Chapter 9 | Biological Impacts and Management Measures

Chapter 7 | Biological Setting

Mako Gold Project Environmental Impact Assessment

Chapter 7 | Biological Setting

7 BIOLOGICAL SETTING ...... 7-3

7.1 Methods and Study Areas ...... 7-3

7.2 Terrestrial Biodiversity ...... 7-6

7.2.1 Niokolo-Koba National Park ...... 7-6

7.2.2 Other Protected Areas ...... 7-7

7.2.3 Habitat and Flora ...... 7-7

7.2.4 Large Mammals ...... 7-20

7.2.5 Chimpanzees ...... 7-28

7.2.6 Birds ...... 7-33

7.2.7 Existing Threats to Terrestrial Biodiversity ...... 7-37

7.3 Aquatic Biodiversity ...... 7-38

7.3.1 Gambia River and Tributaries ...... 7-38

7.3.2 Protected Areas ...... 7-40

7.3.3 Habitats ...... 7-40

7.3.4 Macrophytes and Multicellular Algae ...... 7-40

7.3.5 Fish ...... 7-40

7.3.6 Amphibians and Reptiles ...... 7-43

7.3.7 Macroinvertebrates ...... 7-43

7.3.8 Existing Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity ...... 7-44

7.4 Ecosystem Services...... 7-44

7.4.1 Terrestrial Resource Use ...... 7-45

7.4.2 Aquatic Resource Use...... 7-47

7.4.3 Water Resource Use ...... 7-50

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7 BIOLOGICAL SETTING

The Mako Gold Project is aiming to achieve a no net loss (NNL) on biodiversity. The Project will apply the mitigation hierarchy so that adverse impacts on the Niokolo-Koba National Park (Parc National du Niokolo-Koba (PNNK)) and other priority biodiversity values are avoided, minimised, managed and residual impacts are offset. The Mako Exploration Company (the Company) is also committed to aligning with the International Finance Corporation (IFC) Performance Standard 6 as an appropriate benchmark of international good practice for the Mako Gold Project. The approach and commitments to NNL are presented in the Company’s Biodiversity Strategy: A No Net Loss Approach. This chapter summarises the findings of the terrestrial and aquatic studies undertaken over the period of January 2013 to August 2014 to determine the baseline conditions of the Mako Gold Project Development Area (PDA) and surrounding areas at the exploration phase of the Project. These studies identified the presence and location of priority habitats and species associated with the Project, their statuses and describes the current condition of the area. The West African chimpanzee has been identified as a very high priority species for the Mako Gold Project, along with the several other globally and regionally important species (including African lion and western giant eland) and habitats (i.e. bowal, gallery forest and the Gambia River) and the adjacent PNNK, a natural World Heritage Site.

7.1 Methods and Study Areas

A detailed account of the study areas, method and findings of the aquatic and terrestrial baseline studies are presented in the following Appendices: Volume A, Appendix 5: Terrestrial Ecology and Biodiversity Study (Earth Systems, 2015) comprising of: Ecological Risk Assessment; Review of literature and existing data; Wet and dry season baseline surveys (2013): habitats and flora, large mammals, West African chimpanzee, birds and indigenous knowledge surveys; Targeted surveys (2014): West African Chimpanzee survey, priority species search, vulture nest survey; drainage survey and habitat mapping; and Remote monitoring (2013-2014): camera trapping Volume A, Appendix 6: Aquatic Ecology Baseline Study (Earth Systems, 2015) comprising of: Review of literature and existing data; Wet and dry season baseline surveys (2013): Fish, reptile, amphibian, macrophyte, algae and indigenous knowledge surveys; and Targeted surveys (2014): Aquatic invertebrate Survey and aquatic bioindicator analysis. It is important to note that biodiversity monitoring (i.e. camera trapping) is continuing in the Project Study Area, PNNK and buffer zone. Field surveys of terrestrial habitats and biodiversity focused on the Project Study Area (MEC Exploration Permit Area, which incorporates the PDA and the proposed Mining Concession area, and surrounding habitats) and the PNNK Study Area (a portion of the PNNK and buffer zone) located near the Project Study Area (Figure 7-1). The PNNK Study Area measured from an approximate 7 km radius from the western border of the Project Study

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Area, and is bounded by the Route Nationale in the north and the Gambia River in the south. The findings of these surveys and studies were contextualised at different scales (i.e. local, regional, national and international). The Gambia River was the focus of aquatic ecology surveys as this is an important resource for wildlife and villagers. The Gambia River crosses the central part of the Project Study Area between the Petowal Prospect deposit and the Kerekonko Hills and crosses into the PNNK a short distance downstream of the western edge of the Project Study Area boundary (Figure 7-1). The aquatic ecology studies encompassed survey sites upstream (e.g. Bafoundou), within and downstream of the PDA (e.g. Bomboya). The findings of aquatic studies were also contextualised at different scales (i.e. local, regional, national and international). A Critical Habitat Assessment (CHA) (as per IFC PS6 (2012)) was undertaken (TBC, 2015) to assess whether the Project Study Area is located in Critical Habitat, and identify the Critical habitat-qualifying features. The CHA also provided focus to the assessment of impacts to priority habitats and species. The IFC terms Critical Habitat as areas of ‘high biodiversity value’. Such a designation is based on the presence and/or quantity of significant types of biodiversity (e.g. rare species, rare habitats). There are five criteria by which IFC PS6 Critical Habitat is defined: 1. Critically Endangered and/or Endangered species; 2. Endemic and/or restricted-range species; 3. Globally significant concentrations of migratory species and/or congregatory species; 4. Highly threatened and/or unique ecosystems; 5. Areas associated with key evolutionary processes. PS6 defines quantitative thresholds for the first three criteria which are applied to information on species. If these thresholds are exceeded for any criterion, an area qualifies as Critical Habitat. In addition to these five main criteria, Protected Areas and Internationally Recognised Areas can also qualify for Critical Habitat designation. Critical Habitat may also qualify on a case-by- case basis if other significant biodiversity features are present, such as areas required for the reintroduction of threatened species. Criteria 4 and 5 are qualitatively assessed. The Critical Habitat Assessment (CHA) identified the presence of fourteen highly threatened or restricted-range species/subspecies/subpopulations (representing eleven species) in the CHA (at an ecological landscape scale) which qualifies the PDA and surrounds as Critical Habitat. Several of the species and habitats which qualified for Critical Habitat were identified during the baseline surveys as occurring in the Project Area and the adjacent portion of the PNNK. The PNNK qualifies as Critical Habitat as it is an officially protected area. The PNNK is one of the largest protected areas in West Africa (Howard 2007) and may be the sole remaining site in the western half of West Africa capable of supporting viable populations of lion, giant eland, African wild dog and African elephant. It is an even higher priority owing to its designation as an Important Bird Area (IBA), a UNESCO natural World Heritage Site, and a UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve. The Park was listed as a World Heritage Site and a UNESCO-MAB Biosphere Reserve in 1981. The assessment concluded that the Mako Gold Project is situated in Tier 1 Critical Habitat. IFC PS6 defines two ‘tiers’ of Critical Habitat, with quantitative thresholds for criteria 1-3 (IFC, 2012b). Tier 1 is the higher tier and is defined because of the presence of greater quantities of Critical Habitat-qualifying biodiversity. Presence of particular species such as threatened great apes may also qualify for Tier 1 status (IFC PS6 Guidance Note 20 – ‘Where populations of Critically Endangered and Endangered great apes exist, a Tier 1 habitat designation is probable, regardless of the discrete management unit concept.’). The results of the terrestrial and aquatic studies and Critical Habitat Assessment are presented below.

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Figure 7-1 The PDA, Project Study Area and the PNNK Study Area

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7.2 Terrestrial Biodiversity

The Project is situated in south-east Senegal. For a detailed description of the Project’s environmental setting refer to Chapter 6. The Project is on the border between two ecoregions, the Shield Region overlapping with the Eastern Transition Region (Tappan et al., 2004). The Shield Region is defined as open to dense wooded savannah and grasslands on plateaus, hills, terraces and valleys. The Eastern Transition Region is predominantly forested and wooded savannah on plateaus and sedimentary basins (Tappan et al., 2004). The greater region is characterised by four main habitat types; savannah, semi-deciduous forest, gallery forest and bowal or laterite plateau vegetation (Bâ and Noba, 2001) which is characterised by ferricrete exposure due to soil surface erosion (Padonoua et al. 2015). Although savannah dominates much of the area, the patches of forests are still considered hot-spots of biodiversity (Pooter et al., 2004). For example, gallery forests along rivers and tributaries often contain higher numbers of species than surrounding savannah vegetation types. Gallery forest harbour many endemic and endangered flora and fauna species, and are particularly threatened by deforestation, habitat fragmentation, over-exploitation and hunting.

7.2.1 Niokolo-Koba National Park The Project lies entirely outside of the PNNK and its buffer zone. The Project Study Area is located 1km east of the PNNK at its closest point. The PNNK qualifies as Critical Habitat (TBC, 2015) and is one of the most significant protected areas in Senegal and one of the largest protected areas in West Africa spanning 9,130 km2. The PNNK is an internationally recognised area for biodiversity, and has been designated a World Heritage Site, a UNESCO- MAB Biosphere Reserve in addition to four other MAB Biosphere Reserves in Senegal (namely: Samba Dia, Delta du Saloum, Sénégal River Delta (together with Mauritania) and Ferlo) . The PNNK is also an Important Bird Area (IBA) because of remarkable diversity and a range of ecosystems. A detailed description and assessment of Project-related impacts on the outstanding universal values of the PNNK are presented in Chapter 12.

The World Heritage Site - Outstanding Universal Values The PNNK was created as a Hunting Reserve in 1926, Forest Reserve in 1951, Fauna Reserve in 1953 and was declared as a Senegalese National Park in 1954, finally being inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1981. The PNNK was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage list due to its Outstanding Universal Values (OUVs) in accordance with Criterion (x)1. Parc National de Niokolo Koba is listed because it “contains all the unique ecosystems of the Sudanese bioclimatic zone such as major waterways (the Gambia, Sereko, Niokolo, Koulountou), gallery forests, herbaceous savanna floodplains, ponds, dry forests - dense or with clearings - rocky slopes and hills and barren Bowés. The property has a remarkable diversity of wildlife, unique in the sub-region. It counts more than 70 species of mammals, 329 species of birds, 36 species of reptiles, 20 species of amphibians and a large number of invertebrates”(UNESCO, 2012). The vast size of the PNNK has allowed many species to find refuge in some of its more remote and inaccessible areas and is home to the last wild population of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Senegal. Other threatened species known to inhabit the PNNK are West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes spp verus), leopards (Panthera pardus), West African lions (Panthera leo), African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), West African red colobus (Procolobus badius spp temminckii), western giant elands (Taurotragus derbianus spp derbianus), hooded vultures (Necrosyrtes monachus) and white-backed vultures (Gyps africanus). The reptile Cynisca senegalensis is also thought to inhabit the PNNK and is a Critical Habitat-qualifying species. The Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN, 2014) has assessed the species as Data Deficient. This species is only

1 Contains “the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation” (WHC 2013)

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known form an indeterminate type specimen located in the PNNK (Gans, 1987) and has not been reported since 1973. The PNNK is intersected by several major waterways and their tributaries; the Gambia, Niokolo and Koulountou Rivers are distinctive features of the landscape and also create seasonal grass floodplains. The waterways provide habitat for the African crocodile species (Crocodylus sp.), dwarf crocodile (Osteolauemus tetraspis), tortoises, as well as numerous species of fish and invertebrates and other wildlife (e.g. hippopotami, otters). Hundreds of bird species are resident and migratory visitors to the PNNK, with many species using the freshwater ecosystems as stop-over points in their annual migratory routes. The PNNK is a critically important protected area since it contains several severely threatened large mammal and primate sub-species and sub-populations in West Africa. Furthermore, the Park is of sufficient size to contain functioning ecosystems to support viable threatened species’ populations.

