Furthering

Perspectives

Anthropological Views of the World

Anthropology Graduate Student Society Spring 2020 Volume 9

1 | P a g e

Anthropology Graduate Student Society

Spring 2020 Volume 9

Editor’s Note Welcome to the Spring 2020, Volume 9 edition of Furthering Perspectives: Anthropological Views of the World! I am so pleased to present the following collection of articles written by our dedicated students here at Colorado State University. Anthropology is a field that studies all of that which makes us human, and thus, Furthering Perspectives invites perspectives from a broad array of disciplines. The following collection of articles present only a few of the many theoretical and applied approaches that contribute to our anthropological knowledge.

Acknowledgements The Anthropology Graduate Student Society thanks every student, reviewer, and editor who helped make this volume of possible. Thank you to all the faculty members who gave their invaluable support to students as they wrote and underwent the review process. A big thank you to all the reviewers for their feedback, and thank you to all the students who provided the cover photos for this volume.

Editor-in-Chief Cynthia Ortega Cover Photo Credit

Assistant Editor and Reviewer Top: Celebrating community development, Benin. Photo Julia Greer taken by Julia Greer Review Panel Bottom Left: The Great Hunt, Alex Pelissero Utah. Photo taken by Paul Andrew Du Buckner

Carly DeSanto Bottom Right: Actualistic Experiment on a Bison Tibia,

Furthering Perspectives Furthering Danielle Backman CSU. Photo by Denise Frazier Denise Frazier

Keri Canada © 2020 Anthropology Graduate Kimberly Nichols Student Society Colorado State University | Fort Collins, CO Louise Steele Design and Layout by Cynthia Ortega

Melissa Raguet-Shofield

AnthropologicalViews of the World

2 | P a g e

Contents

Spring 2020 Volume 9 Anthropology Graduate Student Society

Biology

5 Taxonomic Identification of Dentally-Unassociated John Johnson Postcranial Fossil Elements in Early Eocene (~56-52 MA) Mammals

10 Size Matters: Testing Dental-Based Total Body Mass Estimate Kristina Magyar Formulae-More Than a Means to Determine Diet in Early Eocene (~56-52 MA) Primates (OMOMYOIDEA, ADAPOIDEA) in the Bighorn Basin, WY

Culture

17 Moshing: A Game with Complex and Subtle Undertones Denise Frazier

Disaster, Resilience, Change

22 The Importance of the Social Sciences in Climate Change Research Danielle Beckman

29 The Resilience of Immigrant Populations in the United States within Julia Greer the Food System

36 Vulnerability, Resilience, and Social Justice: Addressing Systemic Shadi Azadegan Inequality in Disaster Recovery

44 Rockport Residents and Life After Harvey: Results from the 2019 Sarvis Anarella, Althaea Kress, Colorado State University Ethnographic Field School Study Zoe Shutte, Julie Spawn, Sydney Vander Waerdt, Michelle Anderson, Charlotte Dorsey, and Amanda Kircher

Ecology

55 Cultural Forests of Amazonia: A Historical Ecological Analysis Grace Ellis of Forest Management in Amazonia

3 | P a g e

62 Traditional Ecological Knowledge and the National Environmental Paul Buckner Policy Act: Integrating Indigenous Perspectives, Sustainable Resource Stewardship, and Environmental Impacts Analysis

Health

76 Curbing Disease, Building a System: Partners in Health’s Julia Reedy Response to the West African Ebola Epidemic

87 The Role of Public Libraries in Community Health Sheri McCaskill

95 An Epidemic Crisis: The Disastrous HIV Infections Among Yan Xue Rural Blood Donors in China

Theory

102 The Legacy of Classical Sociological Theory: Androcentrism Carolyn Conant and Universalism in the Tradition of the Canon

4 | P a g e

Taxonomic Identification of Dentally-Unassociated Postcranial Fossil Elements in Early Eocene (~56-52 MA) Mammals

John Johnson

Introduction the earliest true primates (Adapoidea, At the beginning of the 2019 CSU Omomyoidea) arose. Paleontological Field School, there were a vast This will benefit the discipline of number of postcranial fossils in the Primate Origins anthropology by providing the field with Lab that were unidentified and unassociated with information and resources about postcranial and dentition. These specimens were filling a large locomotive adaption evolution. Having this section of the lab, while not supplying the lab with information could further the understanding of the any valuable data at the time. In order for these human body, as well as the environment where the specimens to yield data for research, they would Order Primates first began. These methods, which first have to be identified to a referenceable taxon have been applied to modern, extant, mammals, (e.g. genus and/or species). This led to the following could be applied to extinct animals of not just the research question: could zooarchaeological Eocene, but also to Pleistocene fauna of North methods, as used on modern extant faunal remains, America, which humans have had an impact on. By be applied to extinct faunal postcranial remains for combining the practices of paleontology and taxonomic identification and taphonomic zooarchaeology, the understanding of the Order descriptions in the absence of associated dental Primates can well be expanded. elements? Teeth are the most common anatomical Methods and Materials elements in the vertebrate fossil record and are the The study sample was obtained from the primary means of identifying fossil taxa. If CSU Department of Anthropology and Geography’s postcranial remains are recovered in association Primate Origins Lab collection of early Eocene (~56- with teeth, reliable taxonomic designations can be 52 Ma) Willwood Formation, Bighorn Basin, WY made. In this project, zooarchaeological methods fauna. The fossil specimens were recovered during were used to identify fossil anatomical elements the ANTH 470 Paleontology Field School 2013-2019 lacking dental associations. The research consulted field seasons and consisted of more than 200 fossil published descriptions of postcranial remains to specimens. Most of the specimens that were build a database of information and documents that examined were mammalian, with a few exceptions. could be used for postcranial-based taxonomic Within the unidentified specimens, some reptiles identification. The fossils used in this research were and birds were found among the sample. The obtained from the CSU Primate Origins Lab. First, reptiles and birds, however, will not be included in the methodology was tested against fossil this research’s results. This research will focus specimens in which dental & postcranial elements primarily on the mammals in the hopes of were recovered in association. Second, the positive identifying postcranial elements of the earliest results allowed the methodology to be applied to primates and their relatives, the Plesiadapiforms, unassociated postcranial fossil elements. With that existed during the Eocene. taxonomic identification, postcranial remains of The process used to identify the taxa starts primates, their taxonomic relatives, and sympatric with first identifying the Bunn Size Class for each fauna can be examined for adaptive variations with fossil element in the collection. This ranks the the goal of understanding the paleobiome in which postcranial elements from the smallest size (Size

5 | P a g e

1A; less than 10 lbs.) up to the largest size (Size 6; triangular. On average, the medial-lateral breadth of greater than 6000 lbs.) (Bunn 1982). Each of the Hyracotherium’s distal epiphysis is roughly 15±5 mm species documented to be found in the Eocene (Wood et al. 2011; Kitts 1956). Hyracotherium thus received a Bunn Size Class as well, in order to falls into the size class 1B to 2 (10-250 lbs.) (Bunn minimize the total number of faunae that had to be 1982). investigated for each fossil. This created a bias on When comparing Hyracotherium to the fossils that would be first observed in this Homogalax, there are some notable size differences in research, due to the desire to primarily identify the distal humerus. Hyracotherium (an early horse) primates. Given the size of the primates of the and Homogalax (an early tapir) both belong to the Eocene Epoch, the first postcranial fossils identified in this research were those in the 1A to 2 size range Order Perissodactyla. Hyracotherium is smaller in (less than 10 lbs. to 250 lbs.) (Bunn 1982). total body mass (TBM) when compared to the Each fossil fragment was then identified to its much larger Homogalax. Homogalax’s distal humerus skeletal element (e.g., humerus, radius, femur) and medial-lateral breadth tends to be 25±2 mm (Rose the portion of the bone (e.g., distal, proximal) it 1996). By documenting the presence of all these represented. By identifying the fossil fragment, the characteristics, as well as determining it to be too research was able to identify key osteological small to be Homogalax, the fossil specimen can be features that might be present. This would include attributed to Hyracotherium (Fossil example seen in features such as the presence of a supertrochlear Figure 1). foramen on the distal end of the humerus, or the direction and height of the greater trochanter on the proximal end of the femur. From here, linear measurements were obtained using calipers. The calipers were accurate to the hundredth of a millimeter. This included maximum length of the fossil, maximum width of the epiphysis, maximum diameter of the shaft, and independent measurements of the osteological features that are present. Once this data was obtained, the fossils could be compared with other specimens, and identified to the same taxa and skeletal element. The first comparison came from Figure 1: DMNH 77347 Hyracotherium (Order fossils within the lab collection with associated Perissodactyla) distal humerus, anterior view dentition provided. When collection examples were unknown, publications from paleontological literature were consulted (listed in the references The final step in the process was section of this article). documenting each fossil using the lab’s photo stand This would provide a strong taxonomic with a scale of 10 mm and a high-quality camera, verification of the fossil specimens, while also then recording all data recovered in previous steps providing the research with a series of taxa that the on an excel data sheet that will be uploaded to the specimen could be mistaken for. For example, a lab’s main database. This ensures that each fossil characteristic that can be contributed to the distal can be remeasured and evaluated by future humerus of Hyracotherium is that the shape of the researchers. distal epiphysis is similar to that of Homogalax. The two are similar in shape and both have the presence Results of a supertrochlear foramen in the center of the This research project identified 146 fossil distal end of the humerus (Rose 1996). Both taxa fragments to skeletal elements. Whereas some have a distal epiphysis that is rounded, whereas individuals were represented by a single bone, other many other mammals of the Eocene are elongated individuals were represented by several associated medial-laterally and are either rectangular or skeletal elements. The research included specimens 6 | P a g e

Scale 10 mm

Figure 2: Omomyoid: An Early True Primate (Lineage of Modern Haplorrhine) DMNH 126699 (10mm scale) OMOMYOID PROXIMAL RADIUS CHARACTERISTICS: - Proximal Radial head is measured at 5mm. - The radial ridge, where the ulna overlays the radius on the posterior side, starts 5.5mm (10mm to distal end of ridge) down the shaft from the articular surface of the radial head. This is to align radial head with the Coronoid process. - Shaft diameter is 3.5mm. OMOMYOID TOTAL BODY MASS (TMB): - Similar in size to modern tarsiers. - Per Bunn (1982) Animal Size Groups, Omomyoid is classified as a 1A (less 10 lbs.) OMOMYOID COMMONLY CONFUSED WITH VIVERRAVUS: - While much of the postcranial of these two are very different, the sizes however are very similar. Viverravus and Omomyoid are similar in shape with the radius, however Viverravus has the presence of a bicipital tuberosity and a hooked radial head (Heinrich and Houde 2006). - Omomyoids do not have these features and have the presence of the posterior radial ridge and a circular radial head. DIAGNOSIS: The fossil specimen can be attributed to Omomyoid.

from the following taxa: Anacodon (1 individual), figure depicts the taxa of the fossil, the skeletal Bunophorus (1 individual), Arfia (2 individuals), element, and any taphonomic abnormalities that Cardiolophus (4 individuals), Hapalodectes (2 might inform researchers about the life of these individuals), Microsyops (1 individual), Plesiadapiform specimens (e.g. toothmarks from predation and/or (1 individual), Thryptacodon (3 individuals), unfused epiphysis common in death as a juvenile.). Coryphodon (6 individuals), Diacodexis (11 Many of the specimens within the collection demonstrate these taphonomic markers and can individuals), Homogalax (9 individuals), Hyopsodus (1 inform us about the ecosystem primates originated individual), Hyracotherium (42 individuals), in. Rodentia (23 individuals), Pachyaena (13 individuals; with 4 P. gigantea, 1 P. gracilis, and 8 P. ossifraga ), Discussion Phenacodus (9 individuals), Viverravus acutus (5 Future plans are to create a database with individuals), and most importantly, primates (10 images on the postcranial variables is necessary for individuals; with 8 Adapoidea and 2 Omomyoidea). identifying Eocene taxa in the absence of dental Analytical descriptions were detailed for skeletal associations and will be brought together to form element by taxon and nearest alternate taxon. an overarching database for each skeletal element of Figure 2 is an example of database files described in each taxa identified. An example of this can be seen the Methods section. These descriptions are in Figure 2. This project can be built upon by future provided for each fossil within the collection. Each Primate Origins Lab student volunteers and

7 | P a g e

B C

A D E

Scale 10 mm

Figure 3: Relative size in calcanei (heel bones) of 5 Willwood taxa, fossil specimens from the CSU Primates Origins Lab (10mm scale). A. Pachyaena gigantea (DMNH 97501); B. Homogalax (DMNH 97309); C. Hyracotherium (DMNH 68494); D. Cantius (DMNH 68505); E. Omomyoidea (DMNH 68776)

independent study enrollees to better improve the paleontological literature describing postcranial data used by the Primate Origins Lab. With this features in known taxa, taxonomic identification information, the research will provide ways to was possible. This supports the value of applying identify taxa in the absence of dental elements in zooarchaeological methods to vertebrate order to gain a better understanding of early Eocene paleontological investigations. Using these fauna for comparative studies of Willwood methods, future enrollees in the CSU Paleontology adaptations (Figure 3). Field School, as well as other field groups, may be Publication of this project as an e-document able to identify postcranial fossils in the field. This could be accessed, and added to, by other will help eliminate the dentition collecting bias researchers from outside CSU who are interested in many paleontologists may have, furthering science’s the paleo-ecosystem in which the earliest understanding of the ecosystems of ancient Earth, confirmed primates arose. At this time, it is unclear as well as understanding the early primate when this e-document would become available for ancestors. external use. Acknowledgments Conclusion I would like to acknowledge and thank all Zooarchaeological methods proved to be the people and organizations that made this project useful for identifying extinct faunal postcranial possible. This project would not be possible remains. With the addition of fossil specimens with without the facilities and resources of the CSU associated dentition and postcranial elements in Primate Origins Lab. I would like to thank and the Primate Origins Lab collection as well as acknowledge Kim Nichols and Dr. Tom Bown for 8 | P a g e their mentorship throughout the duration of this Ni X, Gebo DL, Dagosto M, Meng J, Tafforeau P, project and beyond. I would also like to Flynn JJ, & Beard KC. 2013. The Oldest acknowledge the contributions of Dr. Kenneth Known Primate Skeleton and Early Rose, Dr. Danial Gebo, and Dr. Michael Pante. Their Haplorhine Evolution. Nature 498(7452): research aided in my project and helped create the 60–64. methods for identifying different species and genera. Lastly, I would like to acknowledge the O’Leary MA & Rose KD. 1995. Postcranial Skeleton following, Jessie McCaig, Devan Green, Kit Kelly, of the Early Eocene Mesonychid Pachyaena Matt Serikaku, Chance Cox, and Elise Johnson for (Mammalia: Mesonychia). J Vert Paleo the editing of this article prior to submission. 15(2): 401–430.

References Osborn HF. 1898. Remounted Skeleton of Brown TM, & Rose KD. 1990. Dawn of Age of Phenacodus primaevus: Comparison with Mammals in the Northern Part of the Rocky Euprotogonia. Mountain Interior, North America. The Geological Society of America, Inc. Rose KD. 1982. Skeleton of Diacodexis, Oldest Known Artiodactyl. Science 216(4546). Bunn HT. 1982. Meat-Eating and Human Evolution: Studies on the Diet and Subsistence Rose KD. 1987. Climbing Adaptations in the Early Patterns of Plio-Pleistocene Hominids in Eocene Mammal Chriacus and the Origin of East Africa. Ph.D. Dissertation. University Artiodactyla. Science 236(4799). of California, Berkeley. University of microfilms, Ann Arbor. Rose KD. 1996. Skeleton of Early Eocene Homogalax

& the Origin of Perissodactyla. Palaeo Dagosto M, Gebo D, & Dolino C. 2001. Positional Vertebrata 25. Behavior and Social Organization of the

Philippine Tarsier (Tarsius syrichta). Primates Rose KD. 2001. The Ancestry of Whales. Science 42: 233–243. 293: 2216–2217.

Gebo DL. 1987. Humeral Morphology of Cantius, an Rose KD. 2006. The Beginning of the Age of Early Eocene Adapid. Folia Primatologica Mammals. Johns Hopkins University Press. 49(1): 52–56. Rose KD & Walker A. 1985. The Skeleton of Early Gebo DL, Dagosto M, & Rose KD. 1991. Foot Eocene Cantius, Oldest Lemuriform Primate. Morphology and Evolution in Early Eocene Am J Phys Anthropology 66(1): 73–89. Cantius. Am J Phys Anthropoly 86(1): 51–73. Wood AR, Bebej RM, Manz CL, Begun DL, & Heinrich RE & Houde P. 2006. Postcranial Gingerich PD. 2011. Postcranial Functional Anatomy of Viverravus (Mammalia, Morphology of Hyracotherium (Equidae, Carnivora) and Implications for Substrate Perissodactyla) and Locomotion in the Use in Basal Carnivora: J Vert Paleontology Earliest Horses. J Mamm Evol 18(1): 1–32. 26(2): 422–435.

Kitts DB. 1956. American Hyracotherium (Perissodactyla, Equidae), vol.110. Bull Am Mus Nat History. New York.

9 | P a g e

Size Matters: Testing Dental-Based Total Body Mass Estimate Formulae-More Than a Means to Determine Diet in Early Eocene (~56-52 MA) Primates (OMOMYOIDEA, ADAPOIDEA) in the Bighorn Basin, WY

Kristina Magyar

Introduction and (2) Gingerich’s m1 formula against Gingerich’s Body size, as indicated by total body mass m2 formula for TBM estimates. These comparisons (TBM), is a well-established correlate of dietary are obtained by descriptive indicators (mean, protein (faunal, plant) consumption in modern median, and range) and statistical analysis tests primates. Kay’s threshold states that in primates (Chi-square X2 tests) to determine the accuracy of TBM above 500 g are reliant on plant sources for these formulae. In the past, the first mandibular protein, while total body masses below 500 g molar has been the industry standard to use for depend on animal sources.1 Because the primate TBM testing, however m1’s placement in the jaw fossil record more often yields dental elements can lead to a greater degree of damage. An rather than complete skeletons, formulae have been additional benefit to this study may be the ability to developed that allow TBM estimations based on use the second mandibular molar interchangeably mandibular first molar (m1) & second molar (m2) to obtain TBM estimations. This gives the occlusal surfaces.2 3 The resulting dental-based advantage of larger sample sizes, or the use of a TBM estimates, in combination with dietary dental specimen that may be in better condition which morphology (e.g., cusp shape, etc.), are critical to the could lead to more accurate data. Finally, the interpretation of extinct primate dietary results of the data analysis are charted and adaptations. Therefore, the accuracy of dental- employed to illustrate patterns in taxonomic based TBM estimations is essential. The formulae responses to temperature variations around the developed by Gingerich and Legendre are the most Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. This could frequently used method to make TBM estimations model responses from extant primates to current and determining any significant variances could climatic events and impact modern primate affect researcher selection for future testing. As the conservation methodology. difference in determining dietary protein consumption is measured in just grams, accurate Methods TBM measurement is also vital in establishing This project focused on fossil primate dental dietary taxonomic grouping. specimens housed in the CSU Dept of I report the results of my comparison of the Anthropology & Geography Primate Origins Lab. degree of agreement in dental-based TBM This fossil collection dates to the earliest Eocene estimations by testing (1) Gingerich’s m1 formula (~56-52 Ma) & was recovered between 2013-2019 against Legendre’s m1 formula for TBM estimates from over 100 Willwood Formation localities in the

1 Kay, Richard F., and Herbert H. Covert. “Anatomy and American Journal of Physical Anthropology 58, no. 1 (1982): Behaviour of Extinct Primates.” Food Acquisition and 81–100. Processing in Primates, (1984): 467–508. 3 Legendre, Serge. Analysis of mammalian communities from 2 Gingerich, Philip D., B. Holly Smith, and Karen Rosenberg. the late Eocene and Oligocene of Southern France. “Allometric Scaling in the Dentition of Primates and Palaeovertebrata., 16 (1986): 191-212. Prediction of Body Weight from Tooth Size in Fossils.” 10 | P a g e

Bighorn Basin, WY. The extinct primates represent the two earliest confirmed primate taxa (Adapoidea, Omomyoidea). Whereas adapoids have traits suggesting modern strepsirrhine affinities, such as anatomy more in line with lemurs, lorises, and galagos; omomyoids have haplorhine traits similar to better known primates, however, their anatomy appears closer to tarsiiformes (Tarsiers) than to anthropoids like monkeys or apes (Figure 1).

The study sample consists of mandibular lower molars, as follows:

First Lower Second Lower Taxa Molar Molar (M/2) (M/1)

Adapoidea* n= 103 n=121

Omomyoidea* n= 42 n= 35 Table 1: Study Sample Sizes (*The implications of taxonomic variation within each group will be addressed in the discussion.)

I used a Dino-Lite 7013 series digital microscope & imaging software to obtain linear dimension data on occlusal surfaces of first (m1) & After I obtained the dental linear dimension second (m2) mandibular molars from Adapoidea data, I calculated TBM estimates using three (Cantius) and Omomyoidea (Teilhardina, Tetonius) formulae. By comparing the estimates received taxa in the Eocene primate fossil sample (Figure 2). from the differing formulae on the same specimen, I With this technology, I obtained maximum length could determine whether there was significant and maximum width variables on the mandibular variation in researcher formula or a consistent molars at the occlusal surface (Figure 3, Figure 4). degree of agreement.

11 | P a g e

Gingerich Formulae 4 The PETM is associated with a 9-15˚F (5- 8˚C) Gingerich & colleagues developed two increase in global temperatures. I observed dental based TBM estimation formulae specific to unexpectedvariation in TBM correlating with primates, one for m1 & the other m2. fluctuating thermal temperature stressors. This allowed me to discern patterns of response for 1. Gingerich m1 formula: 1.495 X LN (t) + 3.558 = adapoid species (Figure 7) & omomyoid species LN (b) LN = natural log; t = tooth surface area; b = (Figure 8). At Biohorizon A (160-210 meters), both body mass primate groups are speciose. This middle period of 2. Gingerich m2 formula: 1.310 X LN (t) + 3.920 = cooling temperatures appears to evidence faunal LN (b) LN = natural log; t = tooth surface area; b = turnover. body mass Hypotheses I tested three hypotheses. The first concerned Legendre Formulae 5 assumptions about TBM and extinct primate Legendre developed dental-based TBM dietary protein consumption. The second estimation formulae for mammals of varying size, compared researcher formulae10 11 for TBM including one for primates applicable to m1. estimates based on first mandibular molar (m1) surface area. The third concerned how well 1. Legendre m1 formula: 1.490 X LN (t) + 3. 577 = Gingerich’s formula for TBM estimate on m1 LN (b) LN = natural log; t = tooth surface area; b = predicted the results of Gingerich’s TBM formula body mass estimates for m2. ❖ Hypothesis 1 Extinct Primate TBM Provides Insights Beyond That of Mandibular molar (m1, m2) based TBM Dietary Protein Consumption estimates on Eocene primates support The TBM variable is additionally related to current models of dietary protein speciation & diversification. I charted the sample consumption with adapoids falling into primates by TBM estimates (Gingerich TBM m1 foliage protein consumers (TBM over 500 g) formula), by taxon (Adapoidea species; and omomyoids aligning with faunal protein Omomyoidea species), & stratigraphic position by consumers (TBM less than 500 g). Null meter level in the Willwood Formation (Bighorn Hypothesis – there is no support for Basin, WY) against established thermal Hypothesis 1. temperature fluctuations (Figure 7, Figure 8, both discussed in the results section of this paper ). The ❖ Hypothesis 2 Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) TBM estimates based on the first occurred ~56 million years ago.6 7 8 9 mandibular molar (m1) using the Legendre

4 Gingerich, Philip D., B. Holly Smith, and Karen Rosenberg. Eocene Thermal Maximum.” Nature Geoscience 8, no. 1 “Allometric Scaling in the Dentition of Primates and (2014): 44–47. Prediction of Body Weight from Tooth Size in Fossils.” 8 Mcinerney, Francesca A., and Scott L. Wing. “The American Journal of Physical Anthropology 58, no. 1 (1982): Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum: A Perturbation of 81–100. Carbon Cycle, Climate, and Biosphere with Implications for 5 Legendre, Serge. “Analysis of mammalian communities from the Future.” Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences the late Eocene and Oligocene of Southern France.” 39, no. 1 (2011): 489–516. Palaeovertebrata., 16 (1986): 191-212. 9 Wing, Scott L., Thomas M. Bown, and John D. Obradovich. 6 Badgley, Catherine, and Philip D. Gingerich. “Sampling and “Early Eocene Biotic and Climatic Change in Interior Western Faunal Turnover in Early Eocene Mammals.” North America.” Geology 19, no. 12 (1991): 1189. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 63, no. 1-3 10 Gingerich, Philip D., B. Holly Smith, and Karen Rosenberg. (1988): 141–57. “Allometric Scaling” (1982): 81–100 7 Bowen, Gabriel J., Bianca J. Maibauer, Mary J. Kraus, Ursula 11 Legendre, Serge. “Analysis of mammalian communities” Röhl, Thomas Westerhold, Amy Steimke, Philip D. Gingerich, (1986): 191-212. Scott L. Wing, and William C. Clyde. “Two Massive, Rapid Releases of Carbon during the Onset of the Palaeocene– 12 | P a g e

formula are identical to the results Researcher yielded by the Gingerich formula. Formula TBM Median Mean Range Null Hypothesis – there is no support estimate for Hypothesis 2.

Gingerich- m1 1,440.74 g 1,524.65 g 682.12 - 3194.01 g ❖ Hypothesis 3 TBM estimates based on Gingerich’s first mandibular molar (m1) formula are identical Legendre- m1 1,448.37 g 1,537.63 g 689.71 – 3,037.86 g to the results yielded by Gingerich’s second mandibular molar (m2) formula. Null Hypothesis – there Gingerich- m2 1,434.36 g 1,525.21 g 840.13 – 3383.09 g is no support for Hypothesis 3. Table 2: Adapoid Statistics Support Hypothesis 1 Results The first hypothesis involved Researcher comparison of descriptive statistics (median, Formula TBM Median Mean Range mean, range). The second & third estimate hypotheses used Chi-square (X2) tests of the 282.53 differences between observed & expected Gingerich- m1 277.83 g 117.33 - 417.38 g data. The results were tested for strength of g correlation. The p-value indicates the 286.45 Legendre- m1 281.74 g 119.34 - 422.42 g probability that the variables are g independent. Importantly, primate sample sizes are significantly larger than in previous Gingerich- m2 297.6 g 297.6 g 155.16 - 494.11 g studies (Adapoidea, n = 51, Omomyoidea, n = Table 3: Omoyoid Statistics Support Hypothesis 1 10, Natalia Clark and Adapoidea, n = 74, Omomyoidea, n = 16, Courtney Patton) using the Hypothesis 2 is supported Primate Origins Lab collection.12 13 This is due to Chi-square (X2) tests of TBM estimates for m1 do expansion of the fossil collection and field localities not indicate significant variation regardless of over the 2013-2019 Paleontology Field School researcher formula (Gingerich versus Legendre) or seasons. taxonomic group.

Hypothesis 1 is supported Taxa X2 result p-value Eocene primates meet standard primate TBM protein thresholds. p-value=1.0 ➢ Adapoids are above the 500 g Adapoidea 102 df alpha 0.05 = not significant threshold associated with foliage alpha 0.10 = not significant protein consumption. p-value=1.0

Omomyoidea 41 df alpha 0.05 = not significant ➢ Omomyoids fall below the 500 g alpha 0.10 = not significant threshold associated with faunal protein consumption. Table 4: Chi-square Statistical Analysis Tests Support Hypothesis 2

12 Clark, Natalia, Kimberly Nichols, Lucas Weaver, and 13 Patton, Courtney. “Of Fossils and Teeth: Applying Thomas Bown. “Dental-Based Body Mass Estimation in Early Paleontology to Understand Modern Climate Change.” Senior Eocene Primates & Plesiadapiformes; Willwood Formation, Thesis Department of Anthropology, Colorado State Bighorn Basin, WY.” 67th Geological Society of America University (2016). Meeting (2015). 13 | P a g e

Hypothesis 3 is supported dental-based TBM estimates appear to be a reliable Chi-square (X2) tests of TBM estimates for m1 & indicator of primate body size. m2 using Gingerich’s formulae do not indicate TBM is an important correlate of dietary significant variation. protein consumption in primates.16 Whereas primates above 500 g in TBM are reliant on plant

2 proteins, small-bodied primates with total body Taxa X result p-value masses below 500 g depend on animal p-value=1.0 (invertebrate, vertebrate) proteins. This well- alpha 0.05 = not established correlation in modern primates Adapoidea 102 df significant provides a useful tool for inferring dietary protein alpha 0.10 = not consumption in extinct primates. Dental significant morphology provides a test of the TBM-based dietary protein prediction (Figures 5 and 6). p-value=0.9998 Dental morphology confirms the dietary alpha 0.05 = not Omomyoidea 34 df significant patterns indicated by TBM estimates (Kay, 1975). alpha 0.10 = not The results support expected correlations between significant TBM & dietary protein consumption. Adapoids Table 5: Chi-Square Statistical Analysis Tests Support had body masses above 500 g, as associated with Hypothesis 3 foliage consumption. Omomyoids had body masses below 500 g, as associated with faunal Discussion consumption. The results of this study provide confidence in the predictive value of dental-based TBM Thermal Correlation & Total Body Mass In Adapoidea formulae estimations. All dental formulae Three adapoid species (Cantius spp., C. 14 15 examined in this study provided similar TBM trigonodus, C. mckennai) are present before estimate outcomes based on first mandibular molar Biohorizon A with a combined TBM range of 682- (m1) surface area & Gingerich’s TBM estimates for 1,958 g. After the event, adapoid TBM increases to the first mandibular molar (m1) were predictive of a range of 1,207-3,019 g. Importantly, the smallest- results for his formula on the second mandibular bodied adapoid, Cantius mckennai, disappears molar (m2). This was surprising, especially for the (possibly due to range contraction or local Omomyoidea, which I expected to have a greater extinction). As temperature continued to decline, degree of variance due to the small TBM and difficulty in measuring methodology. Therefore, the largest of the Cantius species appears. This

14 Gingerich, Philip D., B. Holly Smith, and Karen Rosenberg. 16 Kay, Richard F., and Herbert H. Covert. “Anatomy and “Allometric Scaling” (1982): 81–100 Behaviour” (1984): 467–508. 15 Legendre, Serge. “Analysis of mammalian communities” (1986): 191-212. 14 | P a g e indicates that selection was operating on larger Department of Anthropology and Geography body mass as a response to cold thermal Primate Origins Laboratory. I would especially like temperature. to thank Elizabeth Larson for all her support and assistance with statistical analysis, as well as Dr. Thermal Correlation & Total Body Mass In Omomyoidea Tom Bown and Professor Kim Nichols for their Omomyoids also exhibited faunal turnover encouragement and guidance throughout this at Biohorizon A. Of the two genera (Teilhardina, project. Tetonius), only two of four species (both within the Genus Tetonius) survive. These are the largest taxa, References but none are over 400 g in TBM. Unlike adapoids, Badgley, Catherine, and Philip D. Gingerich. omomyoids are unknown from this study above “Sampling and Faunal Turnover in Early 375 meters. Two variables may explain omomyoid Eocene Mammals.” Palaeogeography, declining numbers: (1) the small-bodied primates Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 63, no. 1-3 were unable to respond sufficiently to cooler (1988): 141–57. thermal temperature and (2) their likely dependence on faunal proteins was impacted by Bowen, Gabriel J., Bianca J. Maibauer, Mary J. the loss of invertebrates & small vertebrates who Kraus, Ursula Röhl, Thomas Westerhold, also could not withstand the decline in Amy Steimke, Philip D. Gingerich, Scott L. temperature. Wing, and William C. Clyde. “Two Massive, Rapid Releases of Carbon during the Onset Conclusion of the Palaeocene–Eocene My test of congruence/accuracy in dental- Thermal Maximum.” Nature Geoscience 8, no. based TBM formulae led to insights on Early 1 (2014): 44–47. Eocene primate responses to thermal temperature change. This offers a predictive model for modern Bown, T. M., P. A. Holroyd, and K. D. Rose. primate responses to fluctuating climatic changes. “Mammal Extinctions, Body Size, and I plan to investigate this pattern further using the Paleotemperature.” Proceedings of the National Primate Origins Lab collection and examining Academy of Sciences 91, no. 22 (1994): 10403–6. TBM responses to thermal temperature fluctuation in primate sibling taxa (Order Plesiadapiformes) & Clark, Natalia, Kimberly Nichols, Lucas Weaver, small-bodied mammals such as early elephant and Thomas Bown. “Dental-Based Body shrews (Haplomylus). Future lines of questioning Mass Estimation in Early Eocene Primates should explore a deeper probe of taxa response to & Plesiadapiformes; Willwood Formation, temperature changes with a wider variation of Bighorn Basin, WY.” 67th Geological body masses and include other taphonomic factors Society of America Meeting (2015). for assemblage makeup such as extinction, speciation, or migration. Modeling the future Fleagle, John G. Primate Adaptation and Evolution. based on the past could prove beneficial to extant Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press, 2013. primate conservation and lead to interpretations of differing responses dependent upon body size. Disotell, Todd R. “Primate Phylogenetics.” This research could advance the approach to Encyclopedia of Life Sciences, 2008. conservation methods and provide solutions to increase the success of primate survival rates due to Gingerich, Philip D., B. Holly Smith, and Karen ongoing climate change. Rosenberg. “Allometric Scaling in the Dentition of Primates and Prediction of Acknowledgements Body Weight from Tooth Size in Fossils.” This study could not have been performed American Journal of Physical Anthropology 58, no. without building off the research of former 1 (1982): 81–100. colleagues (Natalia Clark, 2013 and Courtney Patton, 2016) and the resources and support of the 15 | P a g e

Kay, Richard F. “The Functional Adaptations of Patton, Courtney. “Of Fossils and Teeth: Applying Primate Molar Teeth.” American Journal of Paleontology to Understand Modern Physical Anthropology 43, no. 2 (1975): 195– Climate Change.” Senior Thesis Department 215. of Anthropology, Colorado State University Kay, Richard F., and Herbert H. Covert. “Anatomy (2016). and Behaviour of Extinct Primates.” Food Acquisition and Processing in Primates, (1984): Rose, Kenneth D. The Beginning of the Age of Mammals. 467–508. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009. Legendre, Serge. Analysis of mammalian Smith, Richard J. “Estimation of Body Mass in communities from the late Eocene and Paleontology.” Journal of Human Evolution 43, Oligocene of Southern France. no. 2 (2002): 271–87. Palaeovertebrata., 16 (1986): 191-212. Wing, Scott L., Thomas M. Bown, and John D. Mcinerney, Francesca A., and Scott L. Wing. “The Obradovich. “Early Eocene Biotic and Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum: A Climatic Change in Interior Western North Perturbation of Carbon Cycle, Climate, and America.” Geology 19, no. 12 (1991): 1189. Biosphere with Implications for the Future.” Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 39, no. 1 (2011): 489–516.

