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'reminding me in its name of… Thingvalla'

Investigating as Þingvöllr

D. D. MacDonald

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Cover illustration The Town of Dingwall by J. H. Clark, published 1824 Courtesy of Dingwall Museum Trust

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Contents

Cover Page 1 Acknowledgements 2 Contents 3 Preface 4

SECTION ONE: Where was the assembly place which gave Dingwall its name?

1.1 The name Dingwall 5 1.2 The supposed þing meeting place 7 1.3 The Search for Þingvöllr 10

SECTION TWO: The setting in which Þingvöllr lies

2.1 Þingvöllr in its environs 25 2.2 Dingwall in Ross 37

SECTION THREE: The Question –When did first settle in Ross?

3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Archaeology as Evidence 39 3.3 Norse place-names as Evidence 40 3.4 Annals as Evidence 51 3.5 The Icelandic Book of Settlements as Evidence 56 3.6 Orkneyinga as Evidence 65

SECTION FOUR: Concluding Summary

4.1 Concluding Summary 86

Appendix A : Ross: from the death of Thorfinn to 1226 97

Appendix B : Mackenzie Monument: Cromartie burial place 104

Bibliography 108 - 4 -

'Dingwall, the capital of Ross-shire reminding me in its name of the Icelandic capital Thingvalla…'

Robert Southey, Journal of a Tour in , 4th September 1819

In August 2012 The Council, Dingwall and Seaforth Ward, commissioned me to write a history-based investigative paper on Dingwall as Þingvöllr. The paper was envisaged to be one element of the Council’s participation in the international Project, an initiative of the European Northern Periphery Programme.

The THING project is a partnership based on the Thingsites that are the assembly sites spread across North West Europe as a result of the Viking diaspora and Norse settlements.

Partners in the Project Gulen Municipality, Thingvellir National Park, Amenity Trust, Scotland Department of Archaeology, College, Scotland , Scotland Kunningarstova, Tourist Information Centre,

The Thingsite on behalf of which The Highland Council entered the THING Project is the town of Dingwall, the place-name of which is derived from Þingvöllr, meaning parliament field. Nothing has been firmly known of Dingwall as a Thingsite beyond the place-name. This has led historians to refer to Dingwall’s role as a centre of Norse government in early medieval Northern Scotland as 'an enigma'.

One of the main demands of the THING Project is for 'more in-depth information about the Thingsites and their history'. This paper seeks to meet that demand in the case of Dingwall, as far as historical sources might allow.

The author was invited to conduct a historical search to confirm the location in Dingwall of the Norse Thingsite, to present an explanation of the concept of Nordic Things and to investigate the possible sources which might throw some light on the origin and history of the Dingwall Thingsite. Sources indicated to the author were local and national historical records; Norse-derived place-names in Ross; relevant archaeological knowledge; annalistic evidence; Icelandic saga, particularly Landnámabók (The Book of Settlements) and ; and relevant evidence from the history of Ross between about 1065 and 1226, the year Dingwall received the charter granted by Alexander II, King of Scots, giving Dingwall the status of a royal . From the sources investigated the author presents considerable detail to the reader.

A concluding summary acts both as a conclusion to the investigation and as an executive summary.

D D MacDonald, June 2013 - 5 -

INVESTIGATING DINGWALL AS ÞINGVÖLLR

SECTION ONE: Where was the assembly place which gave Dingwall its name?

1.1 The name Dingwall

The town of Dingwall in northern Scotland is located on the east coast of Highland, on the Inner , where it sits at the western end of the Firth. In 12261, by grant of his royal charter, Alexander II erected 'Dingwell in Ros' to be a possessing the same rights and privileges as the burgh of .2 Whilst 1226 marks the first entry of Dingwall into historical record, the place-name then recorded tells that the location of Dingwall had an earlier history as the meeting place of a þing (þ pronounced 'th')3, a Scandinavian open-air assembly or parliament; the place-name Dingwall derives from Old Norse Þingvöllr, the meeting field, or plain, on which a þing had met.

When in 1791 the erudite Rev. Daniel Rose, submitted his account of his parish of Dingwall for inclusion in the Statistical Account of Scotland, he had no awareness of the Scandinavian origin of the name of his parish.

The name was formerly Dingnaval or Dingnavallis, and took its origin from the richness and fertility of the soil of the lower grounds, which form a considerable part of the parish.

Rose’s Dingnavallis appears to be a Latinate guess, in which vallis would appropriately mean valley, but the meaning of dingna is untraceable unless it should be a miswriting of digna, meritorious or worthy. Rose might have had in mind Dignavallis, productive valley, as explanation of the Dingwall place-name. Eighteen years later a visitor to Dingwall made a much better informed comment.