Existing Threats to the Outstanding Universal Values Human pressure on the PNNK has resulted in it being listed in 2007 on UNESCO’s List of World Heritage in Danger. The PNNK was originally listed as being in Danger due to imminent threats to its OUVs, especially critically low mammal populations, ongoing issues with management and the potential impacts associated with a proposed hydropower development on the Gambia River upstream of the Park. The PNNK has remained on UNESCO’s List of World Heritage in Danger since 2007 because of continued threats to its OUVs including poaching, livestock grazing, drought and artisanal mining. Other threats that have been identified within PNNK include fire (anthropogenic and natural), creation of illegal tracks and roads (facilitating poaching), collection of forest resources (e.g. timber, fruit), and spread of non-indigenous and invasive plants (UNESCO, 2007). The IUCN has also listed the PNNK as being of “critical conservation outlook”, highlighting that it requires urgent (additional), large-scale conservation measures, or the Park may lose the values for which it was awarded World Heritage listing (Osipova et al., 2014). At the latest meeting in June 2014 (UNESCO, 2014), the World Heritage Committee decided to retain the PNNK on the List of World Heritage in Danger due to concern over the conservation (and low numbers) of key species. The World Heritage Committee reiterated “its serious concern as regards the state of conservation of the key species in the park, notably the elephant and chimpanzee” (UNESCO, 2014).

7.2.2 Other Protected Areas The PDA and Project Study Area is not located within in any statutory designated sites of conservation importance. The Community Natural Reserve (Réserve Naturelle Communautaire Niemenike (RNC)) overlaps the PDA and measures approximately 15,000 ha. The objectives of the RNC include the conservation of biodiversity and supporting and improving the lifestyles of people. RNCs are not considered to be part of the state network of protected areas in Senegal (Dieng and Ndiaye, 2012).

7.2.3 Habitat and Flora

Habitat Composition and Condition in the PDA and Project Study Area Approximately 95% of the Project Study Area is covered by natural habitats, namely: shrub savannah (Plate 7-1, Plate 7-2), woodland, wooded savannah (Plate 7-3, Plate 7-4), tree savannah, gallery forest (Plate 7-5, Plate 7-6), and bowal (Plate 7-7, Plate 7-8). Savannah habitat types dominate this area as well as forming mosaics with bamboo (Figure 7-2). Gallery forest and bowal habitat have restricted distributions. Descriptions of these vegetation types are presented in Table 7-1 (for a more detailed description see Terrestrial Ecology and Biodiversity Study, Appendix 5). The PDA is dominated by tree savannah and a mosaic of woody savannah and bamboo. The PDA also comprises 25ha of bowal habitat, 62ha of woody savannah and 59ha of woodland.

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Modified habitats account for approximately 3% of the Project Study Area (Table 7-2). The most dominant types are cultivated and regenerating land (i.e. fallow land and abandoned cultivated land) which is present around settlements. The condition of the habitat types is variable across the Project Study Area, with generally higher human disturbance compared with the PNNK, due to land cultivation, grazing and natural resource collection (e.g. timber and non-timber products). The distribution of habitat types is presented in Figure 7-2. Habitat Composition and Condition in the PNNK Habitat quality is higher in the PNNK Study Area than the Project Study Area due to lower levels of anthropogenic disturbance. However, the prevalence of fire is likely to have had a significant impact on the quality of habitats in the PNNK and buffer zone. Almost 99% of the periphery of the PNNK, closest to the Project, is covered by natural habitats (Table 7-2). This area of the PNNK is dominated by tree savannah, woody savannah and bamboo mosaic. The distribution of habitat types is presented in Figure 7-3. Woodland, which is present throughout the PNNK, only accounts for 3% of the total coverage. Gallery forest is present throughout the PNNK and covers a much greater percentage of area (9%) than in the Project Study Area (1%). Similarly bowal is present throughout the PNNK and large contiguous areas of bowal occur in the central and northern portions, with only a few fragments present in the southern extent. Bowal covers a greater percentage area in the PNNK Study Area (9%) than in the Project Study Area (7%). Modified habitats accounts for <1% of the PNNK and is comprised of cultivated land, which is restricted to the south-eastern border of the PNNK Study Area.

Table 7-1 Descriptions of habitat types French Name English Name Description Forêt (et ripicole) Gallery (and riparian) Gallery forests are located in the riparian zone within valleys and along streams galerie forest and rivers Trees are the dominant plant form in woodland; individual tree canopies Forêt claire Woodland generally overlap and interlink, forming a more or less continuous canopy This type of savannah lacks a tree canopy and is dominated by shrubs and a Savane arbustive Shrub savannah continuous ground layer of grasses Open treed habitat where large trees form a very sparse canopy. Shrubs and Savane arborée Tree savannah grass can be present in the mid-canopy and ground layers Woody savannah (or Characterized by an open mosaic of scattered trees and shrubs. Woody small Savane boisée Savannah woodland) trees do not form a continuous canopy Savane boisée Woody savannah Selectively or sporadically cleared by fire or harvesting and bamboo has become bambou mosaïque bamboo mosaic more common in the mid-storey Occurs in rocky laterite plains covered by grass, shrubs and small trees in the Bowal Bowal / grassland wet season, and bare rock / laterite in the dry season Contain a large proportion of non-native species, and/or where human activity Modified habitat has modified an area’s ecological functions and species composition e.g. cultivated land for agriculture

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Table 7-2 Percentage composition and coverage of habitat types (ha) Habitat Type PDA Project PNNK Total Area (ha) Total Area (%) Study Area Study Area

Natural Habitat

Gallery Forest 59.35 887.09 946.43 5.1 Woodland 59.20 336.13 345.76 741.09 4.0 Shrub Savannah 27.31 342.83 370.14 2.0 Tree Savannah 274.71 3916.77 4249.97 8441.45 45.7 Woody Savannah 62.45 1380.91 1522.62 2965.99 16.1 Woody Savannah Bamboo Mosaic 118.25 1245.13 947.14 2310.52 12.5 Bowal / Grassland 24.51 301.01 1826.24 2151.77 11.7 Water 29.63 54.34 83.98 0.5 Modified Habitat Cultivated Land 216.57 53.84 270.41 1.5 Quarry 11.82 11.82 0.1 Other Settlement Area 7.35 7.35 0.0 Regenerating Land 152.75 152.75 0.8 Unsealed Roads/Tracks 1.85 9.07 3.01 13.93 0.1 Total Area (ha) 540.97 7693.82 10232.84 18467.63 100.0

Plate 7-1 Shrub savannah (dry season) Plate 7-2 Shrub savannah (wet season)

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Plate 7-3 Wooded savannah (dry season) Plate 7-4 Wooded savannah (wet season)

Plate 7-5 Gallery forest (dry season) Plate 7-6 Gallery forest (wet season)

Plate 7-7 Bowal (dry season) Plate 7-8 Bowal (wet season)

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Figure 7-2 Habitat types within the PDA and Project Study Area

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Figure 7-3 Habitat types within the PNNK Study Area

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Unique and/or Threatened Habitats West African bowal habitat is a sub-type of open grassland in rocky lateritic plain areas, characterised by a particular composition of plants, some of which are rare and have restricted-ranges. Bowal habitat is locally common in parts of Senegal but may have limited global extent and be threatened by habitat loss (Martin Cheek, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew in litt. 2015). This habitat does not qualify for Critical Habitat under Criterion 4 (TBC, 2015). Small fragments of bowal habitat account for approximately 4% of the Project Study Area and 18 % of the PNNK Study Area. Bowal habitat in the PNNK is known to support globally rare species of flora which are critical habitat qualifying species namely Lepidagathis capituliformis, Scleria chevalieri and Tephrosia berhautiana. The presence / likely absence of these species in the PDA and Project Study Area is uncertain. Ponds on bowal in the PNNK Study Area are also priority habitat types, especially ponds characterised by the presence of Marsilea berhauti (a threatened species), Nympheae lotus, Oryza brachyantha, Ceratophyllum submersum, Lobelia senegalense, Eichhornia natans and Scleria interrupta. Gallery forest is of high conservation value for the local area because it provides a vital resource for many priority species of fauna including West African chimpanzee. Gallery forest is the least common vegetation type recorded in the Project Study Area and accounts for less than 1 % coverage. Stands of gallery forest are characterised by a fragmented distribution within the riparian zones along the drainage channels and the Gambia River. However, stands of gallery forest along the banks of the Gambia River support several threatened species of flora including Alchornea cordifolia and Pterocarpus santaniloides.

Flora Species Assemblage Most species of flora identified within the Project Study Area and PNNK Study Area during the baseline study are common in nature and generally widespread. The baseline surveys indicate that floristic species richness and abundance is greater in the PNNK Study Area than the Project Study Area due to differences in habitat diversity and condition (e.g. disturbance level). However, the presence of globally rare / threatened, nationally rare / threated and Senegalese protected species of flora were identified in the PDA and Project Study Area (Table 7-3).

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Table 7-3 Priority species of flora inhabiting the PDA, Project Study Area and PNNK Study Area Scientific Name IUCN Status IUCN status Nationally Senegalese Restricted- Critical Presence in Presence in Presence in Assessed by Threated or Level of range Habitat- the PDA the Project the PNNK the Royal Rare Protection Qualifying Study Area Study Area Botanic Species Gardens, Kew Acalypha senensis + + + + Adansonia digitata PP + + Alchornea cordifolia + + Albizia adianthifolia FP + + Albizia ferruginea VU + Aeschynomene VU + + tambacoundensis Afzelia africana VU FP + Boscia angustifolia + + Borassus PP + + + aethiopum Bulbostylis LC + + coleotricha Cyathula pobeguinii EN/VU + + Ceiba pentandra PP + Celtis integrifolia FP + + Cleria chevalieri CR +

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Scientific Name IUCN Status IUCN status Nationally Senegalese Restricted- Critical Presence in Presence in Presence in Assessed by Threated or Level of range Habitat- the PDA the Project the PNNK the Royal Rare Protection Qualifying Study Area Study Area Botanic Species Gardens, Kew Commiphora NT + PP + pedunculata Cordyla pinnata PP + + + Crateva adansonnii + + Diospyros FP + + + mespiliformis Elaeis guiennensis NT + + Entada africana NT + + + Erythrophlyleum NT + + africana Euphorbia poissonii NT/VU + + Faidherbia albida PP + + Ficus ovata + + Ficus platyphylla + + + Ficus thonningii + + + Gardenia sokotens + + Gardenia triacantha + + + Gymnema sylvestre + + + Indigofera NT/VU + + leptoclada

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Scientific Name IUCN Status IUCN status Nationally Senegalese Restricted- Critical Presence in Presence in Presence in Assessed by Threated or Level of range Habitat- the PDA the Project the PNNK the Royal Rare Protection Qualifying Study Area Study Area Botanic Species Gardens, Kew Khaya VU PP + senegalensis Lepidagathis EN/VU + + + capituliformis Marsilea berhautii VU/EN + + Macrosphyra + + longistyla Maerua angolensis + + + Oxytenanthera + + + + abyssinica Oryza brachyantha NT + + Ozoroa insignis + + + Parinari + + curatellifolia Paullinia pinnata + + Pavetta cinereifolia EN + + Pseudocedrela NT + + kotschyi Pterocarpus PP + + + erinaceus Pterocarpus + + + santaniloides