16 | P a g e

Moshing: A Game with Complex and Subtle Undertones

Denise Frazier

In this paper I propose to look at the identifying oneself with the music and the culture connections between traditional concepts of play that surrounds it. The dancing reflects the emotion and non-traditional styles of dancing. The style of and enthusiasm the crowd feels towards the music dance I am looking at specifically is mosh style and the band playing it. dancing, sometimes called “slam dancing”, as a form The action of moshing is more than just a of game play. The definition that Bennett and dance that reflects the appreciation of the music; it Csikszentmihalyi present of play is that it is “an is also a communication between the participants. action generating action” (Bennett, The interactions between participants in moshing, Csikszentmihalyi 1971, 45). This is interesting when adds to the play experience. It is the inter-personal put in the context of the creation and participation part of the play that is enacted in the music scene of a music scene. A music scene and the culture that which makes it so that a person’s ‘self’ is “forgotten it creates are precisely that of actions creating more when action is plentiful, and perhaps of what the movement and action. The whole concept of experience of ‘self-lessness’ is like” (Bennett, moshing fits precisely under that definition. The Csikszentmihalyi 1971, 56). A person’s own identity music being created or played is a direct influence does not exist in the mosh pit it is all about in the creation of a genre, a sub-culture and an absorbing the action around you and how the emotional existence. Games are often competitive reaction to help someone up is almost instinctual and violent but an interesting point “is that and not considered for very long. This competition or violence in [the] play should obey communication and comradery in the act of such strict limits” (Bennett, and Csikszentmihalyi moshing contributes to the overall experience. 1971, 46). Moshing, as a play form, does not allow Mosh pits have their own subculture and rules, the participant to become too violent or get which enhances that play experience for some seriously injured because of its implied rules. music concertgoers. Violent actions are not expected to be controlled or performed with purpose. This makes the regulated Dancing, Subculture and Rules nature of moshing interesting when it is viewed as a The author of “Symbols, Song, Dance and violent action by outsiders. Features of Articulation”, Maurice Bloch explored Webster’s Dictionary defines mosh as: “to the concept of singing and dancing as a form of engage in uninhibited often frenzied activities (as language in ritual (Bloch 1974). Though I am not intentional collision) with others near the stage at a looking at dance as part of a ritual, but as a game, it rock concert” (Webster 2015). The word “mosh” is still important to explore the concept of was created by a band called Bad Brains in the early communication within dance. In other games, such 1980s as a direct reflection of the things happening as soccer, the players must learn to communicate at their shows. The lead singer used the term non-verbally with each other through nuanced “mash” in lyrics and stage show repartee to both physical movement that may not be understood by incite and describe the aggressive and often violent an outsider. This concept can also be applied to dancing of the scene. To “mash it up” was a frenzied dance. physical response to the aggressive music. Due to Bloch believes non-verbal communication the vocalist’s thick Jamaican-accented can become stagnant, and that “messages carried by pronunciation of the word, fans mistakenly heard the language of the body…become ossified, “mosh” instead (Riches 2011, 315). The term stuck predictable and repeated from one action to the as mosh, despite its original pronunciation. This next, rather than recombined as in everyday term and its action are now the steadfast way of situations when they can convey a great variety of 17 | P a g e messages” (Bloch 1974, 222). I think Bloch is their game; they are trying to compete to show who underestimating the creativity and malleability of among them is the most spirited and the most the messages conveyed in dance. Even though he is physically involved in the music. This is similar to addressing it in the context of ritual and religion, war behavior because it is a “zero-sum” (Biersack there is still the possibility for change and 1982, 183) outcome. This means that there will be a intonation in physical movement just as in speech. clear winner and loser in this display. One person A speaker can change the whole meaning of what will be obviously the most physically and he says based on the way in which he says it. This emotionally involved in the music. concept especially applies to the game of mosh pit The similarities between the players in dancing. These players are communicating non- mosh pit dancing and the Paiela tribe also extends verbally with one another through dance and are to their use of behavior as communication. The conveying those messages through their body “Paiela games do not exhibit behavioral regularities; movements. they exhibit communicational regularities and The act of moshing can often be seen as belong analytically to the realm of communication blatant violence by the outsider because of the rather than the realm of action” (Biersack 1982, forcefulness with which the players interact, but all 185). This is also applicable to the players in mosh of this is made acceptable because of the physical pit dancing. The dancing and game play displayed communication and implied agreement that the is more of a display enjoyment of the music and the players have with each other. When you are in a individual’s involvement in the subculture than it is mosh pit, it is understood you are engaging in a about the dancing. “If behavior is organized as game that can potentially cause injury, but you feel communication, as it is among the Paiela, then, at safe in the knowledge that those around you least in this particular case, the link between understand the rules and the other players will behavior, itself a mode of communication, and independently reinforce these. Bloch says, “This language becomes necessary and the problem of treatment of dance…seems to go against the justifying the linguistic analog is resolved.” generally accepted view of art as a kind of super- (Biersack 1982, 186) This relates back to the communication, a supreme occasion for creativity. concept that Maurice Bloch brought up of By contrast I am arguing that art is, in fact, an comparing dance to linguistic communication. The inferior form of communication” (Bloch 1974, 222). communication is displayed in part by the behavior I believe that Bloch bases this argument on his lack of the people participating in both the subculture of understanding of the communication being and the dance game. exchanged between the players. He views it, as an “inferior form of communication” because he does Moshing from the Mosher’s View not understand what the individuals are In the article “Pit Etiquette,” Sacharoff talks communicating or only understands the surface their own personal experiences in moshing, level of what is being “said”. I believe that if he had otherwise referred to as slam dancing. As this form more cultural context or was actually immersed of dancing has become more mainstream in youth inside the communication it would change his culture it is becoming increasingly important to view. ensure that newcomers understand the rules The violent nature of moshing is comparable surrounding it. There are strictly “no personal to the war games that are played by the Paiela tribe. vendettas. Slamming is a great way of transcending The author of “To Die Laughing: Paiela Games and personal ego, getting a bash on the back of the head the Organization of Behavior as Communication”, and returning it with a smile. If you want to get Aletta Biersack, says, “Games and war are so personal, that’s a fight, not a dance. Take it down coupled in the ethnography. Both are antagonistic the block where you won’t get the show shut or competitive forms of interaction” (Biersack down” (Sacharoff 1996, 2). This rule is important 1982,181). Mosh pits are very competitive. The because it not only expresses the level of control players are trying to assert their own dominance that the violence must be performed under, but it within the game by physical strength. The players also urges participants to keep in mind that the in mosh pit dancing exhibit a war-like behavior in shows ability to continue may be contingent upon

18 | P a g e their respect of the rules. Music shows in the punk interaction creates a dance that is evocative of the and garage genres are often underground or barely current cultural feelings on multiple levels. tolerated by the society around them and cannot “Pit Etiquette” offers a personal perspective afford to have any more negative attention drawn to on the sort of rules that are in place to control the them. violence. It also offers an insight into some of the The author also stresses the comradery of criticisms that come with this style of dance. The the pit; not only are personal vendettas not allowed, reference that the author makes to not being “a but you are also obligated to help your fellow careless idiot. Being an idiot is great, but if you get mosher. It is important to “always keep an eye out yourself injured you’re just admitting, ‘I need for a comrade who’s fallen. First, brace yourself supervision” (Sacharoff 1996, 2) points out that nearby with your knees spread out wide so they people often get hurt because they are pushing past won’t get trampled. Next, offer a hand or a yank on their own limits. It is important to be aware of you the shoulder. This is a bonding ritual” (Sacharoff own limitations in moshing because injury is so 1996, 2). I have personally experienced what it feels likely. In order to avoid further stigma for this type like to fall in a mosh pit and be immediately picked of play and music, players must maintain the up by the people around you. It is surprising how autonomy and responsibility for themselves. short an amount of time it is between hitting the ground and being picked up by three or four people Countering Common Beliefs and set back on your feet to continue dancing. No Art is considered the representation of the one in the pit even seems to think before stooping dreams and visions of the artist, music and dance down and picking up someone who has fallen. fall within the boundaries of art and must be From my own experience, the author is correct in considered thusly. This being said, “because we stating that this is bonding ritual where in which regard dreams as semblances, we don’t take them to you realize that despite the roughness of the be real or truthful representations of existence. interactions around you no one truly wants you to This, in turn, permits dreams to serve as the raw get seriously injured. material out of which the Apolline artistic drive After discussing a similar experience with a creates the pleasurable illusions which help ward fellow mosher, Desmond, he said he considered off disgust with life” (Hawley 2010, 2). Apollo as “mosh pits are perhaps one of the most supportive the god of music, sunlight, and truth among other forms of improvised dance in the western world” things is often looked to as the provider of the (Shields, 2015). This is due not only to the aid inspirations that assist in the enjoyment of life. This offered when someone falls but because of the comparison of cultural concepts to the likeness of inclusive feeling that one gets when moshing in a Greek gods is similar to the work done by Ruth group. Since the people within a mosh pit are Benedict in Patterns of Culture. If one is a scholar of physically close it is necessary to have a feeling of the Greco mythologies the comparison can closeness emotionally. This connection allows for succinctly show the traits of a culture. The art and the improvisational aspect of the dance to be mythologies of a time period can show an observer cohesive within the group. There needs to be a a part of culture that is not directly viewable on a certain level of communication through the group surface level. The comparison of cultures to to achieve the fluidity of cooperative nature of the something that the individual already comprehends play and compensate for an individual’s inability to is an effective way of understanding a foreign have full control over their own actions or concept. A speaker from The Institute for the capability for verbal speech. Desmond mentioned Future recently told me that they (the Institute for that he felt the decision to participate in moshing the Future) use this concept when creating was a private and visceral act that is a combination artifacts of the future. When presenting a new between the things that are happening in your own concept, it is better understood if 80-85 percent of life, the world and the music being played (Shields it is something that the viewer recognizes and 2015). This puts moshing into a context where it is understands (Avery 2015). This is what makes the a meeting of the personal and the social and this comparison of Greek mythology an effective way of

19 | P a g e having an outsider understand a foreign culture. enhances the play experience for some participants. The author of “Dionysus in the Mosh Pit: It was found that the act of moshing provides the Nietzschean Reflections on the Role of Music in participant with an experience of selflessness and Recovering the Tragic Disposition”, Hawley, makes belonging to a group. This group has a level of non- an interesting point that relates to the nihilistic and verbal communication that allow them to dystopian themes in punk and garage rock genres. participate in a seemingly harmful action without Hawley says that, “A capacity for suffering, indeed extensive damage. The comradery is also conjoined the ability to draw strength from suffering and to with a set of rules that increase the safety of this use it as a means of bolstering an affirmative play experience. The participants in this game like orientation to life, is characteristic of a life form dance style can use the aggressive physicality of the suffused by the Dionysiac” (Hawley 2010, 5). In this movement to accept the negative and ascertain a context the negative discussion and political positive outlook on their own socio-cultural, agendas that are often seen in these genres of music economic and political issues. The dance can help are more of a therapy than a denial of good in the them cope with the negativity of the world and world. The knowledge of the bad and in fact the increases the play experience of the music. These inclusion of evil in the world into music can create concepts when addressed in an objective light a happy situation and dancing similar to the allow the observer to understand the play Dionysian’s ritualized bacchanalian festivities. experience in an academic format, whereas from the Moshing is another aspect of this, by throwing participant observation standpoint it is possible to oneself into violent actions; a person is actually analyze the nuances of the interpersonal reveling in being alive. The feelings, even of pain, communication that may not be obvious to a non- can point to the continuation of humanity despite member of that subculture. Further research may the appearance of wanton aggressive actions. The be conducted regarding the subculture’s moshing should not then be viewed as simple interactions with the dominant society and the aggression, but as the coping mechanism it can be. effect that this has on the play experience as well as It is important to understand youth culture the participants. Overall this paper supports the in the constructs that it was intended to be concept that moshing can enhance the play understood. Often youth and subcultures are experience in a concert setting for those who lumped into the same group as children or adults. choose to participate in it. This particular age demographic should be looked at within its own parameters, in “the separateness References of youth culture from adult society and its closeness Amit-Talai, Vered, and Wulff, Helena, eds. 1995. to the market through the consumption of popular Youth Cultures: A Cross-Cultural Perspective. music” (Amit-Talai, Wulff 1995, 3). Music is a London: Rutledge. constant in youth culture and an identifier of each subgroup within it. The concept is necessary to Avery, Miriam Lueck (employee for The Institute look at the dancing associated with each music for the Future) Personal Communication genre as an expression of the cultural identity of with the author, November 12, 2015 those who participate in it and not under the viewpoint that it is a youthful or childish Bennett, Stith, and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. 1971. expression of emotion or as an adult’s blatant “An Exploratory Model of Play.” American disregard for authority and societal norms. This Anthropologist: 45-58. dancing style and the music that goes with it, are a play experience that is representative of the Biersack, Aletta. 1982. “To Die Laughing: Paiela subculture that participates in it and allows them Games and the Organization of Behavior as to process life’s inequalities. Communication.” In Paradoxes of Play, ed. John Loy, 180-187. West Point: Leisure Conclusion Press. In this paper it was proposed that mosh pits have their own subculture and rules, which

20 | P a g e

Bloch, Maurice. 1990. “Symbols, Song, Dance and Riches, Gabrielle. 2011. “Embracing the Chaos: Features of Articulation.” In Music as Culture., Mosh Pits, Extreme Metal Music and ed. Kay Kaufman Shelemay. Vol. 3, 205-231. Liminality.” Journal For Cultural Research 15, New York: Garland Publishing. no. 3: 315-332. Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed October 15, 2015). Hawley, Thomas M. 2010. “Dionysus in the Mosh Pit: Nietzschean Reflections on the Role of Webster, Merriam. Definition of mosh. 2015 [cited Music in Recovering the Tragic October/8 2015]. http://www.merriam- Disposition.” Paper presented at Western webster.com/dictionary/mosh. Political Science Association 2010 Annual Meeting, San Francisco.

Shields, Connor, personal interview with the author, October 16, 2015

Sacharoff, Reaz. “Pit Etiquette.” in Tuscan Weekly [database online]. 1997 [cited October/7 2015]. Available from http://www.tucsonweekly.com/tw/08-29- 96/mus2.htm.

21 | P a g e

The Importance of the Social Sciences in Climate Change Research

Danielle Beckman

Introduction not been communicated effectively to those who In less than 90 years, if humankind can make significant changes and contribute to the continues its current trajectory, global average pursuit of sustainability. In order to communicate temperatures could rise by an additional 3.5-4℃ climate change effectively to the public, researchers (Roscoe 2014). This means higher latitudes will see must understand various interpretations and 20% more precipitation whereas mid-latitudes will perceptions of climate change and the factors that see 20% less. The Arctic ice caps will have vanished influence these to create the most effective framing along with 30% of the globe’s coastal wetlands and of climate change information. To gather this 30% of all species. Additionally, the frequency and information, instead of treating culture as an intensity of flooding, hurricanes, fires and heat exogenous variable, culture must be permanently waves will increase (Roscoe 2014). It is no longer placed into the sustainability equation (Caldas et possible to understand the Earth as independent of al. 2015). The social sciences need to be human influence, hence the beginning of the acknowledged and incorporated in climate change Anthropocene (Hastrup 2013), a period defined by research for sustainability because these sciences exponential increases in human population, energy are perfectly positioned at the intersection between use, greenhouse gas emissions, water use, and human culture, behavior and earth science to industrial output, to name a few (Crutzen 2006). contribute to climate change research and provide After 10,000-12,000 years of development and 200 insight into effective climate change years of intense industrialization, exponential communication strategies (Fiske et al. 2014). population growth and urbanization, we are This paper will first provide an explanation essentially at ‘nature’s end’, meaning everything has of the link between climate change and become part of the human environment (Hastrup sustainability, and it is argued that dealing with 2013). With major climate changes ahead, it is climate change will promote global sustainability. hopeful to view the Anthropocene in the future as Then, issues associated with climate change not defined by excessive resource use and research are put forth. An analysis of social science consumption, but by improved technology, careful research on factors influencing climate change manipulation and restoration of the environment as perception is described and it is argued that climate well as wise use of natural resources and control change research must include the social sciences to over human and domestic animal populations generate a deeper understanding of the complex (Crutzen 2006). Developing a world-wide accepted systems that interact to drive climate change to strategy to adequately prepare for and reduce the promote climate action and sustainability. impacts of climate change and move towards Additionally, incorporating the social sciences into sustainability in ecosystems, social systems and the climate change science will provide useful data into economy will be one of the greatest tasks of how and why people perceive and interpret climate humankind, but one that is required for the future change in various ways and provide insight into of Earth (Crutzen 2006). effective climate change communication strategies. Climate change is inhibiting the global pursuit of the sustainable use of natural resources Connecting Climate Change to Sustainability and the promotion of an equitable society. Human Modern definitions of sustainability and induced climate change has been proven time and sustainable development describe these concepts time again by world renowned scientists that make as: “meet[ing] the needs of the present without compromising up the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (IPCC); but the science behind climate change has (Brundtland Commission 1987:17). This common 22 | P a g e definition arose out of concern for the impacts of challenge to sustainable development, but also an climate change on human populations and was opportunity for sustainable development proposed by Gro Harlem Bruntland in 1987. While (Wilbanks 2003). Climate change mitigation this definition is vague and allows for multiple strategies can offer an opportunity to revisit interpretations, this paper refers to the general ineffective development strategies (Beg et al. 2001). concept of sustainability as aiming to improve Current sustainability policies aimed at outcomes for the environment, the economy and climate change mitigation are blind to cultural people in the long term (Swart et al. 2003). Climate difference (Roscoe 2014). To develop a world-wide change is not the only problem faced by strategy to combat pressing challenges, topics sustainability efforts, but it is likely to be more pertaining to climate change and sustainability that significant as a factor shaping sustainability over include culture can no longer be addressed in the next half century than technological change or separate research and policy circles (Swart et al. economic restructuring (Wilbanks 2003). Climate 2003). Climate change is a spatially differentiated change is a major roadblock in the pursuit of process, and therefore the physical and social sustainability. impacts of climate change are also not homogenous While this paper focuses on sustainability (O’Brien and Leichenko 2000). The impacts of in its entirety, the driving impacts and forces of climate change will vary between ecosystems, climate change have linkages within all dimensions sectors and/or social groups (O’Brien and of sustainable development (Swart et al. 2003). Leichenko 2000). Further, climate change must be Sustainable development is more of an ambiguous addressed at all scales, from the global to the local, slogan than an operational term; this ‘slogan’ and incorporate transdisciplinary collaboration incorporates the idea that for continued growth to (Wilbanks 2003). Society needs to go beyond the be possible, development has to find pathways that thinking of unidirectional effects of climate change achieve economic goals while finding a balance on sustainability and recognize the role that culture with the physical environment and utilizing plays in both climate change and sustainability. equitable political strategies while considering the Additionally, society must see both climate change needs of both the present and future generations and sustainability as part of a complex system of (Wilbanks 2003:S148). Climate change can and will interactions, ranging from issues of technological affect development paths, and development choices innovation and choice to questions of institutional can and will affect future greenhouse gas emissions management and design to abstract questions of and vulnerabilities to climate (Swart et al. 2003). agency, control, power and identity (Swart et al. For example, socio-ecological problems linked with 2003). climate change include ozone depletion through use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), urban air Current Climate Change Research pollution, desertification, land degradation and There is a need for a better understanding of food production, land-use, land-cover change and the connections between climate change and other loss of biodiversity, water quantity and quality, etc. environmental, social, and economic problems (Beg In terms of links between socio-economic issues et al. 2001). Climate change has been framed by the and climate change, examples include poverty, natural sciences as a problem related to the long- health, security and ability for economic growth term disturbance of global biogeochemical cycles. and development (Swart et al. 2003). The Paris The social aspects of climate change have been Agreement and the 15 Sustainable Development largely ignored and ineffectively incorporated into Goals (SDGs) that came out of this 2015 Agreement climate change research (Swart et al. 2003). A suggest climate change is the single biggest threat reason for this failure to include the social sciences to sustainable development and calls for urgent is due to the idea that “studying culture is usually action to halt climate change and deal with its qualitative and these methods do not sit impacts to achieve the SDGs (United Nations comfortably with quantitative approaches 2015). Climate change has the potential to become a prevalent in sciences” (Adger in Roscoe 2014:537). dominant threat to sustainable development, and Climate science is mostly conducted by physical climate change should be seen not only as a scientists and results in numerical data that often

23 | P a g e fails to be contextualized, which can be difficult for acknowledge, respect and incorporate differences individuals and communities to make sense of. in knowledge, values, perspectives and goals With many perceptions, interpretations and beliefs (Nisbet and Scheufele 2009). Any climate change about climate and climate change, the social communication effort should be based on a sciences can reveal how and why people engage or systematic understanding of an audience’s disengage with different representations of climate knowledge, attitude, existing values, personal and change (Hulme 2011). These disciplines are ideally social contexts, preferred media sources and positioned to improve human models used in communication channels (Nisbet and Scheufele climate change simulations and research (Roscoe 2009). The next section of this paper will 2014). emphasize how social science research can provide Climate change is a ‘wicked problem’ insight into factors that shape climate change requiring ‘clumsy solutions’ (Rayner in Fiske et al. perceptions and highlight how understanding these 2014) and poses a major threat to humans both now factors is important for effective climate change and in the immediate and long-term future. Climate communication and avenues to sustainability. change has multiple causes and there are solutions at different scales, suggesting climate change Current perceptions of climate change research requires the attention of multiple “Do weather and climate shape culture, or are our ideas disciplines to address both the impacts and about weather, climate and culture shaped by human framings of climate change (Fiske et al. 2014). organization and behavior?” (Rayner in Strauss and Orlove Climate change is a complex phenomenon meaning 2013:295) it occurs at multiple levels with differences in Perceptions of climate are influenced by severity (Berkes 2009). The systems must be many things, thus leading to the inference that analyzed simultaneously across geographic and concepts like climate change are interpreted temporal scales (Berkes 2009). Anthropology and through many different lenses. Social science other social sciences are positioned at the research on the topic has revealed that the way one intersection between human culture and behavior interprets climate change may be impacted by and can contribute to climate change research factors like socio-economic status, political (Fiske et al. 2014). These social sciences are crucial affiliation, gender, race, ethnicity, geographic to climate change research because climate change location, etc. (Pearson et al. 2017). Those who have has cultural causes, implications and solutions and had a negative experience from climate change at occurs on multiple spatial and temporal scales the individual or community level are more likely to (Crate 2011). have a greater knowledge and understanding of Climate change is interpreted, explained climate change (Smith et al. 2014). Our various and lived in local contexts based on local forms of collective life influence how we are knowledge, culture, political positioning and the affected by weather and climate which in turn like (Fiske et al. 2014). Social sciences have the creates forms of vulnerability and affects our ability to investigate these cultural interpretations capacity to reduce impacts (Strauss and Orlove and implications and address the gap between the 2013). When assessing interpretations of climate local and the global through the utilization of a and climate change, one must ask questions of scale broad array of tools and methodologies (Crate (geographic and temporal) as well as language to 2011). The utilization of the social sciences to determine the cultural construction of climate at understand various interpretations and perceptions the time of questioning for example (Strauss and of climate change is useful not only to improve Orlove 2013). The next section describes factors climate change research but also to promote that affect perceptions of climate change. effective climate change communication and solutions for sustainability. Science communication Religious affiliation about climate change to the public should be Religious affiliation is found to affect one’s guided by careful social science research that spans perception and interpretation of climate and various audiences and media platforms and helps climate change. Evangelical Christians for example facilitate conversations with the public that are split between those who interpret the Bible in 24 | P a g e different ways. One interpretation suggests of climate change. Additionally, democrats were environmental mitigation is part of Christ’s over four times as likely to perceive that human command to “be proper stewards of His creation” activity has played a significant role in climate while the other interpretation views climate change change (Smith et al. 2014). Those who did not as a sign of the ‘End Times’, suggesting climate perceive climate change to be happening now were change is part of God’s Plan and should be accepted less likely to support climate change mitigation or encouraged rather than mitigated (Roscoe policies and take voluntary action such as 2014:543). These ideas are prevalent in the findings switching to renewable vehicles and energy of Smith et al. (2014) who investigated climate efficient appliances (Smith et al. 2014). change perception, observations and policy support Nisbet et al. (2014), looked at media and in rural Nevada among Native Americans, non- climate change knowledge and found that climate native ranchers and environmental resource change knowledge among conservatives in America managers. They discover the Native American decreases with greater attention to political news group to view themselves as part of nature and but increases with greater attention to scientific utilize God’s name by honoring what He has made news. It is suggested that ideologically based by acting to pray for and protect nature. A motivated reasoning (bias) is responsible for the significant percentage of the non-native ranchers heterogeneous nature of climate change however, utilized their faith (Christianity) as a information in the American media (Nisbet et al. reason not to act because they see it as arrogant to 2014). In other words, politics is found to impact assume that humans can interfere with God’s plan the misrepresentation of climate change in the (Smith et al. 2014). These findings provide an media. example of how much climate change perception and interpretation can differ between and within Race, education level and income cultural and religious groups. Today, climate Pearson et al. (2017) investigated how change mitigation policies must engage the nonpartisan identities and group memberships populations they target, which requires they be such as race, education level and income influence tuned to local cultural models, their dynamics, and public perceptions and responses to the climate how these factors shape perceptions of the crisis because it is arguable that research on environment and climate (Roscoe 2014). identity processes in climate change communication is primarily focused on the effects Political ideology of political orientation and individual-level factors. The U.S. study by Smith et al. (2014) aimed They find a higher percentage of racial and ethnic to address links between socio-political variables minorities in the United States (compared to and climate change perception to understand why White Americans) reporting worry about climate climate change assumption, risk perception and change and expressing concern that it will pose “a policy preferences were perceived in different ways. serious threat to [them] and [their] way of life in They find political ideology to have a profound [their] lifetime” (Pearson et al. 2017:4). Seventy-one impact on climate change perception and suggest percent of Hispanic Americans and fifty-seven party affiliation and political ideology have the percent of African Americans express concern for strongest effect on perceived climate change reality, climate change compared to forty-three percent of indicating that self-identified conservatives tend to White Americans (Pearson et al. 2017:4). This racial view climate change as non-harmful or non- separation in perception of climate risk is likely due existent (Smith et al. 2014). When asked if climate to persistent discrimination in housing, change is occurring now, 65% of self-identified infrastructure development, real estate and Democrats responded ‘yes’ whereas only 21% of insurance markets, meaning U.S. African and self-identified Republicans believed climate change Hispanic populations are more likely than White is happening now (Smith et al. 2014). Both Americans to live close to high pollution emitting democratic and independent nonnative ranchers plants and hazardous industrial sites (Pearson et al. and farmers in rural Nevada were more likely than 2017). They also suggest members of minority Republicans to believe that the world is in a period groups in the US may be motivated by concerns 25 | P a g e that are less rooted in political partisanship when it values of fairness and social justice (Ballew et al comes to climate change, as minorities are generally 2018). It is noted that some of the largest gender less politically polarized than White Americans differences in climate change belief are in areas (Pearson et al. 2017). where local problems pose health risks (Ballew et Studies find that education level and income al. 2018). This could be because women are are predictive of stronger partisan divides on generally more vulnerable to a wider range of climate change beliefs and risk perceptions climate hazards due to their economic disadvantage (Pearson et al. 2017). A higher education level is relative to men (Pearson et al. 2017). generally positively associated with awareness of Additionally, it is found that women are less global climate problems across all cultures (Pearson likely to support climate change denial beliefs than et al. 2017). Income seems to have divergent effects men (Pearson et al. 2017). It is thought that men on climate change perception due to political have stronger tendency to support social and orientation, as those with lower incomes are political institutions that may be under threat by generally less politically polarized (Pearson et al. climate change mitigation policies, which may fuel 2017). Generally, those with a higher position in male resistance to these policies (Pearson et al. society may be more motivated to maintain that 2017). This supports the “White male effect”, which position and be more likely to ignore the threats of suggests white men (especially conservatives) have climate change or perceive climate policies as a greater tendency to report low or no concern for threatening current socio-economic systems and climate change than women and members of therefore threatening their status (Pearson et al. minority groups (Pearson et al. 2017). The so-called 2017). Although belief and awareness of climate “White male effect” suggests that gender, race and change generally increases with education and political orientation can intersect and predict income level, political ideology and partisan perceptions of climate change and policy support affiliation systematically interact with these for climate change mitigation (Pearson et al. 2017). variables. Climate change communicators may have Some argue environmental beliefs, (such as climate more success by focusing research on how and why change skepticism) can be a form of identity individuals across levels of socioeconomic status protection and work to protect the status awarded are more or less vulnerable to climate change by being a member of that group (Pearson et al. impacts (Pearson et al. 2017). By focusing on the 2017). All humans strive for a sense of closeness and impacts of climate change on various groups, belonging and receive this feeling through forming climate change can be made more meaningful to communities. Being a member of certain those groups and real action can be taken. communities means one must subscribe to the ideologies of said group, and not conforming to Gender those ideas can result in group exclusion. The findings of Smith et al. (2014) that suggest more women accept and believe climate Conclusion change is occurring, which remains consistent with In sum, it is evident that various groups a large amount of research pointing towards a small perceive climate change in many ways and that gender gap in climate change opinions. Pearson et climate change interpretation is based on a complex al. (2017) find women to be more likely than men to interaction of a multitude of factors that play a believe climate change is happening, perceive more critical role in determining how individuals risk, worry about the effects of climate change, and perceive, process, and respond to information believe it poses a threat to them within their surrounding environmental risks (Hine et al. 2016). lifetime. This information suggests women are These factors include (but are not limited to) slightly more likely than men to have political ideology, religious affiliation, gender, race, environmental concerns and have stronger pro- education, and income level. Therefore, it is crucial climate beliefs (Ballew et al. 2018). Proposed for climate change research to acknowledge that explanations for this gap include differences in these factors have great influence over how one gender-related value systems, perceptions of risk perceives information regarding climate change. and vulnerability, and feminist beliefs such as Climate change communicators must then attempt 26 | P a g e to create messages that will relate to the greatest Brundtland Commission (1987). Our Common number of people in order to aid in climate change Future: The World Commission on mitigation and the overall pursuit of sustainability. Environment and Development. United Climate change is a global challenge Nations and Oxford University Press. affecting humankind’s ability to create an environmentally, economically, and socially Caldas, M.M., Sanderson, M.R., Mather, M., ‘sustainable’ world. In order to promote overall Daniels, M.D., Bergtold, J.S., Aistrup, J., global sustainability, climate change must be Stamm, J.L.H., Haukos, D., Douglas-Mankin, addressed to be effectively dealt with. This is not an K., Sheshukov, A.Y. and D. Lopez-Carr. easy challenge, and effectively addressing it will 2015. Opinion: Endogenizing culture in require a transdisciplinary approach and effective sustainability science research and policy. communication strategies. Climate change research Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, is dominated by the physical sciences (Roscoe 112(27), pp.8157-8159. 2014), and the value of social science research on the various impacts, perceptions and Crate, S. 2011. Climate and culture: anthropology in interpretations of climate change is often the era of contemporary climate change. overlooked. However, the incorporation of social Annual Review of Anthropology 40:175-179. science research into climate change science is crucial as it can and will provide insight into how Crutzen, PJ. 2006. The “Anthropocene”. In Earth and why people from various backgrounds/groups system science in the anthropocene. Pp. 13-18. engage or disengage with different representations of climate and climate change (Hulme 2011). Fiske, S., et al. 2014. Changing the Atmosphere: Additionally, social science research highlights the Chapter 1 (Anthropology and Climate importance of understanding an audience and Change). creating climate change messages that resonate with various groups. Incorporating both the Hastrup, K. 2013. Anthropological contributions to physical and social sciences is crucial to develop the study of climate: past, present, future. effective communication strategies and aid in the creation of worldwide strategies to prepare for and WIREs Climate Change. 4:269-281. mitigate the effects of human caused climate change. Acting against climate change is no longer a Hine, D., et al. 2016. Preaching to different choirs: choice. Action is required at all scales to ensure the How to motivate dismissive, uncommitted, future of the planet and for the creation of an and alarmed audiences to adapt to climate environmentally, socially, and economically change? Global Environmental Change. 36:1-11. ‘sustainable’ world. Hulme, M. 2011. Meet the Humanities. Nature References Climate Change 1:177-179. Ballew, M., Marlon, J., Leiserowitz, A., and E. Maibach. 2018. Gender Differences in Public Nisbet, E., Cooper, K., and M. Ellithorpe. 2015. Understanding of Climate Change. Yale Ignorance or bias? Evaluating the ideological Program on Climate Change Communication. and informational drivers of communication gaps about climate change. Public Beg, N., et al. 2002. Linkages between climate Understanding of Science. 24(3):285-301. change and sustainable development. Climate Policy 2(2-3):129-144. Nisbet, M., and D. Scheufele. 2009. What’s Next for Science Communication? Promising Berkes, F. and M. Berkes. 2009. Ecological Directions and Lingering Distractions. complexity, fuzzy logic, and holism in American Journal of Botany 96(10):1767-1778. indigenous knowledge. Futures. 41:6-12.

27 | P a g e

O’Brien, K., and R. Leichenko. 2000. Double Strauss, S. and B. Orlove, (eds). 2003. Weather, exposure: assessing the impacts of climate Climate and Culture. change within the context of economic globalization. Swart, R., Robinson, J., and S. Cohen. 2013. Climate change and sustainable development: Pearson, A., et al. 2017. Race, Class, Gender and expanding the options. Climate Policy 3(1):19- Climate Change Communication. Oxford 40. Research Encyclopedia: Climate Science. 1-35. United Nations. 2015. Paris Agreement. United Rockstrom, J. et al (2009). A safe operating space Nations Framework Convention on Climate for humanity. Nature 461(24). Change.

Roscoe, P. 2014. A Changing Climate for Wilbanks, T. 2013. Integrating climate change and Anthropological and Archaeological sustainable development in a place based Research? Improving the Climate-Change context. Climate Policy 3(1):147-1. Models. American Anthropologist. 116(3):535- 548.

Smith Jr., W., Lui, Z., Saleh Safi, A., and K. Chief. 2014. Climate change perception, observation and policy support in rural Nevada: A comparative analysis of Native Americans, non-native ranchers and farmers in mainstream America. Environmental Science and Policy 42:101-122.

28 | P a g e

The Resilience of Immigrant Populations in the United States within the Food System

Julia Greer

Introduction resilience in ecology by listing three definitions This paper examines the experience of based on how resilience is employed in the natural immigrants within the food system in the United sciences. First, he notes resilience is relative to the States through the lens of the resilience framework. magnitude of disturbance that a system can absorb A theoretical analysis using the intersectional before a system changes its structure. Next, approach is useful for identifying several factors resiliency is the tendency for ecosystems to that limit immigrant participation within the food maintain their integrity in the event of a system. This approach notes that while singular disturbance. Finally, resilience is achieved when vulnerability factors are important to consider, it is changes occur within the system and the same the amalgamation of factors that influence the functions can still be performed. complexities of disadvantages faced by the On the other hand, Brand and Jax (2007) immigrant community (Cole, 2009; Nuñez, 2014). contribute a more metaphorical definition of These factors include, but are not limited to, resilience, which simply states that resilient poverty, language, race, and immigration status. To systems have the ability to be flexible over time. overcome this vulnerability, immigrants adopt However, the system as a whole does not have to several resilient behaviors and practices. exhibit resilient behaviors, instead, as Stokols et al. This paper will highlight several of strategies that (2013) observe, individuals and communities of immigrants engage with in response to the actors within systems can exhibit resilience. challenges of the American food system. The first Stokols et al.’s (2013) interpretation allow for portion of this paper will present and highlight key resilient pathways to move across dimensions, time, aspects of the resilience framework. Then, this scales and space, meaning that the integrity of the paper will discuss the food system as a system is not entirely dependent on set representation of the socio-ecological system. relationships, but instead, resilience opens the door Finally, I analyze three case studies that for variability within the system to meet the characterize the roles of immigrants within the ultimate goal. Wilson (2017) further elaborates on food system in three separate locations within the the scale of resilient pathways by noting that both United States. endogenous and exogenous influences may increase adaptive capacity within populations. Thus, it is The Resilience Framework possible for resilience to grow from outside stimuli The resilience framework originates from or be nurtured from within the community itself. ecological studies. The approaches that ecological DeVerteuil and Golubchikov (2016) propose that studies have taken towards resilience are important the adoption of resilient behaviors may result from for understanding and defining the framework. The an evolutionary process that is action-driven in basic definition of resilience refers to systems that response to the environment. Whether through can maintain their integrity despite disturbances. trial and error or through the development of Gunderson (2000) discusses ecological resilience as knowledge, these learned behaviors make it the ability of an ecosystem to withstand change, possible to address multiple challenges with a without altering self-organized processes and singular adaptive action (Gunderson 2000). Yet it is structures. He also notes how some ecologists view essential to consider power dynamics (Boonstra resilience as the ability for systems to adjust back 2016) in studies of resilience since power structures into a stable state. Further, Bollig (2014) describes within systems have the ability to perpetuate roles

29 | P a g e that can either further exacerbate vulnerability or (Clay 2002, Maxwell et al. 1992). Food sovereignty create the opportunity for resilient pathways. is defined as the political right to control and Inequalities, particularly those faced by immigrant produce food products (Nicholson 2011), including communities, are the product of historical legacies the ownership of products and processes related to of racism, colonization, and neoliberalism. Power food, as well as the agency of actors within the food structures have played a critical role in the creation system. of discrimination within these ideologies and ways Following the resilience framework, food of framing the world. However, the resilience sovereignty can be understood as the ability for framework reveals that despite these power actors within the food system to dictate their own mechanisms within the food system, immigrants mobility and pathways deemed necessary to can combat oppression in order to thrive and overcome disruptions. Resilient factors may be overcome the obstacles that social, political, and present within certain aspects of the food system, economic structures have set before them. making actors resilient to disturbances. However, a food system may be considered resilient when The Food System actors themselves inhibit resilient behaviors within Food systems are socio-ecological systems aspects of the system. This paper adopts the term composed of biophysical and social factors that are ‘resilient food system’ to denote a structure that linked through feedback mechanisms, resulting in exhibits aspects of resilience within its actors. interdependent relationships that dictate The food system is susceptible to various consumption and production of food (Berkes et al. phenomena that would inhibit the ability of social 2003; Ericksen 2008b). They comprise of activities groups to be resilient. First, ecologically the food involved in food production, including processing, system is susceptible to phenomena such as packaging, distribution and retail, as well as extreme weather or climatic changes that can consumption, which includes the preparation of create inhospitable agricultural conditions, thus foods (Ericksen 2008a). These activities encompass yielding insufficient or low-quality crops. Second, social, economic, political, institutional, and the food system is susceptible to social, economic, environmental processes and dimensions, which and political disruptions specific to the community can be referred to as scales. The processes of food engaging with any given food system. These could production and consumption play out at different include economic distress for communities under levels or scales (Cash et al. 2006). To analyze the certain political climates that render many unable interactions of food system activities across scales to access sufficient foods. Because food systems rely and levels, a food system can be broadly conceived on social and ecological processes, there are several as including the determinants and outcomes of its opportunities for disturbances to inject themselves activities. The determinants describe the into the production and consumption spheres. biogeophysical as well as the social, economic and In the case of immigrant populations within political environments that determine how food the United States, there are several disturbances system activities are performed. within their food system. The experience of The activities that make up the food system displacement represents both a physical relocation leads to many social and environmental outcomes. and a social transition. Spies (2018) notes these One favorable outcome is food security, which is disruptions alter the ability for immigrants to achieved when individuals and communities have engage within the food system, creating isolation access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious and psychological distress. Relocation to the foods, according to the World Food Summit of 1996 United States inserts immigrants into a system (Pinstrup-Andersen 2009). Raheem (2018) bounded by inequalities that subject immigrants to characterizes food security and sovereignty as economic disparities, while racialization creates achievements of resilience within food systems. barriers to ownership and agency in the food Therefore, the achievement of food security through system (Alkon and Agyeman 2011). Further, this adequate food access and availability is necessary isolation and racialization create shocks into the for overcoming disturbances that lead to the integration process. As immigrants adapt to their successful consumption of safe and nutritious foods new physical and social environment, they are

30 | P a g e oppressed by the systems of inequality created by intergenerational stresses on immigrants and their the neoliberal and capitalist influences on the food children that can limit educational success and system (Sbicca 2018). areas of daily life that inhibit successful integration Inequalities that specifically pertain to the into the United States. The differences between immigrant community which affects the immigrants and refugees can further complicate the engagement of individuals and communities in the potential for inequality. Immigrants who are not food system include racism, poverty, language forced to relocate and who are not given refugee barriers, and discrimination of immigration status. status are subject to many financial obligations These factors are experienced at both micro and (Besteman 2016). Refugees are given more financial macro levels that influence the individual, the tools than immigrants who come voluntarily. In my community, and the larger body of immigrants at a own work, I have observed that funding national level. For example, poverty contributes to opportunities for education and integration several levels of inequality experienced by services are made more available to refugee immigrant populations. Many immigrant families, populations than voluntary immigrants. Though particularly those who have recently arrived, refugees must meet American financial maintain transnational ties (de Haas 2005). As requirements for achieving gainful employment in such, remittances are made to family and friends to order to maintain their status, they are often not remain in the country of origin to support various required to make payments to lawyers or the US expenses (DeSipio 2002). These regular State Department to maintain their immigrant distributions abroad can result in fewer resources status. for the family within the host country. Poor Finally, language can hinder immigrant immigrants are less likely than the native-born poor access to food. Language can limit gainful to receive federal in-kind and antipoverty benefits employment and the navigation of food pathways in like SNAP and Medicaid due to fear of deportation the United States. Immigrants often do not have the and insufficient information (Bitler & Hoynes language skills to participate effectively in the food 2011). selection process when making food purchases. A second interacting factor that impacts Garcia (2014) notes that immigrants have voiced immigrant food access is racialization, which refers difficulties in food selection as they are unable to to the opinions and issues that contribute to the interpret nutritional information on packaging or divisions of racial groups. In the United States, unable to communicate with grocery store there have been recurring waves of xenophobia, attendants or producers to make informed most recently targeting Muslims (Sirin & Fine, decisions when making purchases. Further, the 2008), Latinos (Chavez, 2008), and Asians (Yip, United States has created disadvantages for Gee, & Takeuchi, 2008). These biases and bilingual or native language speakers (Garcia 2014, prejudices are mobilized within the food system in Lieberson 1981). For example, educational which employers make decisions on race that opportunities for non‒English speakers are limited oppress non-white community members either and as a result, further, impose disadvantages on through lower wages or non-selection in non‒English speakers when navigating the food employment. system. A third factor that influences immigrant access to food and is also a cause of potential Case Studies inequality is immigration status. Immigration The following case studies examine the role status can include the legality of immigration and of immigrants as producers and consumers within the circumstances that caused people to move to the American food system. I discuss how the United States. Undocumented status creates immigrants engage with the food system in stress on families which not only brings about particular ways as laborers, farmworkers, and mental and physical manifestations of stress but consumers, highlighting the ways that immigrants also limits the employment options for workers develop resilience in these roles. The first case (Yoshikawa 2011). Yoshikawa (2011) acknowledges study illustrates how migrant labor has been an that undocumented status produces essential factor in shaping the gardens of California. 31 | P a g e

