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The British Experience of Warfare C1790-1918

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The British Experience of Warfare C1790-1918 The British experience of warfare, c1790–1918 3.2 Changes in the role of the people KEY QUESTIONS • How important was technical innovation in the successes of British armed forces during the years 1790–1918? • How far did the role of the civilian population in the war effort change during the years 1790– 1918? INTRODUCTION It has always been true that the side that advances its technology has the edge in war. This goes back to the first bronze weapons developed in the early city states in the Middle East and the first iron weapons of the Assyrians. The advance in shield design helped the Greeks and the Romans, while the Romans also benefited from improved designs of their infantry swords and javelins. However, technological advancement only yields an advantage when tactical improvements are also made. KEY TERM In some cases, technological superiority is not enough. During the Peninsula War, the superior Guerrilla weaponry of the French could do little to subjugate the elusive Spanish guerrillas. During An ‘irregular’ fighter on home the Vietnam War, the nature of the strategy employed by the Viet Cong also negated the vast territory against an occupying technological advantage enjoyed by the Americans. During the Second World War, the Nazis had army. The Peninsular War gave superiority in tank, aircraft, rocket and submarine design, but they could not withstand the numerical the world the Spanish term, and industrial advantage enjoyed by the allies. Only which means ‘little war’. HOW IMPORTANTProofs WAS TECHNICAL INNOVATION IN THE SUCCESSES OF BRITISH ARMED FORCES DURING THE YEARS 1790–1918?Purposes The Industrial Revolution: science and technology Britain was the first country in the world to go through an industrial revolution. It was caused by a mix of entrepreneurial spirit, innovation and the right social and political conditions. At first, the Unendorsedadvances were in the textiles industries in the north of England during the late 18th century, but these soonPlanning spread to iron production and engineering in the first few decades of the 19th century For(the first inter-city railway opened in 1830 between Manchester and Liverpool). The development of 1848 – The Dreyse needle gun first 1793 – Britain 1807 – Income tax introduced into declares war on levied to help pay for service with the France the wars with France Prussian army 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1806 – The first use of Congreve’s rockets 1854–56 – First use in combat by the British Army of the new rifled musket during the Crimean War Changes in the role of the people 3.2 new manufacturing machines stimulated advances in engineering and the use of stronger and more durable materials. The rise of the world’s first railway system stimulated British manufacturing to its peak, as cheaply made goods could be quickly transported to ports in order to export them. In 1860, over a quarter of the world’s manufacturing was done in Britain. KEY TERM For the armed forces, this meant that the possibility of keeping an edge over the enemy was improved. The Royal Navy had the latest steam engines and the development of the screw Screw propeller propeller by Ericsson and Smith kept British warships in the lead during the mid-19th century. From Several angled blades attached to a central hub that spins and the 1860s onwards, iron ships began to replace wooden ones and then, from the mid-1880s, steel moves water or air in order to ships began to replace iron ones. The improvements in steel production led by Sir Henry Bessemer propel a vehicle, such as a ship meant that Britain had an adequate supply to keep its shipyards busy during the naval arms race of or an aeroplane, forward. the first decade of the 20th century. Carronades and the navy in the 1790s Reforming the Royal Navy Under Lord Howe, Rear Admiral Middleton and Major-General Blomefield, the Royal Navy underwent major improvements following its poor performance in the American War of Independence (1776–83). Shipbuilding was maintained at wartime levels during the peace in the KEY TERMS 1780s and new ships were built and old ones repaired at record speed. Middleton was behind the initiative of coppering, which, despite its cost, improved the performance of Royal Navy vessels and Coppering meant that they were able to stay at sea for longer. Also known as copper sheathing, this was the practice The Royal Ordnance, led by Major-General Blomefield, improved the quality of naval guns. Under his of nailing copper sheets to the lead, Blomefield saw to it that every new naval gun had to be fired 30 times before being installed on hulls of ships to protect them a ship, in order to prove that it was soundly manufactured. Also, the firing mechanism was changed from attack by shipworm and with the more reliable flintlock