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Scientific Name IUCN Status IUCN status Nationally Senegalese Restricted- Critical Presence in Presence in Presence in Assessed by Threated or Level of range Habitat- the PDA the Project the PNNK the Royal Rare Protection Qualifying Study Area Study Area Botanic Species Gardens, Kew Rytigina LC / NT + + + senegalensis Sclerocarya birrea PP + Sclerea chevalieri CR + + + Sterculia setigera + + + Sygygium + + + guinneense Tamarindus indica PP + + Tephrosia VU/EN + + + berhautiana (Endemic to Senegal) Tragia senegalensis VU/NT + + Trema orientalis + + + Vitellaria paradoxa VU FP + + + Ziziphus amphibia + PP + +

Key: FP – Fully Protected, PP – Partially Protected, CR – Critically Endangered, EN – Endangered, VU – Vulnerable, NT – Near Threatened, LC – Least Concern

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Unique and/or Threatened Flora

Globally Threatened Species Four globally threatened species of flora classified as Vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List (2014) were identified during the baseline study (Table 7-3): Afzelia africana; Albizia ferruginea; Khaya senegalensis; and Vitellaria paradoxa. V. paradoxa is also fully protected under the Senegalese Forest Code 1998, which means that it is an offence to fell or remove foliage from this species without permission from the Senegalese Water and Forestry Services. Additionally A. ferruginea is included in the World List of Endangered Trees (USAID, 2008). Three of these species namely, A. africana, A. ferruginea and V. paradoxa are present within the Project Study Area. In general A. africana and A. ferruginea have a restricted distributions in this area whereas V. paradoxa is more widespread. A. ferruginea and V. paradoxa also occur in the PDA. Only K. senegalensis and V. paradoxa were identified in the PNNK Study Area. In general, K. senegalensis has a restricted distribution across the PNNK, whereas V. paradoxa appears to be relatively more widespread. There is potential for K. senegalensis to inhabit areas in the PDA and Project Study Area that have not been surveyed. Only a small proportion of flora identified during the baseline study have been assessed under IUCN Red List criteria (IUCN, 2015) and featured on the IUCN Red List of threatened Species (IUCN, 2015). Therefore, a number of plant species identified as potentially threatened were assessed by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew to understand their global conservation statuses (Terrestrial Ecology and Biodiversity Study (Earth Systems, 2015)). The assessment identified the presence of two Near Threatened species of tree / woody shrub within the Project Study Area (Table 7-3) as follows: Entada africana (Near Threatened); and Rytigina senegalensis (Least Concern / Near Threatened). Commiphora pedunculata (Near Threatened) was recorded north-east of the Project Study Area. These species are also present within the PNNK. Four additional species (trees, palm and woody species) present in the PNNK were identified as being of international conservation significance (Table 7-3). One species, Pavetta cinereifolia, present in the central portion of the PNNK Study Area, closest to the PDA, was considered to be Endangered at the global level. Other species assessed are listed below with their corresponding estimated global threatened status: Pavetta cinereifolia – EN; Elaeis guiennensis – NT; Erythrophlyleum africana – NT; Pseudocedrela kotschyi – NT; and In addition, ten species of herbs and grasses that were exclusively found in the PNNK Study Area during the baseline study were assessed as being of global conservation importance. These species are listed below with their corresponding estimated global threatened status: Cleria chevalieri - CR; Cyathula pobeguinii - EN / VU;

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Lepidagathis capituliformis - EN / VU; Tephrosia berhautiana - VU / EN; Marsilea berhautii - VU / EN; Aeschynomene tambacoundensis - VU; Tragia senegalensis - VU / NT; Indigofera leptoclada - NT / VU; Euphorbia poissonii - NT / VU; and Oryza brachyantha - NT. Three of these species, namely Lepidagathis capituliformis, Scleria chevalieri and Tephrosia berhautiana are Critical Habitat-qualifying species under Tier 2 Critical Habitat under criterion 1 (IFC, 2012) as either globally Critically Endangered or endangered (Martin Cheek, Kew Royal Botanical Gardens in litt. 2015). These species are associated with bowal habitat (Martin Cheek, Kew Royal Botanical Gardens in litt. 2015) and their occurrence in the PDA and Project Study Area is uncertain.

Nationally Threatened Species Twenty-seven nationally threatened or rare species of trees and woody shrubs were identified during the baseline study (Table 7-3) according to Senegalese botanical experts (refer to the Terrestrial Ecology and Biodiversity Study, Appendix 5). Of these, 19 species occurred in the Project Study Area and surrounds, whilst 10 species occurred in the PNNK Study Area. Many of these species are thought to be poor natural regenerators or that their regeneration is being suppressed by threatening processes and therefore these species have a low potential for survival. Acalypha senensis (family Euphorbiaceae) was the only herbaceous species identified within the PDA as being of national conservation importance. In contrast, 15 nationally threatened or rare species of herbs and grasses occur in the PNNK Study Area (Table 7-3).

Legally Protected Species Five species of flora identified in the Project Study Area are fully protected under the Senegalese Forest Code (1998) and 10 species are partially protected (Table 7-3). The PDA was found to support a high number of legally protected species of flora. Six species of flora recorded within the PNNK are protected under the Senegalese Forest Code (1998) of which two species are fully protected.

Restricted Range Species Ten flora species that were recorded in bowal in the PNNK Study Area (Table 7-3), have been identified by an international expert botanist as having restricted-ranges. Several of these species are considered to be of conservation importance by the national and international botanists. Of these, 3 species are also Critical Habitat-qualifying species, namely Lepidagathis capituliformis, Scleria chevalieri and Tephrosia berhautiana. In addition to qualifying under Tier 1 (IFC, 2012), these species also qualify under Tier 2 as they have globally restricted-ranges (TBC, 2015). For example, Lepidagathis capituliformis has a restricted-range (c. 4,300 km2) and is mostly known from Senegal, with one record from Guinea; Scleria chevalieri is only known from three locations worldwide; and Tephrosia berhautiana is known to only occur in Senegal and Mali. The presence / likely absence of these species in bowal in the PDA and Project Study Area is uncertain and requires further investigation prior to the commencement of pre-construction / construction.

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Invasive Species The presence of the highly invasive species, Mimosa pigra was identified along the banks of the Gambia River in the Project Study Area. M. pigra is native to Mexico, Central and South America, but has become widely distributed in Africa. M. pigra is an aggressive competitor and as such is capable of progressively dominating areas of natural habitat and can be easily spread. M. pigra was also identified in the PNNK Study Area along the banks of the Gambia River and is known to occur elsewhere in the PNNK in wetlands and ponds (National Park Directive, 2010).

7.2.4 Large Mammals The terrestrial baseline study confirmed the presence of 27 mammal species within the Project Study Area and 38 mammal species within the eastern periphery of the PNNK Study Area. Most of these species are classified as being of Least Concern by the IUCN (2015) and therefore are not considered as priority species for the Project. However, a number of priority fauna were identified within the Project Study Area and the PNNK Study Area (Table 7-4 and Figure 7-4).

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Table 7-4 Priority species of mammals inhabiting the PDA, Project Study Area and PNNK Study Area

Common Name Scientific Name IUCN Critical Habitat- Senegalese Presence in the Presence in the Presence in the Habitat Type(s) Type of Evidence Status Qualifying Level of PDA Project Study PNNK Study Species Protection Area Area Sighting, photograph, W, WS, TS, vocalisations, prints, West African Pan troglodytes verus EN + FP + + + WSBM, GF, B faeces, nests, chimpanzee feeding remains

TS, WS, GF, CL Sightings, faeces, Hippopotamus prints, feeding Hippopotamus VU FP + + (Gambia River) amphibious remains, vocalisations Photographed TS, GF, CL, WS, Leopard Panthera pardus NT + + + individuals, prints, WSBM, B vocalisations Sightings, faeces, Guinea baboon Papio papio NT + + + All habitat types calls, prints, feeding remains Alcelaphus buselaphus Western hartebeest VU + B Prints major Globally VU / CR African lion Panthera leo + PP + TS, GF Prints in West Africa Taurotragus derbianus Western giant eland CR + FP + WS, GF, B, Faeces, Prints derbianus African elephant Loxodonta africana VU FP + TS Faeces Aardvark Orycteropus afer LC FP + Burrow TS

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Common Name Scientific Name IUCN Critical Habitat- Senegalese Presence in the Presence in the Presence in the Habitat Type(s) Type of Evidence Status Qualifying Level of PDA Project Study PNNK Study Species Protection Area Area African buffalo Syncerus caffer LC + Faeces, prints, B, TS PP + calls, food Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus LC PP + Prints TS, GF, B, W, WS, + WSBM Kob Kobus kob LC PP + + Individuals, prints WS Oribi Ourebia ourebi LC PP + Prints TS Red-flanked duiker Cephalophus rufilatus LC PP + Prints, faeces TS, WS, WSBM, RL

Key: EN – Endangered, VU – Vulnerable, NT – Near Threatened, LC - Least Concern GF – Gallery forest, TS – Tree savannah, WS – Woody savannah, WSMB – Woody savannah bamboo mosaic, W – Woodland, B – Bowal / grassland, CL – Cultivated land, RL – Regenerating land

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Figure 7-4 Evidence of fauna species identified during baseline and targeted field surveys

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Senegalese Protected Species Nine legally protected species of fauna were identified as inhabiting the Project Study Area, and several were recorded within or in close proximity to the PDA (Table 7-4). Three of these receive full protection under the Hunting Code 1986 (i.e. West African chimpanzee, hippopotamus and aardvark). Eleven legally protected species of mammals were found to inhabit the PNNK Study Area (Table 7-4), five of which receive full protection under the Hunting Code 1986 (i.e. aardvark, African elephant, hippopotamus, West African chimpanzee, and western giant eland).

Globally Threatened and Near Threatened Species The baseline study and Critical Habitat Assessment confirmed the presence of two globally threatened species of mammal (West African chimpanzee and hippopotamus) and two Near Threatened species (leopard and Guinea baboon) within the Project Study Area (IUCN, 2015) (Table 7-4 and Figure 7-4). Habitat continuity is likely to facilitate the movement of these species between the Project Study Area and the PNNK and buffer zone. Only one species, the West African chimpanzee is a Critical Habitat-qualifying species (TBC, 2015). Six globally threatened species of large mammal (West African chimpanzee, hippopotamus, western hartebeest, African lion, western giant eland and African elephant) were identified as occurring within the PNNK Study Area during field surveys (Table 7-4 and Figure 7-4). The presence of two Near Threatened species of mammal (Guinea baboon and leopard) was also identified in this area. These species are discussed in more detail below.

West African Chimpanzee The West African chimpanzee has been identified as a very high priority species for the Mako Gold Project. Baseline and targeted surveys confirm the presence of West African chimpanzee in the PDA, Project Study Area and PNNK Study Area. These are new chimpanzee records and have not been taken into account during the estimated Senegalese chimpanzee population number of 200-400 in individuals, as stated in Kormos et al. (2003). Baseline information regarding chimpanzees is discussed in more detail in Section 7.2.5.