In early September 1819 the poet Robert Southey accompanied Thomas Telford on a tour of the roads and bridges constructed in the Highlands under the supervision of the great engineer. On September 4th the travellers arrived in Dingwall for an overnight stop and that evening, before slumber on a hard bed in Mrs Ross’s Head Inn, Southey penned in his journal intelligent, but unflattering, thoughts on the town.

Dingwall, the capital of Ross-shire (reminding me in its name of the Icelandic capital Thingvalla) is a vile place…. There is a ridiculous obelisk opposite the .4

1 The charter is dated February 1226. At that time the first day of March was the first day of a new year. 2 Granted in 1179 or 1180 by King William the . 3 'þ' is , the letter of the Old Norse alphabet representing the 'th' sound. 4 Southey, R., Journal of a Tour in Scotland, (, 1929), p.118 - 6 -

Southey’s perception that the place-names Dingwall and Thingvalla probably shared a common Scandinavian origin as Thingsites was a revelation. The fact that Dingwall and Thingvalla shared the same origin in Þingvöllr, the level field on which a þing, a Scandinavian parliament, had met, had been long-lost in the mists of time.

Gaelic speakers seem never to have applied the name Dingwall to the place. To them it has been, and yet is, Inbhirphefeoran, a Gaelic place-name of two elements, inbhir, mouth or estuary, and phefeoran, of the Peffeoran. In origin Peffeoran5 is Pictish and means the River Peffer – the clear, fair, or pure river. It was at the mouth of that river, now known as the Peffery, on its south bank, that the medieval burgh of Dingwall was established in 1226. The award to the burgh of the name Dingwall ensured the certain survival of that Norse place- name. Thenceforward Dingwall was the name of the legal community which was the royal burgh. If Dingwall had not been erected and recorded a royal burgh as early as 1226 the place in time almost certainly would have experienced its Gaelic name adapted into English. Inbhirphefeoran is likely to have become Inverpeffer, Innerpeffer, or Peffermouth.

What were þings? In the , throughout all and where Norsemen settled in the islands of the North Atlantic, including the , the þing was the basic unit of government. The free men of a particular area gathered at a þing-site to discuss and reach decisions on affairs of justice and government and to settle disputes. Weapons were not allowed to be carried on to the þing-site, which was hallowed ground. Before a þing session began all weapons were laid aside, or were rendered temporarily unusable by being secured with frið-bönd, peace straps. Vápnatak, the re-taking up of weapons, marked the session’s close. It was understood that at þing meetings one freeman’s opinion was as valid as that of any other freeman, but in reality the þing was likely to be dominated by the influential heads of clans and of wealthy families. At the heart of the þing was a court, or council, a closed body of appointed þing- men. All freemen who attended the þing assembly were entitled to petition that court and to view and listen to its proceedings. Hence immediately beside the court’s fenced meeting place there was an area for attending freemen to observe the court in progress and to hear proclamation of decisions reached. Laws decided upon were not written down, but were recited from memory by the lögmaðr or lagh-mann6, the law-man, who presided over the business of the þing, often with the dominant chieftain, or king, at his side.

A þing met in the open air on a designated field or meadow, practically always at a place judged to be central to, and most easily accessible from, the settlements it served. Þing-sites were often located adjacent either to a point where routes met, by a ford river crossing, or by a berthing place for ships on the seashore or bank of a navigable river. Þings met at regular intervals, major pings at midsummer and lesser pings twice a year, in spring and in the autumn. Where people gathered at known regular intervals, the exchange of produce, goods and services, as well as festivities of social intercourse, inevitably took place. Gatherings of people attracted both traders and entertainers. Gatherings resulted in fairs.

5 The -an/-on, river, ending is common to many rivers, names of which are Pictish in origin. In eastern Ross there are the rivers Carron, Averon, Conon and in the Crossan at and the River Carron (Strathcarron, ) 6 The Scottish surname Lamont derives from lagh-mann . - 7 -

Þingvöllr – the Parliament Field The place-name Þingvöllr is indicative of a þing-site of a specific topography. In Old Norse völlr conveys the meaning of a fairly extensive, grassy, level, field or plain. A location awarded the Þingvöllr place-name was pre-eminently the meeting field of a judicial and legislative court, but was more than that alone. Þingvöllr would have had meadowland close at hand for the grazing of the horses of those who had ridden to attend the þing. Since a þing met over several days, temporary living-quarters, booths or tented huts, were erected close to the site of the court. Also nearby would have been the 'fairground', on which social and economic activities, inevitable companions of the þing gathering, took place - public entertainments, sporting challenges, exchange of produce, goods and services. In consequence Þingvöllr would have embraced a grazing field, a camp field, a market field, a fair field and a playing field. Agrarian maintenance of the þing-site was required to ensure its readiness to accommodate the þing gathering; Þingvöllr was therefore a level grassy area within a farmed estate. Drinking water , an essential of life both for people and for horses, had to have been conveniently accessible, as would have been sources of fuel, firewood or peat, for the cooking of food, for personal warmth and for keeping alight the focal fires of social intercourse.