The second considers how migrant labor has United States. Mares notes that engagement with shaped the dairy industry in Vermont. The third the food production process creates ownership for highlights how urban immigrant farmers in New the immigrant labor force. Though the laborers are York City have engaged in environmental education not owners of the means of production, their to create fruitful and empowering spaces. engagement allows them to develop new skills and Hondagneu-Sotelo (2014) illustrates a colorful translate previously developed skills into an narrative on the historical and contemporary environment that encourages their input and influences of immigrant workers on the gardens of innovation. The author also discusses the Southern California. The text traces trends in contributions of policy change and community immigrant resettlement on the West coast, partnerships in the achievement of resilience. including Japanese, Chinese, Mexican, and Central Immigration policy within the United States has American laborers. The author examines social limited immigrant employment opportunities, inequality through the lens of political economy however advocacy groups have stood to represent and argues immigration status hinders workers immigrants seeking to earn a living. Mares (2019) from creating ownership in their cultivation of the highlights that advocacy partnerships have made natural and manicured landscape. However, resilience possible for the immigrants working immigrant laborers have shared practices and within the agricultural sector thus allowing them knowledge systems that reimagine approaches to to thrive in their new location. gardening and result in the empowerment of The final case study examines an individuals within the community. Not only does ethnographic study of the resilience of immigrant the narrative highlight how immigrants create their farmers in New York. Within this narrative, own aesthetics of gardens, but it also points communities draw upon reserves of traditional and towards their ability to determine the utility of the newly gained agricultural knowledge within their gardens’ resources. This reorganization of space local environments. Shava et al. (2009) note that creates ownership within the gardening process the sharing of knowledge drives community and is an expression of food sovereignty, which resilience by enabling immigrants to take gives power to the immigrant community members ownership of their food production. This to take charge of their engagement within the food achievement of food sovereignty improves the system. This achievement of sovereignty has many livelihoods and well-being of community members. social and psychological benefits that allow Here, food sovereignty empowers immigrants to immigrant gardeners to negotiate their earnings adapt to their displacement and promote healthy more effectively and boosts individual confidence. food consumption. This example captures how the The author also notes immigrants have had a ownership of space creates power. Yet despite the drastic impact on the physical landscape, thereby focus of the authors’ study on the sharing of shaping the ecological processes surrounding the knowledge within the community, which furthers gardening practices within the region. Immigrant the ownership of immigrants within the workers have shared their practical knowledge to food production process, this sharing of knowledge make appropriate species selections and introduce is facilitated by contributors exogenous to the diversity. immigrant community. Environmental education The second case study captures the through local schools and outreach organizations resilience of dairy workers and their families are critical in providing resources to the immigrant working in Vermont. Mares (2019) explores the community to build their resilience against food intersection between structural vulnerability as a insecurity and insufficient sovereignty. product of systematic inequality and the food insecurity experienced by migrant farmworkers. Discussion Through an ethnographic narrative, the author These case studies demonstrate the different illustrates the struggles of Central and South ways that immigrant communities have developed American dairy workers as they face integration, resilience within the American food system. One oppressive immigration policy, and are left to theme that carried through each example is the navigate working in the agricultural industry of the reliance on external parties to create resilient

32 | P a g e pathways. Himanen et al. (2016) discuss that have reclaimed ownership of their participation in collaboration between stakeholders and outside the food system, both production and consumption resources is essential to resilient food systems. scales. The examination of the immigrant Through co-design, the authors noted each experience through the resilience framework re- stakeholder can present information that reflects situates the vulnerable situation of immigrants, diverse knowledge systems. Himanen et al. (2016) illustrating that despite the inequalities faced by argue the codesign also creates an environment for the community, immigrants have made strides to collaborators with different levels of power to reach better their situation and gain a footing within the across boundaries and respect the experiences of food system. others in the design of resilient food systems. As Ultimately, food security and food previously discussed, the resilience framework sovereignty function as sources of resilience within should reflect the importance of networks in the the food system. A shift to focus on the resilience of creation of resilient pathways. In order for the community and its individuals has the potential stakeholders to be more resilient to disturbances, to change the way charitable organizations, collaboration and co-design are essential government bodies, and community agencies view mechanisms for the innovations within systems to the actions and participation of immigrants within create resilient pathways. the food system. By shifting the lens to resilience, Likewise, Shipanski et al. (2016) discuss the the strengths of the immigrant community can importance of integrating social justice projects emerge, and immigrants can shift away from the within the development of resilient food systems. vulnerable position towards a more empowered Through this integration, underrepresented or role in which they can co-design and co-create new oppressed populations can achieve more food ways of engaging in the food system. sovereignty within the food system. Environmental education projects (Shava et al. 2009), community References collaborations (Hondagneu-Sotelo 2014), and Alkon, A.H., & J. Agyeman. 2011. Cultivating Food policy change (Mares 2009) are all a part of social Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability. MIT justice initiatives that lead to food sovereignty. Press. Sbicca (2018) notes social justice projects are also an integral part of the food justice framework Berkes, F., Colding, J., Folke, C., 2003. Navigating which seeks to overcome social inequality that Social-Ecological Systems. Building creates the disturbance of the food system for Resilience for Complexity and Change. vulnerable populations. As food security and Cambridge University Press, New York, sovereignty are goals of resilient food systems, I NY. argue that the achievement of food justice is also an outcome of a resilient food system. Besteman, C. 2016. Making Refuge: Somali Bantu refugees and Lewiston, Maine. Durham: Duke University Conclusion Press. This paper has drawn upon the resilience framework to highlight the experience of Bitler, M., & H. Hoynes. 2011. “Immigrants, welfare immigrants within the food system. I have shown reform, and the US safety net.” National how aspects of the food system in the United States Poverty Center and the Russell Sage cultivate inequality and vulnerability for Foundation. underrepresented communities, particularly immigrants. Through this framework, I have noted Bollig, M. 2014. Resilience- Analytical Tool, how immigrants are vulnerable not only in the Bridging Concept, or Development Goal? consumption of food but also in the production of AnthropologicalPerspectives on the Use of a food at multiple scales. Still, immigrants are Border Object. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie. resilient actors within the American food system. 139(2):253-279. Through various collaborations and the sharing of knowledge within their community, immigrants

33 | P a g e

Chavez, L. 2008. The Latino threat: Constructing Holt-Giménez, E. 2017. A Foodie's Guide to immigrants, citizens, and the nation. Palo Alto, Capitalism: Understanding the Political CA: Stanford University Press. Economy of What We Eat. New York, NY: Monthly Review Press. Chiles, R. 2016. Food System Fragility and Resilience in the Aftermath of Disruption Hondagneu-Sotelo, P. 2014. Paradise transplanted: and Controversy. Journal of Agricultural migration and the making of California and Environmental Ethics, 29(6), 1021–1042. gardens. Oakland, California: University of California Press. Clay E. 2003. Food security: concepts and Lieberson, S. 1981. Language diversity and language measurement. Published as Chapter 2 of contact: essays (Vol. 16). Palo Alto, CA: Trade Reforms and Food Security: Stanford University Press. Conceptualizing the Linkages. Rome: Immigration and Food Insecurity: The Mares, T. M. 2019. Life on the Other Border: Canadian Experience. FAO. Available at: Farmworkers and Food Justice in Vermont. http://ieham.org/html/docs/food_security_co Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ncepts_and_measurement.pdf. Accessed September 15, 2019. Maxwell S, Smith, M. 1992. Household food security: a conceptual review. In: S. de Haas, H. 2005. “International migration, Maxwell, T. Frankenberger, eds. Household remittances, and development: Myths and food security: concepts, indicators, facts.” Third World Quarterly 26(8): 1269– measurements. Rome. 1284. Moffat, T., C. Mohammed, and K. B. Newbold. 2017. DeSipio, L. 2002. “Sending money home…for now: Cultural Dimensions of Food Insecurity Hispanic remittances and community among Immigrants and Refugees. Human development.” In: R.O. de la Garza and B. L. Organization: Spring 2017, Vol. 76, No. 1, pp. Lowell eds. Sending Money Home: Hispanic 15-27. Remittance and Community Development. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield. P. 157-187. Nicholson, P. 2011. Food, Sovereignty: Alliances and Transformation. Food Movements Unite. Ericksen, P.J., 2008a. Conceptualizing food systems Ed. Eric Holt-Giménez. New York: Food for global environmental change research. First Books. Global Environ. Change 18 (1), 234–245. Pinstrup-Andersen, P., 2009. Food security: Ericksen, P.J., 2008b. What is the vulnerability of a definition and measurement. Food Security. food system to global environmental 1, 5–7. change? Ecol. Soc. 13 (2 C7-14). Raheem, D. 2018. Food and Nutrition Security as a García. O. 2014. “U.S. Spanish & education: Global Measure of Resilience. Urban Science. 2(3), and local intersection.” Review of Research 72. in Education 38: 58-80. Schipanski, M.E., G.K. MacDonald, S. Rosenzweig, Gottlieb, R. and A. Joshi. 2010. Food Justice. MIT M. J. Chappell, E. M. Bennett, R. B. Kerr, J. Press. Blesh, T. Crews, L. Drinkwater, J. G. Lundgren, C. Schnarr. 2016. Realizing Himanen, S. J., P. Rikkonen, and H. Kahiluoto. 2016. Resilient Food Systems, BioScience Codesigning a resilient food system. Ecology 7(66):600-610. and Society 21(4):41.

34 | P a g e

Shava, Soul, Marianne E. Krasny, Keith G. Tidball, Tendall, D., Joerin, J., Kopainsky, B., Edwards, P., and Cryton Zazu. 2009. Agricultural Shreck, A., Le, Q., … Six, J. 2015. Food system knowledge in urban and resettled resilience: Defining the concept. Global communities: applications to social- Food Security, 6, 17–23. ecological resilience and environmental education. Environmental Education Yip, T., Gee, G. C., & Takeuchi, D. T. 2008. “Racial Research. October: 575-589. discrimination and psychological distress: The impact of ethnic identity and age Sirin, S., and Fine, M. 2008. Muslim American youth: among immigrant and United States-born understanding hyphenated identities through Asian adults”. Developmental Psychology multiple methods. New York: New York 44:787-800. University Press. Yoshikawa, H. 2011. Immigrants raising citizens: Spies, M. 2018. Changing Food Systems and Their Undocumented parents and their young children. Resilience in the Karakoram Mountains of New York, NY: Russell Northern Pakistan: A Case Study of Nagar. Mountain Research and Development. 38(4), 299–309.

35 | P a g e

Vulnerability, Resilience, and Social Justice: Addressing Systemic Inequality in Disaster Recovery

Shadi Azadegan

The common understanding of the term Project's (TOP) post-Hurricane Harvey community ‘natural disaster’ suggests that when natural organizing initiative in Houston, Texas, I will hazards strike human communities, their toll is out illustrate how CBOs can apply the concepts of of our hands – an unfortunate yet inevitable vulnerability, resilience, and social justice in their consequence of living on planet Earth (Olson 2018). work to better support disadvantaged communities The literature on disaster anthropology, on the in post-disaster contexts. other hand, suggests that there is nothing natural about natural disasters. On the contrary, the Vulnerability, resilience, and social justice: a materially destructive and socially disruptive disaster anthropology approach impacts of natural disasters reveal the historical Disasters can be defined as unexpected processes and present-day systemic inequities that public events that cause traumatic damage. The place marginalized communities in harm’s way. The complexity of contemporary human activity has literature emphasizes the role that human practices increased the frequency, speed, scale, cost, and have played in leaving some people more exposed to severity with which disasters affect populations environmental risk than others, as disaster impacts (Matthewman 2015). The field of disaster run parallel to marginalization across lines of anthropology centers on the convergence of the gender, race, class, and ethnicity (Barrios 2017; natural and the social, political, and economic Browne 2015; Dawson 2016; Faas & Barrios 2015; realms that determine the human impacts of Olson 2018). natural hazards (Oliver-Smith 2002; Wisner et al. Effective disaster response can only occur if 2004). The multidimensionality of disasters institutions understand and explicitly address the permeates every aspect of human life to reveal the structural barriers rooted in social injustice that factors that create and perpetuate conditions for leave disadvantaged communities vulnerable to vulnerability, whereby certain groups of people are disaster risk and struggling to improve their systematically exposed to risk and denied the resilience in the face of future disasters. In this resources to cope with and recover from disaster paper, I will use perspectives from the impacts (Enarson et al. 2007; Oliver-Smith 2002; anthropology of disaster to discuss how Wisner et al. 2004). A holistic anthropological vulnerability, resilience, and social justice manifest approach highlights the social production of in contexts of post-disaster inequality. I will argue disasters to identify the root causes of vulnerability, that disaster response initiatives lacking what risks confront populations, who will be consideration for these concepts will fail to address hardest hit, and who is at the center of decision- gaps that render certain groups invisible and leave making and mitigation processes to support them at risk. On the other hand, consideration of resilience and human well-being (Enarson et al. these concepts can help disaster response 2007; Matthewman 2015; Oliver-Smith 2002; initiatives keep people safe and reach those who Wisner et al. 2004). have thus far fallen through the cracks. I will also Vulnerability refers to “the characteristics of argue that community-based organizations (CBOs) a person or group and their situation that influence are particularly well-positioned to address these their capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and gaps in disaster response, making them key recover from the impact of a natural hazard stakeholders in scaling official disaster response (Wisner et al. 2004, 11).” Some groups of people are initiatives. Using the example of Texas Organizing more prone than others to damage, loss, and 36 | P a g e suffering in the context of various hazards. These another, considering the patterns of disadvantage variations in vulnerability are due to factors such as that characterize distinct groups as a result of differences in wealth and social class, occupation, limited choice rather than preference (Bankston ethnicity, gender, disability, health, age, and status. 2010; Clingerman 2011; Nussbaum 2003). Social Furthermore, “vulnerability can be measured in injustice further manifests as environmental terms of damage to future livelihoods, and not just injustice through the histories of institutionalized as what happens to life and property at the time of discrimination and the economic and sociopolitical the hazard event (Wisner et al. 2004, 12).” In other drivers of industry and government decision- words, current decision-making processes will making that leave certain communities shape future patterns of vulnerability in a similar disproportionately exposed to environmental way that present-day vulnerabilities are often hazards and lacking the social and financial capital rooted in poor decisions of the past. Perspectives on to demand environmental justice (Bullard & vulnerability are also shifting from ‘vulnerable Wright 2012; Mohai et al. 2009). Social justice groups’ to ‘vulnerable situations’ that people move emphasizes the importance of advocacy and into and out of over time, viewing people as active leadership in disaster recovery in order to shape participants that can act on their capacities to policies and institutional structures that influence protect themselves rather than as passive victims of choice availability, capacity for action, and human their environment limited by embodied well-being for disadvantaged communities vulnerabilities (Wisner et al. 2004). This shift (Bankston 2010; Browne 2015; Clingerman 2011; emphasizes the adaptive capacities of individuals, Nussbaum 2003). human communities and larger societies in the face of adversity (Norris et al. 2008), encouraging a Disaster anthropology on the ground: Houston’s perspective that empowers people as agents of their Latinx communities post-Hurricane Harvey own resilience. An anthropological understanding of Norris et al. (2008, 130) define resilience as disaster sheds light on the social production of “a process linking a set of adaptive capacities to a vulnerability rooted in social injustice. Viewing positive trajectory of functioning and adaptation disaster through an anthropological lens also after a disturbance,” enabling people to weather encourages us to consider people as agents of their stresses and adapt to their aftermath in a way that own resilience, able to address their own allows them to retain their basic social structures conditions of vulnerability as long as we and identities. In bringing this definition into acknowledge and address the barriers rooted in practice, resilience must be understood as an ability social injustice which stand in the way of the key or a process that is to be supported (rather than as resources and capacities necessary to prepare for, a static goal that is to be achieved) by enabling a withstand, and recover from disasters. In this flexible process that allows people to link key section, I will discuss how Latinx communities in resources and capacities to final adaptation Houston, Texas have been put in harm’s way outcomes. through a series of socially produced conditions of The resources and capacities that enable a vulnerability that were heightened during community to remain resilient in the face of Hurricane Harvey. adversity depend on the unique conditions of Historical inequalities, institutionalized vulnerability that the community may be grappling discrimination, and economic and sociopolitical with when disaster strikes. These vulnerabilities – drivers of industry and government decision- as well as their variation from one community to making have led to poor minorities in the United another – are often determined by social, political, States today being disproportionately exposed to and economic inequalities that determine the environmental risks (Bullard 2000; Mohai et al. resources and capacities that people have at their 2009; Mohai & Bryant 1992; Peterson & disposal to prepare for, cope with, and recover from Maldonado 2016). In the case of Latinx the impacts of natural hazards. A social justice communities, historical minority exclusion and framework questions the systemic conditions that institutionalized economic disadvantages have led give unfair advantage to members of one group over to a higher risk of socioeconomic insecurity for this

37 | P a g e segment of the population. Undocumented status making use of official support mechanisms can aggravate this insecurity by limiting access to (Hauslohner 2017; Moreno 2018). formal employment, increasing workplace risk, and As the context of disaster recovery reducing access to benefits such as health insurance heightens the challenges that Latinx families and other social services, with harmful effects on contend with in their daily lives, it is crucial for Latinx families' economic, physical, and mental disaster response and recovery organizations to well-being (Angel & Angel 2009; Dawson 2016; identify and address the structural, socioeconomic, Peterson & Maldonado 2016). and cultural barriers that leave vulnerable On August 2017, Hurricane Harvey populations to forge their own paths to recovery exacerbated longstanding social, political, outside the reach of official channels (Angel & economic, and environmental vulnerabilities that Angel 2009; Dawson 2016; Hauslohner 2017). In minority communities face in the city of Houston, such circumstances, there is a risk that post- Texas. Harvey's destructive winds and over 50 disaster response lacking cultural sensitivity and inches of rainfall caused damages estimated by historical perspective will merely replicate and government officials at $125 billion (FEMA 2018). exacerbate existing patterns of disadvantage (Faas The floodwaters drained into the Houston Ship & Barrios 2015; Norris 2008). Channel (Hersher 2017), an area where low land In order to effectively address vulnerabilities prices, combined with Houston's lack of zoning and support the recovery and rebuilding of more regulations (Wallace Brown 2019), have historically resilient communities, disaster response initiatives attracted both low-income residents seeking must consider how the distribution of disaster affordable housing and industrial facilities seeking impacts across lines of ethnicity and socioeconomic to minimize operational costs. As a result, the area's disadvantage determine the types of support that largely Latinx population is low-income (Mankad Houston's Latinx families need to recover from the 2017) and lives within one mile of an industrial impacts of Hurricane Harvey. CBOs are particularly facility, including hazardous waste generators and well-positioned to address gaps in disaster treatment centers, and dischargers of known response, making them key stakeholders in scaling cancer-causing and neurotoxic substances (City of official disaster response initiatives. Using the Houston 2003; UCS & t.e.j.a.s. 2016). Emergency example of Texas Organizing Project's post- shutdowns and subsequent startups of these Hurricane Harvey community organizing initiative, industrial facilities during the storm caused the I will illustrate how CBOs can apply the concepts release of an estimated 4 million pounds of excess of vulnerability, resilience, and social justice in their pollutants into the air and as toxin-laden work to address root causes of vulnerability and wastewater (Schlanger 2017). After floodwaters support community resilience in post-disaster drained, the contaminants they carried were likely contexts. left behind (Hersher 2017), further exposing portside communities along the ship channel. Addressing vulnerability and building resilience Undocumented immigrant communities through social justice: Texas Organizing Project along the ship channel face additional challenges, Texas Organizing Project (TOP) is a including a lack of access to government assistance grassroots nonprofit membership organization that to rebuild their homes, obstacles in navigating aid works toward social and economic equality for bureaucracy, and being at increased risk of having low-income black and Latinx communities in Texas their vulnerabilities exploited. The ongoing through community and electoral organizing. Since immigration enforcement legislation debate under its founding in 2009, TOP has encouraged Texas Senate Bill 4 and the cancellation of the neighborhoods to take collective ownership of the Temporary Protected Status (TPS) immigration organization's agenda, strategy, and direction by program creates an uncertain and hostile climate using a participatory approach to address for minorities (Aguilar 2017; Ordonez 2018), while challenges at the community level. TOP’s work fear of deportation keeps undocumented families revolves around six core campaigns: (i) criminal from leaving dangerous living conditions and justice reform to address laws that lead to high incarceration rates for vulnerable and low-income

38 | P a g e groups, to demand police accountability, and to color, and right now, in Houston that means seek justice for cases of civil rights violations and organizing people impacted by Harvey (Moreno racial profiling by U.S. Immigration and Customs 2018)." During the storm, as flooding prevented Enforcement (ICE); (ii) immigration reform to people from leaving their homes and address the fragmentation of families due to neighborhoods, TOP staff coordinated a telephone deportation and to push for the creation of a path to outreach effort to ensure members were safe and to citizenship and the acknowledgment of begin assessing the storm's impact. As floodwaters immigrants' contributions to the nation as workers, receded and neighborhood access was restored, consumers, business owners and taxpayers; (iii) TOP canvassers went door to door to speak with education programs aimed at school dropout neighborhood residents in order to identify prevention, college and job readiness, test score immediate needs and organize efforts to meet those improvement, and quality instruction; (iv) needs. For instance, the organization helped to neighborhood safety, infrastructure, and direct aid funds for affected residents to purchase environmental regulation; (v) healthcare reform to food and other basic household items, organized support insurance enrollment for vulnerable community cleanup brigades, and provided groups, and educating the public about the need to guidance for households that faced information and improve health coverage and the link between language barriers while navigating aid bureaucracy health and economic growth; and (vi) voting and (Moreno 2018; Ordonez 2018). civic engagement, including raising community Hurricane Harvey's impacts were not issues in decision-making spaces, encouraging and uniform across neighborhoods; rather, they coaching neighborhoods to participate in their local manifested in varying forms and degrees of severity decision-making processes, and endorsing political within neighborhoods. In some cases, impacts candidates that can support desired policy changes varied between households on the same street. (Moreno 2018). TOP's work in Houston focuses on Ordonez commented on the need to transform the Harris County neighborhoods of Acres Homes, community perceptions of storm impacts Denver Harbor, East End, Fifth Ward, Kashmere exclusively in terms of flooding – a perception that Gardens, Near Northside, OST/South Union, is arguably reinforced by official aid organizations' Pasadena, and Sunnyside. approach to property damage assessment and aid As the magnitude of the impacts of allocation based on flood water depth. TOP worked Hurricane Harvey became apparent in the weeks to raise awareness in affected neighborhoods and months following the storm, TOP responded by regarding the various ways that Harvey could have establishing a focused campaign aimed at impacted households, including livelihoods and lost supporting portside community revitalization and income; structural damage to homes; expenses hurricane recovery (Moreno 2018; Ordonez 2018). related to home repairs and replacement of Conversations on March 2018 with Mary Moreno, damaged belongings; and stress on household TOP's communications director, and Mitzi physical and mental health and well-being Ordonez, TOP's Harvey campaign organizer, (Ordonez 2018). revealed how TOP responded to community As TOP's Harvey campaign grew, the need residents' needs, as well as how the campaign fit to balance neighborhoods’ immediate needs with into the broader themes of TOP's work. Moreno long-term recovery objectives became a priority. and Ordonez also discussed TOP’s consideration of This transition from short-term recovery to long- the systemic and root causes of local vulnerabilities, term development reflects TOP’s grounding in a the variables that can influence vulnerability and social justice framework that seeks to build resilience, and the elements of social justice that community resilience by addressing the root causes contribute to effective support mechanisms for of vulnerability. Ordonez explained that the community resilience. organization’s goal is to engage neighborhoods in a Moreno explicitly acknowledged the long-term process that looks beyond immediate correlations between disaster vulnerability and solutions to “rebuild and reshape communities with race-based historical disadvantages by emphasizing [residents’] inputs, so that they become that TOP "[focuses] on organizing communities of communities that truly work for [their residents].”

39 | P a g e

While this objective rests at the core of TOP’s post- developers regarding the allocation of recovery aid Harvey campaign, the organization acknowledges funds. Moreno emphasized communities' fear of the challenge of engaging communities in long- gentrification and detailed the systemic issues at term, future-facing efforts when many households the city level that shape housing challenges for both are still struggling with unmet short-term needs renters and homeowners. Houston's susceptibility months after the storm. to flooding, coupled with insufficient housing inspectors and poor enforcement of housing We're fighting for more permanent things, regulations, results in water damage from repeated we want to fight for policies that will flooding events that often goes unaddressed in protect us in future storms. Just because rental complexes. At the same time, a lack of your house didn't flood this time around, affordable housing in the city drives vulnerable that doesn't mean it won't flood the next groups to tolerate subpar living conditions and time. And that has been a great challenge, increases their risk of having their vulnerabilities but we want to drive home that exploited by their landlords. Moreno and Ordonez understanding. And some people say, "Yes, recounted various instances when TOP mediated I want to be a part of that," but others conflicts involving landlords that refused to repair explain that what they need right now, it's rental units that were rendered uninhabitable by not what we're offering (Ordonez 2018). the storm and used threats to keep tenants from breaking their lease. On the other hand, In order to tackle this challenge and address homeowners in poor Houston neighborhoods face immediate vulnerabilities while supporting increased flooding risk due to poor maintenance of community resilience to minimize future clogged drainage ditches and crumbling vulnerabilities, TOP has drawn on the network of infrastructure. Furthermore, homeowners risk relationships that the organization has built losing their homes as a result of new building through its membership. Ordonez explained that requirements that place the burden of flood these social networks have been a strength in two mitigation on individual homeowners. Such a keyways. First, in areas where TOP had already policy leaves families who cannot afford to raise established a presence and identified neighborhood their homes with little choice but to sell their leaders, the necessary relationships and structures damaged home and become renters in a new were in place to support community needs during neighborhood. and immediately after the storm. Second, TOP TOP's approach to community organizing members who were driven to new neighborhoods emphasizes the need to address vulnerabilities and by storm impacts have continued to request TOP's support resilience by enabling community guidance to address the individual and collective participation and choice during disaster recovery, challenges they have encountered in their new as well as by holding decision-makers accountable communities. Additionally, TOP’s participatory and for community recovery and revitalization in post- holistic approach is a key part of their successful disaster contexts. neighborhood initiatives. For instance, the organization’s immigration advisor attends Any solution that the city comes up with neighborhood meetings across all of TOP’s core has to put people at least in the same place campaigns, addressing residents’ immigration they were before the storm. So if [people] questions regardless of their direct relevance to the owned [their] house outright, either you meeting’s focus issue. This recognition of pay for the cost of raising the house, so immigration concerns as all-encompassing [they] can stay there, or you help people challenges that cannot be compartmentalized find another suitable home where they're reveals a deep understanding and respect for the free and clear in the same financial complexities of communities’ lived experiences of conditions [as they were before]. One of vulnerability. our basic principles is that people should TOP has also been closely following the have the right to stay or the right to move, struggle between community residents and urban but it should be their choice, it shouldn't

40 | P a g e

be because they're forced out (Moreno organization a powerful actor to support 2018). communities in the pursuit of long-term solutions that target the root causes of present As the city is rebuilt and reimagined, vulnerabilities, reduce future vulnerabilities, and Moreno and Ordonez expressed their concern for enable community resilience in the face of marginalized neighborhoods that have experienced adversity. "historic disinvestment (Moreno 2018)" and highlighted the importance of ensuring that these References neighborhoods have a seat at the table. In order to Aguilar, Julian. 2017, September 25. Appeals court achieve this, Ordonez also pointed to the need to allows more of Texas "sanctuary cities" law meet transformations in bureaucratic aid and to go into effect. The Texas Tribune. decision-making structures with community https://www.texastribune.org/2017/09/25/a empowerment. ppeals-court-allows-more-texas-sanctuary- cities-law-go-effect/ The idea is for [communities] to realize that they hold the power. It's what I like Angel, Ronald J. and Angel, Jacqueline L. 2009. the most about my job, being able to Hispanic Families at Risk: The New Economy, empower communities, for them to realize Work, and the Welfare State. Springer, New that they can do it, that they are worthy, York. but that they need to stand up for their rights and to be a part of the process. To Bankston, Carl L. 2010. “Social Justice: Cultural understand that they can be a part of the Origins of a Perspective and a Theory.” The solution. As long as you live in this Independent Review 5(2): 165-178. community, and as long as you live in Houston, this is relevant to you, because Barrios, Roberto E. 2017. What Does Catastrophe we're fighting for everyone, not just for a Reveal for Whom? The Anthropology of few individuals (Ordonez 2018). Crises and Disasters at the Onset of the

Anthropocene. Annual Review of Anthropology, Conclusion 46: 151-166. TOP’s participatory and holistic approach to community organization, rooted in principles of social justice and empowerment, reveals a deep Browne, Katherine E. 2015. Standing in the Need: understanding of the complexities of community Culture, Comfort, and Coming Home After Katrina. disaster vulnerability and recovery as a lived Austin: University of Texas Press. experience. Other players in the post-disaster recovery context, including federal and state Bullard, R. D. 2000. Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and institutions and national-level NGOs, can learn Environmental Quality. Boulder, Colorado: valuable lessons from CBOs like TOP. TOP’s Westview. 3rd ed. understanding of the variables that shape the systemic root causes of vulnerability has informed Bullard RD and Wright BH. 1987. an effective post-disaster campaign focused on Environmentalism and the politics of equity: responding to the needs of Houston’s communities emergent trends in the black community. of color – including Latinx communities – that Mid-Am Rev. Sociol. 12:21-37. were impacted by Hurricane Harvey. While this campaign has sought to link neighborhoods to City of Houston. 2003. Community Health Profiles necessary resources and capacities to meet 1999-2003. Department of Health and Human immediate disaster recovery needs, TOP’s expertise Services. Office of Surveillance and Public in criminal justice reform, immigration reform, Health Preparedness. education, neighborhood organizing, healthcare reform, and civic engagement makes the

41 | P a g e

Clingerman, Evelyn. 2011. Social Justice: A Mankad, Raj. 2017, August 23. As Houston plots a Framework for Culturally Competent Care. sustainable path forward, it's leaving this Journal of Transnational Nursing 22(4): 334-341. neighborhood behind. The Texas Tribune. https://www.texastribune.org/2017/08/23/h Dawson, Nigel. 2016. The Undocumented Experience in ouston-plots-sustainable-path-forward-its- the United States and Fort Collins, Colorado leaving-neighborhood-behind/ (Master's portfolio). Department of Anthropology, Colorado State University. Matthewman, Steve. 2015. Disasters, Risks and Revelation: Making Sense of Our Times. UK: Enarson, Elaine, Alice Fothergill and Lori Peek. Palgrave Macmillan. 2007. Gender and Disaster: Foundations and Directions. In Handbook of Disaster Research, Mohai, Paul and Bryant, Bunyan. 1992. Race, edited by Havidan Rodriguez, Enrico L. poverty, and the environment. EPA Journal, Quarantelli and Russell R. Dynes. pp. 130- 01451189, Mar/Apr92, Vol. 18, Issue 1 146. New York: Springer. Mohai, Paul, David Pellow and J. Timmons Roberts. Faas, A.J. and Barrios, Roberto E. 2015. Applied 2009. Environmental Justice. Annual Review of Anthropology of Risks, Hazards, and Environment and Resources, 34: 405-430. Disasters. Human Organization, 74(4): 287- 295. Mary Moreno (Communications Director, Texas Organizing Project), interviewed by Shadi Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Azadegan at Texas Organizing Project 2018. 2017 Hurricane Season FEMA After-Action Houston Office, March 2018, Houston, Report. United States Department of Texas. Homeland Security. Norris, Fran, et al. 2008. Community Resilience as a Hauslohner, Abigail. 2017, September 5. Recovering Metaphor, Theory, Set of Capacities and from Harvey when 'you already live a Strategy for Disaster Readiness. American disaster every day of your life.' The Washington Journal of Community Psychology 41:127-150. Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/ Nussbaum, Martha. 2003. “Capabilities as recovering-from-harvey-when-you-already- Fundamental Entitlements: Sen and Social live-a-disaster-every-day-of-your- Justice.” Feminist Economics 9 (2-3): 33-59. life/2017/09/05/40a07e10-9247-11e7-8754- d478688d23b4_story.html?utm_term=.a9fab Oliver-Smith, Anthony. 2002. “Theorizing 38cbc6a Disasters: Nature, Power, and Culture.” In: Catastrophe and Culture: The Anthropology of Hersher, Rebecca. 2017, October 23. Digging In The Disaster, eds. Susanna M. Hoffman and Mud To See What Toxic Substances Were Anthony Oliver-Smith. Oxford: James Spread By Hurricane Harvey. National Public Currey. Radio. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo- Olson, Richard. 2018. "Speaking Truth to Power: way/2017/10/23/558334923/digging-in-the- Please Don't Call Them Natural Disasters". mud-to-see-what-toxic-substances-were- Research Counts. February 15, 2018. Natural spread-by-hurricane-harvey Hazards Center. Boulder, CO.

42 | P a g e

Mitzi Ordonez (Lead Harvey Community Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) and Texas Organizer, Texas Organizing Project), Environmental Justice Advocacy Services (t.e.j.a.s.). telephone interview by Shadi Azadegan, 2016. Double Jeopardy in Houston: Acute and Chronic March 2018. Chemical Exposures Pose Disproportionate Risks for Marginalized Communities. Parraga, Marianna and McWilliams, Gary. 2017, September 3. Funding battle looms as Texas Wallace Brown, Margaret. Margaret Wallace sees Harvey damage at up to $180 billion. Brown to Whom It May Concern. City of Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us- Houston No Zoning Letter. Houston, TX, storm-harvey/funding-battle-looms-as- January 1, 2019. texas-sees-harvey-damage-at-up-to-180- billion-idUSKCN1BE0TL Wisner, Ben, Piers Blaikie, Terry Cannon and Ian

Davis. 2004. The Challenge of Disasters and Peterson, Kristina and Maldonado, Julie. 2016. “When Adaptation is not Enough: Between Our Approach. In At Risk: Natural hazards, the ‘Now and Then’ of Community-Led people's vulnerability and disasters, 2nd edition, Resettlement.” In Anthropology and Climate edited by Ben Wisner, Piers Blaikie, Terry Cannon and Ian Davis. pp. 3-48. London; Change: From Actions to Transformations, edited New York: Routledge. by Susan A. Crate and Mark Nuttall. New York and London: Routledge.

Schlanger, Zoe. 2017, August 30. Oil refineries in Hurricane Harvey's path are polluting Latino and low-income neighborhoods. Quartz. https://qz.com/1066097/hurricane- harvey-oil-refineries-are-polluting-latino- and-low-income-neighborhoods/

43 | P a g e

Rockport Residents and Life After Harvey: Results from the 2019: Colorado State University Ethnographic Field School Study

Sarvis Anarella, Althaea Kress, Zoe Schutte, Julie Spawn, Sydney Vander Waerdt, Michelle Anderson, Charlotte Dorsey, and Amanda Kircher*

*With contributions from Maizie Anders, Frances Hurricane Harvey and Rockport, Texas Fedele, Elizabeth Shrewsbury, Madeline Stott, John The town of Rockport, Texas, is located on Weinzel, graduate teaching assistants, Shadi Azadegan the mid-Texas coast in the heart of the Coastal and Ned Molder, and Katherine E. Browne, PhD. Bend, a geographic area named for the distinctive curve in the Texas coastline bordering the Gulf of Introduction Mexico. By the one-year anniversary of Harvey, Hurricanes and the Texas Gulf Coast disaster anthropologist Kate Browne was well into Scientists in recent years have escalated her National Science Foundation funded Harvey their projections about the growing risks of living research project with a wide range of Texas in coastal areas. At the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics residents. She realized a field school could be a Laboratory (GFDL), a Princeton University great opportunity for students and considered research lab housed within the National Oceanic different settings along the Harvey-impacted Texas and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), coast. Browne appreciated the unsung importance researchers stated that as a consequence of the of an ethnographic study in the small coastal towns warming climate and the increased water vapor in of Rockport, Fulton, and Port Aransas where the atmosphere, increases in extreme precipitation Harvey made landfall on August 17, 2017. are expected. They further stated that the “sea-level Conducting a study in these areas was also rise associated with future climate warming is important because the media had long since left to expected to contribute toward increasing the risk cover the story in more densely populated urban 1 of extreme coastal flooding events…” In September areas. These coastal towns suffered direct hits from 2019, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Hurricane Harvey that brought terrifying winds 2 Change issued their Special Report on the Ocean and a storm surge that together ruined thousands of and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate that coastal homes and properties. Harvey’s impact concurred with this assessment. The Special Report spanned a diameter of 280 miles and 22 counties in noted that because of climate change, extreme sea- Southeast Texas. In the two years since the storm, level events that used to occur once in a century are the cost of damage has reached $125 billion, second projected to become at least annual events. only to Hurricane Katrina. In light of these debates and the undeniable increase in the intensity of storms, the first year’s Methodology field school was created to research risk perception There were three main focuses of our research: and its relation to how people felt attached to the 1. Residents’ experience with Harvey – the coastal area in which they live. This research was storm, the aftermath, and long-term designed to give voice to community residents who recovery. communicated how Harvey has changed life and 2. Attachment to Rockport (place attachment, how it has brought a new awareness of risk to a sense of place) – the things that make it small Texas town on the Gulf of Mexico. The home, and whether experiencing Harvey following analysis and discussion aim to provide changed their relationship to Rockport. value to emergency managers, planners, community 3. Risk perception - which hazards local groups, scholars, and residents. residents believe the area is prone to and 44 | P a g e

where they would locate these risks on the rebuilding process almost immediately. Others maps. with insurance, but little to no savings, waited for checks to arrive. Those without insurance struggled Ethnographic methods and the social science approach to rebuild. It is noteworthy that hundreds of low- Within our research, we consulted income families were forced to leave Rockport after published data, as mentioned throughout the the storm because their modest housing was report. However, the primary research involved the unlivable. As of June 2019, no affordable people who experienced Harvey themselves. Our replacements had yet appeared to help them return findings are based on interviews conducted in June to the area. A few low-income families we 2019 with people from 40 households in three areas interviewed who had suffered a complete loss of of Rockport, each distinguished by socioeconomic their homes were able to qualify for a new home status, types of properties, and ethnicity of built by religious or volunteer organizations. Each residents. These three areas include South of these respondents indicated that they now feel Rockport, Copano Cove, and Copano Ridge. Across safer and more comfortable than they did before the these areas, there are several patterns that may be of storm. Across all our areas of study, respondents interest to city officials and emergency managers. reported that their experience with Harvey has led Nothing in this research is conclusive or final, but them to an increase in awareness about the need for findings may offer guidance for future research. preparedness. By looking at disasters through a holistic social science lens, our team gained a better Fig. 1 Household income across our area of Rockport understanding of how disasters affect every aspect residents. of human life and what factors shape who is most likely to be systematically exposed to risk and who is able to access resources to cope with and recover from disaster impacts. Knowledge from multiple disciplines and perspectives informs this work including anthropology, geography, sociology, political ecology, political economy, history, psychology, public health, and journalism. The research combined in-depth interviews with short surveys and risk mapping. The interviews gave us the chance to understand how people think about their community, their losses from Harvey, their affection for Rockport and their concerns about its Fig. 2 Damage to homes of respondents during Hurricane future. The mapping exercise introduced a spatial perspective in which residents identified the Harvey. locations of hazards the area is prone to. We then produced a “heat map” showing the distribution of these hazard-prone areas as identified by our respondents. These exercises helped us to learn how residents evaluate their post-Harvey lives and their sense of future risk. We also collected survey data from residents that provided an additional source of quantitative data for further analysis.