firing mechanism. to slow down the growth of marine weeds, which would However, despite the influence of these individuals within the military establishment, perhaps Onlyaffect the speed and handling the most important advancement in naval warfare during this time was through the actions of a of the ship. private company. Flintlock Proofs A mechanism by which a The carronade piece of flint was struck against a piece of metal in First developed at the Carron ironworks in Falkirk during the 1770s, thePurposes carronade was a short order to produce a spark. This cannon that fired grapeshot at short range. Originally, it was designed for merchant vessels to give spark would then ignite the them something to fight back with. The rationale was that it was far easier to use than conventional gunpowder that would fire the naval guns and could be fired from the deck and so would not impinge on the merchantman’s weapon. carrying capacity. Having a shorter barrel but a wider muzzle gave the carronade a far broader angle of fire, meaning thatUnendorsed it would strike more of the target than a conventional cannon. It was also quick to reload, used very little gunpowderPlanning and was devastating when aimed at the deck of an enemy vessel. For 1859 – The 1866 – Defeat of the Austrians by development of the Prussians with breech-loading breech-loading rifled rifles and artillery 1905 – Launching artillery by George of the first HMS 1916 – Britain Armstrong Dreadnought introduces battleship conscription 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1864 – The first use of 1884 – Hiram Maxim 1915 – The the Gatling gun during invents the first self- beginning of the the American Civil War powered machine gun development of the tank 3.2 The British experience of warfare, c1790–1918 The navy was quick to see that the carronade would complement the Royal Navy’s favoured tactics of the day. It had been a traditional strength of Royal Navy ships to be more manoeuvrable than the enemy, which they would use to gain an advantageous position and then deliver a broadside at the enemy vessel. Usually this was achieved by ‘crossing the T’, a manoeuvre by which the attacking vessel would sail across the front of the enemy so that their broadside would rake down the length of the enemy ship. Having gained an advantage, the marines on the Royal Navy vessel would board and capture the enemy vessel. The carronade gave the British a great advantage during this close quarter fighting. Boarding an enemy ship was a risky affair. Swinging from your own ship or walking across a boarding plank was a hazardous undertaking. Well-placed defenders could cause serious casualties to a boarding party, while the boarders could not defend themselves. What the carronade gave the British was a weapon that could repeatedly fire devastating grapeshot across the deck of an enemy vessel and cut to pieces anybody who got in the way. Thus, the deck of the enemy vessel would be all but cleared of sailors and marines just before the boarding party came on board. It would take the enemy time to regroup, at which point the Royal Navy party would be on board their ship in numbers and be able to defend themselves. EXTEND YOUR KNOWLEDGE Artillery ammunition on land and at sea Muzzle-loading bronze cannons usually fired cannon balls. These were simple, solid steel balls that did damage just by striking enemy troops or structures. The alternative was to fire canister (sometimes known as grapeshot), which was a large tin can filled with scraps of metal. When the cannon was fired, the tin would split and the bits of metal would spray out from the mouth of the gun. Canister was devastating at short range. The British developed a shell, which had a timed fuse and was filled with musket balls, so that the advantages of canister could be used at longer ranges. The shell was designed by Major-General Henry Shrapnel. Naval guns, including the carronade, could also fire chain shot,Only which was two half balls joined together with a chain. When fired, the projectile would spin and would cause great damage to the sails and rigging of an enemy vessel. Proofs SOURCE From James, W. The Naval HistoryPurposes of Great Britain from the declaration of War by France in 1 1793 to the accession of George IV, published in 1836. KEY TERM Several captains complained of the carronade; some of its upsetting after being heated by successive discharges; others that, owing to its shortness, its fire scarcely passed clear of the ship’s side, and that Board of Ordnance its range was too confined to be useful. The captains of some of the 32-gun frigates, in particular, A government body responsibleUnendorsed representedPlanning that one pair of their quarterdeck carronades was so much in the way of the rigging, as to in overseeing the supply of endanger the laniards of the shrouds, and begged to have their established number reduced from six to equipment and ammunition to four.
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