Although þingvöllr locations by their very name were level fields, an eminence which served as an open-air stage for the court was present on some, but not on all, þingvöllr sites. Termed either lög-berg (law hill or law rock), þing-brekka (þing brink), or þing-haugr (þing mound), such a vantage point was of no great height, generally a natural hillock or a prehistoric burial mound.

From such law-hills the law-man recited and proclaimed law and at these law-hills legal cases were initiated, judgements pronounced and petitions made. The raised height of law-hills enhanced the visibility of the þing-men who comprised the þing court and emphasised their authority and status. Some þingvöllr sites, but again not all, featured another eminence, usually higher and natural, a gallows hill, Old Norse galgeberg7. If such was present, it invariably was located a distance away, yet within sight of the assembly place.

Following Scandinavian conversion to Christianity the authority of þing-sites, and of the decisions taken at them, was purposely enhanced by the Church’s public stamp of approval. Therefore a church was erected at many þingvöllr locations in close proximity to the meeting place of the þing court, possibly on a site where rituals of an older religion had been celebrated.

1.2 The supposed þing meeting place

Robert Bain, a Dingwall master shoemaker and antiquarian enthusiast, in his book 'History of the Ancient Province of Ross' published in 1899, claimed identification of the site of the þingvöllr which had given Dingwall its name. Thereafter throughout the 20th century the site for which he made that claim was accepted as the location both of the þingvöllr and of a claimed moothill of Dingwall. He stated that 'the actual meeting place of the thing' was at 'the west end' of Dingwall.

7 In Norway there are several examples of the place-name Galgeberg, Gallows Hill,. In the the best known Galgeberg, stood a little outside the town of Oslo. - 8 -

The historic hill itself is situated at the west end of Dingwall, and, we are sorry to say, has lately, to its great disfigurement, been in the hands of the Vandals; the profits arising from its use as a gravel pit outweighing every other consideration whatsoever.8

The accusation of vandalism of archaeology identifies the site described as that of a quarry for gravel extraction, which the Tulloch Estate in 1892 had opened on the northeast face of Gallowhill, immediately west of Mill Street. Bain’s memory of the physical features of this site inspired him to make romantic allusion to the Victorian 'mother of parliaments' at Westminster.

The platform on which, as on all similar erections, the Commons of those days stood while stating grievances and granting supplies, extended along its front for more than a hundred yards, by about thirty broad – much defaced, however, during quite recent times, while at the greater elevation there used to be the traces of the seats occupied by officials, and from which, possibly, they arose to explain the details of the budget!9

He had developed his apparently positive identification consequent to his interpretation of historical documentary evidence of the existence of a moothill of Dingwall. Bain wrote:-

In 1487 James Stewart, second son of James III, was created … he resigned the Dukedom of Ross into the hands of the King, reserving for life the Thingvallr, or Mote Hill of Dingwall, for the of Duke10….

In 1923 Norman Macrae, a Dingwall journalist and publisher, in his book 'Dingwall’s Thousand Years, The Romance of a Royal Burgh', repeated and expanded Bain’s claim for the west end location of Þingvöllr. Macrae described the location of 'thing –vollr ' as near 'the old Norse Gallow’s Hill', which he described as 'the terminus of a prehistoric glacier', the location being natural and precipitously steep. He continued:-

This Greenhill …… till as late as twenty years ago, showed distinct traces of the seats or benches of the Norse Court… These seats were formed, in semi-circular fashion, by terracing the face of the hill after a hollowed part had been scooped out for this purpose.11

Whilst the concept of stepped seating has overtones of the terraced Manx Tynwald12 Hill, the same cannot be said of the fifty feet height of the hill-face of Gallowhill. The Hill of the is an earthen mound of only twelve feet in height. There are serious reasons for throwing doubt on Macrae’s detailed description of the style in which the described 'seating' had been constructed into the hill face. Whereas Bain in 1899 had merely stated 'there used to be the traces of the seats', Macrae in 1923 was decidedly more positive. He claimed that as late as 1903 there had been 'distinct traces of the seats'. However, the 1881

8 Bain, R., History of the Ancient Province of Ross (Dingwall, 1899), p45 9 ibid, p.45 10 ibid, p.103 11 Macrae, N., The Romance of a Royal Burgh: Dingwall’s Story of a Thousand Years, (Dingwall, 1923), p.5 12 This is a name derived, similarly to Dingwall, from þingvöllr. - 9 -

Ordnance Survey map of Dingwall does not identify that hillside as a site engineered in antiquity. Macrae’s expanded description of the site which Bain had claimed as Þingvöllr appears to be an example of journalistic romanticism.