About Our Research in Rockport and Our Research Participants Most respondents experienced significant damage or total loss of their homes. Those with adequate savings relied on their own funds to start 45 | P a g e

Place Attachment, Social Vulnerability, and as race, ethnicity, age, health, and economic status Recovery compound risk by influencing where people live, Identification with a place, known as “place their access to resources, and their realistic capacity attachment” in the social sciences, is about people’s to recover.6 love for where they live, a “mutual caretaking bond Using the concept of “social vulnerability,” between a person and a beloved place.”3 The it is possible to discuss and explain how certain affective bond of place attachment is constructed kinds of life circumstances combined with the through physical, sociocultural, symbolic, and upheaval of a disaster can translate into paralyzing psychological components, which can take form problems for those already struggling. Our research through specific memories, buildings or shows that all people impacted by Harvey faced relationships experienced in a place. Residents we difficulties of one kind or another in reclaiming interviewed expressed enjoyment of the natural their lives. Still, the speed, quality, and extent of world surrounding and defining their town. Local recovery for an individual household depended residents have a deep connection to the coastal significantly on the specific mix of barriers imposed lifestyle that Rockport provides. The wildlife and and assets available to overcome such barriers. proximity to the water create a community with a Moreover, it became apparent that the experiences strong attachment which also creates the tourist of vulnerability and resilience tended to resemble economy that Rockport relies on. In the context of each other more within a given neighborhood than disaster, there is a direct relationship between place they resembled households across our study attachment and risk perception. Risk perception neighborhoods. refers to personal or communal interpretation of The contrasting levels of recovery success vulnerability to a hazard, a perception that can be can be better understood by recognizing how social influenced by one’s sense of place attachment. vulnerability shapes outcomes. Rebuilding from Environmental psychologists and others describe disaster relies most often on the free market, as it is how individuals with a strong sense of place important to have economic resources in order to attachment tend to minimize their perception of recover fully. Many people in Rockport live on risk related to that area.4 This insight helps explain modest incomes, are rarely able to put money into some of the risk perceptions we captured among savings, and in some cases do not have insurance on residents of Rockport as we will detail in a later their homes. Without such personal resources, section. many are unable to begin the rebuilding process This beautiful coastal environment carries without some form of external aid. When people many risks such as hurricanes, storms and flooding. were both uninsured and did not meet FEMA Hurricane Harvey also exposed a different kind of qualifications for assistance, the financial burden of risk: the resource-related risk that makes some rebuilding became extremely challenging. Some people less well positioned to recover from families became dependent on help from non-profit devastation, referred to as “social vulnerability.” aid groups to rebuild. Lack of resources is a key Even if the devastation from a bad storm may seem source of vulnerability that often remains invisible to carry “equal opportunity” impacts, a closer look until something like a disaster occurs. at research suggests that this assumption is often inaccurate. People who have few financial Vulnerability Based on Geography and Access to resources, have elderly family members or those Resources with disabilities, or have experienced systematic Every neighborhood in Rockport faces some discrimination based on their ethnicity or degree of risk from storms and flooding, and all immigration status will have their current and post were exposed to and affected by Hurricane Harvey. disaster challenges exacerbated by the same storm And yet, although our respondents in South impacts as people without those circumstances. A Rockport (the lower income neighborhood in our disaster can impose outsized demands on a family’s study) experienced less total property loss than time, income, and knowledge about how to residents in Copano Ridge (the highest income area navigate bureaucracies and outside organizations in our study), they encountered much greater offering aid.5 In short, household level factors such difficulties in their material recovery. Even in areas

46 | P a g e that were exposed to the same kind of damage storm. They took shelter in a hallway. Luckily, the during the event, the wide variation in access to two endured no storm-related injuries, but they resources shaped the experience and speed of were faced with devastating challenges including a recovery.7 total loss of their home. Because of their financial In Copano Cove (the moderate to middle- situation, the family was eligible for a rebuild by a income area of our study), residents who could religious organization but faced a 13-month afford to buy new homes did so on higher land displacement during which they resided in a two- located along the canal system, while those living bedroom apartment with 10 other people. on lower land more at risk tended to live in Households with members living with disabilities manufactured homes or travel trailers. In the Cove, face unique barriers to coping with and recovering then, there was wide variation in vulnerability from disasters as well as during displacement. Such between residents. One low-income retired couple life circumstances were not uncommon for some of experienced multiple vulnerability factors: their our respondents in South Rockport. advanced age and disability prevented them from Copano Ridge, where most of our evacuating, their low income made it difficult to respondents suffered a total loss of their homes, properly prepare for storms despite their extensive was arguably the neighborhood with the greatest knowledge and prior experience of disasters from material damage from Harvey. Residents here were living in other areas, and their location in the Cove mostly retired, and nearly all were living in fully was susceptible to flooding. Almost all respondents rebuilt homes at the time of this study. For these reported having trouble navigating bureaucracies residents, access to time, resources, and and insurance. instrumental social networks have proved major Away from Copano Cove’s canal waterfront factors in their rapid recovery timeline. Many homes that are tucked up close to the southern residents in these one or two-person households edge of Salt Lake, the other subarea of Copano Cove described how they drew on savings accounts known as Rattlesnake Point lies quite spread out. while waiting for money from insurance. Residents In this southern portion of the Cove, respondents were able to stay in apartments or hotels paid for by appeared to share a distinctive orientation we insurance, and some respondents had second homes referred to as “independent outsiders,” people who where they were able to stay. For them, there was regard themselves as self-reliant. The independence very little loss of income following the storm, unlike and sense of self-reliance of these Rattlesnake Point the residents in our other two study area residents provided them with an asset that neighborhoods. became visible through the home repairs they were determined to make on their own. When residents A Sense of Belonging in Rockport - have fewer social ties to draw on, this life Identification with place and connections to risk circumstance can become a source of vulnerability perception that compromises the chances of a full recovery.8 Many of our respondents have called South Rockport is a low-lying area prone to Rockport home for many generations. Nearly every flooding and has historically been home to people long-term resident interviewee indicated that with low-to-moderate income. Within South because of their historical and family ties to the Rockport, one respondent and her husband have area, they would never move. Newer residents been subsisting off of disability and social security shared a similar appreciation for the attractions of after they both suffered severe health complications the area, but they were much less likely to feel a a decade ago. They have 20 grandchildren in the strong sense of place attachment to Rockport, and area, and six of them live in their home. As a large so indicated they would likely leave in the event of low-income family, protective storm impact another storm. measures such as insurance, savings, and home Bethie, a resident in Copano Ridge, preparedness were unattainable. Their currently lives in the house she grew up in. After grandchildren evacuated to Austin, but the couple’s the storm, her pier was destroyed and so were the disabilities and lack of savings forced the two of trees that provided shade for family gatherings. She them to stay at home rather than evacuate for the felt a great loss for those parts of her home. In the

47 | P a g e context of disaster, there is a direct relationship significant mental distress during a disaster, which between place attachment and risk perception. is sometimes amplified by the rebuilding process. Risk perception refers to personal or communal Disruption of one’s daily routine following a interpretation of vulnerability to a hazard, a disaster can also be disorienting. An employee of perception that can be influenced by one’s sense of the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge explained to place attachment. Environmental psychologists us how her job changed completely after the storm. describe how individuals with a strong sense of In the immediate weeks after Harvey, the Refuge place attachment tend to minimize their perception was overseen by the National Fish and Wildlife of risk related to that area.9 service, and employees were asked to stay home People with a strong degree of place and focus on their personal recovery. Laura attachment are less likely to relocate after a disaster described how her absence from work added to the because their identification with a place outweighs emotional stress and left her with no escape from their perceived risk for a future disastrous event. the damage to her own home. When a disaster Findings from our research support this pattern. dramatically affects both a person’s home and The life-long residents of Rockport stated they had professional worlds, it is especially trying. no intention of ever leaving Rockport, even as they considered the prospect of another disaster. Risk Perception and Past Experiences These lifelong residents often have large On the Texas Coast, residents are well families in the area which contributes to an even accustomed to the threat of extreme weather stronger feeling of attachment to place. For events. Harvey was the first major storm in almost example, one resident continues to live in a home fifty years, and it blew up from a tropical storm to a with persisting mold damage as a result of the Category 4 hurricane in under 48 hours. The long storm, but refuses to vacate the property because it lull between these two major events, paired with was built by her father in the 1960’s. By contrast, the rapid intensification of Hurricane Harvey, people who had lived in Rockport for less than 10 resulted in a rushed response from officials of years or so indicated that they would relocate if Rockport and from local residents themselves. another storm were to hit the area. The couple Previous experience with hurricanes (or the lack Shawn and Carlie have lived in Copano Ridge for thereof) influenced how prepared individuals were less than five years. Though they love the charm of for Harvey. Additionally, the lull between major Rockport, they have already decided to leave that disasters impacted how residents viewed risk. behind in the event of another storm. Furthermore, Our respondents who lived through an individual’s place attachment is linked to both hurricanes as children noted how different it was to emotional (e.g. attachment, belonging) and mental be an adult during Harvey. Brenda, who (e.g. coherence, agency, reflection) components. experienced Hurricane Celia, stated that “It’s very Place attachment for communities as a different when you are taken care of… when you whole can also be impacted by disaster. The have an adult holding your hand, taking you destruction of the community space, Paws & Taws wherever you’ve got to go.” On the other hand, our Convention Center, in Fulton was mentioned interviewees who had experienced major storms as across neighborhoods as a particular loss. The adults were more equipped to respond adequately facility was a common place where people gathered to the disaster. Overall, any past experience had a to dance, hold wedding receptions and proms, and positive impact on a person’s preparation for and meet with each other. One respondent who had a response to Harvey. close relationship to the facility mentioned that he Another finding from our research showed had recently returned to the spot for its official re- how past experiences with warnings that do not groundbreaking. Though they were reconstructing materialize can numb people to the actual risk and the actual building, he felt that it would never be leave them unprepared for a serious event. The the same. This relationship to Paws & Taws is an routine familiarity of warnings and missed example of what scholars call “solastalgia,”10 or projections of a storm’s path lead many people to missing a place that is lost. Solastalgia can produce underappreciate the actual risk. As the tropical

48 | P a g e storm in the Gulf became Hurricane Harvey, people Adapting After Disaster waited for Category level 3 or 4 to react, but by Following the destruction from Hurricane then, it was very late. Victoria, a respondent from Harvey, the risk perception of many Rockport South Rockport, explained how she was not residents increased. Many people stated that they planning to evacuate at all until the morning of planned to improve their methods of preparedness Hurricane Harvey when she realized that Harvey though some were left with feelings of increased had intensified to a Category 4 with 130 mph apathy. The psychological and emotional impacts of winds. By then, she only had a couple of hours to Harvey are still widespread in Rockport. The prepare her home and family for the storm before continuous mental impacts on the Rockport she evacuated. community may relate to the prevalence of “optimistic bias” before the storm. Previous Preparation and Response research has shown that “people have an optimistic Because of the rapid intensification of bias concerning personal risk; when it comes to Harvey, there was a generally rushed response in potential harm, such as disease or catastrophe, Rockport from the public as well as officials. Many people think that others are more likely to be evacuated the day before or even as late as the affected than themselves.”11 The phenomenon of morning of the day Harvey made landfall. Twenty- optimistic bias leads to both more confidence in five percent of our sample did not leave the success and prosperity, as well as increased levels of Rockport area despite the mandatory evacuation risk-taking or even reckless behaviors. Phrases such posted by city officials. as “my neighbor had it worse” and that Harvey was There are many reasons that people chose a “once in a fifty-year storm” (suggesting that not to evacuate before Harvey, including, as Rockport will not be hit by another major storm for mentioned above, their past experience with storm another fifty years) were common examples of warnings that did not materialize, as well as factors optimistic bias heard in interviews. However, such as the limited amount of time, limited funds, following Hurricane Harvey, optimistic bias has decreased mobility due to disabled members within generally lowered, and more residents see the risk a household, fear of losing property, and lack of of another major storm arriving sooner rather than transportation. Those who did leave were left with later. the task of finding an effective evacuation route as In many ways, Hurricane Harvey resulted in well as accommodations. people having an increased perception of the risks Another challenge of a disaster hitting a that exist within the area. As a result, many people small coastal town such as Rockport was the lack expressed distinct plans to improve preparation of resources. Sara Williams, the Emergency efforts for future hurricane seasons. One Management Coordinator (EMC) for San Patricio respondent reported avoiding travel and medical County, stated that Rockport and surrounding procedures during hurricane season. Some even areas were understaffed for such a large stated that they would permanently leave Rockport catastrophe. Most of the disaster plans prior to if they were hit by another major hurricane. Overall, Harvey focused on response without considering the attitude that Rockport residents have towards recovery. The chaos of attending to the lack of potential storms has definitely shifted following necessary resources combined with the disconnect Harvey. between federal and local governments proved to be a daunting challenge for public officials in the Mapping Risk Perception, Part 1 aftermath of Harvey. The following graphics are the results of the All those affected by Harvey did the best risk perception mapping exercises conducted with that they could with the given circumstances and respondents in 40 households. The results are limited timeframe, but rapid intensification events presented by type of risk starting with flooding can be expected and have happened in the Coastal from rain, and by community, starting with South Bend (Brett, 1999 and Celia, 1970 for example). Rockport. Clearly, there is room for improvement in local Respondents identified different categories preparedness. of risks on maps at all three scales—neighborhood,

49 | P a g e community, and regional. This participatory mapping supplements theoretically based flood map data with lived experiences. The most interesting comparisons occur across neighborhoods with the community-level map where everyone marked the types and locations of risks they perceived to exist. This scale encompasses the full area of Rockport and Fulton including all three neighborhoods and Copano Bay, as well as portions of Aransas Pass and Port Aransas. First, we present our findings about flooding from rain, one of the most frequently cited risks by all groups. The comparative maps show how, for a given neighborhood, the respondents pointed to areas at risk of flooding from rain. Each of the three maps conveys residents’ perceptions about where risk of flooding from rain is located. They also integrate 2016 FEMA flood maps for the same area, a layer represented as diagonal lines on each map. Results of our risk perception exercise with respondents revealed interesting relationships between risk perception and place attachment. Specifically, our respondents in both Copano Ridge and Copano Cove identified the risk of flooding from rain in the waterfront areas of Rockport and Fulton where FEMA maps also identify an important floodplain. In contrast, South Rockport respondents who live in these designated flood- prone areas of central Rockport did not identify the risk of flooding from rain in their own area or nearby town center. Instead, they located most risk of flooding from rain some distance away, in the general Copano Bay area, the area north of Rockport called Fulton, along FM 1069, along Market Street, and especially around the cross- streets of Church and Market. What is striking about these differences is that in Copano Cove and Copano Ridge, the extensive risk identified by a majority of residents aligns well with FEMA floodplain maps. These overlapping maps of risk perception and actual risk are also apparent in the ethnographic stories about people’s experiences with flooding in central Rockport and Fulton. Why did people in South Rockport, with their proximity to these waterfront floodplain areas, not identify them as at-risk areas? In the literature about risk perception, researchers have found that in areas where people feel a strong sense

50 | P a g e of place attachment, people may unconsciously storm surge, but many were. In particular, the low- minimize their recognition of risk and consequent lying areas south of Salt Lake experienced preparedness in that place.12 This finding suggests significant damage from storm surge, which aligns to us that the places we are attached to emotionally with the SLOSH model’s identification of at-risk or cognitively become important to us and we may areas. 14 be less likely to acknowledge the risks that exist in these places. Knowing one’s environment and its fluctuations so well may thus create a sense of familiarity that effectively normalizes risks that others less familiar with the area recognize better. Our research points to the need for further investigation into the potential role of place attachment on risk perception. The ethnographic interviews indeed revealed that South Rockport residents display a strong sense of place attachment to their local environment and to Rockport generally. Several reasons help make this attachment clear. First, the majority of South Rockport residents interviewed are lifelong residents of the area, a finding not shared by our sample in the other two neighborhoods. Second, more than half of these residents, who are Latino or African American, maintain large families in the immediate area. And The differences in patterns of risk third, these large families depend on each other and perception for flooding from storm surge between effectively provide support for each other. In neighborhoods suggests another possible addition, they can insulate their members from risk relationship between place attachment and the of all kinds. In short, the majority of people perception of risk, as identified in the earlier risk interviewed in South Rockport seem to exhibit perceptions of flooding from rain. South Rockport many reasons for their deeper sense of respondents identified risk for storm surge along connectedness to place and, consequently, don’t Copano Ridge and the northwest and northeast appear to consider those areas that are in their sides of the peninsula, as well as along the coast to immediate proximity as at-risk for flooding from the west of Copano Cove. They also pointed to risk rain in the way that others do who do not live there. of flooding from surge along the coast to the south of the Rockport city center, though almost no risk Mapping Risk Perception, Part 2 in the town center. The next set of figures compares the three Copano Cove residents similarly identified neighborhoods’ perceptions of surge-flooding risk risk along the northern edges of the peninsula and with the National Weather Service’s “SLOSH” south of Rockport, but, in addition, they identified maps. The map below depicts potential storm surge risk of flooding from surge along Key Allegro and heights estimated by the National Weather further south into Port Bay and in their own Service’s (NWS) “Sea, Lake, and Overland Surges neighborhood. Copano Ridge residents identified from Hurricanes” (SLOSH) model for a Category 4 risk along the entire coastline of the peninsula hurricane. The SLOSH model estimates a “worst- visible in our community maps, across Copano Bay case scenario” for flooding from surge that could toward the town of Bayside, and across the result from a hurricane of a certain strength in the northern channel around the town of Lamar. Most area.13 strikingly, The Ridge respondents identified a high As was clear in Hurricane Harvey, not all degree of risk near the town center of Rockport, a areas of the Rockport-Fulton community pattern absent from the risk perception maps of highlighted in the SLOSH map were affected by South Rockport and Copano Cove residents in our

51 | P a g e

study. The areas of risk with most consensus (darkest on the map) appear along Key Allegro, along the coast of south Rockport, and in their own neighborhood of Copano Ridge. These differences may be explained using a similar framework as the risk perceptions of flooding from rain. As mentioned earlier, South Rockport residents that we interviewed show a high degree of place attachment. Most of the Copano Ridge residents in our study, by contrast, are relative newcomers to the area. Their sense of place attachment is considerably weaker than that of the South Rockport residents. It is likely that this variance in the strength of place attachment between Copano Ridge and South Rockport residents explains the differences in the surge- flooding risk perception maps. Each group of respondents identified areas of storm surge risk that align with the SLOSH model to varying degrees. South Rockport residents primarily identified risk in the Copano Cove and Copano Ridge areas, as did Copano Cove residents. Residents of The Ridge and The Cove identified similar risk in the South Rockport area, while Copano Ridge residents identified a much larger area of risk overall. The risk perception map of Copano Ridge residents aligns more closely with all at-risk areas on the SLOSH map, possibly suggesting that Copano Ridge residents’ experience with storm surge in Hurricane Harvey influenced their understanding of risk in the greater Rockport- Fulton community. Both Copano Ridge and Copano Cove experienced significant damage from storm surge during hurricane Harvey, but 80 percent of Copano Ridge residents interviewed experienced total loss of their properties as well as the contents of their homes. This direct experience with storm surge and its destructive force undoubtedly shaped the risk perceptions about flooding from surge for Copano Ridge residents who also identify such risk beyond their own neighborhood. The fact that both South Rockport and Copano Cove residents minimized storm surge risk along the east side of the peninsula where the SLOSH map does identify risk also speaks to the fact that the storm surge from Harvey did not affect these areas nearly as much as the Copano Ridge and Copano Cove areas. It seems that Copano Cove and South Rockport residents’ perception of risk was

52 | P a g e shaped primarily by the damaging effects of Harvey, Preparedness. Preparation for storms is more likely leaving unidentified the at-risk areas that were not after one has experienced a serious storm, and less affected by Harvey’s storm surge. Prior experience likely if storm warnings do not eventuate in a with a storm’s devastation can cause those who serious disaster. experienced it to shift their perceptions about risk. Concern about Rockport’s future. Quite a few residents Conclusions feel concerned about the plans to “overdevelop” The different challenges of social vulnerability. Apart from Rockport as a tourist destination in ways that the physical exposure to risk, there are many forms would encourage the building of more tourist of social vulnerability that shape a family’s capacity vacation rental properties, displace even more low- for a speedy or a full recovery. Many people income populations, and imperil the beloved, easy- discussed the hardship of having to dip into savings going residential atmosphere. set aside for other priorities in order to rebuild. Some had no savings at all. Some households have One of the interesting things we learned elderly family members who are not mobile or during our interviews was the advice that our people with disabilities. Life circumstances that are respondents provided when we asked them what already rooted in hardship create additional they would say to people they don’t know who suffering in the aftermath of disaster that can be become impacted by a disaster like Harvey. We difficult to overcome. typed all the advice and put it into a word cloud, which is an image composed of text contributed, in Problems with bureaucracies. Significant frustrations this case, from people in the 40 households where with insurance companies and government we conducted interviews. The more often a specific organizations are common and occurred word pops up in response to our question, the irrespective of socioeconomic status. Most bigger and bolder it appears in the word cloud. As respondents also criticized the endless you can see, there was one word that got repeated requirements for navigating unfamiliar paperwork far more times than other words people used: and forms, as well as the lack of a caseworker evacuate. Other advice that people offered strangers assigned to help them. was to leave early, grab important documents, be stocked up on food and water, and to take seriously Place attachment. Many people with a strong sense of the need to prepare for future storms and disasters. place attachment are likely to want to stay no matter what the future brings. Big families Notes: interviewed are lifelong residents and share a 1. NOAA—GFDL: https://www.gfdl.noaa. strong connection to Rockport. They live in close gov/extremes/ (accessed 11/24/19). proximity and can be resources for each other, 2. IPCC 2019: https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/ buffering the emotional weight of dealing with chapter/summary-for-policymakers/) recovery and a lack of adequate resources. They can (accessed 11/24/19). The IPCC is the United also perpetuate perceptions about risk. In our Nations body for assessing the science research, these families represented lifelong related to climate change. residents and share the conviction that, irrespective 3. Mindy Fullilove, “Psychiatric Implications of future hurricanes or risk, they will continue to of Displacement: Contributions from the live in Rockport. Psychology of Place,” American Journal of Psychiatry 153 (1996): 1516-1523. Risk perception and models. Place attachment and 4. Marino Bonaiuto, Susana Alves, Stefano de experience with Harvey and other storms impacts Dominicis, Irene Petrucelli, “Place individuals' perception of risk associated with attachment and natural hazard risk: future coastal weather events. Often, however, the Research review and agenda,” Journal of experience of a major disaster can outweigh place Environmental Psychology 48 (2016): 33-53. attachment and cause people to evaluate risk more 5. Katherine E. Browne, “Standing in the Need: realistically. Communication Failures that Increased 53 | P a g e

Suffering After Katrina.” Anthropology Now more recent work investigating the 5 (March 2013): 54-66 relationship between optimistic bias and 6. Ben Wisner, Piers Blaikie, Terry Cannon, risk perception, see Craig Trumbo, Michelle Ian Davis, At Risk: Natural Hazards, A. Meyer, Holly Marlatt, Lori Peek, Bridget People’s Vulnerability and Disasters, Second Morrissey, ““An Assessment of Change in Edition, (Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Risk Perception and Optimistic Bias for Routledge Press, 2003); A.J. Faas, “Disaster Hurricanes Among Gulf Coast Residents” Vulnerability in Anthropological Risk Analysis 34 (No. 6, June 2014): 1013- Perspective,” Annals of Anthropological 1024 Practice 40 (Vol 1, 2016): 14-27. 12. S. Mishra, S. Mazumdar, D. Suar. “Place 7. Katherine E. Browne, Standing in the Need: attachment and flood preparedness”, Culture, Comfort, and Coming Home After Journal of Environmental Psychology 30 (2, Katrina, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2010): 187-197. 2015); Fass 2016 13. As the SLOSH model is not a state of-the-art 8. Browne, 2015; Daniel Aldrich, Building hydrodynamic model, its predictions should Resilience: Social Capital in Post-Disaster be considered approximate. But SLOSH has Recovery. (Chicago: University of Chicago the advantage of being computationally very Press, 2012). efficient compared to more recent models 9. Marino Bonaiuto, Susana Alves, Stefano De allowing for the thousands of runs necessary Dominicis, Irene Petruccelli, “Place to capture hurricanes of all strengths and attachment and natural hazard risk: paths. These maps are also readily available Research review and agenda,” Journal of from NOAA. The lower accuracy of the Environmental Psychology 48 (2016): 33-53. SLOSH predictions, as compared to state of- 10. Knez et al., 2018 the-art hydrodynamic models, e.g. ADCRIC, 11. Neil D. Weinstein, “Optimistic biases about is unlikely to be significant for this study. personal risks,” Science 246 (No. 4935, 14. Research Report: Rockport Residents and 1989): 1232. GaleOneFile: Health and. Life After Harvey - Results from the 2019 Medicine, Accessed January 5 2020. For Colorado State University Ethnographic Field School

Generated by the 2019 Ethnographic Field School for Risk and Disaster based on interviews with Rockport residents in June 2019.

54 | P a g e

Cultural Forests of Amazonia: A Historical Ecological Analysis of Forest Management in Amazonia

Grace Ellis

Introduction complex human-environment processes involved in Amazonian forests are typically perceived as anthropogenic forest formation. wild, untouched or pristine. This perception of Amazonian forests as “untouched” is beginning to Historical Ecology change into what Amazonian archaeologists are Historical ecology is an effect way to study calling a cultural mosaic: a complex landscape the management history of forests because it created by natural and cultural processes that have acknowledges the unique historical trajectories and been in motion since human colonization of individual agents that contribute to ecosystem Amazonia around 16,000 BP. Tropical rainforests change across deep temporal scales and offers are the material manifestations of sophisticated insights, models, and ideas for sustainable futures systems of knowledge and ancient management of contemporary forests based on a comprehensive practices (Neves 2016). Therefore, it is impossible understanding of past complex human- to understand the life history of trees without environment interactions. Historical ecology is the understanding the life history of people in study of the temporal and spatial dimensions of Amazonia. Evidence of forest management exists in human-environment interactions and places numerous places across Amazonia, Brazil nut emphasis on historical events and individuals, not stands (Bertholletia excelsa) and palms (Arecaceae) in evolutionary processes, as agents of ecosystem particular, which suggests it was a widely practiced change (Balée 1998). Acknowledging human agency activity in the past and remains so today (Balée in historical trajectories and ecosystem processes is 1994; Clement and Junqueira 2010; Shepard 2011; especially important in Amazonia where human- Erickson 2010; Baleé 2013; Stahl 2015; Neves 2016; environment interactions have largely been Watling et al. 2017). This paper uses a historical understood through evolutionary and adaptationist ecology framework to explore the deep history of lenses. Additionally, historical ecology is forest management in Amazonia in order to particularly useful for understanding the understand the complex human-environment biodiversity of Amazonian forests, which can interactions that contributed to the formation of largely be explained through anthropogenic anthropogenic forests in Amazonia from pre- activities and historical processes. The next section Columbian times to the present. A brief review of highlights some of the most abundant and widely historical ecology will be followed by a discussion distributed types of anthropogenic forests of the types of anthropogenic forests common in associated with human management practices in Amazonia, including fallows, orchards, door and Amazonia. house gardens, and forest islands. The evidence supporting anthropogenic forest formation in Types of Anthropogenic Forest Amazonia, including the persistence of megafaunal Anthropogenic forests in Amazonia fruits, the hyperdominance of economically useful primarily occur in stands, groves, fallows, orchards, tree species, and the association and observation of house and door gardens, and forest islands. specific tree species with human activity in the Amazonian archaeologists (Levis et al. 2012; Stahl archaeological and ethnological record, will also be 2015; Arroyo-Kalin 2016) have hypothesized that examined. Finally, two case will be assessed to the formation of cultural forests began with the illuminate the deep history of forest management repeated discard of fruit seeds at reoccupied practices in Amazonia and demonstrate the campsites and along trail sides. Eventually, these 55 | P a g e fruit tree stands became protected and preserved forests, forest islands were centers of domestication around old campsites and settlements and (Walker 2018). Contemporary ethnographic dispersed around the region by humans. Regular evidence reveals that forest islands are purposely management of anthropogenic and natural fruit tree planted and maintained by the Kayapó who occupy stands of economic and symbolic value led to the Xingu river basin (Balée 2013). Forest islands deliberate agroforestry practices, which persist persist as important features on the landscape that today (Stahl 2015; Arroyo-Kalin 2016). Today, continue to have significant impact on local different forms of indigenous agroforestry are environments and biodiversity (Walker 2018). pervasive throughout forested neotropical lowlands Anthropogenic forests in Amazonia, (Stahl 2015). including stands, groves, fallows, orchards, house Fallows are a type of anthropogenic forest and door gardens, and forest islands, represent that refers to areas previously maintained as biotic legacies that continue to provide benefits and orchards or modified for cultivation purposes by resources to contemporary human and animal people in the past (Balée 1994; Neves 2016). Fallows populations (Clement and Junqueira 2010). The contain higher biodiversity and more economically evidence for anthropogenic activity and processes useful tree species than surrounding forested areas of cultural forest formation is reviewed in greater (Balée 1994). The presence of ceramics, charcoal, detail below. and anthropogenic soils is also a common feature of fallows, which further supports their ancient Evidence of Anthropogenic Forests association with human occupation and activity. Anthropogenic forests, Brazil nut stands The location of fallows is typically well known (Bertholletia excelsa) and palms (Arecaceae) in among contemporary communities who exploit and particular, have been documented in association manage forest resources in these areas in similar with past and present human activity and ways as people did in the past (Neves 2016). settlements across Amazonia (Clement and House and door gardens have also been Junqueira 2010; Shepard 2011; Erickson 2010; Balée identified as sources of anthropogenic forests. Door 2013; Stahl 2015; Neves 2016; Watling et al. 2017). gardens and house gardens are common across Other economically and symbolically useful tree Amazonia. They occupy the space immediately species that have been associated with pre- surrounding the house where trees, food crops, and Columbian and contemporary forest management rare species are planted, protected, encouraged, and practices include hog plum, kapok, ochoo, continuously weeded and maintained, typically by genipapo, bamboo, pequí, araucaria, cacao, patawa, women (Balée 1994; Erickson 2010). Balée (1994) bacaba açu, açai, bacuri, babaçu, guava, inajá, has suggested that house gardens and door gardens moriche, tucumã, mucajá, caiaué and other species could have been laboratories for experimentation of palm (Baleé 1994, 2013; Erickson 2010; Neves and domestication. Once abandoned, house and 2016; Watling et al. 2017; Neves and Heckenberger door gardens become almost indistinguishable from 2019). These trees species were and still are critical ancient fallows (Balée 1994). features of productive landscapes providing organic The last type of anthropogenic forest is the architectural materials, food, fuel, tools, adornment, forest island. Forest islands are found primarily in medicine and ritual items (Stahl 2015; Neves and the savannas and grasslands along the southern Heckenberger 2019). This evidence suggests that periphery of Amazonia. They are formed through a managed forests have persisted as integral parts of combination of geomorphological and Amazonian resource management systems since anthropogenic activities (Erickson 2010). Forest early human occupation of Amazonia. Several islands are situated on low levees along active river archaeologists (Levis et al. 2012; Neves and channels as well as in slightly elevated areas far Heckenberger 2019) have argued that traditional away from major rivers. They provide refuge and practices and knowledge systems that unfold over shelter for animals and people in the region and millennia, such as forest management in Amazonia, harbor high densities of edible and useful plants could potentially inform on contemporary (Clement and Junqueira 2010; Erickson 2010). problems, such as food security, deforestation, and Archaeological evidence suggests that like fallow climate change. 56 | P a g e

Dominant models explaining the Species hyperdominance also supports biodiversity of forests and the current distribution anthropogenic disturbance of Amazonian forests. of tree species in Amazonia in relation to Out of around 16,000 tree species that have been anthropogenic activity include megafaunal identified in lowland Amazonia, 227 species (1.4% dispersal syndrome and species hyperdominance. of the total) account for half of the species (Neves Forest biodiversity and tree distribution due to 2016). These hyperdominant species represent a human activity is also supported by the disproportionate number of individuals from archaeological and ethnological record. These families of palms (Arecaceae) and Brazil nut models and the archaeological and ethnographic (Bertholletia excelsa). Additionally, six of the ten most evidence will be reviewed before examining two abundant tree species in Amazonia are case studies focusing on indigenous management economically and symbolically useful palms systems and anthropogenic forest formation in (Arroyo-Kalin 2016; Neves 2016; Neves and Amazonia in greater detail. Heckenberger 2019). This evidence suggests that Megafaunal dispersal syndrome refers to the hyperdominant pattern of tree distribution in attributes of fruits that developed to attract Amazonia is largely the result of human megafauna species that existed in South America management in the past (Arroyo-Kalin 2016; Neves until the end of the Pleistocene around 12,000 BP. and Heckenberger 2019; Andrade et al. 2019). Seed dispersal anachronisms have been identified in Finally, archaeological and ethnological a number of Amazonian tree species, including evidence also support anthropogenic forest Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), calabash (Lagenaria formation in Amazonia from pre-Columbian to siceraria), cacao (Theobroma cacao), biribá (Rollinia contemporary times. Archaeological evidence deliciosa), soursop (Annona muricate), and pequí suggests that humans have been managing the (Caryocar Brasiliense) (Neves 2016; Neves and forest since their arrival in Amazonia around 16,00 Heckenberger 2019). Characteristic traits of BP (Schaan 2011). Some of the earliest evidence of megafaunal fruit can only be explained by anthropogenic forest and landscape modification in interactions with extinct megafauna species Amazonia comes from Caverna da Pedra Pintada (Janzen and Martin 1982; Neves 2016). However, (Roosevelt et al. 1996), which is situated on the the fact that these megafaunal traits have persisted north side of the Lower Amazon River across from 12,000 years after the extinction of megafauna Taperinha in Monte Alegre. Stylized rock paintings species means that some other species has been date roughly to 11,000 BP and include red and managing their seed extraction and dispersal. Most yellow geometric motifs, anthropomorphic figures, scholars believe humans replaced extinct animals, and adult and children handprints. megafauna in the extraction and dispersal of seeds Archaeobotanical remains, such as Brazil nut over the last 12,000 years because no other species, (Bertholetia excelsia), jutaí (Hymenaea cf. parvifolia and except a few species introduced with European oblongifolia), achua ́ (Sacoglottis guianensis), pitomba contact such as the tapir, can remove the seeds of (Talisia esculenta), muruci da mata (Byrsonima crispa), megafaunal fruit (Shepard and Ramirez 2011; Neves apiranga (Mouriri apiranga), taruma ̃ (Vitex cf. cymosa), 2016; Neves and Heckenberger 2019). This means sacuri,́ (Attalea microcarpa), tucuma ̃ (Astrocaryum that megafaunal fruit trees that exist today have vulgare), and curua ́ (Attalea spectabilis) were also likely been distributed, intentionally or not, by recovered from the site suggesting inhabitants were humans since around 12,000 BP. Although there is highly adapted to humid tropical forest little archaeological evidence for how megafaunal environments and subsisted heavily on forest and fruit trees were distributed by humans early on, the floodplain resources (Roosevelt et al. 1996). Many extensive geographic range coupled with the low of the tree species harvested by paleoindians at genetic diversity that is common in many Caverna da Pedra Pintada are still found and megafaunal fruit trees in Amazonia, particularly the managed in the tropical forests of Monte Alegre, Brazil nut tree, suggests a rapid and rather recent which has led some scholars to believe paleoindians dispersal that could only have been achieved were altering and managing the forest (Roosevelt et through human activity and disturbance (Shepard al. 1996; Schaan 2011; Stahl 2015). The evidence and Ramirez 2011; Neves 2016). 57 | P a g e from sites like Caverna da Pedra Pintada traditional knowledge of the Ka’apor of Amazonia demonstrates paleoindians were utilizing a broad in reference to the domain of trees shows range of forest resources and possibly modifying recognition of pre-existing phenotypic diversity. landscapes during the late Pleistocene in Amazonia. The traditional knowledge of anthropogenic forests According to the pollen and phytolith among the Ka’apor reflects the long-term presence evidence from the archaeological record, forest of humans in Amazonia and the impacts on floral management intensified across Amazonia around and faunal diversity and distribution. Although 4,000 BP and persisted until European contact some scholars (Piperno et al. 2019) have argued that when intensity of forest management practices human occupation of tropical forests can result in decreased (Neves 2016; Watling et al. 2017; Walker decreased biodiversity, most research shows that 2018; Watling et al. 2018). Pollen and phytolith the hyperdiversity of Amazonian forests is largely evidence can provide valuable paleoecological data, related to indigenous knowledge systems and including tree species type, distribution, frequency, ancient management practices (Balée 1994; and forest canopy characteristics, that can be Clement and Junqueira 2010; Shepard and Ramirez linked to human management practices, such as 2011; Arroyo-Kalin 2016; Neves and Heckenberger forest clearing and agroforestry, making them 2019). Ancient and contemporary indigenous crucial sources of information for understanding knowledge systems and forest management the unique historical trajectories of ancient forests. practices have shaped both short-term and long- The pollen and phytolith data from numerous term species richness and hyperdiversity in archaeological sites across Amazonia indicate that Amazonia. Indigenous subsistence strategies and around 4,000 BP widespread forest clearance forest management practices in Amazonia are occurred followed by an increase in canopy cover of composed of mixed and diversified cultivation certain economically and symbolically useful tree systems that are based on non-domesticated tree species, particularly palms (Watling et al. 2017; arboriculture and root crops and domesticated Walker 2018; Watling et al. 2018). This trend cereals and legumes (Neves and Heckenberger persists until European contact when there is a 2019). Cultivated root crops, such as manihot, massive spike in arboreal pollen suggesting calattea, and xanthosoma, have contributed to indigenous forest management practices were short-term species diversity, while managed trees, largely abandoned and managed stands and open such as palms, pequi, açaí, and Brazil nut, have clearings became overgrown (Walker 2018). contributed to long-term species richness and Additional archaeological evidence supporting hyperdiversity (Neves and Heckenberger 2019). intensive anthropogenic forest management around The rich mosaic of species hyperdiversity evidenced 4,000 BP to contact include the presence of human in Amazonia is largely the result of indigenous engineered soils, earthworks, ceramics and charcoal forest management and cultivation practices that in association with particular tree species and convert forest to forest, not forest to open area as is forest stands (Clement and Junqueira 2010; Levis et common in other areas of the world. al. 2012; Arroyo-Kalin 2016; Watling et al. 2017; The archaeological and ethnographic record Walker 2018; Watling et al. 2018; Neves and and the models of megafaunal dispersal syndrome Heckenberger 2019). These archaeological findings and hyperdominant species provide lines of point to sophisticated knowledge systems and evidence of forest formation directly and indirectly ancient management practices that materially linked to human disturbances and activities manifested in the soils, forests, and landscapes of beginning with human colonization of Amazonia Amazonia. and persisting until contemporary times. Two case Forest management practices still persist studies will be reviewed to demonstrate the deep today as evidenced in numerous ethnographic temporal history of anthropogenic forests in accounts from across Amazonia. Ethnographic Amazonia and reveal the complex human- evidence from the Ka’apor in central and eastern environment interactions and indigenous Amazonia reveals linguistic distinctions between management practices involved in the creation of anthropogenic forests and primary forests (Balée cultural forests and landscape legacies. The first 2013). Balée (2013) has also observed that the case study will focus on forest islands of south

58 | P a g e western Amazonian savannas and grasslands of This study is based on William Balée’s Bolivia. The second case study will examine fallows, (1994, 2013) ethnographic work among the Ka’apor orchards, and door gardens of the Ka’apor in central of eastern Amazonia where evidence of forest and eastern Amazonia. management persists among contemporary indigenous Ka’apor horticulturalists. Linguistic Case Study I: Forest Islands of the Bolivian Amazon evidence suggests knowledge of plant management This study is based off the work of John spans at least 2,000 years. However, Balée believes Walker (2018), who has identified over 2,000 forest indigenous knowledge systems and ancient islands in the west central Llanos de Mojos of the management practices surrounding agroforestry go Bolivian Amazon. This region is characterized by back even further in this region of Amazonia. In savannas, grasslands, and gallery forests that line pre-Columbian times, the population density was major and tributary rivers. Forest islands are greater and forest management was more intensive, typically situated away from main rivers on slightly as evidenced in fallows which are ancient orchards elevated land, which rules out deposition due to that were maintained around pre-Columbian river channel meandering, and are composed of settlements. Fallows in this region of Amazonia closed canopy and little to no grass. Walker has have very high species diversity, which is absent in documented nearly 8,000 years of human history surrounding forests and contemporary and engagement with forest management in this monocultural rice fields and cattle farms, region. suggesting that ancient indigenous activity Around 8,000 BP, human occupation is enhanced regional biodiversity. evidenced in the area in the form of ceramics. Today, plant management is associated with Between 3,000 BP to 1,300 BP, raised fields were birth, expansion, and decay of agricultural constructed and used for agriculture, gallery forests settlements. Once resources are exhausted, the along main rivers and tributaries were cleared, and Ka’apor move and create new swiddens, which are there is evidence of extensive use of fire related to areas of land that have been cleared of vegetation forest and agricultural management practices. for crop cultivation, and eventually establish new Forest island construction and habitation occurs settlements. The Ka’apor typically do not fell fallow around 1,300 BP, along with more intensive forests for swiddens because they harbor many agricultural practices in larger raised fields. From useful palm species and fruit groves. Although 1,000 BP until contact, anthropogenic soils are swidden agriculture is practiced today, indigenous evidenced in forest islands and there is an increased Ka’apor claim their ancestors did not practice reliance on forest resources, especially palms, rather swidden agriculture. than agricultural products from raised fields. After Along with managing ancient fallow forests contact, there is less evidence of fire use to manage and swiddens, contemporary Ka’apor also manage the landscape and an increase in arboreal pollen, trees along rivers and creeks to attract fish with the which suggests forest islands were abandoned and fruit to hunt them and manage door gardens where overgrown with closed canopy tree species. a variety of local and non-local species are Today, forest islands persist as prominent maintained. Balée (1994) has hypothesized that places of local knowledge that harbor useful plant door gardens could be possible locus of species and valuable hunting grounds, provide experimentation and domestication. After refuge for livestock and wild animals, and represent abandonment, door gardens can become local landmarks. This case study demonstrates the indistinguishable from fallow forests unlike long temporal scale of human-environment swiddens that are temporary and short lived. This interactions and ancient management practices that case study demonstrates the deep history of forest contributed to the creation of forest islands in the management practices among the Ka’apor and Bolivian Amazon. reveals how indigenous knowledge systems increase biodiversity in eastern Amazonia, unlike Case Study II: Fallows, Orchards and Door Gardens of other contemporary practices of monocrop Eastern Amazonia production and cattle ranching that lead to deforestation and lower biodiversity.