Hippopotamus Hippopotami appear to intermittently use the Gambia River, riparian habitats and nearby areas of grassland upstream, downstream and within the Project Study Area. (Plate 7-9, Plate 7-10). These hippopotami are likely to move across their range in response to a number of factors including resource availability, water levels in the Gambia River and anthropogenic disturbances. The number of individuals inhabiting this stretch of the Gambia River is uncertain. Monitoring has recorded between one and four individuals using this stretch of the Gambia River at any one time. The largest group recorded to date comprise three adults, one sub adult and one juvenile. Both males and females have been recorded and the presence of a juvenile indicates that hippopotami are successfully breeding in this area. Hotspots of terrestrial activity (grazing sites, latrine markings, prints etc.) have been recorded in the PNNK Study Area and to a lesser extent, the Project Study Area. The most recent global population estimates suggest that over the past 10 years there has been a 7–20% decline in the hippopotamus population (IUCN, 2015). The species is not common in West Africa and the population is split into a number of small groups totalling about 7,000 spread over 19 countries. Guinea, Guinea Bissau and Senegal are strongholds with total numbers in the region of a few thousand (IUCN, 2015). The species is common in eastern and southern Senegal with an estimated country-wide population of between 500 and 700 individuals (IUCN, 2015). Due to its conservation status the hippopotamus is a priority species for the Project.

Leopard Remote sensing confirmed the presence of leopard in the PDA and Project Study Area (Plate 7-11). Other evidence of leopard was not detected. The camera trapping survey indicated that a single leopard, possibly an

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adult female or a younger male utilises habitats within the Project Study Area, in the area immediately surrounding the PDA. It is however likely that more leopards inhabit this area as a single male’s range will often overlap with the ranges of several females (Sunquist and Sunquist, 2002). Leopard prints from a single individual were observed on two separate occasions in the PNNK Study Area during baseline field surveys. One set were recorded in close proximity to the highway. Prints from a single individual were also observed in a dry riverbed near the Gambia River. Leopards were heard vocalising on two separate occasions at night. It is estimated that between one to three leopards may inhabit this area of the PNNK Study Area. This species has also been previously reported as inhabiting the PNNK (UNESCO, 2013). Historically leopards ranged across most of Senegal and were particularly common in South Senegal (Myers, 1976). While still numerous in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, leopards are on the verge of extinction in North Africa and as such this species may soon qualify as Vulnerable if declines continue (IUCN, 2015).

Guinea Baboon Guinea baboons were identified as inhibiting the PDA, Project Study Area and the PNNK Study Area during baseline field surveys (Plate 7-12). Individuals were regularly sighted, heard vocalising and photographed in all habitat types during these surveys. A troop of 25 to 50 individuals was seen in two different locations on separate occasions in the PDA during the baseline surveys. However, the number of individuals in this area is likely to be greater than those previously recorded. Guinea baboons are also an important prey species of leopard. Guinea baboons are widespread in the PNNK and are likely to occur in greater numbers. Individuals were regularly sighted, heard vocalising and indirect evidence (i.e. feeding remains, faeces and prints) was frequently recorded during the baseline study. Habitat usage included forest (i.e. gallery forest and woodland) and savannah habitats. Troupes were also observed on the edges of bowal habitat. Rich food resources and protection in the PNNK allow large aggregations of harem groups, numbering 10-200 (sometimes >500) individuals, to forage together (IUCN, 2015). The Guinea baboon global distribution has, however, significantly declined (20-25%) in the past 30 years due to large-scale agricultural expansion, persecution and hunting (IUCN, 2015). This species has suffered a considerable decline in its population due to agricultural expansion, tree felling and direct hunting for crop protection.

Plate 7-9 Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) Plate 7-10 Part of a hippopotamus skeleton identified Print photographed during the wet season near the during the dry season near the Gambia River Gambia River

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Plate 7-11 Leopard (Panthera pardus) photographed Plate 7-12 Troop of Guinea baboons (Papio papio) by a camera trap in the Project Study Area observed south of Petowal prospect in the Project Study Area

Plate 7-13 African lion print (note claw prints are not a Plate 7-14 Faeces of western giant eland (Taurotragus typical feature of a raw print, and are only present due derbianus spp derbianus) observed in the PNNK to the presence of deep mud

Threatened Mammals Absent in the Project Study Area Several rare and globally threatened species that are known to inhabit the PNNK were not detected in the Project Study Area during baseline study and are unlikely to inhabit / regularly use habitats in the PDA. These species are: African elephant; African wild dog; West African sub-population of the African lion; Western giant eland; and West African red colobus. The justification for their likely absence in the PDA is discussed in more detail below:

African Elephant Whilst the Project Study Area offers suitable habitat types (i.e. dense forest, open and closed savannah and grassland) to support the African elephant, these are likely to be suboptimal compared to habitats in the PNNK. It is highly likely that the steep topography around Petowal and the high level of human activity would deter

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elephants from roaming outside the PNNK and utilising habitats in the PDA and the wider Project Study Area. No evidence of African elephant activity was detected within the Project Area during the baseline surveys in 2013 and 2014. Therefore, this species is not considered to inhabit the Project Area, particularly Zone 1. African elephant faeces belonging to one individual was recorded during the dry season in 2013 in the PNNK. This indicated that African elephants use habitats within the eastern extent of the PNNK. This was the only evidence of African elephant activity that has been detected during the baseline surveys. Low numbers of African elephants are thought to be present in the PNNK; the exact number is uncertain. Six elephants were seen during a survey in 2006 and the Renaud et al. (2006) estimated that the population comprised of 10 elephants at the time of survey. A census in 2012 of the southeast of the PNNK determined that elephants occurred at very low densities; 1 field sign was observed per 350 km of transect (UNESCO, 2013).

African Wild Dog Evidence of African Wild dogs in the PDA, Project Study Area and PNNK Study Area was not identified during the baseline study. Similarly, African Wild dogs were not detected through monitoring using camera traps. A small pack of African wild dogs were sighted by surveyors in August 2014, 57 km from the Project Study Area (UTM 28N 730027, 1455875). National specialists believe that the PNNK population’s range extends outside of the PNNK and local villagers have reported sightings north of Niemenike. The Project Study Area offers some suitable habitats and prey for the African Wild dog, however, habitat condition is sub-optimal compared to savannah located in the PNNK and human disturbance is likely to deter African Wild dog from moving out of the PNNK and using habitats in the PDA and the immediate surrounds. African Wild Dog is listed as Endangered (IUCN, 2014) and the West African Wild Dog (subpopulation) is Critically Endangered (IUCN, 2014; TBC, 2015). The population in the PNNK is thought to be the only potentially viable population in the region, and was one of the key values for the designation of the UNESCO World Heritage Site (TBC, 2015). Therefore the African Wild dog is a Critical Habitat-qualifying species and a priority species for the Mako Gold Project.

African Lion Evidence of West African lion was not detected in the PDA and Project Study Area during the baseline study. Despite this, it is possible that West African lions may occasionally use un-surveyed habitats located in the more remote area of the Project Study Area closest to the PNNK. Some parts of the Project Study Area offer potentially suitable prey species and habitat for lions (e.g. savannah), particularly during the wet season when there is more available water. However, habitat condition may be considered sub-optimal compared to the PNNK and human disturbance is likely to deter their presence. Fresh lion tracks were observed in the PNNK Study Area on two separate occasions during the baseline study. Since West African lions are social carnivores, it is possible that there may be several individuals using this part of the PNNK, and that the prints observed during these surveys belong to individuals of a pride. It is also possible that the prints are from a single individual (i.e. lone male). The West African lion is a Critical Habitat-qualifying sub-species, under Tier 2 Critical Habitat, sub-criterion 1e (IFC, 2012; TBC, 2015), therefore it is a priority species for the Mako Gold Project. The West African sub- population of lion is currently listed as Endangered (Bauer et al. 2004). However, Henschel et al. (2014) state that the population in West Africa is less than 250 mature individuals and, as such, calls for a revision of the IUCN listing for the West African population to be upgraded to Critically Endangered. There are less than 10 adult lions present within the PNNK (Henschel et al., 2014) and its presence was one of the reasons for the park’s designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Western Giant Eland Faeces of a western giant eland were recorded in the PNNK Study Area during the baseline study 2013 and 2014 (Plate 7 24). Western giant eland inhabits woodland and savannah in the PNNK. The PDA and Project Study Area offers potentially suitable habitat to support the western giant eland. It is likely, however, that the

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shortage of drinking water during the dry when the streams and tributaries (excluding the Gambia River) have dried up would deter usage. In addition, the steep topography and level of human disturbance would preclude western giant eland from utilising many habitats in and around the PDA. The western giant eland (the West African subspecies of Giant Eland) is listed as Critically Endangered (East, 1999, IUCN 2014) and as such is both a Critical Habitat-qualifying species and a priority species for the Mako Gold Project (TBC, 2015). Less than 200 animals are estimated to remain in Senegal, with the majority in PNNK. (Nezerková & Hájek 2000; Koláčková et al. 2011; IUCN 2014). The PNNK population was also one of the key values for the designation of this UNESCO World Heritage Site.

West African Red Colobus No evidence of West African red colobus activity was detected during the baseline and targeted surveys. The distribution of the West African red colobus in Senegal is restricted to the west and central portions of the PNNK where there is suitable habitat (i.e. dense forest). Therefore, this species does not inhabit the Project Study Area. This species is a Critical Habitat-qualifying species under sub-criterion 1e and this subspecies also qualifies under Tier 2 (IFC, 2012; TBC, 2015). Therefore the West African red colobus is a priority species for the Mako Gold Project. It is estimated that there are less than 100 West African red colobus in the PNNK. This species does not inhabit the PDA.

Western Hartebeest Evidence of western hartebeest was recorded during the wet season in 2013 baseline survey. During this survey, four prints were found within bowal in the PNNK Study Area. The PNNK is known to be inhabited by the western hartebeest (IUCN, 2015). The Project Study Area offers potentially suitable habitat to support the western hartebeest. However, it is likely that the relatively high level of human disturbance would preclude this species from utilising many habitats in the PDA. The western hartebeest (one of eight sub-species) is categorised as Near Threatened due to a major decline in population size caused by a combination of habitat loss and hunting (IUCN, 2015). IUCN (2015) have estimated a decline of 25% over the past 20 years (three generations).

7.2.5 Chimpanzees The terrestrial baseline study confirms the presence of West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes ssp. verus) in the PDA and surrounding Project Study Area (including south of the Gambia River), and the PNNK Study Area (Figure 7-6). The West African chimpanzee, which is the subspecies of chimpanzee which occurs in Senegal, is one of the most threatened sub-species of chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) (Butynski, 2001) and is listed as Endangered (IUCN, 2015). The West African chimpanzee presently inhabits nine African countries and has a highly fragmented geographical range covering approximately 631,000 km2 (Kormos et al., 2003). This subspecies is very rare or close to extinction in Burkina Faso, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, and Senegal (Kormos et al., 2003, IUCN, 2014). The estimated number of wild West African chimpanzees in Senegal ranges between 200 and 400 individuals, with most individuals inhabiting unprotected areas (Kormos et al., 2003). The PNNK is regarded as an extremely important area for chimpanzee conservation (Pruetz et al., 2002; Kormos et al., 2003), and holds 46% of the species’ national range. Thus West African chimpanzee is a Critical Habitat-qualifying sub-specie and is a priority species for the Project (TBC, 2015). Nesting habitat, foraging habitat and corridors that are known to support the chimpanzee can be termed as Critical Habitat under Criterion 1 of IFC Performance Standard 6 (IFC, 2012) where habitats are of significant importance to Critically Endangered and / or Endangered species (TBC, 2015). A detailed account of chimpanzee habitat usage is presented in the Terrestrial Ecology and Biodiversity Study and a summary of chimpanzee activity, distribution and preference is presented below.