It has to be doubted that the site on the face of Gallowhill, 'vandalised' by gravel extraction, could ever have been Dingwall’s Norse law-hill. Bain it seems had misconceived the meaning of þingvöllr as hill of the þing rather than level field of the þing. Gallowhill as the claimed location for Þingvöllr is backed by no evidential source, neither historical nor archaeological. Indeed the Scandinavian derivation of the Dingwall place-name had not been recognised until Southey’s comment in 1819 that Dingwall in its name reminded him of Thingvalla in Iceland. Although in 1892 the minute books of Dingwall Town Council and the pages of 'The Ross-shire Journal' record complaints about quarrying at the site, these complaints were made in objection to disturbance of their peace by neighbouring householders. None made reference to the site as being of archaeological or historical significance.

Bain had judged Þingvöllr to be the same site as a moothill of Dingwall. He had conceived these to be one and the same - 'Thingvallr, or Mote Hill of Dingwall'.13 In burgh valuation rolls of the later 19th century the site of the quarry is recorded simply as 'the Hill', but when that site had been feued by the burgh to the Tulloch Estate in 1828 it was described in the feu charter as 'the piece of waste land called the Gallow Hill'. It is possible that Robert Bain somehow had come to understand 'the Hill' as 'the Hill of Dingwall' - that is 'the Moothill of Dingwall'. Historically however 'the Hill' entered in the valuation rolls was not 'the Moothill of Dingwall'; it was merely a piece of ground at Gallowhill.

The platform of land, as was referred to by Bain, extends a hundred yards along the foot of the face of Gallowhill immediately west of Mill Street. On a plan of 183214 that stretch of ground is named as Gallaber Mary Fens, an error for Gallaber Mary Feus [figure 1]. Long before that land was subdivided into feu plots for housing in 1805, the same piece of ground is recorded in a charter of 1603 as Gallibber15. In burgh sasines it is variously, but similarly, named - Gallowber of Gallowhill (1684), Gallober (1699), Gallabir (1729), Galloper (1742), and Galliper (1805). Similar place-names survive in northwest and southwest Scotland, areas known to have experienced Hebridean-Norse settlement sometime before 900. Gallaberry and Gallaber are found near Tinwald in , . In Cumbria, Gallaberry appears twice and other similar place-names are also evident - Galliber near Kirkby Thore, Galloperpool near Kirkby in Furness, Gallober Lane in Kirkby Lonsdale . In each of those examples Gallaber in its various spelling forms derives from Old Norse galgeberg, and means gallow-hill. It can safely be concluded that Gallowhill at Dingwall is indeed 'the old Norse Gallow’s Hill'16 and that Dingwall certainly had been a centre of Norse justice. It cannot be concluded however that the Gallaber place-name at Dingwall had been introduced by Hebridean Norse settlers in the late . Old Norse Galgeberg place- names appear throughout Scandinavia.

13 Bain, R., History of the Ancient Province of Ross, (Dingwall, 1899), p103 14 Martin, Planned Boundaries of the parliamentary burgh of Dingwall, 1832 Reform Bill. 15 NAS RH1/2/591/1 16 Macrae, N., The Romance of a Royal Burgh: Dingwall’s Story of a Thousand Years, (Dingwall, 1923), p.7 - 10 -

It was extremely rare for a site of execution to have been incorporated within an early medieval place of assembly; to meet in the close vicinity of putrefying corpses was not an attractive proposition. It was not unusual, however, for places of assembly and their associated execution sites to have co-existed, a distance apart, yet visible, from each other. It is most likely that the meeting place of the Norse court at Dingwall had been located a little distance from galgeberg, the gallow hill, on which the miscreants condemned to death by the court had been hanged. North →

Figure 1. Extracted from Martin’s Plan of the Parliamentary Burgh of Dingwall 1832, showing housing plots on Mill Street below Gallowhill. Gallaber Mary Fens should read Gallaber Mary Feus.

1.3 The search for Þingvöllr

Medieval burgh and Þingvöllr Given that völlr bore the meaning of level field and that the burgh founded in 1226 bore the name Dingwall, it is logical to conclude that Þingvöllr had been located on the level floor of the valley probably close to, or even on, the site of the later burgh. The low lying medieval burgh of Dingwall was very small, consisting of one short street with burghal plots running back from it. The street of the burgh extended westwards from a market place, following a low ridge of dry land along the valley floor. Approximately a third of a mile northeast of the market place and stood a protective castle by the mouth of the little River Peffery.

The church of the burgh of Dingwall, unlike those of the royal of Moray, is not located on a site integral to the original main street of the burgh, but lies a distance to its north, effectively occupying a position outwith the medieval built burgh. The way to the church was not developed as a residential street until 178517. Previous to that date the Kirk Street building plots, represented on Aitken’s 1789 plan of Dingwall [figure 2], had been open arable rigs, property of the burgh. The fact of this historically open space between the north side of the burgh and the church suggests that the ecclesiastical site predates the founding of the burgh. The possibility arises that the area between the church and the built burgh could have been purposely reserved in 1226, when the burgh was founded. If so, that purpose might have been to allow for continuation of the practice of medieval assembly, perhaps on a field, which earlier had been Þingvöllr.