59 | P a g e

Conclusion Caetano Andrade, V., Levis, C., Clement, C., This paper illuminates the long history of Roberts, P., & Schöngart, J. 2019. Growth forest management practices in Amazonia, which rings of Brazil nut trees (Bertholletia challenges traditional perceptions of Amazonian excelsa) as a living record of historical forests and landscapes as wild, pristine, and human disturbance in Central untouched. Amazonian forests are the result of Amazonia. PLoS One, 14(4):e0214128. complex, long-term human-environment processes https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214128 that have been in motion since pre-Columbian times and that have contributed to the rich Clement, Charles R., and Andre ́ B. Junqueira. 2010. biodiversity evidenced in the contemporary Between a Pristine Myth and an landscape. Contemporary forest management Impoverished Future. Biotropica, 42 (5):534- practices among indigenous Amazonians represent 536. doi: 10.1111/j.1744- 7429.2010.00674.x. models based on indigenous knowledge and ancient management practices that build resilience into Erickson, C. 2010. The Transformation of food production systems and maintenance of Environment into Landscape: The Historical biodiversity (Clement and Junqueira 2010). Ecology of Monumental Earthwork Additionally, this paper demonstrates the Construction in the Bolivian importance and usefulness of historical ecology, Amazon. Diversity, 2(4):618–652. especially for research in Amazonia, because it https://doi.org/10.3390/d2040619 acknowledges historical processes and individual agency in the creation of landscape and ecosystem Janzen, D., and Martin, P. 1982. Neotropical formation. Anachronisms: The Fruits the Gomphotheres Ate. Science, 215(4528):19-27. References Arroyo-Kalin, Manuel. 2016. “Landscaping, Levis C, Souza PFd, Schietti J, Emilio T, Pinto Landscape Legacies, and Landesque Capital JLPdV, et al. 2012. Historical Human in Pre-Columbian Amazonia.” In The Oxford Footprint on Modern Tree Species Handbook of Historical Ecology and Applied Composition in the Purus-Madeira Archaeology, edited by Christian Isendahl and Interfluve, Central Amazonia. PLoS ONE, Daryl Stump. Oxford: Oxford University 7(11): e48559. Press. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048559 https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/978019967 2691.013.16. Neves, Eduardo Goes. 2016. “A tale of three species or the ancient soul of tropical forests.” In Balee,́ William L. 2013. Cultural forests of the Amazon a Tropical forest conservation: long-term processes of historical ecology of people and their landscapes. human evolution, cultural adaptations and Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. consumption patterns, p. 229-244. Paris: United ------1998. Advances in Historical Ecology. Historical Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Ecology Series. New York: Perseus Books, Organization. LLC. ------1994. Footprints of the forest: Ka'apor ethnobotany- Neves, Eduardo G. and Michael J. Heckenberger. - the historical ecology of plant utilization by an 2019. The Call of the Wild: Rethinking Food Amazonian people. New York: Columbia Production in Ancient Amazonia. Annual University Press. Review of Anthropology 48(1):371-388.

Piperno, D., Mcmichael, C., & Bush, M. 2019. Finding forest management in prehistoric Amazonia. Anthropocene 26(100211). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2019.100211 60 | P a g e

Roosevelt, A. C, M. Lima da Costa, C. Lopes Walker, John H. 2018. Island, river, and field: landscape Machado, M Michab, N Mercier, H archaeology in the Llanos de Mojos. Albuquerque: Valladas, J Feathers, et al. 1996. Paleoindian University of New Mexico Press. Cave Dwellers in the Amazon: The Peopling of the Americas. Science 272 (5260): 373–84. Watling, Jennifer, Francis E Mayle, and Denise Schaan. 2018. Historical Ecology, Human Schaan, Denise Pahl. 2011. Sacred geographies of ancient Niche Construction and Landscape in Pre- Amazonia: historical ecology of social complexity. Columbian Amazonia: A Case Study of the Walnut Creek, Calif: Left Coast Press. Geoglyph Builders of Acre, Brazil. Journal of http://site.ebrary.com/id/10511649 Anthropological Archaeology 50:128–139.

Shepard, Glenn H., and Henri Ramirez. 2011. 'Made Watling, J., J. Iriarte, F. E. Mayle, D. Schaan, L. C. in Brazil’: Human Dispersal of the Brazil Pessenda, N. J. Loader, F. A. Street- Perrott, Nut (Bertholletia excelsa, Lecythidaceae) in R. E. Dickau, A. Damasceno, and A. Ranzi. Ancient Amazonia1. Economic Botany, 2017. Impact of pre- Columbian "geoglyph" 65(1):44-65. doi: 10.1007/s12231-011-9151-6. builders on Amazonian forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United Stahl, P. 2015. Interpreting interfluvial landscape States of America, 114(8):1868-1873. doi: transformations in the pre-Columbian 10.1073/pnas.1614359114. Amazon. The Holocene, 25(10):1598–1603. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683615588372

61 | P a g e

Traditional Ecological Knowledge and the National Environmental Policy Act: Integrating Indigenous Perspectives, Sustainable Resource Stewardship, and Environmental Impacts Analysis

Paul Buckner

Introduction the impression that they are an “obstacle” to be The National Environmental Policy Act overcome, rather than a true collaborative partner (NEPA) of 1969 is the landmark legislation guiding (ACHP 2017: 8). Recent controversies over the environmental policy in the United States. NEPA Dakota Access Pipeline, reduction of Bears Ears requires federal agencies to identify environmental National Monument, and energy development impacts likely to result from a proposed action and adjacent to Chaco Canyon National Historic Park, consider alternatives which may minimize or all reinforce the need for a more socially conscious reduce environmental impacts. Since its enactment and indigenous-inclusive NEPA. Particularly 50 years ago, NEPA has fundamentally changed because the statutory text of NEPA requires how federal agencies approach environmental agencies to utilize an “interdisciplinary approach” issues and evaluate the impacts of their actions. which considers the “integrated use of the natural While it has been successful in establishing and social sciences”, NEPA practitioners must processes for evaluating environmental impacts, make greater use of social and cultural knowledge serious criticisms have been levied against NEPA to create a more collaborative and holistic decision- due to its failure to adequately consider indigenous making process (Boggs 1990; NEPA 1970: § perspectives in environmental reviews. The most 4332(a)). serious criticisms have cast NEPA as “silencing […] One of the most effective ways Native American worldviews” in environmental environmental planners could improve management and enabling the “…perpetuation of collaboration with indigenous populations, colonialist attitudes towards Native peoples” legitimize Native American worldviews, and (Dongoske et al. 2015: 36). These critiques promote sustainable management, is through constitute a serious indictment of an otherwise consideration of traditional ecological knowledge lauded policy achievement and shed light on the (TEK) in the NEPA decision-making process. increasingly contentious issue of indigenous rights Archaeological and ethnographic evidence in management of public lands. In recent years, a increasingly demonstrates what indigenous list of highly publicized legal battles between tribes populations have long contended, that thousands of and the federal government has continued to grow, years of indigenous management of the and these discourses have placed the issue at the environment has left an “indelible imprint” on the forefront of the national consciousness. Particularly North American landscape which has persisted to as the United States continues to wrestle with its the present day (Anderson 2005: 4). Indigenous historical disenfranchisement of Native Americans, peoples’ role in fire regimes, forest composition, and federal policy towards indigenous peoples and land even floodplain development are just a few management is subject to growing scrutiny. While examples of the dynamic ways the North American federal agencies regularly seek tribal consultation landscape is fundamentally managed and altered under the joint provisions of the National Historic (Roos et al. 2018; Stinchcomb et al. 2011; Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966 and NEPA, Tulowiecki and Larsen 2015). Accordingly, natural consultation is often cursory and tribes are left with resource managers increasingly recognize TEK, or

62 | P a g e the “cumulative body of knowledge, belief, and for greater implementation of TEK in NEPA practice” which guides interactions between environmental impacts analysis. “traditional groups and […] their environment”, for its potential to promote sustainable management Decision-Making under the National practices (Berkes 1993). Though TEK and Western Environmental Policy Act: A Review Science have been erroneously cast as antithetical, NEPA constitutes one of the most they offer diverse ways of interpreting observations significant environmental policy initiatives in and approaching human interactions with the United States history, leading environmentalists to environment from multiple beneficial perspectives describe the statute as the “Magna Carta of (Hatfield et al. 2018). Particularly in the social and environmental law” (Luther 2005: 2). Signed into natural context of NEPA, indigenous knowledge law on January 1, 1970, Congress enacted NEPA offers a “philosophy that sees humans’ role in the with the intent of creating a nationwide environment as one of stewardship”, a perspective environmental policy which would “prevent or which is ever more necessary in the age of climate eliminate damage to the environment” and establish change (Anderson 2005: 364). Collectively, it is an “enjoyable harmony” between the nation’s needs increasingly clear that land managers must evaluate and its environmental resources (NEPA 1970: § environmental issues in social, cultural, and natural 4321). Despite these lofty conservationist goals, dimensions, an approach which will allow agencies NEPA is a procedural statue which outlines only to better comply with the original spirit of NEPA the process through which agencies must weigh (Hatfield et al. 2018). In this way, TEK and probable environmental impacts and their Western Science are mutually complementary, alternatives. The courts have consistently reiterated rather than competing, epistemologies which can that the law does not impose substantive cooperatively benefit NEPA analyses. requirements on agencies, meaning that NEPA’s Though consideration of TEK in NEPA aspirational objective to “prevent or eliminate promises to improve collaboration with damage to the environment” is not inherently stakeholders and offer a more holistic enforceable in itself (Luther 2005:9; NEPA 1970: interdisciplinary and multidimensional approach to §4321). Accordingly, agencies are under no legal sustainable management, obstacles and questions obligation to choose the least environmentally remain. NEPA is a procedural statute, and inclusion detrimental course of action, nor is there a mandate of TEK could potentially breach the rigid confines to limit environmental impacts. Rather, the spirit of of the decision-making process imposed on NEPA is in consultation and public participation; agencies by NEPA (Moffa 2016). The application of agencies collaborate with stakeholders to consider TEK has likewise been compared to adaptive impacts and arrive at an outcome which best fulfills management, a management methodology based on agency needs while minimizing the environmental responding to uncertainty, which has become cost. famously difficult to implement in compliance with NEPA decision-making, as currently the strict procedural provisions of NEPA (Berkes et practiced by federal agencies, is contingent on a al. 2000; Schultz and Nie 2012). These series of evaluations which determine the scope of considerations pose the questions, is TEK the ultimate analyses. First, an agency must procedurally compatible with environmental determine if potential effects are likely to have impacts analysis under NEPA? To what extent is significant impacts on the environment (CEQ 2005). indigenous knowledge currently applied by federal In cases where an agency is completing a routine agencies in public lands management? And, what task such as regular maintenance, where no opportunities for integration of TEK exist in reasonably foreseeable impacts will occur, the contemporary NEPA practice? Through an analysis agency can omit the action from NEPA analysis as a of the NEPA decision-making process, categorical exclusion (CE). In cases where effects contemporary engagement between federal are uncertain, agencies prepare an environmental agencies and indigenous peoples in environmental assessment (EA) to evaluate whether an action is policy, and current applications of TEK in likely to have a significant environmental impact. If management, this analysis will present the rationale the agency identifies no significant impacts, 63 | P a g e following completion of an EA, a Finding of No obstacle which has limited incorporation of TEK in Significant Impact (FONSI) is issued. If an EA management is that TEK is not necessarily a static determines a significant impact is likely to occur, form of knowledge. Rather, TEK is best represented the agency must complete an Environmental as a process through which observations are Impact Statement (EIS). EIS reviews are the most interpreted (Berkes 2009: 153). In many ways, intensive level of analysis under NEPA. In preparing misperceptions of TEK can erroneously feed into an EIS, agencies must analyze direct, indirect, and pervasive stereotypes towards indigenous cumulative impacts of a project, seek public populations and their connections with the natural comment, and develop alternatives which minimize world. Such stereotypes, such as the long-standing the likely environmental impacts (CEQ 2005). perception of indigenous peoples as living in Once the agency has taken a ‘hard look’ at effortless harmony with nature, are fallacious and environmental impacts and possible alternatives, advance harmful mischaracterizations and and considered public comments, the agency may prejudices which limit the real potential of TEK in select the course of action which best fits their natural resource planning (Briggs et al. 2006; project needs (Luther 2005). Johannes 1993). When incorporating TEK into the NEPA process, it is important for practitioners to Applications of Traditional Ecological recognize these misrepresentations and avoid Knowledge in Natural Resource Management misuses which could comprise TEK’s potential TEK and indigenous ways of knowing have applications to environmental impacts analysis. been the subject of expanding interest in natural resource management since their “rediscovery” in TEK and Environmental Policy in the United the 1980’s and early 1990’s (Berkes et al. 2000:1259; States Inglis 1993; Moffa 2016). As a highly place-based Just as TEK is increasingly recognized in the knowledge system, and the long-term body of natural resource management field, there is some knowledge curated and passed-down by precedent for the application of TEK in existing indigenous peoples, TEK retains a high potential to environmental policy in the United States. The contribute to many of the most critical issues statutory text of NEPA mandates consideration of currently facing natural resource management. social and cultural knowledge in decision-making, Though indigenous knowledge systems and and regulations for implementation of the NEPA Western Science were once portrayed as process consequently require tribal consultation incompatible and competing knowledge systems, under certain circumstances (Boggs 1990; CEQ they have been steadily more accepted as 2005; NEPA 1970). The Council on Environmental complimentary ways of understanding complex Quality (2005) regulations require NEPA planners issues in multiple physical, social, and cultural to consult with tribes early in the process dimensions (Hatfield et al. 2018). Recent studies (§1501.2(d)), invite tribes to participate in scoping have emphasized potential contributions of TEK to (§1501.7(a)(1)), consider conflicts between agencies’ some of the most complex issues in natural resource proposed actions and tribal management policies management today, including climate change (§1502.16(c)), and include tribes in decision-making adaption and response, fire management, and when effects may impact reservations protection of endangered species (USFS 2013; Ray (§1503.1(a)(2), §1506.6(b)(3)(ii)) (FWS 2018). In et al. 2012; Robson et al. 2010). Particularly when many cases, however, these requirements do not go challenges facing environmental managers are far enough. Tribal consultation under NEPA is increasingly social, as well as natural, TEK is seen often undertaken alongside laws such as the as bridging the gap between these inherently National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966 interconnected human and environmental systems or the American Indian Religious Freedom Act (USFS 2013). (AIRFA) 0f 1978. As consultation is largely Though perspectives on TEK have shifted, conducted under these statues, which emphasize and Western scholars have acknowledged its coordination with tribes on archaeological resource contributions to promoting sustainable land use, management rather than cooperative environmental indigenous knowledge is not monolithic. One management, indigenous perspectives are 64 | P a g e effectively curtailed to discussions of cultural to seek information on indigenous knowledge and resources in NEPA documents (Dongoske et al. land ethics in developing long-term plans for the 2015). Subsequently, there is a perception among National Forest System (USFS 2012: §219.4(a)(3)). tribal groups that they are viewed as “obstacles” or In 2016, the National Park Service (NPS) as a “check the box” step of the NEPA process recognized the right of tribal groups to perform (ACHP 2017: 8). Given the codification of social traditional cultural practices, such as gathering knowledge considerations in the statutory text of plants, in National Parks (NPS 2016). This rule NEPA, contemporary consultation practices do not opened doors for greater collaboration and sufficiently utilize tribal knowledge. Particularly as transmission of knowledge between tribal groups NEPA consultation is often undertaken and the agency, while building mutual trust concurrently with NHPA consultation, a distinct between indigenous groups and the federal consultation process is needed to allow for government. A significant breakthrough came in transmission and sharing of TEK in tribal 2017, when the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) consultation. published its Resource Management Planning Rule The conceptual groundwork for wider which considered TEK as “high quality implementation of TEK in NEPA already exists in information” alongside Western Science (BLM federal land management planning and rulemaking. 2017a). The 2017 rule recognized the potential for Under Section 110 and 119 of the Marine Mammal TEK to inform the preparation of sustainable Protection Act (MMPA), for example, Alaska resource management plans, under the condition Native organizations are given co-management that rigorous ethnographic research methods were rights and agencies may consider traditional employed in documenting relevant indigenous knowledge alongside “best available scientific knowledge (BLM 2017a). The effectiveness of TEK information” (MMPA 1972 as amended through in the BLM’s resource management is unclear, 2018, Section 110(d)(2)(1) and Section 119). As a however, as the newly inaugurated Trump legal term, best available science refers to the administration revoked the rule before it could be highest quality data readily available from the fully implemented (BLM 2017b). Though the final scientific community, and the inclusion of rule was a casualty of the Trump administration’s traditional knowledge under this standard is a wider deregulation priorities, it demonstrates significant milestone towards wider recognition of changing paradigms in land management and the TEK (Moffa 2016). In 1997, the Secretary of the role of indigenous peoples in shaping agency Interior issued an order reinforcing the decision-making. government-to-government nature of tribal Discussion of TEK in existing case law is consultations and compelling federal agencies light, making it difficult to identify a body of state within the Department of the Interior to make due or federal judicial precedent guiding use of TEK in consideration of “…the value that tribal traditional land management. In cases where TEK is discussed knowledge provides to […] land management by the court, it is often tangential. For example, in decision-making…” (Secretarial Order 3206 1997). Elkutna v. Anchorage (2000) the Alaska Supreme Within the last decade, the Obama administration Court considered arguments that a gravel mine also made strides in representation of indigenous permit was issued without sufficient consideration perspectives in land management and given to the cultural significance of the area to environmental policy. Leading into the 2010’s, indigenous peoples. The argument offered by the agencies increasingly recognized TEK as a powerful Native Alaskan village of Elkutna persuaded the tool in land management, and as complementary to court, partly due to expert testimony which faulted Western Science in developing sustainable a cursory archaeological assessment for failure to management plans (USGS 2010). Especially with incorporate indigenous knowledge into the the projected threat of climate change impacts, permitting process. In federal cases, legal TEK was recognized by Obama-era agency consideration of TEK has largely been limited to leadership as an important component of climate litigation surrounding the Endangered Species Act change response (USFS 2012). The 2012 Forest (ESA). For example, the United States District Service Planning rule, for example, requires officials Court for the District of Columbia (D.D.C.) issued a 65 | P a g e memorandum opinion in reference to several a process for assessing environmental impacts from lawsuits against the United States Fish and federal actions (CEAA 1992; CEAA 2012; IAA 2019). Wildlife Service (FWS) over the listing of polar While NEPA took effect in 1970, before TEK was bears as ‘threatened’ species under the ESA (D.D.C. common in natural resource management and 2011). In their opinion, the D.D.C. cited TEK as an environmental policy discourses, the 1992 CEAA accepted form of evidence and a “formally- was first passed during a period of intensive recognized body of knowledge” applied by the discussion of TEK applications (Inglis 1993; FWS in their decision. Another such example Johannes 1993). In contrast to NEPA, and likely due comes from Center for Biological Diversity (CBD) v. to this contemporaneity with increased recognition Salazar (2011). In this case, tribal members of TEK in the early-1990’s, the CEAA of 1992 made challenged a FWS determination identifying the direct mention of traditional knowledge in impacts desert bald eagle as a distinct population segment, analysis. Under the CEAA, environmental planners which would not qualify for the statutory were not required to consider TEK in every case, protection afforded to bald eagles under the ESA. In however the law identified “aboriginal traditional their argument, the tribe successfully argued that knowledge” as an important resource which could the failure of the FWS to consider TEK in their be considered in reviews (CEAA 1992: Section 16.1). decision violated its obligation to “consult Despite a lack of a direct mandate for inclusion of meaningfully” with designated tribes (CBD v. TEK, its codification resulted in a marked increase Salazar 2011). The court decided in favor of the tribe in applications of TEK in environmental decision- and ordered the FWS to reevaluate its decision making (Robson et al. 2010). As Canadian land with adequate consideration given to TEK. Though management agencies began to implement TEK in CBD v. Salazar (2011) offers a strong precedent for environmental reviews, however, a number of incorporation of TEK in decision-making under the problems affected the process. No explicit ESA, no direct case law exists to clarify the role of directives or guidelines on how to integrate TEK TEK under NEPA. were available for either the 1992 or 2012 CEAA (1992) (Usher 2000). Similarly, observers noted The Canadian Example problematic power imbalances in the consideration Though there are some examples of TEK of TEK and Western perspectives, as well as applications in current United States’ tensions between opposing indigenous and policy environmental policy, TEK remains a tangential aspirations (Ellis 2005; Paci et al. 2002). The CEAA consideration in many ways. To evaluate the of 2012 did little to alleviate the issues affecting potential for widespread application of TEK as a inclusion of TEK in environmental assessments keystone of environmental impacts analysis, it is since 1992. Under the 2012 CEAA, agencies were useful to evaluate TEK’s equivalent application in required to evaluate impacts on traditional land use policy abroad. The Canadian Environmental and indigenous resource use, however Assessment Acts (CEAA) of 1992 and 2012 offer an consideration of TEK was still left to agency excellent opportunity to understand how TEK can discretion (CEAA 2012, Section 19(3)). be actualized in environmental impacts analysis Significant changes occurred in 2019, with (CEAA 1992; CEAA 2012). The CEAA was the the repeal of the CEAA of 2012 and passage of the Canadian equivalent of NEPA, and the law imposed Impact Assessment Act (IAA). The IAA of 2019 many of the same requirements and processes on reflects a monumental progression in the Canadian federal agencies as NEPA does in the consideration of TEK in environmental policy. United States. The CEAA was first passed in 1992, Under the new law agencies should “ensure impact and replaced with modification in 2012 in a assessments take into account scientific info, conservative effort to deregulate. The CEAA of 2012 indigenous knowledge, and community knowledge” remained in force until 2019, when repealed and (IAA 2019: Section 6(1)(a)). Additionally, replaced by the significantly more forceful Impact indigenous knowledge is among the “factors” Assessment Act (IAA 2019). All three acts regulate agencies must consider when assessing impacts governmental agencies and their proposed “physical (IAA 2019: Section 22(1)(g)). Environmental activities”, in much the same way NEPA establishes assessments prepared under the IAA of 2019 must 66 | P a g e likewise report how agencies applied indigenous survey of 28,694 full-text NEPA documents was knowledge for the given project, and the Minister undertaken. The sample of documents is primarily of the Environment is required to review reports to comprised of EIS reviews prepared by federal ensure agencies adequately made use of indigenous agencies, which constitute the most extensive level knowledge (IAA 2019: Section 28(3.1), Section of environmental impact analysis under NEPA. 33(2.1)). Section 119 of the IAA is dedicated entirely Documents were searched using specific terms to the use of indigenous knowledge, and outlines related to indigenous peoples broadly, as well as considerations for its inclusion in agency reviews. specific terms pertaining to concepts of traditional Importantly, in alleviating the TEK issues found in knowledge. Though the database survey provides the CEAA of 1992 and CEAA of 2012, the IAA only a coarse level of analysis, representative only of describes proper implementation of indigenous the presence or absence of the term, study of the knowledge in relation to confidentiality (Section frequency of their use allows for a useful evaluation 119(1)), consultation (Section 119(2.1)), and further of the current level of engagement with TEK under disclosure (Section 119(3)). Under the IAA, TEK is current NEPA practice. kept confidential, unless already publicly available, A total of eight thematic search terms were and informants must give consent prior to any selected for the EIS analysis. These terms were disclosure of information. This is a crucial tenant of designed to inform a broader understanding of the the law, as privacy and preservation of propriety current level of engagement between NEPA community knowledge is often a primary concern practitioners and indigenous groups across of indigenous groups (Ellis 2015; Johannes 1993). multiple scales (Table 6). The broadest terms Collectively, Canadian environmental policy included variants of “tribal” or “Native American”, demonstrates that TEK can be successfully which are likely to reflect discussion of tribal considered by agencies as part of environmental consultation in NEPA documents. These terms planning. While there are obstacles to helped to establish a general baseline implementing TEK, such as inherent tensions understanding of the relative frequency of projects between contrasting interests and ‘ways of which involve any kind of interface with tribal knowing’, it has great potential for building governments. Terms such as “ethnography” were meaningful collaborative relationships and also searched and were designed to capture developing more sustainable land management examples of projects which integrated programs. The enactment of the IAA in 2019 anthropological or cultural analyses into constitutes a significant advancement in the environmental reviews. The frequency of the terms recognition of TEK as a necessary consideration in “ethnography” or “ethnographic” also act as a proxy sustainable resource management. for the analytical consideration of culture in environmental impact analyses, beyond more Contemporary Application of TEK in NEPA: A procedural considerations such as tribal Survey of Environmental Impact Statements consultation. Finally, terms representing TEK and Given that the groundwork for TEK in its variants (e.g. indigenous knowledge, traditional environmental policy is already present in federal knowledge, etc.) were also searched. The frequency statutory and administrative law, and there is an of these terms was then used to estimate the increasing academic and policy dialogue current level of engagement with TEK in surrounding TEK in natural resource management environmental decision-making. Once searches in the United States and Canada, it is important to were completed, and relative frequencies were likewise evaluate the current application of TEK evaluated, a selection of the same database queries under NEPA. As there is no direct discussion of were used to evaluate change over time. The TEK in the statutory language of NEPA, nor in available sample covers a 19-year period, from 1993 administrative rules or case law, it is then necessary to 2012, and selected terms were plotted based on to identify if TEK is being considered their frequency in EIS documents over four-year independently by planners and NEPA practitioners periods (Error! Reference source not found.) . at the project level. To evaluate the level of The results of the EIS survey reveal that application of TEK in NEPA practice, a database federal agencies are not making substantive 67 | P a g e

Exact Search Term(s) NEPA Documents Percentage of Total Sample Containing Term “Tribe” OR “Tribal” 8,871 30.9 % “Native American” OR “American 7,131 24.9 % Indian” “Ethnographic” OR “Ethnography” 1,751 6.1 % “Indigenous people” OR “Indigenous 432 1.5 % Peoples” “Traditional Knowledge” 231 0.8 % “Traditional Ecological Knowledge” 125 0.4% OR “TEK” “Indigenous Knowledge” 32 0.1 % “Native Knowledge” 30 0.1 %

Table 6. Database survey of the relative frequency of TEK related terms in a sample (n = 28,694) of NEPA documents prepared from 1993 to 2012. The frequency of terms can be used to estimate the consideration of TEK concepts in NEPA decision-making. The results indicate that fewer than 1% of NEPA documents reference TEK or associated terms. Approximately 1/3 of documents include language related to tribes or Native Americans collectively, likely due to discussion of consultation mandates.

Frequency of Terms in NEPA Documents, 1993 - 2012

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5 Percentage of DocumentsNEPA (%) 0 1993 - 1997 1998 - 2002 2003 - 2007 2008 - 2012

TEK (and varients; See Table 1) Ethnographic or Ethnography Native American or American Indian

Figure 1. Percentage of NEPA documents (per four-year period) containing search terms relevant to TEK and indigenous involvement in the NEPA process. The data indicate that discussion of TEK has remained relatively consistent, although infrequent, throughout the sample period. Higher frequency mention of “Native American” or “American Indian” in NEPA documents likely represents discussion of consultation with tribal groups. The increase in such mentions from 1998 to 2002 is likely attributable to President Clinton’s “Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal Governments” directive to federal agencies (Executive Order No. 13175, 2000). Discussion of “ethnographic” or “ethnography”, used here as a proxy for analytical discussion of culture in NEPA documents, similarly peaks between 1998 and 2000. The results seem to indicate that consideration of indigenous peoples in NEPA analyses peaked ca. 2000 and has since been in slow decline.

68 | P a g e

consideration of TEK in NEPA decision-making environmental planning itself (Dongoske et al. (Table 6). While broad terms, such as “tribe” or 2015). Improvements in consultation, including “Native American” occur in approximately one- dedicated discussion of environmental planning quarter to one-third of NEPA documents, TEK and and land management goals beyond cultural its variants occur in fewer than 1% of NEPA resources, are necessary to make TEK more reviews. These results indicate that while agencies accessible to agency planners and alleviate the are recognizing the conventional consulting role of problematic “check the box” nature of tribes NEPA reviews, there is no serious systematic contemporary tribal consultation (ACHP 2017). consideration of TEK in the NEPA process. Similarly, evaluation of the frequency of the term Traditional Ecological Knowledge and the through time shows that TEK has consistently National Environmental Policy Act remained infrequently discussed in EIS documents A review of the contemporary applications (Error! Reference source not found.). A slight of TEK in natural resource management, and in the increase in the recognition of TEK from 1993 to 1997 environmental policy of the United States and may be attributable to heightened discussion of Canada, demonstrates the many opportunities indigenous knowledge following a UN declaration which TEK offers for sustainable and socially in 199217, but the term has remained infrequently conscious environmental decision-making. Despite used throughout the analysis period. In contrast, this potential, implementation of TEK in NEPA the use of terms such as “American Indian” and faces a number of obstacles. When applied to “Native American” see a significant increase from management, TEK has been likened to adaptive 1997 to 2002. This increase likely reflects a surge in management, as both methods place similar tribal consultations following the Clinton emphases on assessment and evaluation of administration’s “Consultation and Coordination uncertainty (Berkes et al. 2000). Implementation of with Indian Tribal Governments” directive in 2000 adaptive management, wherein agencies monitor (Executive Order No.13175 2000). The terms changing environmental conditions to inform a “ethnographic” or “ethnography” increase during dynamic management decision-making process, has this same period, and then enter a slow decline. The proven problematic under the strict procedural use of these terms suggest that agencies are making provisions of NEPA (Schultz and Nie 2012). Given use of anthropological literature and making more similarities with the idealized use of TEK in analytical considerations of culture in their NEPA environmental planning, such issues are likely to documents, however the lack of a concomitant also afflict the application of indigenous knowledge increase in discussion of TEK is conspicuous. in the decision-making process. For example, the Similarly, the increase in tribal consultation objective of adaptive management is “to promote and discussion of indigenous populations, without learning” while managing the “inherent a corresponding increase in TEK, is worthy of uncertainty” of natural resource management discussion. Substantive and effective consultation (Schultz and Nie: 1138). Similarly, TEK is not the on environmental projects should lead to transfer of static knowledge, but a dynamic process incorporation of some degree of traditional of observation and interpretation focused on knowledge when relevant, and the absence of this “feedback learning” (Berkes et al. 2000; Berkes may reveal a flaw in the current practice of tribal 2009: 153). While adaptive management is seeing consultation. Tribal consultation is often widespread application despite the challenges of conducted by archaeologists employed by federal implementing it in coordination with NEPA, an agencies, rather than environmental planners. analysis of current applications of TEK in NEPA While it is important for agencies to consult on documents indicates that federal agencies are not cultural resource matters, this results in ineffective capitalizing on traditional knowledge in the same consultation on other resource and management way. Though traditional knowledge may face issues and inhibits indigenous contributions to similar legal obstacles to adaptive management,