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Evidence of Chimpanzee Activity The main West African chimpanzee (hereafter chimpanzees) nesting habitat identified during the 2014 targeted baseline survey, was recorded in the PNNK and buffer zone, north-west of the PDA. In total 774 chimpanzee nests were identified in this area comprising both fresh nests (likely less than 48 hours old) and recently used nests (probably 2-7 days old; Plate 17-16). Chimpanzees were also heard pant hooting (a type of alarm call) amongst a stand of gallery forest. Shortly afterwards a single male chimpanzee was observed in a tree and the remaining party were heard calling to the male. In contrast, fewer nests (17) were recorded during this survey in the Project Study Area (north of the Gambia River) and the majority of these nests were old (probably older than one week; Plate 7-15) or ancient (one month to several months / framework can last for years) and were observed on the western flank of Petowal in close proximity to the boundary of the PNNK buffer zone. Several nests were identified near to the PDA. Chimpanzees were not observed in the Project Study Area during this survey, however two to three chimpanzees were sighted in the Project Study Area in the Wayako Valley in 2013 on two separate occasions. Indirect evidence (e.g. nests, fresh prints and faeces) was also identified 1.2 km from the PDA. It is therefore clear that chimpanzees use habitats in and around the PDA. Chimpanzee nests, including fresh and recent nests, were also recorded south of the Gambia River within the Kerekonko Hills in 2014 (Figure 7-6) and chimpanzees were also heard vocalising. Based on these calls, surveyors identified the presence of a minimum of three individuals. Distribution It appears that there is a community of chimpanzees centred within PNNK (north-west of Petowal) that extends into the western periphery of the Project Study Area (hereafter referred to as the ‘Mako chimpanzee community’). Based on the home range (of 86 km2) of the chimpanzee community at Fongoli, the Mako chimpanzee community is likely to be separate from the known chimpanzee communities in the PNNK which are based at Mount Assirik and Anten (Figure 7-5; Dr Jill Pruetz pers comm., 2014). Chimpanzees also appear to be utilising habitats south of the Gambia River in the Kerekonko Hill area. There is less evidence available regarding chimpanzees in this area. The information collected thus far indicates that nests located in the Kerekonko Hill and the nests located north-west of the PDA in the PNNK (north-west of Petowal) are associated with two separate communities of chimpanzees; however further survey work is required to confirm this. There is the potential for female migration between these two communities and other communities within the region, including the chimpanzee community at Baniom, located south of the Kerekonko Hill. It is likely that female migration between chimpanzee communities located north and south of the Gambia River would only occur during the dry season when the water level of the river is at its lowest. Estimated Community Size The estimated size of the chimpanzee community within the Project Study Area, the PNNK and PNNK buffer zone is uncertain. Ongoing monitoring using camera traps have photographed between 8 to 12 individual chimpanzees (Jill Pruetz pers comm., 2015) in the Project Study Area, north of the Gambia River. In the nearby Fongoli chimpanzee community, the mean sub-group or party size (a portion of the chimpanzee community) is 15 individuals (Pruetz & Bertolani, 2009).The Mako chimpanzee community may comprise more than 8 to 12 individuals, particularly if this is a viable community, in which case it would likely have more than 20 individuals (Jill Pruetz pers com., 2015). The size of this community is also likely to change due to fission-fusion grouping which can vary between seasons, with larger party sizes occurring during the rainy season.

Habitat Preference Nest site choice is associated with habitat type, resource availability (i.e. suitable trees for nesting and the availability of food and drinking water), shade and habitat condition. Gallery forest is an important habitat for these chimpanzees, with 86% of nests found within this habitat type. Few nests were observed in woodland, and savannah habitat types. Most indirect evidence of foraging activity (e.g. feeding remains) was found in close proximity to nests, but chimpanzees are known to forage away from nesting sites within woodland,

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savannah and regenerating agricultural land. It appears that gallery forest and drainage systems are important corridors for chimpanzees and are used by chimpanzees to move between nesting sites inside and outside of the PNNK and buffer zone. Habitat condition is likely to be higher in the PNNK Study Area than the Project Study Area and it is thought that recent anthropogenic disturbances may have decreased habitat usage by chimpanzees in and around the Project Study Area (Dr Pruetz pers. comm., 2015). However, significant areas of agricultural land occur around drainage systems on the eastern boundary of the PNNK near the Gambia River, and other disturbances (i.e. natural resource collection and human presence) may also account for the lack of chimpanzee activity within this area, particularly where clearing for agriculture is large scale and where land is permanently cultivated. There is probably high quality nesting habitat, foraging habitats and corridors further into the PNNK, and the chimpanzees may exploit this higher quality habitat at times if sufficient water is available, i.e. during the rainy season or around available water sources during the dry season. Chimpanzee habitat use in savannah mosaic depends greatly on dry season water sources (Pruetz, 2013). During the dry season chimpanzees require drinking water on a daily basis (Dr Pruetz pers. comm., 2014) and the Fongoli chimpanzees are known to selectively range around ‘springs’ rather than the Gambia River that demarcates one edge of their home range (Pruetz, 2013). Evidence thus far indicates that chimpanzees in the Project Study Area are using several water sources, but are unlikely to use the Gambia River for drinking water. Several springs located in a drainage channel in the Project Study Area (in the Wayako Valley, approximately 1 km from the PDA) are important dry season watering points for chimpanzees and other priority species (Plates 7-19 and 7-20). The majority of chimpanzees that have been photographed via camera trapping were recorded within drainage channels in around this area and several were recorded near a dry season spring (Plates 7-19 to 7-24).

Figure 7-5 Known chimpanzee communities (circled in yellow) surrounding the Project Study Area (i.e. labelled Mako) Source: Pruetz (2013)

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Figure 7-6 Distribution and abundance of chimpanzee nesting sites, adjusted for survey intensity

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Plate 7-15 Old nest in Pterocarpus erinaceus Plate 7-16 Recent nest in Pterocarpus erinaceus

Plate 7-17 Chimpanzee nest in the Project Study Area Plate 7-18 Observe the cross-over technique using during the dry season the fork in the tree, creating a cyclical pattern

Plate 7-19 Two chimpanzees photographed in the Plate 7-20 Chimpanzee at the spring / watering point ephemeral stream, upstream of the spring in the in the Project Study Area Project Study Area

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Plate 7-21 Chimpanzees commuting west of the Plate 7-22 Chimpanzees commuting west of the Wayako Valley in the Project Study Area Wayako Valley four days later

Plate 7-23 Mother and dependent in the Project Study Plate 7-24 Individual chimpanzee commuting west of Area the Wayako Valley

7.2.6 Birds In total, 117 bird species were recorded during the terrestrial baseline study. Species richness was notably high in the PDA and Project Study Area during the dry season. Overall 72 species of birds were identified within the PNNK Study Area during baseline field surveys. None of these species are Critical Habitat-qualifying species. Globally significant populations or concentrations of migratory bird species were not identified. However, several globally threatened, legally protected and biome-restricted species of bird were recorded (Table 7-5). The presence of other nationally important species of birds including the secretary bird (Sagittarius serpentarius; IUCN listed Vulnerable) and some species of stork were not detected during the terrestrial baseline study.

Globally Threatened Birds Two species of globally Endangered birds were identified in the Project Study Area (Figure 7-7); the white- backed vulture (Gyps africanus) and hooded vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus). Vultures were not observed in the PNNK.

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Figure 7-7 Sightings of hooded vulture and white-back during baseline and targeted field surveys

Hooded Vulture A hooded vulture was sighted in the dry season near the Gambia River in 2013 and an individual was observed perching in a tree next to the highway near Mako Valley just outside of the Project Study Area in 2014. Vulture nests surveys identified the presence of a hooded vulture nesting site near an abattoir in close proximity to Mako Village. Up to eight individual vultures have been recorded nesting in the same tree at this site. Vulture nests have not been detected in the PDA. This species is often associated with human settlements and predominantly feeds on carrion. Vultures can have very large home ranges, hence it is likely that only a portion of the territories of these hooded vultures overlap with the Project Study Area. The global population of the hooded vulture has been estimated at a maximum of 197,000 individuals (Ogada and Buij 2011) and is thought to be rapidly declining (Ogada and Buij 2011). This species is, however, widespread in sub-Saharan Africa (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001). The hooded vulture is considered to be a priority species for the Project.

White-backed Vulture The white-backed vulture was only recorded during the dry season in the Project Study Area, south of the Gambia River and not within the PNNK or buffer zone. It is uncertain whether this was because the species migrates elsewhere or its territory is so extensive that the probability of detection is very low. Hence there is potential for this species to use other habitats in the Project Study Area and PNNK. White-backed vultures have suffered severe declines, particularly in West Africa (>90%) (IUCN, 2015). Therefore, the hooded vulture is a priority species for the Project. Three species of IUCN (2015) threatened bird were observed in the PNNK: Martial eagle (Polemaetus bellicosus; VU); Arabian bustard (Ardeotis arabs; NT); and Bateleur (Terathopius ecaudatus; NT).

Martial Eagle Martial eagles were observed twice (exclusively) in the PNNK Study Area 2013 and 2014. However, the wide- ranging species is likely to occur elsewhere. The conservation status of martial eagle was up-listed from Near Threatened to Vulnerable in late 2013 and further information may lead to its re-classification as Endangered in the future (IUCN, 2015).

Bateleur A bateleur was sighted in the PNNK Study Area during the dry season baseline survey. This species has an extensive range across much of sub-Saharan Africa. This species is classified as Near Threatened because it is suspected to have undergone moderately rapid declines during the past three generations (41 years) due to habitat loss, incidental poisoning and pollution, and thus may be classified as Vulnerable in the future (IUCN, 2015). Arabian Bustard Arabian bustard was sighted in the PNNK Study Area during the wet season in 2013 baseline survey. The Arabian bustard is categorised as Near Threatened by the IUCN (2015) and the main cause of decline is thought to be excessive hunting. Whilst the global population size has not been quantified, this species is reported to be widespread (del Hoyo et al. 1996).

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Senegalese Protected Birds Eight birds identified as occurring in the Project Study Area during the baseline study are fully protected under the Hunting Code (1986), and two species receive partial protection (Table 7-5). Seven fully protected birds were identified in the PNNK Study Area, as well as two species that are partially protected. All of these species are Least Concern by the IUCN Red List of Threated Species (IUCN, 2015) with the exception of the vultures.

Biome-restricted Species The PNNK is designated as an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA) and supports 31 biome-restricted species (e.g. groups of species with largely shared distributions of greater than 50,000 km2, which occur mostly or wholly within all or part of a particular biome, and are therefore, of global importance (BirdLife International, 2013). Six of these species were sighted in the PNNK and Project Study Area during surveys in the 2013 baseline study (Table 7-5). None of these species are legally protected under the Hunting Code (1986) and all species are categorised as Least Concern in accordance with the IUCN (2015).