17 Minute of Dingwall Town Council, 14 September 1785 - 11 -

Figure 2

© Dingwall Museum Trust

Figure 2. Extract from David Aitken’s 1789 Plan of the Tulloch Burgh Lands. On the left is marked the Spire (Cromartie Monument) and to its north the old parish kirk. This plan provides the only existing illustration of the site of (at the north end of Castle Street) previous to its demolition in 1817.

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Figure 3

Figure 3. Plan of the Town of Dingwall, surveyed by John Wood in 1821.

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The historic plans of Dingwall surveyed by David Aitken in 1789 and John Wood in 1821 [figures 2 and 3] represent an enclosed mound lying to the south of the churchyard. The mound is shown surmounted by a 'spire', the ' of Cromartie’s Monument,' which in 1819 Robert Southey referred to as 'a ridiculous obelisk opposite the Kirk'. Given that churches had featured on numerous þing-sites and that mounds also had featured on some, the possibility that the Dingwall Þingvöllr had occupied the level ground lying to the north of the later burgh and to the south of the church is considerably strengthened. In consequence the site of the parish church of Dingwall and, adjacent to it, the enclosure containing the mound, the burial place of the first Earl of Cromartie (d.1714), are worthy of deeper historical investigation.

The church of Dingwall The parish church of Dingwall, now St Clement’s Parish Church, sits within its historic churchyard on the south bank of the River Peffery close to the point where the river ceases to be tidal. A typical location for a þing-site was at, or close to, a landing place or river crossing.

It is readily demonstrable that the Dingwall church sits close to a historical landing place on the tidal river. Aitken’s plan of 1789 illustrates a little to the northeast of the churchyard a 'Landing Place for Boats from 7 to 8 tons in ordinary tides'. A burgh council minute18 of 1777 makes a firm retrospective comment that 'it has been customary in this place past all Memory to purchase Grey Fish from Boats coming to the Castle or behind the Church of Ding’ll…' Those two traditional landing places, at the Castle and behind the church, were replicated in construction of the (1815-17) as harbour basins with wharves, the upper of which is illustrated on Wood’s plan.

Demonstration of whether or not there had been a crossing point on the Peffery behind the Church many centuries ago involves a greater degree of historical investigation. Although a bridged crossing of the Peffery is documented as early as 145119, the location of that bridge20 was upstream, a half mile from the church. Through the centuries that crossing of the river bore the name Robert’s Bridge, it having been constructed at the behest of Robert of Foulis, who died in 1439. It was not until 1787 however that a bridge of stone was constructed downstream at the back of the Church21. This bridge was erected under the supervision of the Tulloch Estate factor, Patrick Reid. He was known to townsmen as Peter and the new bridge came to be dubbed Peter’s Bridge. Aitken’s plan of 1789 records 'Mr Reid’s Bridge'; on Wood’s plan of 1821 it is 'Peter’s Bridge'. The burgh long had felt a want for such a bridge at the back of the Church.

In 1691 the town council of Dingwall reported to the Convention of Royal Burghs.

The said burgh, hes no… bridge nor are they able to build any… The… burgh… will not get credit, ther being no visible way how creditors could be payed.22

18 Minute of Dingwall Town Council, 7 February 1777 19 Fraser, W., The of Cromartie, (, 1876) vol. II, pp.325-6, doc.528, 4 October 1451 20 ibid, pp.325-6 21 Minute of Dingwall Town Council, 2 October 1787 22 Register containeing The State and Condition of every Burgh within the Kingdome of Scotland in the year 1692, Scottish Burgh records Society Miscellany: 1881, pp.492-494. Acts of Parliament vol. 8, 1670-86, p.363 - 14 -

Land charter records, supported by the minute book of the Dingwall Kirk Session, indicate that the desire expressed in 1691 for the building of a bridge had not been a new ambition, but rather a long held wish to replace a lost historic bridge. A charter of 1699 revealingly has reference to a piece of land 'lying upon the north side of the Kirk of Dingll opposite the old bridge yroff'”23. Another of 168424 tells that 'the way leading from Kinnairdie' had extended 'to the bridge of Dingwall'. A kirk session minute25 of 1674 informs that sixteen years earlier, in 1658, 'the town of Dingwall… had great need of a bridge' and that the minister had been consulted in preparation for 'masons to sight the place'. In 1652 yet another land record has mention of haugh lands north of the river 'lying beyond the Bridge of Dingwall'.26 Collectively these records would indicate that sometime no later than 1658 an ancient Bridge of Dingwall had experienced catastrophic failure27. A burgh sasine of 1720 has record of 'the Blackhorse Foord', placing it well downstream of Robert’s Bridge. Even in the absence of a Bridge of Dingwall the river had yet been fordable. The historic origins of a Bridge of Dingwall over what had been a fording point near the back of the Church stretch back into the medieval era. At that lowest crossing point, where the tidal river ceased to be navigable, natural topography provided one of the only two solid landing places on the south shore of the muddy estuary.