17 The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment ‘Rio Declaration’ which named TEK as critical to a more and Development (UNCED), or Earth Summit, issued the environmentally sustainable future (Inglis 1993, vi) 69 | P a g e efforts to apply adaptive management under NEPA could apply TEK in environmental reviews, and are a useful model for the similar application of successfully defended their decision in court, if TEK. Given these contrasts, it is critical to evaluate adequately documented and justified. Frameworks the legal and procedural rationale for greater for implementing TEK in NEPA are likewise consideration of TEK under NEPA, as well as already present in rulemaking. For example, the opportunities and obstacles for integration of 2012 Planning Rule for the United States Forest indigenous knowledge in the NEPA process. Service (USFS) and Bureau of Land Management’s Prior to the wide-spread integration of TEK (BLM) 2017 Resource Management Planning Rule in NEPA analyses, the compatibility of TEK with are both examples of finalized rules which integrate the procedural mandates of NEPA must be fully TEK as a form of inquiry in decision-making (USFS evaluated. The basis for the legal implementation of 2012; BLM 2017a). Under the BLM’s (2017a) TEK in the NEPA process is in the statutory Obama-era rule, TEK was considered “high quality language of the law itself. As enacted by Congress, information” alongside best available scientific NEPA requires agencies to make consideration of information. TEK’s potential to inform the social impacts alongside natural impacts, and to preparation, amendment, and maintenance of obtain relevant social and cultural knowledge for resource management plans was recognized analysis of these impacts (Boggs 1990). NEPA’s explicitly in the rule text. The BLM (2017a) explicit discussion of the integrated analysis of likewise outlined a methodological focus on social and natural sciences likewise reinforces this ethnographic research designed to maintain point (NEPA 1970: § 4332). Namely, given these accuracy and reliability, and avoid bias, in TEK interdisciplinary aspects of NEPA’s mandate to applications. Though the BLM’s 2017 rule was agencies, does the agency fail to fulfill their NEPA ultimately revoked, the contention over the rule obligations if relevant indigenous knowledge is was political in nature, rather than any judicial ignored? The Administrative Procedure Act (APA) grievance or illegality, and the rule could eventually of 1946 empowers members of the public to be restored under a new administration. challenge agency decisions if they are determined to Analyses by Moffa (2016) and others be ‘arbitrary and capricious’. Under this judicial indicate that there are sufficient legal grounds for standard, if an agency fails to consider relevant integration of TEK to survive judicial challenges. aspects of decision in a ‘good faith’ review, the Given that federal agencies can legally implement agency may be found to have acted arbitrarily and TEK into decision-making, and TEK can survive capriciously and could become subject to judicial judicial scrutiny, how should agencies implement action (Czarnezki 2006). Given this standard, can TEK into environmental planning? TEK has an agency act arbitrarily and capriciously by not enormous potential for application towards NEPA integrating TEK in analyses? Moffa (2016) predicts analyses, from determination of environmental that agencies may someday face such a legal baselines to development of sustainable project challenge and argues the unjustified exclusion of plans, and it is important to identify frameworks TEK could be grounds for litigation under the for applying TEK in a substantive way (Berkes ‘arbitrary and capricious’ standard. In his analysis 2009). One of the most effective ways TEK could be of TEK in agency rulemaking in Stanford integrated into contemporary NEPA analysis is Environmental Law Journal, Moffa (2016) addressed alongside conventional Western Science in impacts the legal viability of TEK under the legal standards analysis. CEQ regulations for the NEPA process of environmental policy in the United States. require agencies to make use of “high quality” Though Moffa (2016) did not focus explicitly on information in their decision-making (CEQ 2005: NEPA, his analysis has a wide degree of §1500.1(a)). While this is typically considered as applicability across environmental policy. Notably, ‘best available science’, there can be significant gaps Moffa’s (2016) analysis of TEK alongside in available scientific data for some project areas. administrative rulemaking determined that there Application of TEK alongside Western Science are legal grounds for codification of TEK in could help fill these gaps, where data is limited, and regulation and formalized decision-making decision-makers are forced to rely on coarser-scaled processes. Moffa (2016) concluded that agencies data (Moffa 2016). In this sense, TEK may actually 70 | P a g e constitute the highest quality information for a and intent of TEK in the rule (BLM 2017a: 89645). specific area. Particularly since TEK is highly An additional problematic aspect of TEK is localized and “place-based wisdom”, there is developing testable evaluations of provided significant potential for its application in these knowledge. It is well established that TEK should contexts (USFS 2013). TEK and Western Science be testable in some manner, and that observations should similarly be synthesized to cooperatively provided through TEK systems should be critically identify likely environmental impacts. Given that evaluated (Usher 2000). Testing TEK for current NEPA practice is criticized for ignoring management purposes, however, can be impractical indigenous ‘ways of knowing’, addressing this given short-time frames and highly-place specific discrepancy can strengthen the breadth and quality contexts (Johannes 1993). Collaboration among of NEPA reviews (Dongoske et al. 2015). Notably, interdisciplinary specialists in federal agencies is TEK and ‘best available science’ should not be also a potential obstacle to successful presented as competing ways of interpreting implementation of TEK in NEPA. Expertise from empirical data, but complementary means of both social scientists and natural scientists is interpreting complex information on multiple required to fully implement TEK into a scales of analysis. While Western Science provides management program, but such collaborations can hypothesis testing and experimentation on a be rare in agency contexts (Johannes 1993). In the (relative) short-term scale, TEK contributes a long- case of TEK, this level of collaboration is necessary term perspective of localized wisdom (USFS 2013). due to the specialized skills required to acquire and Where Western science yields quantitative data, interpret TEK into actionable data for an agency TEK provides the concomitant qualitative EIS. For example, documenting TEK requires information which is necessary to adequately expert skills in ethnographic research methods, interpret such data (Berkes et al. 2000). TEK, while natural scientists and resource managers are alongside Western Science, can likewise enable needed to contextualize information with Western agencies to better define important cultural Science and management objectives. Ultimately, interpretations of social and natural impacts, which however, the most significant obstacle to the may not be immediately apparent from a systematic application of TEK to environmental conventional NEPA analysis (Hatfield et al. 2018). impact analysis is trust. Federal agencies and Ultimately, TEK’s application of unique community indigenous representative must contend with the knowledge adds an important element of ‘place- “troubled history” of indigenous peoples in the based’ cultural analysis to traditional NEPA United States, and historical disenfranchisement by reviews (Robson et al. 2010). the United States government can make trust Though there is a demonstrated potential difficult to establish in the consultation process for improved NEPA reviews with TEK, and legal (Moffa 2016: 131). Given the challenges of analyses indicate responsible implementation of communicating across cultures, effective TEK would comply with NEPA’s procedural knowledge exchange between agencies and provisions, there remain serious obstacles to its indigenous groups requires a dedicated implementation. The most pressing obstacle is a collaborative effort on behalf of each party. This lack of awareness and cohesive understanding of communication is made more difficult by TEK among the policymakers and the public. indigenous peoples’ right to retain knowledge Though TEK has long been a focus of ecology- internally. Tribal knowledge is an important minded anthropologists and anthropology-minded component of community and identify, and many ecologists, the general public has less exposure to groups may prefer to keep this information TEK as a concept. This has manifested itself in proprietary (Johannes 1993). Historic trust issues confusion over naming conventions and likewise incentivize indigenous peoples to refrain misunderstanding of what TEK actually entails from imparting valuable indigenous knowledge (Moffa 2016; Usher 2000). For example, many of (USFS 2013). The problem is further worsened by the public comments on the BLM’s use of the term mishandling of TEK by governments. In cases, TEK in their 2017 Resource Management Planning power imbalances can arise in co-management and Rule were centered around clarifying the meaning TEK can be misappropriated and misinterpreted by 71 | P a g e environmental planners, further aggravating trust NEPA as it enters its second half-century. issues (Ellis 2005). Particularly with the growing emphasis on TEK as Though serious challenges exist in a tool for addressing the impacts of climate change, implementing TEK under NEPA, a dedicated effort consideration of TEK in NEPA is more crucial than by agency decision-makers can diminish such any time before. Wider implementation of TEK in obstacles. First, to alleviate public confusion over environmental planning can likewise contribute to TEK and the implications of its use, agencies simply more environmentally sustainable and socially need to begin making greater use of TEK in their conscious management decisions. Particularly given reviews. In this case, the problem is solved through NEPA’s objective of preserving the “cultural […] and more frequent application. Moffa’s (2016) analysis natural aspects of our national heritage”, TEK offers suggests that greater use of TEK in rulemaking will a comprehensive source of high-quality information lead to its overall ‘clarification’, and more frequent which can help to better comply with the original consideration of TEK will create public discourses intent of NEPA (NEPA 1970: §4331(b)(4)). Wider which will improve understandings of traditional consideration of TEK is likewise necessary to knowledge concepts. While agencies will need to restore indigenous stewardship of public lands and address public comments seeking clarification of create environmental reviews which fully consider TEK used in analysis, agencies should be able to the environmental and social impacts of an action. provide adequate documentation and justification Similarly, the place-based knowledge offered by of their applications of TEK. Collaboration between traditional knowledge systems is an essential social scientists, natural scientists, and indigenous component of impacts analysis and the acquisition groups can also be resolved if agencies are willing to of high-quality information to minimize or reduce take serious steps to integrate TEK in their these impacts. Though the potential benefits of analyses. Currently, tribal consultation is often left integrating TEK into environmental reviews are to archaeologists who are principally employed to numerous, there are initial obstacles which agencies manage agency compliance with legislation will be required to overcome. Notably, a history of governing archaeological and historic resources removal, oppression, and social inequity (Dongoske et al. 2015). Though archaeologists underscores the need for the development of truly regularly consult and collaborate with tribes, they collaborative relationships in land management. are rarely trained in ethnographic research While current tribal consultation is primarily methods. To resolve this issue, agencies should oriented towards cultural resource management, a explore hiring ethnographically trained systematic expansion of tribal consultation to anthropologists to advise on TEK acquisition and encompass broader land management issues is facilitate collaborations with natural scientists. needed. With a dedicated good faith effort to Dedicated anthropological staff at the unit or implement TEK in coordination with indigenous regional level could build lasting relationships with consultants, many of these obstacles can be tribal contacts and assist in developing formal alleviated. Similarly, though questions have arisen guidance for the use of TEK. This investment would surrounding TEK’s compliance with the procedural concomitantly demonstrate to tribes that federal provisions of NEPA, analysis of TEK in current agencies are committed to giving due consideration environmental policy suggests is likely to survive to indigenous perspectives, alleviating some of the judicial review if its inclusion is adequately justified trust issues which exist between tribes and (Moffa 2016). Given these determinations, with agencies. Ultimately, agencies will be required to sufficient staff training and trust building with demonstrate their good faith in seeking indigenous partners, agencies can develop guidance consultations with tribes to develop management and best practices for acquisition and plans with TEK components. implementation of TEK in their NEPA reviews.

Conclusion References The increased implementation of TEK in Anderson, M. Kat. Tending the Wild: Native American environmental impacts analysis offers a powerful Knowledge and the Management of California’s opportunity to extend the breadth and scope of

72 | P a g e

Natural Resources. Berkley: University of Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (CEAA). California Press, 2005. (1992). S.C. 1992, c. 37.

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation Canadian Environmental Assessment Act (CEAA). (ACHP). “Improving Tribal Consultation in (2012). S.C. 2012, c. 19, s. 52. Infrastructure Projects”. A Report by the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, Center for Biological Diversity (CBD) v. Kenneth April 27, 2017. Salazar (Salazar), No. 10-2130-PHX-DGC (US District Court for the District of Berkes, Fikret. “Traditional ecological knowledge in Columbia 2011). perspective”. In Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Concepts and Cases. Edited by Julian Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ). T. Inglis. Ottawa: Canadian Museum of “Regulations for Implementing the Nature, 1993. Procedural Provisions of the National Environmental Policy Act” (2005): 40 CFR Berkes, Fikret. “Indigenous Ways of Knowing and Parts 1500-1508. the Study of Environmental Change”. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 39, no. 4 Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ). “A (2009): 151-156. Citizen’s Guide to the NEPA: Having Your Voice Heard” (2007). Berkes, Fikret, Johan Colding, and Carl Folke. “Rediscovery of Traditional Ecological Czarnezki, Jason L. “Revisiting the Tense Knowledge as Adaptive Management”. Relationship between the U.S. Supreme Court, Administrative Procedure, and the Ecological Applications 10, no. 5 (2000): 1251- 1262. National Environmental Policy Act”. Stanford Environmental Law Journal 25 no.3 (2006): 3- Boggs, James P. “The Use of Anthropological 28. Knowledge Under NEPA”. Human Dongoske, Kurt E., Theresa Pasqual, and Thomas F. Organization 49, no. 3 (1990): 217-226. King. “The National Environmental Policy

Act (NEPA) and the Silencing of Native Briggs, John M., Katherine A. Spielmann, Hoski Schaafsma, Keith W. Kingtigh, Melissa American Worldviews”. Environmental Kruse, Kari Morehouse, and Karen Practice 17 (2015): 36-45. Schollmeyer. “Why Ecology Needs Archaeologists and Archaeology Needs Ellis, Stephen C. “Meaningful Consideration? A Ecologists”. Frontiers in Ecology and Review of Traditional Knowledge in Environment 4, no. 4 (2006): 180-188. Environmental Decision Making”. Arctic 58, no.1 (2005): 66-77. Bureau of Land Management (BLM). “Resource Management Planning”. Final Rule (2017a): Executive Order No. 13175 of November 6, 2000. 43 CFR 1600, 81 FR 89580-89671. “Consultation and Coordination with Indian Tribal Governments”, (2000): 65 FR Bureau of Land Management (BLM). “Effectuating 67249-67252. Congressional Nullification of the Resource Management Planning Rule Under the Hatfield, Samantha C., Elizabeth Marino, Kyle Congressional Review Act”. Final Rule Powys Whye, Kathie D. Dello, and Philip (2017b): 43 CFR 1600, 82 FR 60554-60562. W. Mote. “Indian Time: Time, Seasonality, and Culture in Traditional Ecological Knowledge of Climate Change”. Ecological Processes 7, no.25 (2018): 1-11. 73 | P a g e

Impact Assessment Act (IAA). (2019). S.C. 2019, c. Paci, Chris, Ann Tobin, and Peter Robb. 28, s. 1. “Reconsidering the Canadian Environmental Impact Assessment Act: A Inglis, Julian T. Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Place for Traditional Environmental Concepts and Cases. Ottawa: Canadian Knowledge”. Environmental Impact Assessment Museum of Nature, 1993. Review 22, no. 2 (2002): 111-127. Ray, Lily A., Crystal A. Kolden, and F. Stuart Johannes, R.E. “Integrating Traditional Ecological Chapin III. “A Case for Developing Place- Knowledge and Management with Based Fire Management Strategies from Environmental Impact Assessment”. In Traditional Ecological Knowledge”. Ecology Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Concepts and and Society 17, no. 3 (2012):1-35. Cases. Edited by Julian T. Inglis. Ottawa: Canadian Museum of Nature, 1993. Robson, James P., Andrew M. Miller, Carlos Julian Idrobo, Catie Burlando, Nathan Deutsch, Kimmerer, Robin W. “Weaving Traditional John-Erik Kocho-Schellenberg, Ryan Dr. Ecological Knowledge into Biological Pengelly, and Katherine L. Turner. “Building Education: A Call to Action”. BioScience 52, Communities of Learning: Indigenous Ways no.5 (2002): 432-438. of Knowing in Contemporary Natural Resources and Environmental Luther, L. “The National Environmental Policy Act: Management”. Journal of the Royal Society of Background and Implementation”. New Zealand 39, no. 4 (2010): 173-177. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 2005. Roos, Christopher, Maria Zedeño, Kacy Hollenback, and Mary Erlick. “Indigenous Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) of 1972. Impacts on North American Great Plains 16 USC 1361-1421h, October 21, 1972. Fire Regimes of the Last Millennium”. PNAS 115 (2018): 8143-8148. Moffa, Anthony. “Traditional Ecological Rulemaking”. Stanford Environmental Law Schultz, Courtney, and Martin Nie. “Decision- Journal 35, no. 2 (2016): 101-155. making Triggers, Adaptive Management, and Natural Resources Law and Planning”. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969. Natural Resources Journal 52 (2012): 443-521. (1970). Pub. L. 91-190, 42 U.S.C. 4321-4347, January 1, 1970, as amended by Pub. L. 94- Secretarial Order 3206. “American Indian Tribal 52, July 3, 1975, Pub L. 94-83, August 9, 1975, Rights, Federal-Tribal Trust and Pub L. 97-258, § 4(b), Sept. 13, 1982. Responsibilities, and the Endangered Species Act”. (1997). National Park Service (NPS). “Gathering of Certain Plants or Plant Parts by Federally Stinchcomb, G.E., T.C. Messner, S.G. Driese, L.C. Recognized Indian Tribes for Traditional Nordt, and R.M. Stewart. “Pre-Colonial Purposes”. Final Rule, (2016): 36 CFR 2, 81 (A.D. 1100-1600) Sedimentation Related to FR 45024-45039. Prehistoric Maize Agriculture and Climate Native Village of Eklutna (Eklutna) v. Board of Change in Eastern North American”. Geology Adjustment for the Municipality of 39, no. 4 (2011): 363-366. Anchorage (Anchorage), No. S-8695 (Supreme Court of Alaska 2000).

74 | P a g e

Tulowiecki, Stephen J., and Chris P. S. Larsen. United States Geological Survey (USGS). “Native American Impact on Past Forest “Proceedings of a Coastal and Marine Composition Inferred from Species Spatial Planning Workshop for the Western Distribution Models, Chautauqua County, United States”. Open-file report 2011-1152. New York”. Ecological Monographs 85, no.4 Seattle: U.S. Department of Interior, 2010. (2015): 557-581. Usher, Peter J. “Traditional Ecological Knowledge United States District Court for the District of in Environmental Assessment and Columbia (D.D.C). Memorandum Opinion. Management”. Arctic 53, no.2 (2000): 183- Misc. No. 08-764 (EGS). (2011). 193.

United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS). “Tribal Consultation Handbook”. (2018).

United States Forest Service (USFS). “2012 Planning Rule as Amended”. (2012): 36 CFR 218-219.

United States Forest Service (USFS). “Exploring the Role of Traditional Knowledge in Climate Change Initiatives”. General Technical Report, PNW-GTR-879. Pacific Northwest Research Station: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2013.

75 | P a g e

Curbing Disease, Building a System: Partners in Health’s Response to the West African Ebola Epidemic

Julia Reedy

Possibly the most far-reaching take-away from my work in the Ebola epidemic was that paying too little attention to the local culture more than likely contributed to a protracted outbreak in all three countries [Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone]. Contrary to popular belief, the people of West Africa didn’t have strange customs. We, the expatriates and international respondents did. Until late into the epidemic, ambulances and police showed up unannounced in villages where sick people had been reported, dressed in scary moon suits, masks and goggles. Unrecognizable as human beings, they whisked sick loved ones away, often never to be seen or heard from again. We doused infected houses with acrid-smelling chlorine and burned precious belongings. We sprayed the dead with chlorine and disposed of them in white plastic bags. For a long time, more people came out of Ebola Treatment Units in plastic bags than alive. Yet when communities hid their sick and their dead, when they threw stones at the ambulances, when they ran away, we labeled them resistant, distrustful, non-compliant. We forcibly quarantined them for days on end. We fined villages for not reporting possible cases of Ebola; we even jailed a few individuals. Karin Huster March 27, 2016

Introduction which only served to exacerbate local fears on the ground. In December of 2013, the first confirmed The West African Ebola epidemic which cases of Ebola were documented in Guinea, lasted from 2013-2016 was faced with a protracted jumpstarting the devastating outbreak in West response effort from international humanitarian Africa. As cases multiplied within Guinea, new and aid organizations. Often blaming the spread of cases crossed the porous and arbitrarily defined disease on local cultures, NGOs failed to colonial borders with Sierra Leone and Liberia. The acknowledge and address the root causes of the West African Ebola Epidemic reached outbreak. This negligence of local histories, unprecedented magnitude because of the pervasive neoliberal relationships, and native belief systems fears surrounding this untreatable, invisible killer. creates a narrow view of the Ebola epidemic that Local fears of political corruption forced masks the underlying origins of outbreak. Often inoculation of Ebola, and men in “moon suits” led working alone, many organizations fulfilled their many to flee, hide, and care for loved ones in secret, missions of emergency relief with a focus on furthering the spread of Ebola (Huster 2016). Ill stemming the spread of Ebola. This epidemiological equipped to handle an Ebola outbreak, focus led to excessive quarantines and isolation, international NGOs and emergency relief mistrust from local communities, and in some organizations feared for the safety of their novice instances, outbreaks of violence. However, with staff in handling a threat of this magnitude. This positive epidemiological statistics viewed as a fear permeated response efforts and dictated the success, many of these efforts were praised mechanisms and initiatives implemented by regardless of the quality of care provided to humanitarian organizations. Lastly, fear of the suffering and grieving patients. With the threat realities taking place in Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra contained in 2016, many organizations pulled out of Leone and an ignorance to the cries for help early in West Africa, their missions complete. However, the epidemic led to a significantly delayed their absence, especially in the wake of a international response. When the call for aid was devastating number of physician and health worker eventually heeded, many international governments deaths, left the region less prepared and less stable provided support in the form of military troops than before the epidemic.

76 | P a g e

In contrast to those NGOs that had in Sierra Leone known for abducting and enlisting narrowly defined their mission and thus left early, child soldiers (Richardson et al. 2015). The brutal Partner’s in Health, a Boston-based non-profit civil war between the RUF and the Sierra Leonean organization, serves a mission of improving access government was further fueled by ongoing violence to healthcare, bolstering health systems and across the border in Liberia during this same period providing a “preferential option for the poor” (PIH (Huff 2015). 2018). Far from serving as an emergency relief To stimulate economic development, all organization, Partners in Health has had experience three countries had received loans from the in disaster relief through their work in Haiti after International Monetary Fund (IMF) and were the 2010 earthquake that struck the capital city of under structural adjustment programs at the time Port-au-Prince. By agreeing to join the international of the Ebola outbreak (Kentikelenis et al. 2014). fray working to halt the Ebola epidemic, Partners in The implementation and expansion of neoliberal Health made a long-term commitment to the policies within Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia led region. Not only would they work to minimize to “land grabs” which sold off the most valuable transmission and treat those suffering from Ebola tracts of land to foreign investors that implemented but they would also provide care for other health large-scale mining, timber, and agricultural needs often overshadowed by the epidemic threat; industries (Huff 2015). With neoliberal they would partner with local organizations and development ideologies focusing on short-term governments to stimulate community trust, provide economic objectives, little attention had been paid local employment, and strengthen the public sector; to the investment in health, education, or they would hire Ebola survivors to improve governmental stability (Kentikelenis et al. 2014). communication about the reality of the disease and Prioritizing debt repayment and integration into encourage community members to seek treatment; foreign markets and free market capitalism, the and most importantly, after emergency relief IMF created a legacy of social and economic organizations had packed up and left to tackle the inequity that manifested as pockets of vulnerability new and emerging threat of Zika, they would stay off of which Ebola thrived (Huff 2015; Kentikelenis to continue delivering quality health care to those et al. 2014). These historical complexities and who need it. corrupt political and economic power structures created distrust of political authority which was The Outbreak only aggravated by the Ebola outbreak (Dhillon and While many point to the infection of patient Kelly 2015). zero (a young boy who most likely became infected At the time of the Ebola epidemic, Sierra by a fruit bat in Guinea in December 2013) as the Leone, Liberia, and Guinea were among the worst beginning of the West African Ebola epidemic, the prepared for an outbreak of any magnitude, let root causes of the outbreak had been insidiously alone one this immense (Cancedda et al. 2016). The simmering below the surface for centuries. combination of “political instability, budget Colonization, political turmoil, and the limitations and restrictions in fiscal space” created implementation of neoliberal policies led to the a neglected public health sector characterized by severe underdevelopment of West Africa’s health the degradation of health facilities, fractured supply systems and bred mistrust from local communities. chains, insufficient health staff and medical British colonial rule in West Africa lasted for more supplies, poor wages, and difficult working than a century with many of the former colonies conditions (Cancedda et al. 2016; Hofman and Au created as a means of repatriation for former slaves 2017: 104; Kentikelenis et al. 2014). Ranking among (Richardson et al. 2015). This colonial history the lowest in public health expenditures, these created political unrest, economic dependency, and three countries in West Africa had very few extractive post-colonial relationships in the region physicians before the Ebola outbreak and the few (Miller 2016). Independence led to power struggles healthcare resources that were available were often over the valuable diamond and timber resources limited to major urban centers (Cancedda et al. and contributed to the funding of the 2016; Richardson et al. 2015). Physical Revolutionary United Front (RUF), a rebel group infrastructure further limited the efficacy of

77 | P a g e healthcare in West Africa with minimal road necessary tools to treat, contain, and curb the maintenance and inconsistent access to further spread of Ebola. Lastly, Richardson and transportation (Gates 2015). The decentralization colleagues point to the poorly resourced of the healthcare system under the structural governments of these countries as roadblocks to adjustment policies of the IMF made it increasingly containment efforts (Richardson et al. 2015). difficult to generate a coordinated, central response What this three-tiered cascade ignores in its when the Ebola epidemic began (Kentikelenis et al. model are the local perceptions of Ebola and the 2014). The fractured healthcare systems within significant role these played in the spread of the Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia were not only disease. Many local communities subscribed to a insufficient to deal with patient care but created “witch doctor state” explanation for the Ebola the “fault lines along which the Ebola epidemic outbreak (Hofman and Au 2017: 68). Viewed as a exploded” (Cancedda et. al 2016: S153). Deficient in “white” post-colonial conspiracy, this explanation protective supplies, and formal training regarding stated that the Ebola outbreak was intentionally infection prevention, education, and control, introduced by the government to control the hospitals became ground zero for death and population. This control was exercised through the widespread infection (Cancedda et al. 2016). use of Ebola to win elections and legitimize the use Ebola Virus Disease was discovered in 1976 of armed forces, whether police or international in present day Democratic Republic of the Congo military, to suppress the people (Hofman and Au and has caused a number of outbreaks in African 2017). The belief that people were being forcibly countries throughout the latter decades of the inoculated with the Ebola virus largely explains the twentieth century (CDC 2017). Each previous widespread fear of Ebola treatment centers and Ebola outbreak was comparatively contained and healthcare personnel (Hofman and Au 2017; Huster short lived; so why was the outbreak that occurred 2016; Richards 2015). With the “witch doctor state” in West Africa able to gain such traction and reach as a common belief, and minimal work on the part an unprecedented magnitude (Miller 2016)? of humanitarian aid to assuage these fears, the Richardson and colleagues break down the West presence of health workers donned in full African Ebola epidemic into three causal phases protective gear led many to hide the ill and respond that led to the sustained outbreak. The first of these with violence to what was perceived to be is increased human interaction with zoonotic abduction and murder (Dhillon and Kelly 2015). reservoirs, likely fruit bats. This interface has been The prevention of funerary rituals, implemented to linked to a number of emerging phenomena. limit exposure to the dead teeming with Ebola Increasing wealth disparities push poor virus, was perceived as psychological warfare populations to forest fringes and less desirable land (Dhillon and Kelly 2015; Richards 2015). Those who (Fallah et al. 2015); industrial agricultural were forcibly taken to hospitals, believed they were production of palm oil replaces naturally occurring being taken away to die (Huster 2016). Greeted at forests and puts humans and bats in more frequent the hospital by the bright red fences surrounding contact; and lastly climate change may be changing the high-risk zones, they were reminded of the “red the fruiting patterns of West African flora, cloths rebels had attached to their weapons during concentrating zoonotic reservoir species near live battle” (Richardson et al. 2015). In war, the face human populations (Richardson et al. 2015). While of the enemy was clear, but in this war, the war the zoonotic origins of Ebola are an important area against Ebola, people were fighting an enemy that of future research, of the 28,000+ confirmed cases of could not be seen, an enemy that targeted the heart Ebola only one, patient zero, is believed to have and soul of the West African people. contracted it from an animal reservoir. Therefore, it Unlike other diseases, Ebola is spread through is the human to human interactions that fueled the love. Heartbreakingly, the chain of infection follows outbreak and merit further inquiry. The second the caregivers. It is through the love and care of an causal phase of the Ebola outbreak is linked to the infected family member or the treatment by a health dysfunctional health system previously discussed care worker that people get sick (Cancedda et al. with these three West African countries. The 2016; Patterson 2015; Richards 2015). It is along understaffed and undersupplied facilities lacked the these “webs of care” that Ebola travels (Patterson

78 | P a g e

2015). Those infected while caring for a family West Africa, months after the outbreak began, the member will go on to infect those who care for number of Ebola cases in Liberia had already begun them as they fall ill; they will go on to infect the to decline without the world’s support (Onishi doctors who put themselves at risk with limited 2015). protective supplies (Cancedda et al. 2015). It is the The vast majority of the international complex webs of care, social connectivity, and response to the Ebola epidemic in West Africa was dependence on family and community that allowed from emergency relief organizations whose primary the epidemic to blossom and grow, transforming goals were to halt the transmission of the Ebola their communal strength into an Achilles heel. virus (Cancedda et al. 2016). This focus on prevention relative to care aligned with the short The Response term goals of attempting to manage and inhibit the The international response to the West further spread of disease (Cancedda et al. 2016). African Ebola epidemic was slow. With Specializing in acute response, MSF and other governmental authorities in Guinea and Sierra emergency relief organizations prioritized isolation, Leone downplaying the severity of the epidemic, disease surveillance, contact-tracing, awareness the Ebola outbreak drew little attention on the raising, treatment and care, and safe burials to curb global stage (MSF 2014). Despite calls for attention the Ebola outbreak (Fink 2015; MSF 2014). The from the humanitarian aid and emergency relief epidemiological approach towards treating Ebola organization Médecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) and preventing further outbreak focuses on the already working in the region, the international aid biological and social factors leading to the spread of community failed to respond (Huster 2016). This disease; therefore, primary interventions focused on failure to act early in the epidemic has been blamed educating local communities, changing dangerous on the ignorance of the World Health Organization traditional burial practices, and implementing (WHO) and the internal organizational changes quarantines, isolations, and observations to that left this branch of the United Nations blind to eliminate or limit social contact (Miller 2016; the growing threat in Western Africa. Originally Richardson et al. 2015) accusing MSF of causing unnecessary panic, the Perceived to be the greatest threat from an WHO believed the threat to be localized and under epidemiological standpoint, cities were the target control (MSF 2014). It wasn’t until Ebola “became of international aid because high concentrations of an international security threat, and no longer a people led to potentially catastrophic transmission humanitarian crisis affecting a handful of poor rates (Freyer 2014). The focus of aid organizations countries in West Africa, [that] finally the world in cities created rural pockets that received limited began to wake up” (MSF 2014:11). The atmosphere health care support and intervention. Distance from of fear surrounding Ebola, often called the zombie rural communities created frustrations for virus, led to a “cowardly” response from authorities who struggled to impose quarantines, international humanitarian aid and emergency relief isolations, and safe burial practices (Richards et al. organizations that perceiving the risk of working 2015). This geographical separation and with Ebola to be too high (Huster 2016; MSF 2014). correspondingly limited involvement created new The fear of the unknown and the chronic lack of incubation periods for localized outbreaks which experience in working with Ebola paralyzed many were able to spread unchecked (Richards et al. aid agencies and potential donors. With such little 2015). preparation for an epidemic of this magnitude, “the Often functioning in silos, many world lost time in trying to answer basic questions international aid organizations prefer to work alone about combating Ebola” (Gates 2015). The with access to their own supply warehouses and bureaucratization of the aid process and the donor funds (Fink 2015). This independence allows misinformation and miscommunications coming for full control over their operations and increased from the WHO led to confusion and further efficiency in implementing initiatives and hindered the emergency response efforts (Cancedda interventions. “Stubbornly prefer[ing] to do et al. 2016; Hofman and Au 2017; MSF 2014). By the everything [themselves],” MSF works alone and time international intervention hit full stride in rarely works collaboratively with other

79 | P a g e organizations (Hofman and Au 2017: 52). However, staff, and space certainly contributed to high at the start of the epidemic, MSF did work closely fatality rates and poor health outcomes for those with Samaritan’s Purse as the only two who fell ill, Karin Huster posits “what if it was international humanitarian organizations tackling most of all the mediocrity of care out of fear” that Ebola in the region at the time (Hofman and Au created such devastating outcomes (Huster 2016). 2017; Rasco 2017). The desires to work alone had a Fear compromised the ethical duties of number of implications for community engagement. humanitarian aid organizations causing them to Included in most international humanitarian pull out of West Africa because of what they mission rhetoric is the idea of “community perceived to be unacceptably high levels of risk engagement.” In regards to the response in West (Huster 2016). Africa, the idea of community was created on a localized level and became a catch-all term to The Failures acknowledge non-aid populations, beliefs, and While the international response cultural practices ignoring the nuances in significantly helped to end the Ebola epidemic and variations between different communities (Hofman is thus widely considered a success, there were a and Au 2017). Engagement in this context was number of failures within the response efforts that often conflated as ‘educating’ the local people about can be used as lessons in addressing future proper practices that would minimize health risks outbreaks. Emergency relief organizations function but disregarded local burial customs and beliefs on a short-term residence within countries of need. about health, disease, and death (Hofman and Au While essential for treating patients and 2017). minimizing infection during the Ebola epidemic, The United States Government provided these short-term projects ignore the root causes of support in the form of military troops stationed, outbreak leaving West Africa in an equally ironically, at West Point, the largest slum just vulnerable position to future outbreaks (Patterson outside the Liberian capital city of Monrovia 2015; Parshley 2016). After the epidemic, 30-40 (Onishi 2015). Spending hundreds of millions of percent of the Liberian population still lacked dollars to construct 11 Ebola Treatment Units access to healthcare, percentages that are (ETU), the United States’ response was far from comparable to access rates before the epidemic effective or cost efficient. At the time of their occurred (Parshley 2016). The many efforts by commitment to provide aid, ETUs were desperately organizations to treat Ebola “did great work, but needed as Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone the whole point is the building of the desperately lacked the space and structural infrastructure” to improve future health outcomes capacity to handle the massive infection rates. and prevent future epidemics (Patterson 2015). However, the extended time spent constructing According to Cancedda and colleagues, it is not ETUs (instead of repurposing existing space) enough to simply respond to epidemics, but it is the meant that needs had changed upon their responsibility of the international community to completion. By April 2015, months after the increase local resiliencies and create health care completion of these ETUs, only 28 patients had systems that are able to quickly and effectively been treated at the military facility (Onishi 2015). identify, contain and treat future outbreaks of In addition, the deployment of U.S. soldiers to Ebola or other infectious pathologies (Cancedda et enforce quarantine and isolation led to fear and al. 2016). rioting from the West Point slum resulting in the Another aspect of the international death of a 15 year old boy (Onishi 2015). response that could be improved lies in the Fear played an immense role in the distribution and designation of donor funds for international response efforts to the West African these international efforts. The exceptionalism that Ebola epidemic. Despite facing similar transmission surrounds infectious disease epidemics serves as a risks with HIV, cholera, and tuberculosis, fear of stimulant for donor contributions. The unfortunate Ebola significantly impacted the quality of clinical downside of this exceptionalism is that these services provided to patients (Huster 2016; financial donations are funneled towards the Lamontagne et al. 2014). While a lack of supplies, immediate mitigation of exceptional conditions

80 | P a g e reorienting the “donor gaze from strengthening local communities (Hofman and Au 2017; Huster health systems in general to mopping up 2016). In building these lines of trust, organizations preventable pandemics” (Richardson et al. 2015: 7). are able to make hospitalization and treatment an With millions of dollars exclusively designated for attractive option while also educating families on emergency purposes such as the construction of how to protect themselves when caring for sick ETUs, a small portion of donations were put loved ones (Richards et al. 2015). In addition, fears towards supporting the health care systems and the belief that an Ebola diagnosis is a responsible for maintaining long term positive guaranteed death sentence could be mediated by health outcomes (McKay 2015). Aid budgets making survivors more visible and using their provided by international governments were often experience as evidence that survival is possible allocated to international NGOs with limited (Richards et al. 2015). experience in the region bypassing the national and Significant discrepancies between popular local governments and health authorities and biomedical perceptions of the Ebola outbreak (Cancedda et al. 2016). The money donated to have helped to mask the political and economic emergency relief organizations, as previously factors that led to the epidemic and subsequent mentioned, were often spent on immediate needs poor health outcomes (Hofman and Au 2017; that had little long-term benefit or lasting effect Richardson et al. 2015). Aid organizations, with within Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. In their focus on epidemiology, ignore the true addition, as aid organizations moved on to the next pathologies of underdevelopment and “trans- emergency, such as Zika, they brought with them hemispheric relations of inequality” that caused the the extra funds not spent as part of their relief devastation of the Ebola outbreak (Richardson et efforts in West Africa (Parshley 2016). Had funding al. 2015: 8). The fetishization of epidemiological mechanisms and donor spending designations been statistics such as number of ETUs constructed, more flexible, financial support could have been patients treated, and samples processed obscures used to bolster health systems, improve the root cause of poverty. The focus on Ebola as a transportation infrastructure, and foster biological entity minimizes and hides its existence community resilience instead of “focusing on as a complex social phenomenon (Richardson et al. treatment centers that would be scarcely used” 2015). (Cancedda et al. 2016; Fallah et al. 2015; Onishi During the epidemic, humanitarian aid 2015:np). While strict donor intentions limited the organization’s exclusive focus on Ebola created or use of financial resources, there were also questions ignored additional crises in West Africa. With regarding the distribution of funds within health centers overrun with Ebola patients and organizations. Brand new cars purchased by UN many closing due to issues of safety and staffing, agencies and parked at health centers provide a there were very few resources available to treat the stark contrast with the underpaid or unpaid health ongoing issues of malaria, women’s health, and workers within these facilities working towards malnutrition (Freyer 2014; Hofman and Au 2017; the same goals (Hofman and Au 2017). Huster 2016). The specific focus on ETUs as part of Among international aid organizations, a the emergency response created specialized clinics lack of focus on local culture or effective that neglected patients seeking care for the community engagement led to a gap between local aforementioned malaria, tuberculosis, heart disease, realities and implemented programs, furthering HIV, and pregnancy complications (McKay 2015). mistrust between these entities (Dhillon and Kelly Of particular importance are women with 2015; Huster 2016). By ignoring local concerns and pregnancy complications that often present with beliefs regarding Ebola, aid organizations delivered fever and bleeding, commonly assumed to be the uninformed initiatives prolonging the epidemic, result of Ebola infection. These women were and in some cases further worsening health isolated and left to their own devices for fear of situations. Instead of forced hospitalization, Ebola transmission (Hofman and Au 2017; Huster quarantine, and ‘safe burial,’ attention should have 2016; McKay 2015). During the outbreak, many HIV been focused on local perceptions of the ‘witch positive patients were unable to obtain their doctor state’ and working to build trust within medications due to clinic closures and failures of

81 | P a g e the medical supply chain. Without consistent Lesotho in Sub-Saharan Africa and Haiti after the medication, patients became resistant to drug 2010 earthquake, PIH created an integrated and therapies and their viral load increased to comprehensive plan for their response in West transmissible levels (Hofman and Au 2017). Africa (Cancedda et al. 2016; McKay 2015; Another area of concern is the decrease in Patterson 2015). Unlike many of the emergency vaccination rates during the Ebola epidemic. Many relief organizations, PIH made a commitment to people avoided vaccination campaigns due to stay in Liberia and Sierra Leone to bolster health ongoing fears of mass health initiatives leading to systems, strengthen the public sector, and provide spikes in measles incidence (Hofman and Au 2017). quality care to those who continue suffering from ill The international focus on quarantines health long after the threat of Ebola had waned presented a number of immediate and long-term (Fink 2015; Patterson 2015). dangers to the health and wellbeing of While other organizations responding to communities. Many quarantined families did not the Ebola crisis preferred to work alone, Partners in receive adequate food or water and therefore broke Health focuses on collaboration and partnership to quarantine protocols making them susceptible to achieve their goals (McKay 2015). Partnering with fines invoked by state and NGO authorities (Huster the Wellbody Alliance in Sierra Leone, and with 2016). Quarantines also limited communal growing The Last Mile in Liberia, PIH built relationships which created food shortages in the region leading with these established organizations (Patterson to widespread hunger, malnutrition and economic 2015). Working with local NGOs helped to build instability (Parshley 2016; Stone 2014). Lastly, the trust in the region, employ local community health widespread quarantines shut down schools all over workers, and provided an intimate insight into local Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone leaving children perceptions of the Ebola outbreak. The creation of without childcare and exposing them to risks of these partnerships serves the long-term goal of violence, rape, and exposure to Ebola (Hofman and providing education, skills training, and Au 2017; Miller 2016). In Sierra Leone, all schools surveillance and monitoring capabilities to improve were closed between June 2014 and April 2015 long term health outcomes for people in the region. which has been linked to a notable rise in teen Through the operation of clinics and creation of pregnancies for which these young women were mobile clinics in conjunction with these NGOs, not receiving adequate prenatal care (Miller 2016; PIH is able to employ community health workers Richardson et al. 2015). The death toll of confirmed who conduct home visits, connect with and reach Ebola patients reached upwards of 11,000 with out to local communities, and build trust in the many more undiagnosed cases suspected. However, health system where previously there was none it is likely that more people died from Ebola, (PIH 2016). Of particular importance was the without ever having contracted the disease. These employment of Ebola survivors as community neglected deaths are the result of limited access to health workers to provide evidence that treatment healthcare, poor maternal and child health during and care is possible. Having experienced the the outbreak, malaria, a lack of surgical capabilities, devastating loss many communities face, survivors poverty, violence, and starvation. are uniquely positioned to relate to and build trust within communities, provide psychosocial support The Solution and counselling, and educate communities about Partners in Health (PIH), a Boston-based Ebola (Cancedda et al. 2016; Patterson 2015; PIH non-profit organization working globally to 2016). Without fostering these important provide healthcare access to the destitute poor, relationships with local communities, many heeded the call from the Sierra Leonean and organizations were faced with violence and fear Liberian governments to join the international inhibiting their containment efforts and fueling response to the Ebola epidemic in late 2014. While further mistrust in the healthcare system (PIH not a humanitarian aid or emergency relief 2016). organization, PIH felt a moral obligation to respond In addition to partnering with local NGOs, to the ongoing crises in West Africa. Drawing on PIH also works with local health ministries and their experiences working in Rwanda, Malawi, and governmental health authorities in an attempt to

