1984) or grass-water soils (Seastedt, 1984a), but sometimes more abundant by 20-25 cm and even 40-45 cm at certain times of the year at the prairies of talgrass (O'Lear and Blair, 1999). This region can be primed, in some ways, by the constant input of leaves, branches and root materials, as well as algae and cyanobacterial production and turnover in some ecosystems, while soil mesfauna such as nematodes and micro-anthropopods can be concentrated in the upper 5 cm. A significant amount of nematodes can be found at a depth of several meters in the American west (Freckman Virginia and , 1989). Daniel Hillel, in soil in the environment, 2008 A systematic study of soil formation and classification called pedology, and the process by which soils develop is called pedogenes. The typical development of the soil and its profile can be summarized as follows: it begins with the physical decay of open rock formation, which provides the parental material of the soil. Gradually weakened material is colonized by living organisms. The subsequent accumulation of organic residues on and under the surface leads to the development of a noticeable horizon A. This horizon can acquire an aggregate structure, to some extent stabilized by the cementing effect of organic polymers. Continued chemical weathering (decomposition and reconnection) can lead to clay formation. Thus, some of the clay formed tend to migrate down, along with other transportable materials (e.g. soluble salts). Clay tends to accumulate in the intermediate zone (called Horizon B) between the surface zone of basic biological activity and the deeper parental material of the so-called horizon C. Important aspects of soil formation and profile development are the double processes of elevuvation and illusion (washing and washing, respectively), as a result of which clay and other substances emigrate from the excessively eluvial horizon A unquisive Horizon B. Two Two vary greatly in composition and structure. Throughout these processes, the profile as a whole deepens as the upper part of Horizon C gradually transforms. In its natural state, Horizon A can be 0.2-0.4 m thick. In arid regions, salts dissolved from the top of the soil, such as calcium sulfate and calcium carbonate, can be deposited at some depth to form a cemented pan, sometimes called potassium. Erosion of Horizon A can bring Horizon B to the surface. In extreme cases, horizons A and B can be removed by natural or human-induced erosion, so that Horizon C is exposed and a new cycle of soil formation can begin. In other cases, mature soil can be covered with a layer of sediment (alluvial or aeolian), so that a new soil is formed over the buried old soil. Where deposition episodes occur repeatedly over a long period of time, a sequence of soils can be formed in a row, thus recording a pedological history called the region's paleopedia, including evidence of climate and vegetation that prevailed during the formation of each profile. Numerous variations of the described processes are possible depending on local conditions. The characteristic depth of the soil, for example, varies from place to place. The soils of the valley tend to be deeper than the hills of soil, and the depth of the latter depends on the steepness of the slope. In some places the depth of the profile can hardly be established, as the soil is mixed into the parent material without any clear boundaries. However, the area of basic biological activity rarely extends below 2-3 m and in many cases less than 1 m. difference between eluviation and illuviation in points. write the difference between eluviation and illuviation. give the difference between eluviation and illuviation. explain the difference between illuviation and eluviation

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