The historic parish church of Dingwall today bears the name of St Clement’s. That name, not unnaturally, has prompted speculation that the origin of its apparent dedication might date back into Dingwall’s Viking past. The great majority of church dedications to St Clement in Scandinavia and in England date back to the 11th century, when his cult had popularity.28 The dedication of the pre- parish church of Dingwall was not however to St Clement, but to St Mary, the Blessed Virgin, as is confirmed in a charter of 1547 in its reference to land 'called Cruke, lying east of the church of St Mary of Dingwall'.29 Unsurprisingly perhaps, the former dedication of the church of Dingwall to St Mary the Blessed Virgin consequent to the Scottish Calvinistic Reformation became unused and forgotten.

Within the kirkyard, northwest of the present church, lies a finely inscribed recumbent grave- stone of the early [figure 4]. The inscription in is barely decipherable but an English translation was recorded in the 19th century.

Here lie in sanctuary Paris and Patrick Kemp, wife and son of William Kemp, founder of St Clements chapel in 1529 AD. Sir Thomas Kemp caused me to be made AD 1531.

23 NAS B14/1/1/47 24 NAS B14/1/1/15 25 Minute of the Kirk Session of Dingwall, 29 August 1674 26 Register of the Great , vol. 10, 1652-59, p.9, No.16, 16 August 12 1652 27 Timber decay caused the bridge over the River Ness to collapse in 1674. With financial assistance from Parliament the burgh of Inverness was furnished with a stone replacement – great timber being scarce in the Kingdom. 28 St Clement was the second bishop of Rome, successor to St Peter. Bound to an anchor Pope Clement met martyrdom on the tidal shore of the Black Sea. Scandinavian merchant traders, who had ventured the rivers of Russia to reach the Black Sea and the trading riches of Constantinople, adopted Clement as their protective patron saint and introduced the cult of St Clement to Scandinavia. 29 NAS GD93/58 - 15 -

A charter of 1526, to which the seal of William Kemp 'one of the bailies of Dingwall' is appended was witnessed by Patrick Kemp30. Clearly it had been William Kemp, bailie of Dingwall and father of Patrick, who in 1529 had erected a chapel dedicated to St Clement.

©Jonathan McColl Figure 4. Kemp Stone in parish kirkyard.

A ruinous building annotated as 'Remains of St Clement’s Aisle' appears on the 1881 Ordnance Survey map lying within the parish kirkyard and north of the present church. That building lies to the immediate north of the site of the pre-Reformation parish church demolished in 1801 and represented on the map by a cross. The chapel of 1529, built attached to the north wall of the church of St Mary, parish church of Dingwall,31 had been appropriated after the Reformation for use as an aisle, an enclosed burial place. In 1662 Kenneth Mackenzie of Scatwell, second son of Sir Rorie Mackenzie, Tutor of ,32was reported as having been interred 'in St Clemens Chappell in Dinguall'.33 In 1929 the Union of the Established with the United Free Church of Scotland prompted the Kirk Session of the now formerly parish church of Dingwall to adopt the name St Clement’s in reflection of the ruinous early 16th century chapel, or aisle, in the kirkyard.

A church at Dingwall, however, probably can be dated back in time to the 12th century. It seems that before establishment of the diocese and parishes of Ross by David I in the later , the church of Dingwall had been granted to the priory of Urquhart, which David had founded in Moray c.1135 as a cell and dependency of the abbey of . It was not until the final years of the 15th century that the church of Dingwall was transferred to the bishop of Ross.

30 NAS GD93/47 31 In 1516 James V granted Sir Thomas Kemp succession to the chaplainry of St Lawrence in the Castle of Dingwall. Reg. Sec. Sig., vol. v. ff. 70, 71. Cf. Origines Parochiales, vol. ii, p.484. A burghal altar dedicated to St Clement was erected in the early 16th century in the parish church of St Mary at Haddington, where Patrick was a recurring name amongst the Kemp families of East . 32 Sir Rorie is progenitor of the line of Cromartie Mackenzies. 33 The Wardlaw Manuscript, Chronicles of the Frasers, ed. William Mackay - Scottish History Society (1905), p.447 - 16 -

The Cromartie Enclosure The greater part of the Cromartie enclosure is today a town centre car park [figure 5]. At the car park’s centre, retained within a circular wall, is a raised memorial garden which surrounds an obelisk.

© Oliver J. T O’Grady

Figure 5. Cromartie Car Park under survey, February 2012.