82 | P a g e strengthen healthcare infrastructure for the future find and contain the virus, but it is equally (Cancedda et al. 2016; Patterson 2015). Working important to provide care to the humans who house with national governments, PIH hopes to support the deadly disease (Cancedda et al. 2016; Miller the public sector, either geographically or 2016). The significant loss of bodily fluids when programmatically, where the need is greatest infected with Ebola, primarily through vomiting (Cancedda et al. 2016; Fink 2015). Combatting and diarrhea (contrary to popular beliefs of Ebola alongside the Ministry of Health and excessive bleeding although this does occur in Sanitation and the National Ebola Response center approximately 20% of patients), is what kills most in Sierra Leone, PIH acted as a flexible partner patients (Farmer 2015). While many emergency “tailoring its activities to address evolving local response organizations administered oral needs” (Cancedda et al. 2016). These needs, while rehydration in lieu of intravenous fluid rehydration not always aligned with the treatment and because of fears of contamination, Partners in community health specialization of the Health believes that the widespread use of IV organization, filled the gaps not addressed by the fluids, done for HIV/AIDS patients regularly, would rigid response approaches of other organizations. have significantly reduced the case fatality of the Most needed in minimizing the epidemic were the Ebola epidemic (Cancedda et al. 2016). Increased four S’s: staff- well trained doctors, nurses, and access to intravenous fluids, treatments, and quality community health workers, stuff- medical care could have saved hundreds of lives. Paul equipment, space- clean and sanitary places to treat Farmer, co-founder of Partners in Health believes patients, and systems- infrastructural and logistical that all response efforts could have done better, (Ajam 2016). These issues were targeted with a including Partners in Health, to improve the health three-pronged approach to improving and building and survival of the West African people (Farmer capacity among the public sector. PIH supported 2015). While part of PIH’s response included the public sector health facilities through the provision treatment of Ebola, they were also focused on of medical supplies and physicians to combat the health more broadly. They addressed the neglected Ebola crisis. This accompanying approach to illnesses, injuries, and ailments that occurred providing healthcare allowed for the improvement alongside Ebola recognizing that the care of these and development of new policies and procedures to were equally important as the treatment for improve care delivery while also leveraging existing patients suffering from Ebola (Patterson 2015; PIH resources to serve the needs of the people 2016). (Cancedda et al. 2016). This often included Another success of Partners in Health is refurbishing existing space to function as health their integration of research programs into their facilities or Ebola Treatment Units, or repairing the clinical delivery platform which bridges the gap fractures in the medical supply chain systems to between research and practice. Given the ensure a continuous and efficient flow of ‘stuff’ into importance of data collection during an epidemic of West Africa (Fink 2015). this magnitude, PIH monitored and evaluated the While most international humanitarian aid efficacy of its programs from the outset of their and emergency relief organizations were located in engagements in Liberia and Sierra Leone (Cancedda cities in the affected countries, Partners in Health et al. 2016). Collecting ethnographic information set up ETUs in the rural countryside where the from Ebola survivors, PIH listened to the stories of majority of the population lives. For these those most affected and worked to understand the communities, prior to the arrival of PIH, the journey complex social dynamics at play that contributed to any health facility was an 8 hour walk or more to the spread of Ebola (Miller 2016). Using and upon arrival many found health centers to be analytical tools from anthropology to gain closed or abandoned (Freyer 2014). Many aid information regarding the ‘big picture’ to tools from organizations focused on the roles of containment epidemiology which focus on the molecular and prevention of further outbreak in targeting the specifics, PIH worked to create a comprehensive Ebola epidemic; this approach however often understanding of the epidemic which could then be deemphasized the role of treatment for those who used to help end it (Miller 2016). This integration of were sick. According to PIH, it is not enough to research and public practice does not end in West

83 | P a g e

Africa however. Across the United States, local crisis. These short-term goals however can still be chapters of PIH Engage work to “build the right to used to enact long term support. Funneling health movement” (PIH Engage 2014). PIH Engage resources through governmental channels, works to educate and inform the public regarding repurposing existing infrastructure, using national ongoing PIH programs and the existence of supply chains, and hiring local community international and national health abuses. By members on the ground all target the root issues of organizing strong collaborative teams, educating outbreak based in structural instability and the public, generating resources, advocating for poverty. Addressed in the primary goals of Partners health rights policies, and coming together to in Health, the key to preventing future outbreaks demand improved healthcare for people lies in the support of the public sphere and everywhere, PIH Engage engages local communities healthcare systems that are the first line of defense towards the larger mission of Partners in Health when the next epidemic strikes. In an outbreak whose goal is to provide quality healthcare to all fueled and perpetuated by fear, Partners in Health (PIH Engage 2014). worked to provide comfort and build trust. They continue to accompany the poor and suffering in Conclusion West Africa providing long term support in Despite the success of ending the West strengthening the healthcare infrastructure, African Ebola epidemic, with hindsight we can see bolstering community engagement and resilience, the many missteps in the international response to and most importantly, providing healthcare to the outbreak. These failures, when acknowledged, those who need it most. provide lessons for future interventions in similar outbreak situations. Highlighting the need for References increased community engagement and Ajam, Shadia. 2016. “Solving the Ebola outbreak: understanding has been the largest take-away from Paul Farmer and the four s’s” University of the Ebola epidemic. Organizations focusing on Notre Dame website. April 27. Accessed [May infection prevention, quarantines, ‘abduction’ of 4, 2018]. bodies, and isolation further ostracized https://science.nd.edu/news/solving-the- communities and increased mistrust and fear of ebola-outbreak-paul-farmer-and-the-four- health authorities. Quality care and engagement of ss/ communities during times of crisis, as demonstrated by Partners in Health, is a more Cancedda, Corrado, Sheila Davis, Kerry Dierberg, efficient and productive way of achieving the same Jonathan Lascher, J. Daniel Kelly, goal of prevention. Instead of implementing Mohammed Bailor Barrie, Alimamy Philip quarantines, local community health workers made Koroma, Peter George, Adikali Alpha targeted efforts to understand the fears and Kamara, Ronald Marsh, Manso Sumbuya, concerns of the people, build trust, and instill faith Cameron Nutt, Kirstin Scott, Edgar in the healthcare systems. Another area for Thomas, Katherine Bollbach, Andrew Sesay, improvement in future outbreaks is the concurrent Ahmidu Barrie, Elizabeth Barrera, Kathryn treatment of other health conditions. While the Barron, John Welch, Nahid Bhadelia, primary concern was focused on Ebola, many Raphael Frankfurter, Ophelia Dahl, Sarthak responders were ill prepared to diagnose, treat, and Das, Rebecca Rollins, Bryan Eustis, Amanda care for patients suffering from other illnesses such Schwartz, Piero Pertile, Ilias Pavlopoulos, as HIV, malaria, and complications from pregnancy. Allan Mayfield, Regan Marsh, Yusupha A focus on this integrated care can be achieved Dibba, Danielle Kloepper, Andrew Hall, through donor and organizational flexibility that Karin Huster, Michael Grady, Kimberly adapt to meet the emerging needs in an emergency Spray, David Walton, Fodei Daboh, Cora situation. Nally, Sahr James, Gabriel Warren, Joyce Due to the nature of these organizations, Chang, Michael Drasher, Gina Lamin, many aid and emergency relief responses are based Sherry Bangura, Ann Miller, Annie on short-term goals that deal with an immediate Michaelis, Ryan McBain,, M. Jana 84 | P a g e

Broadhurst, Megan Murray, Eugene Freyer, Felice. 2014. “Partners in Health staff to join Richardson, Ted Philip, Gary Gottleib, Joia African Ebola fight.” The Boston Globe. Mukherjee, Paul Farmer. 2016. September 15. Accessed [May 4, 2018]. “Strengthening Health Systems While https://www.bostonglobe.com/lifestyle/heal Responding to a Health Crisis: Lessons th-wellness/2014/09/15/partners-health- Learned by a Nongovernmental joins-fight-against-ebola-plans-bolster- Organization During the Ebola Virus health-care-rural-areas-sierra-leone-and- Disease Epidemic in Sierra Leone.” The liberia/bwGLJXSYBncPbcdxZV5UyO/story Journal of Infectious Diseases 214(3):S153-S163 .html

CDC. 2017. “Ebola Virus Disease.” Centers for Disease Gates, Bill. 2015. “The Next Epidemic- Lessons from Control and Prevention. December 27. Accessed Ebola.” The New England Journal of Medicine [May 5, 2018] 372:1381-1384 https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/about.html Hofman, Michiel and Sokhieng Au. 2017. The Politics Dhillon, Ranu and J. Daniel Kelly. 2015. of Fear: Médecins Sans Frontieres and the West “Community Trust and the Ebola Endgame.” African Ebola Epidemic. Oxford University The New England Journal of Medicine. 373: 787- Press 789 Huff, Amber. 2015. “Ebola: Exposing the failure of international development.” Open Democracy Fallah, Mosoka, Laura Skrip, Shai Gertler, Dan website. February 25. Accessed [May 4, yamin, Alison Galvani. 2015. “Quantifying 2018]. Poverty as a Driver of Ebola Transmission.” https://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/amb PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 9(12): er-huff/ebola-exposing-failure-of- e0004260 international-development

Farmer, Paul. 2015. “The secret to curing West Huster, Karin. 2016. “WHO says Ebola epidemic is Africa from Ebola is no secret at all.” The over. What have (and haven’t) we learned?” Washington Post. January 16. Accessed [May 4, NPR. March 27. Accessed [May 4, 2018]. 2018]. https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions /2016/03/27/471870907/ebola-we-may-have- /paul-farmer-the-secret-to-curing-west- won-the-battle-but-we-havent-won-the- africa-from-ebola-is-no-secret-at- war all/2015/01/16/658a6686-9cb9-11e4-bcfb- 059ec7a93ddc_story.html?noredirect=on&ut Kentikelenis, Alexander, Lawrence King, Martin m_term=.efe37617a28e McKee, David Stuckler. 2014. “The International Monetary Fund and the Ebola Fink, Sheri. 2015. “Pattern of safety lapses where Outbreak.” The Lancet Global Health 3(2): e69- group worked to battle Ebola outbreak.” The e70 New York Times. April 12. Accessed [May 4, 2018]. Lamontagne, François, Christophe Clément, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/13/world Thomas Fletcher, Shevin Jacob, William /africa/pattern-of-safety-lapses-where- Fischer, Robert Fowler. 2014. New England group-worked-to-battle-ebola- Journal of Medicine 371: 1565-1566 outbreak.html

85 | P a g e

McKay, Betsy. 2015. “West Africa struggles to PIH. 2016. “Ebola.” Partners in Health website. rebuild its ravaged health-care system” The Accessed [May 4, 2018]. Wall Street Journal. June 4. Accessed [May 4, https://www.pih.org/programs/ebola 2018]. https://www.wsj.com/articles/africa- struggles-to-rebuild-its-ravaged-health- PIH Engage. 2014. “We are building a right to care-system-1433457230 health movement” Partners in Health Engage website. Accessed [May 4, 2018]. Miller, Jake. 2016. “Lessons from a Pandemic: http://engage.pih.org/about Illuminating the hidden causes of the Ebola outbreak” Harvard Medical School News Rasco, Arthur, dir. Facing Darkness. 2017; A website. March 3. Accessed [May 4, 2018]. Samaritan’s Purse Film https://hms.harvard.edu/news/lessons- Richards, Paul, Joseph Amara, Mariane Ferme, pandemic Prince Kamara, Esther Mokuwa, Amara Idara Sheriff, Roland Suluku, Maarten MSF. 2014. “Pushed to the Limit and Beyond: A year Voors. 2015. “Social Pathways for Ebola into the largest ever Ebola outbreak.” Virus Disease in rural Sierra Leone, and Médecins Sans Frontieres. Report. some implications for containment.” PLoS https://www.msf.org.uk/sites/uk/files/ebola Neglected Tropical Diseases 9(4):e0003567 _-_pushed_to_the_limit_and_beyond.pdf Richardson, Eugene, Mohamed Bailor Barrie, J. Onishi, Norimitsu. 2015. “Empty Ebola clinics in Daniel Kelly, Yusupha Dibba, Songor Liberia are seen as a misstep in U.S. relief Koedoyoma, Paul Farmer. 2015. “Biosocial effort.” The New York Times. April 11. Accessed Approaches to the 2013-2016 Ebola [May 4, 2018]. Pandemic.” Health and Human Rights Journal https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/12/world 18(1): 1-13 /africa/idle-ebola-clinics-in-liberia-are-seen- as-misstep-in-us-relief-effort.html Stone, Chris. 2014. “Looking Past Quarantine to Community Health” Open Society Foundations Parshley, Lois. 2016. “After Ebola.” The Atlantic. website. October 9. Accessed [May 4, 2018]. Accessed [May 4, 2018]. https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/v https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/arc oices/looking-past-quarantine-community- hive/2016/07/after-ebola/485609/ health

Patterson, Donna. 2015. “We are not Leaving’: Talking Ebola with Partners in Health’s Executive Director Ophelia Dahl.” Huffington Post website. March 13. Accessed [May 4, 2018]. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/donna-a- patterson/we-are-not-leaving- talkin_b_6857232.html

86 | P a g e

The Role of Public Libraries in Community Health

Sheri McCaskill

Public libraries can play a big role in the authors’ personal network, then with snowball health of community members. The goal of this recruitment, totaling to 17 respondents from project was to find out how library staff views the libraries throughout the United States. role of public libraries in the health of its Respondents were all currently employed in public community members, and if it has changed libraries in various roles. From the respondents, significantly in recent years. Additionally, it asks 41% identified as library technicians, assistants or what type of resources and services are currently associates while 35% identified as librarians. The available within public libraries. Ethnographic remaining respondents said they occupied various observation was utilized at local libraries, and other roles in the library. Work experience within public library employees from throughout the the library was also varied, with most respondents United States were surveyed. In-depth interviews having been employed at a public library either 2-5 were conducted with select survey respondents to years or more than 10 years. Most respondents gather further qualitative information relevant to identified their library as being in suburban the project’s focus. locations in various regions throughout the Mental health, homelessness and addiction country. Answers were collected over two weeks at are prominent concerns related to the social the end of November 2019 (See Appendix A for conditions in a community, and they are issues that visualizations of the data collected). public library employees deal with on a regular Interviews with library employees took basis. These are pressing issues for those in the place in December 2019. Three public library industry as well as those who regularly visit the employees who had responded to the initial survey public library. It is a topic that needs to be at the were interviewed more in depth about their forefront of our conversations about mental health, thoughts, opinions and experiences of community community health and public library policy. This health in their libraries. After careful ethnographic study aims to shed some much needed light on this observation, several public library patrons were important topic. approached and briefly spoken to about their Libraries have recently been reaching more library usage habits or library activities. All names diverse populations and providing services that had will remain anonymous for this study. previously been unavailable to many. That has been the goal of the American Library Association (ALA) The State of Community Health in Libraries since the 1970s, specifically, “…to use the power of A definition of what is meant by libraries to solve critical social problems” (Raber community health is necessary in order to 2007, 683). In order to attain these goals, the understand what libraries can contribute to it. For services that are most needed to reach underserved the purposes of this study, community health populations within a community should be clearly concerns the wellbeing and equal access to services defined. The following report will discuss the many that contribute to the social, emotional and variations on potential services and solutions for physical health of community members. For adding them to a library’s offerings. It will also example, physical health programs could include explore the many opinions and thoughts library offering flu shots, exercise classes or cooking staff have about community health in their own classes. Emotional health programs might include libraries. suicide risk awareness for teens or meditation classes. Social health programs might range from Methodology social meet-up groups to job skills training. Each of A survey was sent via Google Forms to these examples are programs that have been public library employees recruited first from the observed in public libraries as a part of this study. 87 | P a g e

There are already many programs and think beyond that. Now that you explain it, I collaborations being offered in public libraries that understand how libraries could play a big role in influence the health of community members. In the health with other programs.” This shows that there course of this study various programs were could be great potential in promoting current observed. For example, mental health outreach health themed offerings to public library users. workers setting up in meeting rooms in a midsized Many are not aware of the available offerings, so do urban library, health education classes on healthy not think to turn to the public library for eating and cooking taking place in a small rural community health information or services. Public library, regular meetings for seniors to make lasting education is key to success in these types of friendships with others, and even a language programs. When library employees were asked if exchange for native Spanish and English speakers they knew of people using the library specifically as to practice their language skills. These programs, a health resource, the results were mostly negative among others, contribute to overall community or unsure (see Appendix A). This indicates a great health in different ways. potential for expanding programming and public perception of library offerings, both for staff and Public Perception of the Library’s Role in the patrons. Health of the Community Educating the public in the many ways in When broaching the topic of health in the which the library positively impacts their lives and library people are often taken aback. What could overall well-being ensures the future of public the library have to offer for public health? Many libraries. If the public understands how the library people do not immediately think of the library as a can benefit their lives, they will continue to support community health resource, even those who use the their library and vote for funding measures for library regularly. In 1990, the American Library libraries. One librarian surveyed said that the role of Association again realized the need for libraries to libraries in public health is “very important. focus more on the needs of homeless and low- Libraries play a key role as a social determinant of income patrons, resulting in the adoption of Policy public health.” It appears that librarians know the 61 which advocates for adding services for these value of their contribution to community health but populations (Giesler 2019). The public may be know that there is room for improvement. Another unaware of the need and desire of libraries to offer said “the public library is an essential component in health related services, but awareness among creating a robust, resilient community. We provide librarians, of the need to do something, seems to be information, connection, opportunities for sharing an ongoing trend. What actions are being taken to and relationship building, access to essential fill these needs? resources, and we provide social acceptance and According to Bradley Wade Bishop in a 2013 respect to everyone in our community.” study on the library’s role in natural disasters, multiple disaster related studies have been done The Importance of Focusing on Community showing the value of library services in public well- Health in Public Libraries being. Public libraries serve people of all walks of Libraries aim to be a welcoming place for all. life in many different difficult situations. To quote In order to meet the needs of all community one library employee surveyed, “libraries serve high- members, a variety of services must be offered. On a risk populations, including very young children, daily basis, a librarian might encounter a homeless seniors, teens and people who are homeless, have patron, a young adult wanting to “come out” (reveal disabilities, or have an addiction. It's a safe non- a non-hetero sexual orientation) to their friends, a judgmental place to seek help and information.” young mother with a new baby, an elderly patron, “I can think of a few ways the library can an addict, or a mentally disabled patron. These help, but I am interested in hearing more about same patrons might be visiting the library for what you mean,” said a library patron interviewed. temporary shelter and warmth, advice on resources After talking with him further, he went on to say, for contacting LGBTQ+ communities, information “yes, I had thought about books and offering access on early childhood development, companionship, to healthcare resources online, but I really didn’t addiction treatment resources, or simply just a

88 | P a g e friendly face. This only scratches the surface of the some time now. Discussing the changing role of diversity of library patrons and their many unique public libraries, one library employee told me: needs. The public library can provide these things for all of these people and so much more. In an When I first started my library assistant interview one librarian said, “we are concerned, position, in 2009, there wasn't a large push especially with winter, about the safety and overall [for health services]. Libraries, that I knew health of patrons who we know lack a permanent of, would provide reference materials but residence, lack a job, lack adequate nutrition and that was about it. Now public libraries are lack access to medical care, especially preventative.” advocating, reaching out to health This quote clearly demonstrates many of the needed organizations, hosting seminars, etc. My services that could be offered. Most libraries current library has partnered with the already offer some services concerning these needs, local hospital network to provide free flu but not all. There is much more that could be done shots. We also partner with food banks in many libraries. and will soon be offering classes on super- As a solution to providing more of the simple healthy cooking you can make with needed services, some experts suggest adding social that food; we'll be providing recipe cards workers to the library (Schencker 2018). “I with pictures so literacy and language sometimes worry about the lines blurring too much issues can be minimized. between librarians and social workers,” said a survey respondent. The role of librarians has These changes are exciting. Libraries are changed, and as the expected services may not be discovering how important a role they can play in offered, patrons are turning to librarians for the the health of their own communities, and we must service that might be best offered by social workers. encourage this shift in services. For example, more Most believe that social services should be available and more urban libraries, like the Denver Public in libraries in some way, but the two roles are Library, are training their staff on how to deal with distinctly different. Librarians are trained opioid overdose and equipping them with information specialists and are not trained to do the emergency overdose treatments like Narcan. Every work social workers do. Having social workers in library is unique depending on its local situation, libraries can help to bridge the gap in access to and the needs of each community can be vastly resources. In discussing community health different. Therefore, there is no “one size fits all” initiatives in public libraries, one survey participant way of creating policy for public libraries. said, “the current political climate has pushed this Though funding for these types of services topic to the forefront of discussion about the role of can be a challenge, there are ways to incorporate a library within the community.” Librarians know changes that can fit into any library budget. There of the need to expand health services, but believe are some state level funding cuts, but despite that others do as well, and that it is a conversation popular belief, public library funding is strong. In we need to be having. “Overall, I think libraries 2018 the funding for the Institute of Museum and should take the growing step at either providing a Library Services (IMLS) was renewed and even social worker to their patrons or be working very increased by $11 million dollars (The State of closely with local agencies for situations where American Libraries 2019). Local funding is up as patrons come to us in dire need, instead of having well. One study reported by The Library Journal them take one more additional step to get found that 77% of libraries who responded to a 2018 assistance,” said one suburban librarian. survey reported an increase in operating budgets from 2016 to 2019. Steps Being Taken to Improve Community A variety of alternative funding options are Health Services available to public libraries as well, including Policy varies greatly in libraries throughout partnerships with outside organizations and a wide the United States. Many libraries are variety of grants. In order to virtually eliminate the experimenting with adding more health-based cost of having health outreach programs in libraries, programming, and some have been doing them for an option exists to collaborate with many of the

89 | P a g e non-profit organizations that are already active and “homeless people rely on the public library for can present avenues to engage with the public. books, computer and internet access, and warmth. However, planning is critical aspect of this work. Staff at public libraries interact with almost as Knowing which resources are available in different many homeless individuals as those at shelters do.” situations can help libraries determine the need for in house social workers or collaboration. A Conclusion participant in the survey stated that, “public The number of people using the library is libraries should be stepping up to partner with steadily increasing and library jobs are mostly other organizations to disseminate information, secure. However, the number of library users who connect the public with resources, and have need more help than what staff can provide is also updated materials on hand.” increasing. Importantly, a social worker could be the person who coordinates between the library Suggestions for Implementing Health Services staff and the community members to help plan Adding social workers to the library staff, as programming that best meets the needs of the mentioned, could be a solution to adding better community. services that reach more people. Though this would To restate, libraries play an extremely affect library budgets, it could be the best option important role in the health of a community. Many for many communities. In 2018, 85% of public people rely on the library to live productive and libraries reported an increase in personnel budgets enjoyable lives. Libraries offer materials and (Peet 2018), which indicates that adding staff is services that make a real and critical impact on the viable as an option. From the survey participants, community. It is vital that we begin to shift 82% said that they agreed public libraries should perceptions of what a library is and what it can have trained social workers on staff, while 76.5% provide to include more health-related services. said that they felt like they had the proper training Library staff perceive their own libraries as an to handle patrons in crisis situations. A social important resource for the community and should worker is not a librarian, just as a librarian is not a be either educated and trained to deal with health social worker. There could be a need for both in crises and provide health resources or should many libraries. The 2019 ALA report The State of employ trained healthcare professionals in their American Libraries find that “Americans go to libraries. In the words of librarian, author and public libraries (1.35 billion visits) more often than professor of information studies, R. David Lankes, they go to the movies (1.24 billion admissions).” “Bad libraries build collections, good libraries build Later in the same report, it is stated that services, great libraries build communities.” Let’s homelessness and addiction are among the most build our communities. prominent problems facing libraries today and that,

90 | P a g e

Appendix A

Questionnaire Responses

91 | P a g e

92 | P a g e

93 | P a g e

References Peet, Lisa Holding Pattern: Budgets & Funding Aycock, Anthony. “A Librarian’s Guide to Suicide 2018 Prevention and Mental Health https://www.libraryjournal.com/?detailStor Awareness.” Information Today, vol. 36, no. y=holding-pattern-budgets-funding 8, Oct. 2019, pp. 12–13. accessed 11/210/2019. “The State of American Libraries” American Libraries, Apr. 2019, pp. Bishop, Bradley Wade, and Shari R. Veil. "Public 9–11. libraries as post-crisis information hubs." Public Library Quarterly 32.1 (2013): 33- Raber, Douglas. ACONDA and ANACONDA: 45. Social change, social responsibility, and librarianship." Library Trends 55.3 (2007): Coleman, Michele and Lynn Silipigni Connaway 675-697. “Public Libraries Respond to the Opioid Crisis in Collaboration with Their Schencker, Lisa “Homeless people in the library? Communities: An Chicago, suburban libraries turn to social Introduction.” Collaborative Librarianship, workers for help” Chicago Tribune, October vol. 11, no. 1, Jan. 2019, pp. 43–47. 27th, 2018.

Densley, James and Jillian Peterson “We analyzed Westbrook, Lynn “‘I’m Not a Social Worker’: An 53 years of mass shooting data. Attacks Information Service Model for Working aren’t just increasing, they’re getting with Patrons in Crisis.” Library Quarterly, deadlier.” Los Angeles Times. 1, Sept. 2019. vol. 85, no. 1, Jan. 2015, pp. 6–25. Accessed 11/20/2019.

Giesler, Mark A. “Collaboration Between Homeless Shelters and Public Libraries in Addressing Homelessness: A Multiple Case Study.” Journal of Library Administration, vol. 59, no. 1, Jan. 2019, pp. 18–44.

94 | P a g e

An Epidemic Crisis: The Disastrous HIV Infections Among Rural Blood Donors in China

Yan Xue

The 1980s economic reform led to an ever- punished (Erwin 2006). Personnel who in charge of increasing income gap between Chinese urban and and worked at the illegal commercial plasma rural residents, and farmers in agricultural collection stations were arrested, and the provinces like Henan, Hubei, Anhui, and Shaanxi contaminated blood stocks were destroyed. A 2.25 gradually fell into a financial crisis (Shao 2006). In billion yuan budget was assigned by central the 1990s, the outbreak of HIV infections started government to local governments to rebuild among the rural poor who sold their blood in an standardized plasma collection stations, and since unregulated plasma collection industry in which the pass of “Blood Station Management Law” in small commercial collection stations acted as a 2006, the power to supervise and control local bridge between rural blood donors and urban plasma collections was gradually delegated from medical institutions (Beyrer & Joanne 2003). central government to state governments (Rollet Personnel working in these stations did not 2009). In this process, the powerful government perform according to the standard plasma institutions in China were able to create what collecting procedures. Instead, they reused Foucault calls as "discourse", or a system of collection equipment without sanitization, pooling knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs (Lock & Vinh- blood and then reinfusing red blood cells of the Kim 2018), about who should be blamed and what compatible blood types into donors so that donors were the roots of this crisis. It was not local or would not become anemic and could donate more central government's fault. The responsibilities frequently (Qian et al. 2005). This practice was were on individuals and illegal commercial plasma how bloodborne diseases such as HIV/AIDS started collection institutions whose behaviors were transmitting among rural areas in China. Due to a predicted by their immorality and interests- lack of correct education, none of rural blood maximum thinking. And the crux was not about donors were aware of the potentially catastrophic market mechanisms, nor about the problematic consequences in which such plasma collecting rural economic and health infrastructures, but the practices could result. According to the local and outdated biotechnologies. By making such central governments' public communications, discourses permeated into the whole society, the HIV/AIDS was a capitalist/Western disease caused government institutions reoriented public attention by immoral behaviors like drug abuse or away from themselves to other scapegoats, away homosexual conduct (Shao 2006). from embodied experiences of rural donors to Although HIV infections through paid numbers and statistics, away from humanistic aids blood donations had come to light by 1995, to administrative measures. There were no information was suppressed, and no systematic apologies from government institutions, no reforms census was done until 2004 (Parry 2012). In 2005, of rural economic and health structures, and no following a vast official tracing exercise among effective compensatory system for rural residents. Henan's 100 million inhabitants, the Chinese In this paper, I apply medical anthropology Ministry of Health registered 29,337 cases of HIV, theory to try to reexamine this crisis from four 90 percent of whom were former blood donors and aspects. In the first part, I use the critical 98 percent were peasants (Rollet 2009). In order to biocultural anthropology approach to examine how control this unprecedented epidemic crisis, a series the political economy changes in China played a of legislative and administrative actions were taken. determinant role in shaping rural residents’ In 2005, 147 illegal blood collection centers were experiences of health, disease, and illness. The closed, and 86 blood collection agencies were critical biocultural anthropology approach is about 95 | P a g e studying human biology within social and cultural enlarging the rule of the free market, cutting public contexts and examining structures of inequality expenditure for social services, deregulation, and that constrain human agency and rights to stay privatization (Keshavjee 2014). This neoliberal healthy (Thomas & Morgan 2017). In the second economic reform in China profoundly disrupted part, drawing on Paul Farmer's work, I argue this rural residents' financial capabilities, increased the crisis was not simply caused by medical negligence gap of incomes between urban and rural residents, or interest-centered individualism but also by forms and resulted in the instabilities of rural economic of structural violence. In the third part, I address structures. From one aspect, without the subsidies, the Blood Donation Law of 1998 that was issued for farmers had to pay for chemical fertilizers, and the restituting social panic and health damages. cost of production increased greatly (Shao 2006). Drawing on Foucault's definitions of From another aspect, because farmers only had governmentality, I try to reveal the ideological vague ideas about the market and they didn't underpinnings that were transmitted and the possess professional knowledge about how market sociocultural influences that were generated. In the mechanisms work, oftentimes they were not able to fourth part, I discuss Richard Titmuss's The Gift make the best decisions to produce the desired or Relationship and propose reconsiderations for most profitable products at the right times, which situations under which monetary rewards will lead resulted in their incomes becoming unpredictable. to “crowding out” effects, as well as further As for the previous rural health discussions on whether or not there should be infrastructure, 90% of the rural population were monetary rewards for blood donations. covered by the Cooperative Medical System (CMS) (Liu, Yuanli et al. 1999). Not only did CMS have Part One three tiers of protection for farmers (barefoot The transition from a planned economy to a doctors, township health centers and county market economy fundamentally shook up Chinese hospitals), its financing relied on a pre-payment rural economic and health structures, and it was plan which included farmers’ premium during this period blood donation began to be contributions, Village Collective Welfare Fund, and commodified. Bellow, I will first address how subsidies from the government (Liu, Yuanli et al. economic and health policies were reformed, then I 1999). These two sets of measures were to make will elaborate on how they linked to rural residents' sure preventive and primary care services were risky behavioral patterns as well as their available to everyone under the condition that only experiences of disease and illness. minimal expenditures were to be paid by farmers In the late 1970s, the previous collective themselves. However, after the agriculture reform, system of production that dominated the CMS and pre-payment plan collapsed in most of agriculture sector was replaced by a household the rural areas, and government’s budgets for rural responsibility system. This new system was meant health dropped significantly (Liu, Yuanli et al. to improve rural productivities by assigning every 1999). This resulted in a tremendous vacuum in the family a quota of goods to produce, and families rural health infrastructure. The number of were compensated accordingly (Shao 2006). At the township clinics declined by 14.2%, and the initial stage this policy indeed achieved some number of active primary health care workers successes, but that was partly because of declined by 35.9% (Liu, Yuanli et al. 1999). In governmental compensations. In 1985, Chinese contrast, roughly half of the urban residents central government decided to further liberalize continued to be insured either by Government and decentralize the agricultural sector by allowing Employee Health Insurance or by Labor Health the market to regulate the prices, withdrawing Insurance (Liu, Yuanli et al. 1999). significant subsidies from agriculture and In sum, the enactment of neoliberal reinvesting them into industrial developments economic reform in China’s agriculture system, as (Shao 2006). China never acknowledged this move well as the central government's biased policies as a surrender to capitalism but claimed it to be a between agriculture developments and socialist market economy reform- a reform that industrialization resulted in the decrease of adopted postmodern neoliberal ideals including Chinese farmer's incomes, which constrained their 96 | P a g e capabilities to make a better living and to pay for Henan were arrested because they were going to health care. According to various estimates, 30-50% petition the central government about the lack of of rural households lived under the poverty line, promised antiretroviral treatments and for the and due to which 58% reported an inability to pay government banning their children from attending for hospitalization (Ministry of Health, 1994). And schools (Parry 2004). Ironically after the crisis, due to a lack of government's subsidies and the people that were first arrested were not corrupted degradation of the economy, rural residents could officials nor personnel who made huge profits from do nothing but to let CMS, the most important illegal and unethical plasma blood collection but system to guarantee their access to affordable journalists, doctors, and activists who were trying health services, gradually collapsed. To provide for to help. They were arrested because they tried to their families and even to achieve a well-off living, tell the truth to those HIV infected rural donors rural residents had to work very hard, often with about why they got sick and where they should little to no reward. It is not hard to imagine what an seek help, and because they tried to let the whole allure it would be for them if they were offered country know the sufferings and struggles of these 2,000 yuan for a single blood donation (Shao 2006). people so that more medical and financial help Maybe they saw it as a shortcut to achieve their might be gathered. Nevertheless, their actions aspirations or as a way out of tiring labor. No conflicted with the plan and concern of the central matter what it is, their economic and health and local governments who tried to prevent difficulties were the determinant forces for them to nationwide panic by restricting the leaking of sell their blood. information. In 2003, the central government issued a Part Two policy called "Four Frees and One Care" to provide Paul Farmer has emerged as one of most free antiretroviral (ARV) treatment, tracing and eloquent proponents for studying structural counseling services to HIV infected rural residents, violence from the anthropological lens and his and to provide financial relief for their families as approach emphasizes how political-economic, well as care for AIDS orphans (Rollet 2009). large-scale and historically engrained forces wreak However, lots of problems occurred in its havoc on the bodies of the socially vulnerable implementation. Taking Henan province as an (Bourgois 2009). In this section I would like to give example, the distribution of ARV drugs were two reasons why I take this epidemic crisis as a limited, little to no medical services were provided manifestation of structural violence. First, local to test or monitor the treatments, and no measure governments not only withheld information of the was taken to deal with the side effects or to ensure cause and seriousness of this HIV infection crisis patients' adherence (Shao 2006). As a result, a from all social actors, but also impeded anyone from three-year survival rate was only 50 percent. It is no seeking outside help. Second, local governments wonder some rural residents suspected that these implemented the “Four Frees and One Care” policy, drugs were to hasten their death (Shao 2006). a policy that should provide free antiretroviral Both central and local governments were treatment, in rather ambiguous ways. responsible for the production and reproduction of In 2003, the Associate Director of the Henan structural violence. While the local governments Center for Disease Control (CDC), Ma Shiwen was were the direct actors, often times their misconduct arrested and accused of betraying “State Secrets” was known to or acquiesced by the central because he shared information about the spread of government. Mr. Zhao, an HIV-infected farmer HIV in his Province with an unofficial association from Henan, said "we manage to find the invoice (Rollet 2009). In the same year, in the village of from the blood transfusion, the medical certificate, Xiongqiao in Hubei province, a force of 500 and the hospital discharge certificate, but the policemen arrested 16 infected farmers who tried to People's court wouldn't hear our case. We wish the claim medical and financial compensations from the government would give people living with local government because their actions were HIV/AIDS their rights to sue and that the court will accused as an attack on the government (Rollet give us fair compensation" (Parry 2004). As it is 2009). In June 2004, four HIV positive farmers from said, public policies can create some of the worst

97 | P a g e instances of social sufferings and intensify human "governmentality" as "the ensemble formed by the miseries (Kleinman 1997). The policies and actions institution, procedures, analyses and reflections, taken by Chinese government institutions to deny the calculations and tactics that allow the exercise the victimhood of its rural citizens and to of this very specific albeit complex form of power, criminalize journalists, doctors, and activists who which I have as its target population, as its with the moralities to help, could produce principal form of knowledge political economy, and detrimental social consequences. First, it might as its essential technical means apparatuses of aggravate the physiological and psychological security." Drawing on the theoretical concept sufferings of the infected farmers and encourage “governmentality”, I would like to argue that discriminations from non-infected general public through legislation, the government institutions in against them. Second it might create a discourse China redefined where lies the normality and that you would get yourself into trouble by helping legality of blood donation. By changing the public’s the infected voice their concerns and struggles. conceptualizations about the nature and the goals Such discursive practices not only served the of blood donation, they managed to change the government institutions to silence the HIV-infected public’s behaviors, resulting in increased voluntary rural blood donors, but also create material and donors. Admittedly this was an optimistic case of psychological segregation in the whole society. governmentality, however, I suggest more critical Third, with the refusal of their rights to sue and thinking be given to what it means for rural donors with the delay in legislation to protect their rights who had already been infected and their of education and employment, it could result in descendants who were also infected through lowering of their educational levels and vertical transmissions, and how might this law employment rates, eventually generating greater influence their lives and their futures. poverties among those rural areas. In article one it says “This law is enacted for….developing humanitarianism and promoting Part Three socialist material as well as cultural and ethical The outbreak of HIV infections among rural progress” (lawinfochina.com 1998), and sets the blood donors started in the 1990s and was caused evaluation criteria with which the humanitarian directly by the unregulated illegal plasma collection part is praised while the monetary part is belittled practices in which small commercial plasma and disciplined. Maybe it tries to convey the idea collection stations collected blood from rural that contributing to the community is good while donors with unsanitized equipment and reinfused serving your own interests is not so good? Although red blood cells into donors. In the earliest I do not think it is wrong to illegalize the practice systematic census done in 2005 to trace HIV of buying and selling blood, since the Chinese infection rates, the Chinese Ministry of Health government has not acknowledged its role in how registered 29,337 cases of HIV infection among the crisis happened nor its responsibilities to take Henan's 100 million inhabitants, 90 percent of care of the infected rural residents, and now with whom were former blood donors and 98 percent this law? I am worried that its implications and the were peasants (Rollet 2009) ways they might get interpreted would lead to The Blood Donation Law was issued in 1998. further discriminations and isolations of infected Its second and eleventh articles make very clear rural donors who could be discouraged from that “The State institutes a blood donation system. seeking rightful citizenships since selling blood has The State encourages healthy citizens from 18 to 55 already been identified as illegal behaviors. years of age to donate blood voluntarily” and Besides the core ideas to ban all “Donated blood shall only be used for clinical commodification of blood and to encourage purposes and not for sale” (lawinfochina.com 1998). humanitarian commitments, the law also promotes The effects were obvious, after it was finally stricter securitization and advanced implemented in 2002, that in just one decade, biotechnologies. In article nine and ten, they voluntary donations have increased from 5.5% to require that not only “A blood donor center shall 99% (Shi et al. 2014), which seemed to be a success. carry out the necessary medical checkup on blood Foucault (1991: 102) defined the term donors” but also “a blood donor center shall collect