Table 7-5 Priority species of birds within the PDA, Project Study Area and PNNK Study Area Family English Scientific IUCN Legally PNNK Presence Presence Presence Common Name Protected Biome- in the in the in the Status Name restricted PDA Project PNNK Birds Study Study Area Area Montagu's Circus LC FP + harrier pygargus White- EN backed Gyps africanus FP + vulture Gabar LC Melierax gabar FP + goshawk Hooded Necrosyrtes EN FP + Accipitridae vulture monachus Macheiramphus LC Bat hawk FP alcinus + Martial Polemaetus VU FP eagle bellicosus + Terathopius NT Bateleur FP ecaudatus + African LC FP + Hliaetus vocifer fish eagle Cattle LC FP + + Ardeidae Bubulcus ibis egret Red-billed Tockus LC + FP + hornbill erythrorhynchus + Bucerotidae African LC + Tockus grey FP + nasutus hornbill + Blue- LC + + + Coracias Coraciidae bellied cyanogaster roller Red- LC + + + Meropidae throated Merops bulocki bee-eater Violet Musophaga LC + + + Musophagidae turaco violacea Yellow- LC + + + Corvinella Laniidae billed corvina shrike

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Arabian NT + Otididae Ardeotis arabs FP bustard Senegal Poicephalus LC + + PP parrot senegalus Psittacidae Rose- LC + + Psittacula ringed PP krameri parakeet Spotted LC FP + + Strigidae Bubo africanus eagle-owl Blackcap Turdoides LC + + + Timaliidae babbler reinwardii Bearded LC + + + Ramphastidae Lybius dubius barbet Key: FP: Full Protection; PP: Partial Protection, EN – Endangered, VU – Vulnerable, NT – Near Threatened, LC - Least Concern

7.2.7 Existing Threats to Terrestrial Biodiversity Habitat quality and species diversity in the PDA, Project Study Area, PNNK and buffer zone has been impacted by anthropogenic disturbance. The wider area has had a long history of human habitation and thus agricultural land use has featured prominently in the area. These factors are also recognised as threats to biodiversity on a national scale (National Parks Direction, 2010). Historical (and continuing) threats to biodiversity in the Project Study Area, PNNK and buffer zone are listed as follows: Vegetation clearance for the development of agricultural land (e.g. cropping, livestock and apiary) and residences. Clearing is most extensive around the villages and the low land adjacent to the Gambia River; Hunting for subsistence and trade has occurred since human occupation, however, with population increases in the last century the threat has become more extensive and has probably caused localised extinctions. Illegal and unregulated hunting have contributed to the decline in abundance of many large mammals populations in Senegal including the hippopotamus (IUCN, 2015). Several species only now only exist within the interior of PNNK and have not been seen outside of the PNNK for many years (e.g. African elephants). Commercial poaching is a significant threat to fauna diversity and abundance in the PNNK and many large mammals, including African elephant and lion, are on the verge of extinction (UNESCO, 2007); Intensive collection of natural resources (i.e. timber and non-timber products) is recognised as a threat to the diversity and abundance of key species of flora in Senegal. This activity has adversely impacted the floristic composition of important natural habitat types and has contributed to localised declines in tree species which are already nationally and globally threatened. The PNNK is also under pressure from intensive natural resource collection. For example, the illegal harvesting of trees (i.e. Borassus palm) has adversely impacted principle habitats in the PNNK (UNESCO, 2007). Over exploitation of natural resources for consumption or trade is also threatening wildlife which are dependent on these resources. The collection of wild fruit resources is a considerable threat to chimpanzees in Senegal (Carter et al. 2003); Use of fire for the clearing of land for hunting and agro-pastoral activities and as a management tool. Bushfires have contributed to the large scale degradation and destruction of habitats within the region. Altered fire regimes have been known to change habitat and flora composition, including changes to microclimate, soil composition and soil stability; Reduced grazing and browsing by wild, large herbivores (e.g. elephants) can alter the floristic composition of habitats. This is a particular problem in the PNNK where the decline in elephant numbers has been linked to an increase in scrub encroachment;

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Felling of forest on fertile and arable soil (e.g. gallery forest) for citrus cultivation, other agricultural practices and general wood collection. Gallery forest is more common and extensive in the PNNK compared to the Project Study Area; Premature drying of ponds and drought; Artisanal mining for gold, including the use of cyanide and mercury, impacting on soil, water, species, and habitat. Artisanal mining occurs in the PNNK and buffer zone but is common and widespread outside of the PNNK; and Accidental or intentional introduction of exotic and invasive species such as Mimosa pigra. At present, this species appears to have a relatively restricted distribution in the Project Study Area. However, there is the potential for the distribution of this species and other noxious weeds to become more widespread with an increase in human activity. More recent threats have been: The use of herbicides to clear large areas of vegetation for agricultural land is becoming more common. Herbicides can leach into the groundwater, enter surface water and in general be taken up or ingested by species. Several chemical herbicides have been known to bioaccumulate in organisms and/or biomagnify up the food chain (e.g. DDT); and Mine exploration activities (i.e. drilling and the development of tracks) for the Project have resulted in localised habitat loss in the PDA. Whilst the habitat is notably of higher quality in the PNNK than the PDA and Project Study Area, a number of key threatening processes were identified as occurring in the PNNK Study Area during the baseline study. These are listed as follows: Vegetation clearance for the creation of access routes and the development of agricultural land, especially the encroachment of agricultural land on the eastern edge of the PNNK Study Area near the Gambia River; Poaching of animals; Altered fire regimes (arson or natural) are likely to have become more intensive and widespread; Grazing by livestock (i.e. by animals wandering in or intentional grazing), particularly on the edges near agricultural land; Artisanal mining for gold, is being practiced within the PNNK causing habitat degradation and loss. Evidence of the use of chemicals such as cyanide or mercury were not apparent during the baseline study; Increased disturbance caused by an increase of people in the PNNK; and Accidental or intentional introduction of exotic and invasive species such as Mimosa pigra.

7.3 Aquatic Biodiversity

7.3.1 Gambia River and Tributaries The Project is located within the Senegal-Gambia freshwater ecoregion and the ecoregion’s main habitat type is tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetland complexes (Abell et al. 2008; Thieme, 2014). The ecoregion is defined by the Senegal and Gambia River basins and, as such, it supports Nilo-Sudanian freshwater fauna (Roberts, 1975). The region around the Project is known to be relatively biodiverse, with the Gambia River and tributaries being the chief freshwater habitats of the region. The Gambia River, the principal hydrologic feature in the region, is located approximately 1.2 km to the south of the PDA boundary and crosses into the PNNK a short distance downstream of the Project. A number of small

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ephemeral streams (i.e. Badalla Creek) drain the PDA which ultimately discharge to the Gambia River. The Gambia River is one of the largest rivers in West Africa and is significant in that it is the last major river in West Africa which retains a natural flow regime. Key tributaries of the Gambia River include the Niokolo-Koba, Nieri- Ko, Sandougou, Tiokoye, Diarha and Koulountou, although none of these tributaries occur directly within the Project Study Area. The Gambia River crosses the central part of the Project Study Area between the Petowal Prospect deposit and the Kerekonko Hills and crosses into the PNNK a short distance downstream of the western edge of the Project Study Area boundary. The Gambia River was the focus of aquatic baseline study as this is an important resource for wildlife and villagers.

Biodiversity of the Gambia River The fish fauna of the Gambia River consists mainly of Nilo-Sudanian species, with Guinean species present in the upper part of the river (Johnels, 1954, Lévêque et al., 1991). One hundred and eight fish species have been found along the entire length of the Gambia River and range in habitat use patterns and salinity tolerance (Baran, 2000). It is thought that none of these 108 species are endemic to Senegal. It has been estimated that the section of the Gambia River within the PNNK is inhabited by 73 fish species (Blažek et al. 2012). The presence of the Critical Habitat-qualifying species of fish Barbus dialonensis, has been identified in the Gambia River (TBC, 2015). This species has a restricted range (IFC, 2012) and is only known from three locations in the upper Gambia River, upper Niger and upper Senegal (Téné) systems (IUCN, 2015). Barbus dialonensis is also listed as globally Vulnerable (IUCN 2015). Little is known regarding the distribution and abundance of aquatic and semi-aquatic reptiles and frogs in the Gambia River and while there are studies underway (IUCN, 2011; Niane et al., 2014; Leeney and Downing, 2015), it is possible that there are rare species in the region. Species of reptile known to inhabit the Gambia River include African softshell turtle (Trionyx triunguis) and African helmeted turtle (Pelomedusa subrufa) (Villiers, 1956, Håkansson, 1981). The slender-snouted crocodile (Mecistops cataphractus; listed as Critically Endangered) may inhabit the Gambia River however, Shirley (2010) and IUCN (2015) suggest that this species is all but extinct in the Upper-Guinean ecoregion (including Senegal). The macroinvertebrate assemblages notably differ at several points within the Gambia River. For example, as the river transitions from brackish water into freshwater in the middle reaches (i.e. within the PNNK, downstream of the Project Study Area) the macroinvertebrate species assemblage is relatively less diverse than assemblages further upstream and is dominated by Annelids (worms), Arthropods and Molluscs (Van Maren, 1985). Furthermore, insects are common within the central section of the Gambia River, while Annelids and Molluscs are less diverse (Van Maren, 1985). Species collected within the Gambia River in the PNNK have included crabs (Potamonautes ecorssei), and clams (Aspatharia senegalensis, Corbicula africana and Eupera parasitica) (Daget, 1961). There have been a few key studies of the macroinvertebrates of the Gambia River (e.g. Van Maren, 1985), and therefore, it is possible that there are rare species in the region that are yet to be discovered. The Critical Habitat-qualifying species of dragonfly Elattoneura pluotae (listed Data Deficient (IUCN, 2015)) has a restricted global range and is only known from type-material discovered in a small stream near Kedougou in 1982 (TBC, 2015). The distinctive dragonfly has not been rediscovered since 1982 despite the area being reasonably well surveyed (IUCN, 2015). Expert opinion is that it is unlikely to be present in the Project Study Area, and therefore not a real risk to the Project (TBC, 2015). Much less is known of the primary producer (e.g. macrophyte, algae) species assemblage than other taxa within the Gambia River or greater region. One study by Healey et al., (1988) of bacterioplankton mirrors the results of studies on other taxa that species and individual abundance and distribution is influenced by the annual flooding regime and habitat type (especially mangroves in the estuary). Due to the paucity of information there is a great opportunity to expand on this knowledge.

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7.3.2 Protected Areas No internationally or nationally aquatic protected areas (e.g. Ramsar sites) exist within the Project Study Area. The length of the Gambia River within the Project Study Area is not protected, while further downstream where the river intersects the PNNK the Gambia River is protected under the same legislation as the PNNK. The riparian zone (northern bank) directly downstream of the Project Study Area and within the PNNK is also protected. Similarly, any freshwater habitats within the PNNK are protected.

7.3.3 Habitats The section of the Gambia River that intersects the Project Study Area is a seasonal, freshwater water body. The river can vary from 30 to 220 m between the main banks. Many sand and mudbanks can be exposed mid- channel during the dry season, when the flow and water levels drop. For a description of the hydrology and hydrochemistry see Chapter 9. Main habitats within the Gambia River are rapids, deep pools, floodplains, benthic (river bed) and banks. All of these habitats are influenced by the seasonal flooding regime. Rapids, deep pools and floodplains become less pronounced in the dry season as the water level and flow rate drops. The area of benthic and bank habitat dramatically reduces during the dry season. Most microhabitats are a mosaic of stones, sand and macrophytes over the bedrock. Diarra (2014) identified 15 habitat types, with 11 located at the bank. Although there were different microhabitat mosaics at sites, the sites did not noticeably differ in regards to main characteristics (for a detailed description of microhabitats see Diarra, 2014).

7.3.4 Macrophytes and Multicellular Algae

Macrophytes Nine species of emergent macrophytes were recorded within the Gambia River during baseline surveys. Rotula aquatica was the most abundant (% area cover) species present in the river at sampled sites. While Mimosa pigra (an invasive species) and Vetiveria nigritana were the most widespread species, being present at all seven sampled sites within the three sectors. Overall, the number of species did not significantly differ between sites or the three sectors (χ2 = 3.6, P > 0.1). Only one species identified during surveys has been assessed for its conservation status by the IUCN and listed as Least Concern (Polygonum senegalense; IUCN, 2015).

Multicellular Algae Algal blooms were not observed within, upstream or downstream of the Project Study Area during the dry or wet seasons sampled. However the high level of turbidity of the Gambia River made it difficult to evaluate the presence of suspended algae. Algal blooms can be indicators of pollution, particularly nutrient enrichment.