The car park was developed in the later 1940s by Dingwall town council after Roderick, Viscount , heir to the Cromartie Estates, had feued to the burgh the enclosure described as 'that piece of ground… forming a mound with the monument thereon being the Cromartie Memorial all known as the Pyramid'. The feu contract detailed several conditions, chiefly that the ground 'be used and kept as an open space in all time coming', that the 'said ground may be used as a parking stance for motor cars' and that the council 'erect and thereafter maintain a retaining wall to surround the Cromartie Memorial'. To provide for car parking the mound outwith the newly created central retaining wall was substantially levelled.

A tradition that the mound was the creation of the first Earl was recorded in 1923 by Donald MacDonald, architect and Dingwall burgh surveyor. The earth forming the mound is traditionally said to have been brought in creels on women’s backs from his estates in Ross, which were formed into the County of Cromarty.34 Similar traditions of quantities of earth having been brought from distances to create a mound in apparent acknowledgement of legal obligation are associated with the Manx Tynwald Hill and also with the Moothill of Scone on which kings of Scots had been installed.

Photographs dating from the earliest years of the 20th century illustrate within the Pyramid Ground the remarkable tall obelisk referred to by Southey and the extensive earthen mound on which it stood.

34 Macdonald, D., The Book of Ross, 1923, p.79 - 17 -

Courtesy Dingwall Museum Trust

Figure 6. The Pyramid Ground about 1900.

Described on one photograph as Dingwall’s 'Leaning Tower' [figure 6], the monument, deemed dangerous, was demolished in March 1916 and was rebuilt to a lesser height in 1923. A plaque, placed on its south side, informs that George, first Earl of Cromartie had died in his 84th year at Tarbat House on the 27th of August 1714 and had been buried eight days later on the 3rd of September 'in the ground 6 feet 5 inches southward hereof'. Such a precise detailing of the specific location of the Earl’s mortal remains had been made possible by investigative excavation of the mound in 1875. There had been no inscription on the original monument and in 1875, on behalf of his wife, the Countess of Cromartie, the Duke of instigated excavations close to the foot of the monument with the intention of ascertaining whether or not the first Earl had indeed been interred within the earth of the mound. Five coffins were unearth ed. One of those was lead-lined and inscribed G.E.C. 1714. The coffin contained the skeleton of a male possessed of an unusually large head, a male who in life would have been over six feet tall. The initials, year of death, and physical dimensions are those of George first Earl of Cromartie [figures 7a and 7b].

Figure 7a. Sketch of coffin lid of George Earl of Cromartie - 18 -

Figure 7b.

Figures 7a and 7b. Sketches from excavation of Cromartie burial place in 1875 and coffin lid, as contained in The Earls of Cromartie, William Fraser, 1876.

The burial place of the first Earl of Cromartie was known as the 'Pyramid Inclosure 'at least as early as 1814.35 The same enclosure is named differently however in a burgh sasine of 1818, in which it is represented in two forms, 'the Yard Hill' and 'the Hill Yard'. The document significantly refers to 'the Yard Hill' as 'now the burial place of George Earl of Cromarty'. Use of 'now' in this instance implies that the burial place of the first Earl of Cromartie had been known as the Yard Hill or Hill Yard for a considerable period of time previous to the Earl’s interment. It would seem therefore that the Hill had not been created on the instruction of the first Earl. The same sasine informs that tidal water had reached the southern boundary of 'the Hill Yard' by way of 'the Stripe or Fludder into which the Sea enters'.36

On Aitken’s 1789 plan the road linking Church Street to Peter’s Bridge is shown as running between the churchyard and the northern side of the Hill Yard [figure 2]. That road had been constructed only recently. In a letter to Dingwall town council dated 1787 Mr Davidson of Tulloch wrote that he and his factor had 'been at some pains in making the Road round the

35 NAS B14/1/4/5 36 NAS B14/1/4 /48 Stripe: ditch, or stream. Fludder: marsh, or high tide, cf. Shetland Norn fløda, high water. - 19 -

37 Church Yard… so as to afford a safe and easy passage to the Bridge.' The churchyard wall was rebuilt in 1790 and on the plan of the town as surveyed by Wood in 1821 the road approaches the bridge by following the straight lines of that new wall. An earlier plan of 176338 represents a road or track leading north from the town to the same, but then unbridged, crossing point on the river. Instead of running between the church and the Hill Yard the line of that road lies along the south side of the location of the Hill Yard. It would appear that previous to 1787 the Hill Yard and the kirkyard had been contiguous.