98 | P a g e blood strictly in compliance with the relevant payment was introduced. However, maybe they operation procedures and regulations, blood have overlooked how participants' socioeconomic collecting shall be done by qualified medical needs might affect their choices. For people who workers." Will it influence the ways people live in great poverty, would they prefer to donate perceive how we should improve the credit and their blood for free or for a fee? reliability of Chinese blood banking system? "Blood Traditionally Chinese people believe blood Banking in China" (Shan et al. 2002) and "Blood is an essential life force and loss of blood would safety and availability" (Shi et al. 2014) suggest we diminish their vitality (Erwin 2006), but should: 1) build well-regulated, high-quality donor socioeconomic forces back then, such as decreased and donation information system. 2) invest more in incomes, scarcities of material goods and health improving testing mechanisms and laboratory resources, counteracted this cultural belief. It is not practices. 3) improve the quality of licensed like these poor rural farmers believed selling blood collection kits. 4) rigorous training of specialists for could make them billionaires, they were just too blood collection. To a certain degree, it is desperate to stop their lives from going downhill. understandable that this medical journal I do not think it is morally problematic to concentrates on pure biomedical interventions and provide monetary rewards to blood donors, avoids discussion of adjustments that need to be especially to those who live in poverty, but I would made in societal dimensions. Nevertheless, it is like to argue that fundamentally it is the job of the worrisome that there might be misrecognition of nation's powerful institutions to contemplate over the socioeconomic origins of the contaminated how can they relieve the financial burdens from blood crisis in the 1980s. As Lock & Vinh-Kim socially vulnerable bodies and how can they achieve (2018) point out, health-related matter is routinely health equalities for them so as to eliminate the objectified by government and medical institutions necessities to sell blood. as a technical problem to be solved through the application of technology and conduct of science. Conclusion Without government's recognition or academic Early in the 1980s, economic liberalization, discussions, it raises concerns that as time passes health reform, and the Chinese government's less the economic and health inequalities that gave rise favorable policies towards rural areas became the to the disaster will become more invisible, as will determinant forces that drove farmers to turn their the embodied experiences of discrimination and blood into monetary sources. The results could marginalization of rural residents. have been different if local and central government were to make information about the cause and Part Four seriousness of this HIV infection crisis transparent In the book The Gift Relationship (Titmuss, to rural residents and journalists, and welcome help 1970), the “crowding out” effect was defined as the from doctors, scientists, and non-governmental phenomenon that monetary rewards for donating organizations; if surveillance was imposed, not on blood might reduce the supply of blood donors, as farmers, but on local governments to make sure the introduction of payment may reduce the they strictly implemented every regulation intrinsic motivation to behave altruistically or published by the central government; if power was perform one’s civic duty. In 2008, Mellström and not abused by governments to punish farmers who Johannesson conducted an ethnographic study in struggled for survival but to punish those who had Gothenburg with Gothenburg County residents to made tons of money from people's death; and if reexamine the applicability of Titmuss's there were laws to ensure infected rural donors' hypothesis. The results suggested that for the judicial rights to sue against unfair treatment and overall sample the supply of blood donors decreases for compensation. If all of these were true, there from 43% to 33% when a payment is introduced. would not be so much death and fear, then and More interestingly, when gender was introduced as now. a variable the crowding out effects were more Governmentality exerted by institutions obvious among women participants such that their certainly can have positive influences, banning donations decreased from 52% to 30% after a monetary rewards and advocating for voluntary 99 | P a g e blood donations. However, what the Blood References Donation Law meant for rural blood donors who Beyrer, Chris, and Joanne Csete. "An epidemic of had already been infected with HIV in the process denial." Harvard International Review 25, no. 2 of selling their blood and for their children who (2003): 64. were also infected through vertical transmission, as well as the influences it brought to their lives, Biehl, Joao. "The post-neoliberal fabulation of remains undiscussed. And we have reasons to power: On statecraft, precarious worry that the disciplinary discourses created by it infrastructures, and public mobilization in and the implications it conveyed might be harmful Brazil." American Ethnologist 43, no. 3 (2016): to infected rural donors. 437-450. Both in political and academic spheres, there are professionals who advocate that we Bourgois, Philippe. "Recognizing invisible violence: reinforce the safety and credit of Chinese Blood A thirty-year ethnographic retrospective." Banking system by updating testing and collection Global health in times of violence (2009): 18-40. technologies. It is not my intention to oppose that possibility but I hope people will realize that Erwin, Kathleen. "The Circulatory System: Blood although advanced biotechnologies and Procurement, AIDS, and the Social Body in biomedicine can heal viruses or diseases, they China." Medical Anthropology Quarterly 20, no. cannot heal traumatized experiences; they can be 2 (2006): 139-59. used to objectify and essentialize social problems, but not to achieve a harmonious and blessed Foucault, Michel. The Foucault Effect: Studies in society. Governmentality: With Two Lectures by and an Illness, such as those stemming from HIV infection, not only cause hundreds of thousands of Interview with Michel Foucault. Edited by deaths, but they have long-lasting impacts on Graham, Burchell, Colin, Gordon and Peter, societal and cultural domains. In this epidemic Miller. The University of Chicago Press, crisis, HIV infections created numerous orphans, as 1991. kids who lost their parents had to be taken care by their grandparents or sent to institutions (Rollet Jessica, Mulligan. "Biological Citizenship." Oxford 2009), and couples who desired to have a son Bibliographies. 28 Feb. 2017. would have to refrain from doing so because of fear oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/o for vertical infection (Shao 2006). People are forced bo-9780199766567/obo-9780199766567- to give up those important and traditional Chinese 0164.xml values because they embraced fears and anguish not only toward death but also toward loss of identities Keshavjee, Salmaan. Blind Spot: How Neoliberalism and social values. Infiltrated Global Health. Berkeley: University Compared with research done in other of California Press, 2014. fields, we lag behind to examine how this epidemic crisis happened in China from medical Kleinman, Arthur, Veena Das, and Margaret M. anthropology lens, especially about the lived Lock, eds. “Introduction.” In Social suffering. experiences of those infected rural donors. In this University of California Press, 1997: ix-xxvii. new era, I propose research be done to investigate what kind of lives they live now, and what political Leatherman, Thomas and Morgan Hoke. “Critical changes or economic politics are influential to their Biocultural Anthropology: A Model for survivorship. Essentially, I believe we need more Anthropological Integration.” In The scholarship to convey their voices and concerns, as Routledge Companion to Contemporary well as to help them combat structural violence and Anthropology, edited by Simon Coleman, public misunderstanding. Susan B. Hyatt, and Ann Kingsolver, 283- 302. Taylor & Francis, 2017.

100 | P a g e

Liu, Yuanli, William C. Hsiao & Karen Eggleston. Qian, Hz, Yang, Zm, Shi, Xm, Gao, Jh, Xu, Cl, "Equity in health and health care: the Wang, L, Zhou, K, Cui, Y, Zheng, Xw, Wu, Chinese experience." Social Science & Medicine Zy, Lu, F, Lai, Sh, Vermund, Sh, Shao, Ym, 49, no. 10 (1999): 1349-1356. and Wang, N. "Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Former Commercial Plasma/blood Lock, Margaret M., and Vinh-Kim Nguyen. Donors in Rural Shanxi Province, China: “Biomedical Technologies in Practice” In An The China Integrated Programs for Anthropology of Biomedicine. Second ed. John Research on AIDS." Journal Of Infectious Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2018. Diseases 192.10 (2005): 1694-700. lawinfochina.com. 1998. Law of the People’s Rollet, Vincent. "The Transnational Origin of a Republic of China on Blood Donation. Local Response to HIV/AIDS in Henan Accessed on 27 April 2018. Province." China Perspectives, 2009: 17-28. http://www.lawinfochina.com/display.aspx Shan, H., Wang, J. X., Ren, F. R., Zhang, Y. Z., Zhao, ?lib=law&id=1096&CGid= H. Y., Gao, G. J., & Ness, P. M. “Blood banking in China.” The Lancet 360, no. 9347 Mellström, Carl & Magnus Johannesson. (2002): 1770-1775. "Crowding out in blood donation: was Titmuss right?" Journal of the European Shao Jing. "Fluid Labor and Blood Money: The Economic Association 6, no. 4 (2008): 845-863. Economy of HIV/AIDS in Rural Central China." Cultural Anthropology 21, no. 4 (2006): Ministry of Health. Research on national health 535-69. services—an analysis report of the national health services survey in 1993. Ministry of Shi, Ling, Wang, J. X., Stevens, L., Ness, P., & Shan, Health, PRC, Beijing. 1994. H.. "Blood safety and availability: continuing Parry, Jane. "China is urged to compensate 100 000 challenges in China's blood banking survivors of HIV blood scandal which system." Transfusion 54, no. 2 (2014): 471-482. affected one million." BMJ 344, 2012. Thomas Leatherman and Morgan Hoke. “Critical Petryna, A. “Medicine.” In A companion to moral Biocultural Anthropology: A Model for anthropology, edited by Fassin, D., 376-394. Anthropological Integration.” In The John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2012. Routledge Companion to Contemporary Anthropology, edited by Coleman, Simon, Ping, Hao, and Nianzeng Xing. "Blood shortages Susan B. Hyatt, and Ann Kingsolver, 283- and donation in China." The Lancet 387, no. 302. Taylor & Francis, 2017. 10031 (2016): 1905-1906. Titmuss, Richard M. The Gift Relationship. Allen and Unwin, 1970.

101 | P a g e

The Legacy of Classical Sociological Theory: Androcentrism and Universalism in the Tradition of the Canon

Carolyn Conant

Introduction that have traditionally been denied the hallowed Sociology is unique among the social status that is ascribed to the classics, based on their sciences for its cross-disciplinary contributions to unique, important contributions to the field and research, its varied quantitative, qualitative, and their avoidance of the limitations that constrain the mixed methodologies, and its application of classics. theoretical frameworks to the interpretation of empirical data. The discipline also stands out Limitations of the Classics among all of the sciences for the curious distinction In this paper, the terms “classics” and of being one of the only fields that continues to hold “classical canon” refer to the body of sociological its founding literatures at the center of work created by Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, contemporary practices and applications of its Max Weber, and Emile Durkheim. I have excluded scientific work. Most graduate programs in Karl Marx and Georg Simmel from this collective sociology require a classical theory course and a due to important distinctions in their approaches comprehensive exam in classical theory, and fresh to sociology that I will elucidate later on. research across the field’s wide expanse of sub- The classics are lauded for their efforts in disciplines continues to invoke the theories of early mapping out grand schemas of society and its thinkers in sociology. functions and for developing research How can this be? How have the theories of a methodologies that could yield universal truths and select handful of European men from the late definitive social laws, demonstrating the feasibility nineteenth century been maintained as the basis of of sociology’s application as a science on par with a scientific and academic discipline in the twenty- biology or physics. The titles of the classical works first century? Is teaching contemporary graduate reveal their emphasis on the analysis of abstract students classical sociological theory not like concepts that might produce such all- “teaching chemistry students about alchemy” encompassing laws: Spencer’s Social Statics, Synthetic (Ogburn in Levine 2015:306)? Philosophy, and The Principles of Sociology; Weber’s While a handful of voices have emerged Economy and Society and The Protestant Ethic and the from within the discipline to express their Spirit of Capitalism; and Durkheim’s The Division of opposition to adherence to the classical canon, the Labor in Society, The Rules of the Sociological Method, and prevailing viewpoint values and validates—or, as The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. It is this often, accepts unquestioningly—the utilization of emphasis on generating laws based on abstractions nineteenth century theorizing in contemporary and universalisms that has simultaneously provided work in the field of sociology. This practice for the timeless invocation of classical theory and presents a variety of contradictions and is invested it with a weighty problematique. inherently problematic. In this paper, I add a voice We will begin with an analysis of themes of to the chorus of opposition that questions the universalism and abstraction in the work of Emile perpetuated centrality of the classical canon in Durkheim before moving onto a feminist theory- sociology. My discussion will center on the informed critique of the limitations of universalism important limitations of the classical texts and and abstraction as conceptual frameworks. their authors that compromise their ability to act as Durkheim serves as the focusing lens of this the guiding force for the field of sociology. I then analysis as a comparatively “modern” member of the argue for the equal or greater importance of works classical cohort who benefitted from sociology’s 102 | P a g e status as an established field of study (albeit still Life as a groundbreaking work for undermining the not a widely accepted one). One could argue that idea of European superiority due to Durkheim’s the earlier classical theorists were obliged to focus suggestion that European religions emerged from on their work on outlining broad structural facets the same roots as Aboriginal totemic practices, of sociology in order to define it as a discipline, there remains an Orientalist othering of the confining them to the realm of the overarching and Aborigines under discussion in his work. The work the abstract. Durkheim, although not confined by also contains the suggestion that stasis and the obligation of delineating the field, remained underdevelopment characterize Aborigines as a within that same realm in his career as a sociologist, people who occupy only the foundational level of reflecting important limitations inherent to his development of religious practices in a model specific position within the field. wherein European practices occupy the more Durkheim’s chief scholarly interests were highly developed upper tiers. By identifying the social and collective realms, including the Aboriginal totemic practices as “foundational” for production of knowledge, the formation of most western religions, Durkheim’s ideas categories of thought, and the internalization of perpetuate the West/Rest binary, maintain western values, all of which, for him, coalesced to form practices as the universal standard for comparison, universal moral facts—what we would now refer to and suggest that contemporary practices of as culture (Turner et al, 2012:355;329). In all of his Aboriginal spiritual rites are frozen in arrested work, the individual is overlooked in favor of the development due to their “failure” to morph into a collective, the microsociological discussed only as it religious model more akin to the European one. informs overarching themes of systems-wide This is a classic example of how epistemological meaning. In The Division of Labor, individuals become structures can function to support and enable more interdependent and increase their solidarity western imperialism (Said 1979). as their work becomes more specialized; Durkheim While many of Durkheim’s discussions and uses the concept of the individual to promote the theories—such as the homo duplex, the perceived idea of collective consciousness. In The Elementary lack of soul in women in some groups of Aborigines, Forms of Religious Life, Aboriginal individuals develop collective consciousness, and social pathologies— totemic identities to help understand and articulate can be directly applied to the theme of the the difference between themselves and others; subjugation of women and people of color, again, the individual serves only to characterize a Durkheim never applies himself to that task in his social grouping and demonstrate a form of societal- work. He maintains the Cometian tradition of level mapping. There is an almost neurotic refusal universal social laws and the organismic metaphor to dwell on the individual at the individual level, that asserts the superiority of Europe over its and a complementary near-complete dismissal of colonies and essentializes “civilized” versus the usefulness of empiricism due to its failure to “primitive” peoples. Critics of Durkheim accuse him account for abstraction (Durkheim, [1912]1995). of “conservative and authoritarian ideology” For Durkheim, empiricism serves its (Zeitlin in Levine 2015:316) that pigeonholes purpose in that it establishes a dialectical duality sociology into a “science of the synchronic present” with rationalism in the production of knowledge and neuters it from having potency for effecting that provides a basis for the mapping and progressive change (Gouldner in Levine 2015:316). categorizing of all of existence. He was a positivist Any theoretical approach based on the premise of who believed in and sought to establish universal the truth of universal social laws positions society laws. Although he agreed with Montesquieu’s as static, stagnant, and incapable of the kind of theory of cultural relativism (Turner et al, radical change that would threaten the privilege 2012:307), the idea does not emerge in application and power of the dominant class that theorists of in his work, which transmits unexplored universalism—like the sociological classics— assumptions about the superiority of the “civilized belonged to. Indeed, Durkheim’s abstract and West” over societies like the Aborigines, as we see universalist approach to sociological theorizing has in The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Although additional implications for its usefulness in the many scholars see The Elementary Forms of Religious discipline, as I will describe below. 103 | P a g e

A universalist approach to theories of social lives…stems in part from the assumption that there structures necessarily obfuscates the distinct is a single mode of social experience and realities of groups outside of the dominant group, interpretation” (1982:173). This positing of (white) whose viewpoints and experiences are posited as maleness as normal and normative necessarily the common lived experience of all people and interprets all other categories in relation to projected upon all others. In the case of the maleness as the central construct for comparison. sociological canon, this dominant group is This problem reflects in the classical comprised of white European males and all of the sociological texts and their failure to engage with associated privileges that membership in that group topics of othered races and genders, and is a chief entailed within the context of a patriarchal criticism of postcolonial literature that addresses nineteenth-century Europe engaged in a variety of this central problematique in the social sciences: colonial and imperial projects around the world. “any universal or normative postulation of rational Thus, universal laws produced by this time, space, unanimity is totalitarian and hostile to the and group are infused with androcentric and challenges of otherness and difference” (Gandhi Eurocentric privilege. This unexamined 1998:27). Postcolonial sociology can work to reproduction of Eurocentric patriarchy creates overcome the problems generated by universalist, “serious distortions of reality” (Chodorow, bifurcating theoretical tendencies by “incorporating 1978:144) that have major implications for the relational social theories to give new accounts of validity of the theories that act as conduits for this modernity” (Go 2013:25) that challenge the form of reproduction. hegemony of a single, dominant viewpoint. Privilege manifests in the classics as a Furthermore, the defining of sociology as a glaring lack of engagement with topics like race and discipline built on abstractions like Weber’s ideal gender that would presumably be on the forefront types and universal social laws that presume the of theorizing around topics like social stratification, homogeneity of thought and experience has created social solidarity, authority, division of labor, and a dubious inheritance for modern sociologists, collective consciousness—topics that occupied made worse by the lack of reflexivity in the much space in the classical works that were engagement of the classical texts by their continued produced during an era characterized by gender- placement at the heart of the discipline. Insisting on and race-based stratification. However, analysis of time- and space-transcending theories oriented in gender is scarce and superficial, and the only privileged universalism produces a practice of mentions of race serve to reinforce ideas of white iteration without modification, promoting the supremacy rationalized by “march of progress” maintenance of a tradition steeped in patriarchy evolutionary rhetoric that assume western and Eurocentrism. In sociologist R.W. Connell’s civilization to be the pinnacle of development and words, “Sociology was formed within the culture of sophistication, and the undisputed outcome of imperialism and embodied a cultural response to linear social progress. the colonized world. This fact is crucial in This omission is only possible from a understanding the content and method of sociology dominant standpoint that has normalized the as well as the discipline’s cultural significance” exclusion of non-dominant perspectives and (1997:1519). And yet, modern sociologists continue experiences. Feminist sociologist and to idolize the theorizing of the canonical authors, psychoanalyst Nancy Chodorow writes, “the writing off their blatantly racist statements as normal tendency in most social and psychological justified by the flaws of their contemporary thought [is] to equate maleness with humanness” biological understanding and lack of access to (1978:143), and Freudian legacies reinforce the idea historically accurate materials, rather than seeking of male normalcy with their theories of penis envy, to infuse the particular privileged context of such the supposed female interpretation of the clitoris as statements into an interpretation of their theories an underdeveloped penis, and the masculinity of all and how they are applied in modern sociological prepubertal genitality (Ibid:148). In the words of work. The power of the legacy of the sociological another feminist psychologist, Carol Gilligan, “The canon provokes the worrisome question, “To what failure to see the different reality of women’s extent do progressive white scholars of today 104 | P a g e unwittingly interject racist biases into their Contributions by the Non-Traditional Classics sciences even while believing they stand above and Argument for their Elevation prescientific racial assumptions” (Morris 2015:221), In this section, I make an argument for the simply due to their employment of the classical elevation of the disciplinary importance of the non- theories? traditional classics by pointing out both their These limitations have very real and very overcoming of the limitations of the classical canon deep consequences for the validity of sociology as a and their uniquely important contributions to the scientific field. The exclusion of women and men of field. This dual strength demonstrates the color from critical theory-building studies results in advantage of centering on the non-traditional a highly skewed schema of social theory that is classics as a new focal point for contemporary misapplied to groups who were not taken into sociological research and theorizing. consideration when those schemas were By non-traditional classics, I refer to those formulated, and, in certain cases, can produce works that have been systematically excluded from misinformed characterizations of those disciplinary prevalence and undervalued in marginalized groups. For example, “The disparity comparison to the classical canon as resources for between women’s experience and the modern sociological work. Specifically, I will representation of human development…has highlight the contributions of Georg Simmel, generally been seen to signify a problem in women’s Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Ida Wells-Barnett, and development” (Gilligan 1982:1-2), highlighting the W.E.B. Du Bois. I would also argue for the inclusion problem with using a universal standard to evaluate of major early postcolonial theorists like Edward nuanced realities. The use of nineteenth-century Said and Frantz Fanon in this elevated group of andro- and Eurocentric social theory to explain social science theorists but will not draw out that modern social structures composed of peoples of all argument in detail here. gender identities and ethnicities is a fundamentally Karl Marx has been left out of the flawed methodology; one would not attempt an discussions of both classical and non-traditional explanation of the force of gravity with the classical theorists due to his unique straddling of principles of chemistry, or an analysis of ancient these two groupings. While he too tended towards Sanskrit poetry with themes from twentieth- systems-level generalizations and excluded race century Soviet literature, and still expect from his discussions of exploitation, he clearly meaningful, accurate results. empathized with the “other”—the proletariat—and To return to Gilligan’s point about acknowledged gender in his discussion of the representative disparities, “the failure of women to patriarchy as the earliest form of capitalism in that fit existing models of human growth may point to a it exploits the reproductive and domestic labor of problem in the representation, a limitation in the women for the profit of men. Although focused on conception of human condition, an omission of certain macrosociological topics, he vehemently insisted truths about life” (Ibid, emphasis mine). The danger upon a materialist grounding of his theorizing in an of this kind of (mis)representation lies in the power intentional and provocative break from the lofty of the production of knowledge; when Hegelian idealism that had previously dominated epistemologies become dominant, “it is difficult not philosophical and sociological thinking. to think in terms of social relations and For Marx, reality is a “sensuous human activity” institutional arrangements that somehow fit their and must be evaluated as such (Marx contours….and are set up a priori to obey its [1845]1955:121). He was also an adamant supporter conventions” (Marston et al 2005:422), resulting in of socioeconomic revolution to dismantle systems phenomena like the apparent failure of women to of domination and oppression, and he saw his fit these conventional models. So, given the limited sociological work as a mechanism of this project; and omission-riddled representations of the human his famous truism trumpets that “The philosophers and social conditions in the classical canon, why have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the does sociology continue to maintain the canon as point is to change it” (Ibid:123). Thus, Marx does not the central point of reference for modern theoretical fully belong in the castle in the clouds with the application? privilege-blinded universalist enclave of the 105 | P a g e classics; nor does he belong in the trenches of insights about underlying processes of social reality empiricism with the interactionist-oriented (Ibid:265). theorizing of the non-traditional classics’ cohort. Furthermore, although he was not the first Despite his parallel status as a white sociologist to investigate the concept of money and European male, I begin with Simmel as he marks exchange, he was the first to do it from the the transition of sociological thinking from the perspective of social exchange and interaction, universal, macro-level approach to a truly again demonstrating an inversion of the classical microsociological, symbolic interactionist approach to theorizing (Ibid:283). Simmel approach. This emphasis on understanding social consistently refrained from “employ[ing] the production on the basis of individual interactions vocabulary of abstract theory” (Ibid:294) and allowed him to delve for the first time in sociology remained grounded in empirical observation and a into the topics of gender, gender as a social symbolic interactionist approach to his sociological construct, and various forms of gender oppression, theorizing. and presents a radically different way of viewing He was also one of the first to delve into the world and the study of its social systems than gender as a social, rather than purely biological, the abstract, universalist approach that had construct. In “Fashion,” he discusses how women characterized the discipline for its first half century. are forced to “peacock” to attract men due to their Furthermore, as a German Jew in the late exclusion from participation in the economy and nineteenth century, Simmel experienced ethnic resulting dependence on men for procuring their discrimination that removes some of the privilege livelihood: “the freedom of personal action and self- inherent to white European males and, one could improvement were still denied her [women]. She argue, made it possible for him to identify the sought redress by adopting the most extravagant impracticability of imposing universal truths across and hypertrophic styles in dress” (Simmel all social identities and systems. With this break [1904]1957:551). This view of gender as a from universalism, Simmel took a historical step in performance helps to highlight the structural forces making sociology more reflexive, relational, and of patriarchy that work to marginalize women and inclusive, and thus a better tool for the evaluation reveals the ways that marginalized groups’ behavior of social structures. However, despite his focus on is often moderated in response to the systems that processes of interaction and how they reflect oppress them, as Du Bois’ theory of double structural systems of inequities, it is important to consciousness reveals. note that Simmel did not turn his attention to the The idea of the social construction of gender havoc that European colonizers were wreaking at is driven home in Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s the time in West Africa, or engage in examination Herland, a feminist utopian novel that deconstructs of race in applications of his theory. patriarchal assumptions through the fictitious In his work, Simmel dealt with the rich production of a mirror society composed only of fluidity of human interaction. His microsociological women, and absent of any social pathologies. A analyses, while reviled by many during his time, are boisterous male protagonist, Terry, who has been enduring works of sociology due to their emphasis thoroughly socialized by his patriarchal context, is on increasing degrees of social differentiation and astonished at the “asexual” and “abnormal” his exploration of topics that are deeply human and behavior of the young women in Herland who do thus relatable in the modern context. Unlike the not fawn over him nor succumb to his romantic classics and their promotion of timeless universal overtures the way that women in his male- laws, Simmel engaged in analysis of the intrinsic dominated society do. In this context, it is the temporality of many social forms—like fashion— absence of patriarchal restrictions on the women’s and the constant transformation of social life that access to economic wellbeing that causes them to promotes a disciplinary reflexivity to the study of act as they do towards Terry, much as it is the social processes. For Simmel, society was no more absence of access to economic wellbeing that than the sum of interactions among human beings causes the women in Terry’s society—and (Turner et al 2012:263), so studying interactions at Simmel’s—to dress and act extravagantly to attract the individual level would yield the most important the attention of men. 106 | P a g e

In addition to making powerful statements In this excerpt, we could easily substitute “classical about oppressive social structures by sociology” for “religion” and arrive at the same denormalizing the prevailing hegemonic status quo, position of the inexplicably inappropriate Gilman’s work represents an important continued adherence to outdated theoretical laws contribution to sociology by demonstrating the and methodologies. Here, we see the great value in power of alternative viewpoints in challenging the the elevation of a traditionally excluded voice in universal assumptions wrought by androcentric sociology for its ability to examine the unexamined theorizing. Her emphasis on constant, ongoing, and question the traditions that have been critical self-examination for progress and preserved regardless of their applicability to improvement offers a very different approach to contemporary context. sociology and the development of social forms that Ida Wells-Barnett occupied the doubly is strictly at odds with the tradition-preserving marginalized position of a black woman in the late tendencies of patriarchy. Her simple and yet nineteenth- and early twentieth-century United simultaneously revolutionary suggestion for this States. This perspective, unique among the obvious approach of structuring society according whitewashed and privilege-steeped cohort of the to its specific contemporary realities translates into classics, offers a radically different approach to a strong argument against the preservation of the sociological research and writing and should be classical sociological works at the center of the better recognized for its important impact. In what discipline. In one passage from Herland, a female is perhaps her most famous work, On Lynchings, protagonist engages in her usual line of Socratic Wells-Barnett firmly pulls sociological theory out reasoning with one of the male invaders (the of the clouds and forces it into a brutally corporeal narrator) that highlights the absurdity of the integration through her examination of society- preservation of traditional logic ([1915]2018:91-93): wide lynching practices of blacks by whites at the “ “What I cannot understand,” turn of the twentieth century. Her ethnographic she pursued carefully, “is your accounts are systematic and logical while retaining preservation of such a very ancient state the deep emotional experience of horror and of mind. This patriarchal idea you tell outrage at the widespread barbarism that me is thousands of years old?” characterized lynchings and their lack of “Oh yes—four, five, six repercussions in the justice system. Like Simmel, thousand—every so many.” “And you have made wonderful she uses micro-level interactions to reveal society- progress in those years—in other level norms and systems. The interactions between things?” lynch mobs and black men demonstrate the deep “We certainly have. But religion institutionalization of racism and discrimination in is different. You see, our religions come American society and the “justice” system, and the from behind us, and are initiated by interactions between white men, white women, some great teacher who is dead. He is and black men involved in cases of alleged rape or supposed to have known the whole illegal consensual relationships highlight the thing and taught it, finally. All we have structural and performed nature of patriarchy and to do is believe—and obey.” white supremacy in this context. …. “[W]hat I cannot understand By emphasizing corporeal and lived is why you keep these early religious ideas so long. You have changed all your experiences, Wells-Barnett is able to empirically others, haven’t you?” and effectively demonstrate the real impact of social “Pretty generally,” I agreed. “But categories of thought and behavior. Her work also this we call ‘revealed religion,’ and think differs from the classics in that she intentionally it is final.” avoids the imposition of universalist blanket …. “Shall I be quite, quite statements about truth, specifically stating that she honest?....It seems to me a singularly does not argue the innocence of all black men foolish idea,” she said calmly. “And if accused of crimes, pointing out the fallacy of female true, most disagreeable.” “virtue” (if it is an inherently universal condition of women, how can it apply to white women and not 107 | P a g e black women?), and empirically dismantling the States (Ibid:21) and brought critical race theory sexist presumption that women do not initiate from the United States to Europe. Indeed, he was sexual interactions. With these examples, Wells- sociology’s preeminent theorist of race, responsible Barnett helps to point out of the incapacity of for enacting a paradigmatic shift in racial thinking universals to reflect accurate truths. On Lynchings as within the social sciences that positions race as a a whole also deeply underscores the inadequacies of social construct rather than a biological category laws and systems designed by and for a specific (Ibid:xx). The parallels between his argument for group of people—white men—that can be applied race as a social construct and the context of gender to the universalist systems-level approach of the within a social sciences framework made Du Bois classical sociological theorists. an early proponent of intersectional analysis of While it is conceivable that Wells-Barnett social categories like gender, race, and class that is and Gilman have been excluded from a central now the standard in the field (Ibid:220). This position as classical sociological theorists due to intersectional approach to ontological questions is their prioritizing of political activism for social also at the root of postcolonial theory, which seeks progress over engagement in the realm of social to dismantle the universality and hegemony of sciences academia, this flat-footed justification fails sociology’s traditional narrative through emphasis to explain the case of the exclusion of prominent on “the interactional constitution of social units, and highly educated scholar W.E.B. Du Bois. Du processes, and practices across space” (Go 2013:28). Bois’ scholarly contributions included a wide range Like the other theorists among the non- of writing, the utilization of multiple traditional classics, Du Bois emphasized the clear groundbreaking sociological methodologies, and connections between individual lived experiences training in both American and German sociological and society-level forms of stratification. He traditions. Today it is widely accepted that Du Bois employed ethnographic and humanistic techniques was systematically excluded from the inner circle of that integrated human forms of expression, such as sociology to which he no doubt belonged for the “Of the Sorrow Songs,” and empirical realties, such political and racist motives of his contemporaries. as those of black Georgians in “Of the Black Belt,” However, despite this acknowledgment, little has to make inductive claims about the nature of social been done to remedy this historical marginalization structures (Du Bois [1903]2015). This demonstrates and elevate Du Bois to the position of centrality a fundamental shift from the approach of the that his sociological legacy deserves. traditional classical theorists, who used deductive In his career, Du Bois was the paradigmatic reasoning to apply their abstract rules and universal example of a social scholar applying their research laws to specific social contexts. Du Bois recognized and intellect to enacting social change and the tendency of the classics to mistake abstractions progress; he “embodied the highest standards of for reality and believed that sociology should be a scholarship and the courage to employ knowledge “science of human action, not an enterprise seeking to inform social change” (Morris 2015:xvi). One of to explain abstractions that begot more his most important contributions to sociology abstractions in a futile effort to discover universal included a clarification of the boundaries of laws” (Morris 2015:26). This emphasis on action and sociology as an interdisciplinary field by embracing applicability defined Du Bois’ sociology as a history, anthropology, political science, economics, dynamic, reflexive process that could more and the humanities in his work while analyzing accurately interpret social realities than the “static, them through a strictly sociological lens (Ibid:xxi). mechanistic sociology based on universal laws of In addition, the Atlanta School of Sociology that he human behavior” that defined the classics and founded predated the Chicago School as the “failed to capture social reality” (Ibid:27). Thus, pioneering platform of American sociological theory while patriarchy-enforcing practices of adhering to and work, introducing new methodologies and theoretical tradition and propagating abstract laws promoting the value of empirical research (Ibid:xxi- across a broad range of contextualities of time and xxii). space have mired sociology in stagnation, a Du Bois- Du Bois brought mixed methods and style approach answers the critique of Gilman’s quantitative research from Germany to the United Herland protagonist, constantly reacting and 108 | P a g e responding to the contextuality of a particular professionalism in sociology,” providing a “badge of moment to analyze it with the appropriate lens. membership…complete with the patterns of This attitude towards sociological methods and hegemony inscribed in the canon” (Connell interpretation is a crucial contribution to the field 1997:1545). Sociologists must recognize that and deserves elevation to the status of a central “[s]ociology as a collective practice—that is to say, tenet in sociological theory. a set of institutions, a pedagogy, and a genre of writing—developed in a specific social location: Conclusion among the [white] men of the liberal bourgeoisie in The works of the traditional classics were the [European] metropole” (Ibid:1527), and work to instrumental in laying the foundations for the dismantle the implicit assumptions that have been discipline of sociology, and for beginning to apply inherited from that specific social location in order philosophical reasoning with a social lens in an to make the science more usable in today’s context, attempt to analyze and interpret that most fluid and less exclusionary and problematic. and complex realm of reality: the social world. The good news is that sociology already has Many of the non-traditional classics and access to the kind of empirically grounded, contemporary figures in sociology stood on the reflexive, relational work that can serve as a model shoulders of the classical giants, to borrow a line for avoiding the inherent privileges and biases of from Newton, as they morphed and advanced the the traditional classics. Simmel, Gilman, Wells- field over time. My argument is not to invalidate the Barnett, Du Bois, and postcolonial theorists like importance of the classics, but to shed light on their Fanon and Said all demonstrated how social limitations, recognize the improvements that more scientific work can avoid the critical flaws of the recent scholars have made, and elevate these other classics and “expand the understanding of human scholars and their work to our central model for development by using the group[s] left out in the contemporary research in the field of sociology. I construction of theory to call attention to what is am in agreement with Donald Levine: “Rather than missing in its account” (Gilligan 1982:4). By read the classics to discover timelessly valid tools of elevating the status of these non-traditional use in contemporary research, it is valuable to read classics, sociology can move to “an encyclopedic, them now in order to disclose the particularizing rather than a canonical, view” of the works that milieus that shaped the ideas contemporary define our field (Connell 1997:1514). For how will sociologists have naively inherited from them” sociology progress when our eyes are fixed on the (2015:312). The “inherited class and national past and our minds constrained by the theories of a privileges” (Morris 2015:153), adherence to specific time, place, and group of people? “As the androcentric universalisms and abstractions, and cultures of imperialism persist,” writes Julian Go, outdated contextuality of the classics “new and different sorts of knowledge must be fundamentally undermine their functionality produced to help decolonize consciousness” within modern sociological work. (2013:30). Letting go of tradition and embracing The tradition-worshipping insistence in reflexivity will help us to establish a sociological sociology on maintaining such an emphasis on the Herland in our midst and reaffirm the scientific classical texts represents a hypocritical lack of self- validity and contemporary applicability of awareness in the field of the perpetuation of sociology, and the social sciences more generally. patriarchal, racist, and colonial legacies that put contemporary sociologists at risk of “unwittingly References injected” biases (Ibid:221). Postcolonial theorists, Chodorow, Nancy. 1978. The Reproduction of drawing on a Foucauldian understanding of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of knowledge-power, have long warned that “all Gender. University of California Press. knowledge may be variously contaminated, implicated in its very formal or ‘objective’ structure” Connell, R.W. 1997. “Why Is Classical Theory (Young 1990:11). Currently, the “teaching of the Classical?” American Journal of Sociology canon in American graduate 102(6): 1511-1557. education…consolidate[s] the ideology of 109 | P a g e

Du Bois, W.E.B. [1903]2015. The Souls of Black Folk. Marx, Karl. [1845]1955. “Theses on Feuerbach.” Pp. 121-123 in The German Ideology: Parts I & III. Durkheim, Emile. [1912]1995. The Elementary Forms of International Publishers. Religious Life. New York: The Free Press. Morris, Aldon D. 2015. The Scholar Denied: WEB Du Gandhi, Leela. 1998. Postcolonial Theory. New York: Bois and the Birth of Modern Sociology. Columbia University Press. University of California Press.

Gilligan, Carol. 1982. In A Different Voice: Psychological Said, Edward. 1979. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Theory and Women’s Development. Harvard Books. University Press. Simmel, Georg. [1904]1957. “Fashion.” The American Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. [1915]2018. Herland. Journal of Sociology 62(6): 541-558. Minerva Publishing. Turner, Jonathan H., Leonard Beeghley, and Charles Go, Julian. 2013. “For a Postcolonial Sociology.” H. Power. 2012. The Emergence of Sociological Theoretical Sociology 42:25-55. Theory, 7th Edition. SAGE.

Levine, Donald N. 2015. “The Variable Status of the Wells-Barnett, Ida B. [1892-1900]2014. On Lynchings. Classics in Differing Narratives of the Dover Publications. Sociological Tradition.” Journal of Classical Sociology Vol. 15(4): 305-320. Young, Robert. 1990. White Mythologies: Writing history and the west. London: Routledge. Marston, Sallie, John Paul Jones III, and Keith Woodward. “Human geography without scale.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 30(4): 416-432.

110 | P a g e

Furthering

Perspectives

Anthropological Views of the World

The Anthropology Graduate Student Society is proud to present the Spring 2020, Volume 9 edition of Furthering Perspectives: Anthropological

Views of the World. We strive to foster collaboration among students and faculty in order to build professional and academic expertise. Furthering

Perspectives is a student-run and peer-reviewed academic journal, which

serves as a platform in which we can represent anthropological perspectives in students’ research here at Colorado State University.

We hope that you enjoy this volume, which showcases a variety of theoretical and applied approaches to the human condition.

111 | P a g e