7.3.5 Fish

Species Assemblage A total of 37 species of fish from 24 genera and 13 families were recorded during the dry and wet season surveys (Table 7-6; Plate 7-25 to Plate 7-30). All species have been recorded in the Gambia River during previous studies (e.g. Blažek et al., 2012). The majority of species captured during the dry and wet season surveys in 2013 were from the Alestidae family. Brycinus nurse and Barbus spp. were found to the most common species as they were present across at all sampling sites. The distribution of species was relatively uniform upstream, downstream and within the Project Study Area between seasons. Similarly, relative species richness was found to be consistent between seasons. In this area, fish diversity was high, irrespective of season.

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In contrast, the catch per unit of effort (CPUE) was higher during the wet season (5.48 kg per night) than the dry season (2.09 kg per night). This suggests seasonal variances in productivity. The highest CPUE values were found downstream of the Project Study Area. Few adult fish were caught and catches were dominated by juvenile and immature fish. It is believed that is a result of over exploitation of fish stocks, as adult fish are more sought after by fishermen.

Table 7-6 Species of fish identified (+) upstream, downstream and within the Project Study Area during wet and dry seasons Family Genus Scientific Name IUCN Status Dry Season Wet Season Alestes Alestes baremoze LC + + Brycinus intermedius LC - + Brycinus leuciscus LC + + Brycinus Alestidae Brycinus longipinnis LC + + Brycinus nurse LC + - Hydrocynus Hydrocynus brevis LC + + Micralestes Micralestes elongatus NA + + Anabantidae Ctenopoma Ctenopoma petherici LC + + Hemichromis bimaculatus LC + - Hemichromis Hemichromis fasciatus LC + + Cichlidae Tilapia guineensis LC + + Tilapia Tilapia congica LC + + Tylochromis Tylochromis intermedius LC + + Chrysichthys johnelsi LC + + Claroteidae Chrysichthys Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus LC + - Clupeidae Pellonula Pellonula leonensis NA + - Barbus Barbus sp. _ + - Labeo coubie LC + + Cyprinidae Labeo Labeo parvus LC + + Labeo senegalensis LC + + Raiamas Raiamas senegalensis LC + + Distichodus rostratus LC + + Distichodus Distichodus dimidiatus NR - + Distichodontidae Distichodus intermedius NR - + Paradistichodus Paradistichodus dimidiatus LC + Malapteruridae Malapterurus Malapterurus electricus LC + + Synodontis annectens LC + - Synodontis clarias LC + - Mochokidae Synodontis Synodontis schall LC - + Synodontis ocellifer LC + +

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Family Genus Scientific Name IUCN Status Dry Season Wet Season Brienomyrus Brienomyrus niger NA - + Marcusenius Marcusenius senegalensis LC + + Mormyridae Mormyrops Mormyrops Anguilloides LC - + Petrocephalus Petrocephalus bovei bovei NA + + Notopteridae Papyrocranus Papyrocranus afer LC - + Polypteridae Polypterus Polypterus bichir lapradei NA + - Schilbeidae Schilbe Schilbe intermedius LC + + 13 Families 24 Genera 37 Species 30 28 Relative Species Richness 81% 76%

Key: + Present; - Absent; LC = Least Concern; NA = Not Assessed; NR = Not Recognised (as a distinct species within this genus at time of writing)

Plate 7-25 Malapterurus electricus (emits an electric Plate 7-26 Brycinus intermedius shock)

Plate 7-27 Brycinus nurse Plate 7-28 Raiamas senegalensis

Plate 7-29 Labeo coubie Plate 7-30 Schilbe intermedius

Migratory Fish Of the 37 species caught nine species were only captured during the dry season (e.g. Brycinus longipinnis) and seven caught exclusively during the wet season (e.g. Distichodus intermedius).

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Previous studies have shown seasonal habitat use of fish in the Gambia River can vary greatly. For example, White et al. (2010) identified that habitat generalists such as Barbus macrops, B. pobeguini, and Rhabdalestes septentrionalis were found in all habitats and seasons. In contrast, several other fish species exhibited strong associations with in- and off-channel habitats and others species appeared to migrate laterally (e.g. Ctenopoma petherici). The majority of migratory fish identified during the baseline study migrate laterally between the Gambia River and secondary water points (i.e. creeks and ponds). This is usually in response to reproduction and nutrition. However some fish such as species of Claroteidae (Chrysichthys sp.) and Alestidae (Brycinus sp., Alestes sp. and Cichlidae sp.) swim against the current upstream in the dry season. The surveys did not identify any congregatory species of fish.

Threatened or Restricted-Range Species All of the species that have been assessed by the IUCN Red List of Threated Species (2015) are of Least Concern. Note that several species of fish recorded during the baseline study have not been assessed to date. While the restricted-range and Critical Habitat-qualifying species Barbus dialonensis (Vulnerable, IUCN 2015) was not identified during the surveys, individuals of the Barbus genus were recorded during the dry season (2013). These individuals were not able to be identified to a species level and as such the likely absence of Barbus dialonensis upstream, downstream and within the Project Study Area cannot be discounted.

7.3.6 Amphibians and Reptiles Two species of frog, white-lipped river frog (Phrynobatrachus accraensis) and Phrynobatrachus francisci were recorded at all sites upstream, downstream and within the Project Study Area. Both species are of Least Concern according to the IUCN Threatened List (2014) and are not afforded any legal protection in Senegal. No aquatic reptiles were observed during the surveys. However, local fishermen identified that they had seen Senegal flapshell turtles (Cyclanorbis senegalensis), Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) and snakes (including pythons) in and along the Gambia River (see Section 7.4.2).

7.3.7 Macroinvertebrates A total of 119 species (or distinct taxa)2 of macroinvertebrates belonging to at least 57 Families, from 19 Orders and 6 classes were identified. Insects were the most species rich taxon, with 107 species (90%), while the other taxa accounted for little of the assemblage. Beetles (Coleoptera) were the most common Order of insects. Over 1,700 macroinvertebrate individuals were caught during the baseline study and insects were also the most abundant taxa. Species diversity (i.e. using diversity indices) was not significantly different between sites upstream, downstream or within the Project Study Area (i.e. dissimilarity analysis P > 0.05). No internationally (IUCN, 2015) or Senegalese threatened species were identified. However, less than 15% of species identified in the baseline study have been assessed by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN, 2015).

Bioindicators and Biological Water Quality Aquatic invertebrates are important food sources for higher aquatic trophic levels. They are sensitive to water quality and are often used as biological indicators of environmental change and stress as species differ in their tolerance of pollutants, low oxygen levels or other impacts. Freshwater invertebrate diversity was used as a measure of water quality and to characterise the current aquatic environment of the Gambia River. Refer to the Aquatic Ecology Baseline Study (Earth Systems, 2015) for details regarding preliminary assessment of water quality using bioindicators.

2 Not all individuals were identified to species, some could only be classified to higher taxa levels

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This assessment (Table 7-7) showed that the Gambia River upstream, downstream and within the Project Study Area appears to be of average water quality (with the exception of the site at Linguekoto). The poor water quality score at the Linguekoto site may be an indicator of localised impacts to the aquatic environment, but it is more likely to be attributed to disturbance caused by rain and flooding prior to sampling. These biological quality scores do not directly reflect a measure of the physical, chemical or bacterial water quality of the Gambia River (refer to Chapter 6 for a detailed description of water quality).

Table 7-7 Water quality assessment using bio-indicators for each site Site Number Site Name Number of Taxa Water Quality 1 Bafoundou 10 Average 2 Keur Annick 11 Average 3 Linguékoto 9 Poor 4 Badalla 19 Average 5 Kelendourou 19 Average 6 Bomboya 18 Average

7.3.8 Existing Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity There is a long history of human habitation in the region and since the Gambia River is a prominent feature in the landscape surrounding the PDA, aquatic resource use has been important in the region. Therefore, historical and current key threatening processes to the Gambia River upstream, downstream and within the Project Study Area are listed as follows: Over-exploitation of aquatic fauna and flora including unregulated fishing practices have decreased fish species distribution and abundance, particularly the use of monofilament drift nets with a fine mesh; Degradation of riparian vegetation and erosion of banks by agricultural land clearing has increased the sediment and nutrient load of the Gambia River and its tributaries, reducing water quality; Accidental or intentional introduction of invasive species (e.g. Mimosa pigra) in the Project Study Area and PNNK. This species has been nominated as among 100 of the world’s worst invaders (ISSG, 2014). Mimosa pigra can increase turbidity and reduce water flow as it often forms large stands along the edges of rivers and tributaries; and An industrial small scale alluvial gold mining operation has been active on the southern bank of the Gambia River adjacent to the village of Kerekonko. It is understood that this is located inside the buffer zone of the PNNK. Water is extracted from the Gambia River and pumped into the sluice to wash the mineralised material. Mine tailings have been discharged directly to the Gambia River bank. Industrial small scale alluvial mining operations on the banks of the Gambia River have the potential to increase suspended sediment loads to the River and can also cause water contamination through the potential release of hydrocarbons and processing chemicals (e.g. mercury, cyanide) to the River.

7.4 Ecosystem Services

A detailed account of terrestrial natural resource use is presented in Appendix 5 Terrestrial Ecology and Biodiversity Baseline Study which draws on the results of the indigenous knowledge surveys as well as Appendix 8 Socio-Economic, Land and Water Use Baseline Study. IFC Performance Standard 6 categorises ecosystem services into four types: (i) provisioning services, which are the products people obtain from ecosystems; (ii) regulating services, which are the benefits people obtain from

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the regulation of ecosystem processes; (iii) cultural services, which are the non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems; and (iv) supporting services, which are the natural processes that maintain the other services. The most important identified ecosystem service for local villages was ‘provisioning services’. In particular, the ecosystems that provide fish, terrestrial fauna (through hunting) as well as timber and other forest resources. However, ‘regulating services’ and ‘cultural services’ were also considered to be significant in the Project Study Area. The following sections focus on the most important species and habitats that provide ecosystem services, whereas Chapter 8 discusses the significance of ecosystem services to local livelihoods and cultural heritage.

7.4.1 Terrestrial Resource Use The household survey identified that the collection of terrestrial resources - i.e. timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs), was considered to be of moderate importance for local subsistence use as well as cultural value, and is likely to contribute to food security for local villages. Over 95% of the households surveyed in the Socio-Economic, Land and Water Use Baseline Study (Earth Systems, 2013) reported using community forest land for collection of timber and NTFPs. The cultural value of terrestrial resources is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8.

Habitats Terrestrial habitats and the species within them provide a wide range of ecosystem services. The most significant of these within the context of the Project Study Area were considered to be; Local air quality and climate regulation; Regulation of water drainage and flows; Disease regulation; Pest regulation; Erosion control; Protection of natural ecosystems; Source of pollination; and Water cycling functions. Further detail on these ecosystem services is provided in Table 7-8 below.

Use of Timber Timber represents a particularly important provisioning service. The household survey identified that over 90% of respondents regularly collect timber. Of those that collected timber, 15% collected timber daily and approximately 50% collected timber at least twice a week. The main uses of timber products are firewood, charcoal production, agriculture, livestock, housing construction, traditional medicine and spiritual value. The most commonly collected timber species for firewood noted in household surveys were gueno (Acacia spp.), bamboo, Combretaceae (leadwood) family, casuarinas and eucalyptus. Wood is the principle domestic energy source for local communities and is primarily collected by women. At least 15 woody species are used for fuel in the area. Combretum glutinosum and Pterocarpus erinaceus are the most commonly used as a domestic energy source for local communities. Cordyla pinnata, Terminalia and Anogeissus leiocarpus ssp. macroptera are also widely used for fuel for food preparation. The second main use of timber was for house construction (reported by 81% of those that collect timber). A small proportion of households use timber for handicrafts and direct sale for income; reported by approximately 10% of those that collect timber. Woody species are used for agricultural purposes to enhance soil fertility and to protect seeds and plants from predation by birds and animals. Tamarindus indica, Erythrophleum suaveolens and Khaya senegalensis are most

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commonly used for agriculture. Woody species are often cleared when preparing agricultural land to avoid excessive shading, however species with edible fruit are usually retained as food sources. At least 54 woody species are used by local villagers for medicinal purposes. Combretum glutinosum, Cassia sieberiana, Combretum micranthum, Ficus dicranostyla, Baati (Sarcocephalus latifolius) and Combretum molle are most commonly used to treat minor ailments. Other key species, many of which are collected from the river’s edge, include Makhalintang (Kigelia africana), Sanphyto (Moghania faginea), Néré (Parkia biglobosa), Karité (Vitellaria paradoxa), Leung (Vitex doniana), Kofina/Solom (Dialium guineense), Sinamou (Crateva adansonii), Bondie (Strophanthus sarmentosus), Baylo Fouta (Pentatropis spiralis), Mandang (Syzygium guineense), Vetiver (Chrysopogon nigritanus), and Nhorondiong (Mimosa pigra). Some woody species are also used for veterinary medicine. Furthermore, several tree species hold spiritual value, particularly Katignankoumo, Wouloudounkoung and Koulikoulo (Pericopsis laxiflora) which are also used in medicinal based rituals. Ceiba pentandra is associated with mystical beliefs.

Collection of Wild Plants and Fruit Fifty-four percent of respondents reported that they collect wild plants (NTFPs) from the local area surrounding their villages. Most respondents indicated that they only collect wild plants occasionally (e.g. monthly to a few times per year). However, 4% of those who collect wild plants indicated that they collect wild plants daily, and a further 9% indicated they do so at least weekly. Wild plants and fruits are collected for a variety of purposes, including for consumption, medicinal use, and for sale, while some hold a spiritual value. Eighteen species of wild plants are used as food sources by local communities. The most commonly used species are Vitellaria paradoxa (shea tree), Cordyla pinnata and Leptadenia hastata. These species (including nuts) are harvested daily. Other important species include shea fruit, ‘madd’ (Saba senegalensis), baobab leaves/fruit, jujube (Ziziphus spp.), baobab/monkey bread (Adansonia digitata), and tamarind (Tamarindus indica).

Agriculture Terrestrial habitats within the Project Study Area are frequently adapted for subsistence production of millet and corn for personal consumption as well as the production of cash crops, such as peanuts. Crops are grown under the “bush-fallow” method of production, comprising rotation cropping over a patchwork of land in various stages of cultivation or fallow recovery. Fruit trees are also commonly planted. Terrestrial habitats also provide grazing for livestock. The arid conditions and the shortage of pasture have favoured the selection of goats and sheep over cattle. Goats and sheep are generally raised near the village on “back-yard” fields. However, the Wayako Valley is a favoured dry-season grazing area for cattle from all surrounding villages. Petowal Hill is an important location for Tambanoumouya farmers to take their cattle in the rainy season. The Gambia River and its tributaries and village water sources are also important water sources for livestock. The Project Study Area is also used to a lesser extent by nomadic cattle and goat herders. Further detail on agriculture in the Project Study Area is provided in Chapter 8.

Hunting Poaching occurs in the region surrounding the Project, particularly of mammals and birds for food, medicine and spiritual purposes. Although most household survey respondents reported that they did not hunt (under a licence) or poach, evidence of hunting included the use of shot gun cartridges skins, camps and trails, photos from camera trapping, as well as focus group discussions. Villagers at Mako village reported using guns to poach double-spurred francolins, helmeted guinea fowl and green pigeons for food. Hunting is an illegal activity within the PNNK and restricted elsewhere under the Hunting Code (1986).

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While species are hunted mainly for food, villagers stated that species of fauna were also used in traditional medicine. Examples of traditional medicine resources derived from hunting included: Birds are used in the treatment and prevention of diseases and the most commonly used species were hornbills, nighthawks, vultures, coucals, swifts and turacos; Side-striped jackal (Canis adustus) meat is eaten to treat rheumatism; Patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas) meat is eaten to treat jaundice and yellow fever; The skin of red-flanked duiker (Cephalophus rufilatus) relieves stiff joints; Hippopotamus; The stomach contents of the crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) are used to treat stomach ache; Python fat is used to treat rheumatism; The vertebrae of turtles are thought to enhance libido; and Honey is collected and eaten to maintain health and wellbeing. Ornamental birds, including small passerines, are captured by local collectors under permits issued by the Forestry Department. A hunting zone (amodiée) was also identified within the Project Study Area.

7.4.2 Aquatic Resource Use Surveys identified that while fishing only contributes a small proportion of the overall incomes of villages in the local area, it is still an important livelihood activity for some households in the local villages. The surveys identified that 53 households from 16 villages in the local area considered fishing to be their most important livelihood activity. Generally only a small proportion of households in each village conducted fishing, however, fishing was particularly important in Sibikiling and Bomboya where 75% and 67%, respectively, of surveyed households reported undertaking fishing activities. Of the households that reported that fishing was their most important livelihood activity, approximately 50% of the households reported fishing only in the wet season, while just over 30% reported fishing all year round. Fishermen mostly use drift nets with mesh sizes 30 mm to 80 mm and long-lines. Wooden canoes are used to facilitate fishing, but these are very small. Depending on the area, the quantities of captured fish range between 3 kg to 10 kg per day. A high diversity of fish was reported as being caught; with the dominant taxa including Kong (Synodontis schall), Dolla (Labeo coubie), Carpes/Fouro (Tilapia guineensis, T. zilii), and Catfish. Other important species include Kouna woule (Brinus nurse), Sardines (Sardinella, Sardina), Kono kono (Clarias anguillaris), Saro, Warangue, and Nalla (Mormyrus hasselquestii). Rarely captured species included Gymnarchus niloticus. The informal interviews with fishermen also identified that other species of fauna were present in the Gambia River and are consumed by the local populations (although some species are protected). For example, taxa consumed included crustaceans (e.g. lobster and shrimp (Caridina africana)), Senegal flapshell turtle (Cyclanorbis senegalensis; listed as Lower Risk/Near Threatened (IUCN, 2015)), the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), snakes (including pythons) as well as the African clawless otter (Aonyx capensis). Respondents from three villages reported catching and consuming hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), a threatened species categorised as Vulnerable by the IUCN (2015). A few aquatic and semi-aquatic plants are used as food by local people. Rotula aquatica leaves are used for the preparation of the sauce. Vetiver sp. roots are used by local people for flavouring water. In addition, R. aquatica leaves are crushed and used in the process of gold washing by artisanal miners.

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Table 7-8 Classification of ecosystem services Category of Service Example Key Species or Habitats Ecosystem Service Terrestrial Resource Use: Provisioning and Cultural Services Timber used for firewood, charcoal Timber and wood production, agriculture, livestock, Gueno (Acacia spp.), bamboo, Combretaceae Provisioning products housing construction, traditional (leadwood)) family, casuarinas and eucalyptus medicine Vitellaria paradoxa (shea tree), Cordyla pinnata, Leptadenia hastate, shea fruit, ‘madd’ (Saba NTFPs: fruits, Consumption, medicinal use, and senegalensis), baobab leaves/fruit, jujube Provisioning herbs and for sale (Ziziphus spp.), baobab /monkey bread grasses (Adansonia digitata), and tamarind (Tamarindus indica). Double-spurred francolins (Pternistis Provisioning Food: fauna Birds are hunted for consumption bicalcaratus), helmeted guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) and green pigeons (Treron calvus). Millet and corn (primary subsistence crops) Rice, vegetable and fruit cultivation Food: crop Peanuts, rice, sorghum and okra (primary cash Provisioning are important sources of food and cultivation livelihood in the study area. crops) See Chapter 8 for further details

Food: Livestock Livestock breeding is a secondary Goats, sheep, cattle, fowl. Provisioning farming activity for people in the area. See Chapter 8 for further details Genoo, bani-dooki (Combretum glutinosum), Wood and plant matter for Provisioning Biomass fuel genoolu, diambakatayo, casuarinas, eucalyptus charcoal, fuel. and other plant species

Woody species and trees of Katignankoumo, Wouloudounkoung and spiritual value associated with Koulikoulo (Pericopsis laxiflora) and Ceiba Cultural Spiritual value mystical beliefs and/or medicinal pentandra based rituals Apez (red tree bark fibres) Birds: hornbills,nighthawks, vultures, coucals, swifts and turacos; Cultural value placed on traditional Mammals: Side-striped jackal (Canis adustus), Traditional Cultural practices such as use of fauna and Patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas), red-flanked practices their products for medicines. duiker (Cephalophus rufilatus), hippopotamus, crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) and Python. Other: Honey Species and areas valued globally identified as of high conservation value; IUCN threatened species or Cultural Existence value PNNK and buffer Zone threatened nationally. Benefits primarily accrue nationally & globally. Recreation and Cultural Recreational pleasure people PNNK and buffer zone ecotourism derive from ecosystems and the

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Category of Service Example Key Species or Habitats Ecosystem Service local economic benefits of these resources Aquatic Resource Use: Provisioning and Cultural Services Kong (Synodontis schall), Dolla (Labeo coubie), Carpes/Fouro (Tilapia guineensis, T. zilii), Food: wild caught Wild fish caught for subsistence Catfish, Kouna woule (Brinus nurse), Sardines Provisioning fish and commercial use. (Sardinella, Sardina), Kono kono (Clarias anguillaris), Saro, Warangue, and Nalla (Mormyrus hasselquestii) Cultural value placed on traditional Traditional Cultural practices such as use of fauna and Turtles practices their products for medicines. Regulating and Supporting Services Forested areas can provide shade Local air quality for shade-grown crops and local Regulating and climate cooling effects. Trees growing All larger tree species regulation along roadsides help to filter road dust. The role habitats play in providing breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other sources of vector borne disease; and of providing natural protection against the spread of disease. Disease Regulating Slow-moving or stagnant parts of Not applicable regulation the Gambia River and its tributaries could potentially provide breeding grounds for mosquitos. Vegetation cover increases the uptake of water and reduces the occurrence of standing water Predators such as bats, toads, and snakes from nearby forested Regulating Pest regulation No specific species noted areas, including the PNNK, are likely to consume some crop pests Vegetation such as grass and trees prevents soil loss due to Regulating Erosion control Not applicable wind and rain and prevents siltation of waterways Ecosystems play a role in transferring pollen from male to Regulating Pollination No specific species noted female flower parts, e.g. bees from PNNK pollinate village crops

Protection of Natural or semi-natural spaces 1) All habitats Supporting natural that maintain species populations ecosystems and protect the capacity of 2) Gambia River and its tributaries

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Category of Service Example Key Species or Habitats Ecosystem Service ecological communities to recover 3) PNNK from disturbances, e.g. 1) Native plant communities often provide pollinators with food and structure for reproduction 2) Rivers and estuaries provide nurseries for fish reproduction and juvenile development 3) Large natural areas and biological corridors allow animals to survive forest fires and other disturbances Flow of water through ecosystems Supporting Water cycling through rainfall, percolation, Gambia River and its tributaries, all habitats evaporation, transpiration etc

7.4.3 Water Resource Use The importance of water resources for livelihoods and cultural values is discussed in detail in Chapter 8.

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