On his 'Tours of Scotland' of 1760 Richard Pococke, Church of Bishop of Ossory, visited Dingwall and noted that – To the South of the Church is a stone enclosure in ruins but fenced with a Ditch which is the burial place of the family of Cromartie: There is a handsome Obelisk erected in it of hewn Stone; the pedestal is about twelve feet high and six square; and the Obelisk on it crowned with a Cross without the apex, may be about 30 feet long.39

Charles Cordiner in 1780 additionally reported that Bishop Pococke had stopped at Dingwall and said… 'the situation of it brought Jerusalem to his remembrance; and he pointed out the hill which resembled Calvary'.40 Calvary, Christ’s place of crucifixion, had been a small mound at the gate of Jerusalem. Tradition, particularly Irish tradition, held that Calvary had taken the form of a three stepped mound. Pococke’s reported remark might have been made in allusion to the stepped shaped cross-bases of early medieval Irish High Crosses found at Calvary in Ireland.41 The comment is the one and only reference possibly suggestive of the mound in the Hill Yard having been tiered in a similar manner to the Manx Tynwald Hill.

John Bayne, minister of Dingwall, in 1718 referred to a 'ditch or sink' which 'wants a bridge' 'betwixt the church and the glebe'42. He apparently had identified as his glebe a property of the previous incumbent, the Trinity Croft43, which lay immediately southwest of the kirkyard and immediately west of the Hill Yard. The 'ditch or sink' might have been a section of the vallum of the medieval kirkyard, but it is equally possible that it had been part of a more complex system of ditching, embracing both kirkyard and Hill Yard.

Among the Cromartie Muniments, now in the care of the National Archives of Scotland, a document of disposition, dated 13th February 167244, is particularly informative:- Mr Donald Mcleane merch burges of dinguall … dispones… all and haill that my yaird com’only called the hillyard lyand wtin the territories off the bruch of Dinguall … boundit betwixt the yaird sometime of Donald Macgillichoan att the south, the com’on slaik att the eist, the co’on Calsay that leades to the church yaird of dingll att the west, and the said Churchyaird att the north pairtes …

37 Minute of Dingwall Town Council, 2 October 1787 38 David Aitken, Plan of the Estate of Tulloch, 1763. NAS RHP 1473 39 Richard Pococke, Tours in Scotland, Scottish History Society 1887, p.109, Letter by Pococke, 18 June 1760 40 Charles Cordiner, Antiquities and Scenery of the North of Scotland 1780, p.64 41 O’Grady, O. J. T., The Setting and Practice of Open-air Judicial Assemblies in Medieval Scotland: a Multidisciplinary Study, Ph. D thesis, University of (2008), 4.3.3.1, p.196 42 Minute Book of the Presbytery of Dingwall, 18 February 1718 43 Today the Tesco fuel station and upper part of the superstore’s car park. 44 NAS GD305/1/45(e) - 20 -

The document confirms that in the late 17th century the name hillyard had applied to the future burial place of the first Earl of Cromartie. The hill enclosure, and the hill within, could not have been created by George, Earl of Cromartie as later tradition claimed. The hillyard is described as bounded by the kirkyard at its north, a confirmation of the then contiguity of hillyard and kirkyard.

On the backing of the folded document of disposition, as title on the cover, there is the clearest of notifications that in the late 17th century the hillyard was known to be, or to contain, the moothill of Dingwall. That title reads:- Donald Mclean’s disposition of ye mute hill of Dingll to Tarbatt.

Tarbatt was Sir George MacKenzie, Viscount Tarbat. He in 1703 was created first Earl of Cromartie. On his death in 1714 he was buried in ye mute hill of Dingll [the moothill of Dingwall] contained within the hillyard.

The Moothill of Dingwall The Moothill of Dingwall figures prominently in an early 16th century document. In 1503 James, Duke of Ross, Marquis of Ormond and Earl of Ardmeanach resigned to his elder brother, King James IV, all of the lands of the earldom of Ross except individual properties which he retained to justify his holding of specific noble titles. No copy of the charter of resignation exists in crown records, but a true transcription of the original is contained in the 'Additional Sutherland Case'45. In order to keep his noble titles, James, Duke of Ross, retained for his lifetime a superiority either of the messuage (the main and legal residence) or the moothill (the law-hill} of the specific landed property on which each of his noble titles was based. Hence to retain the title of Marquis of Ormond he retained for life the moothill of . To retain the title Earl of Ardmeanach he retained for life the castle of Redcastle. To retain his principal title of Duke of Ross he retained for life the moothill of Dingwall.

In relevance to the moothill of Dingwall the charter reads:- Reservato, ad vitam,…montem de Dingwall, juxta villam ejusdem, pro nomine dignitatis ducatus. In translation:- I reserve, for life,…the moothill of Dingwall, right beside that town, for the name of dignity Duke. The location of the moothill of Dingwall is described as beside the town, not within the town.

It was in reference to knowledge of this charter that Robert Bain in 1899 drew his doubly wrong conclusion that the face of Gallowhill was the location both for Þingvöllr and for the moothill of Dingwall. However, his thought that 'Thingvallr and Mote Hill of Dingwall' were one and the same should not be thought of as unreasonable. Professor J R Watson in 1904 commented similarly in his ground-breaking work, 'Place-names of '. Watson admitted that he did not know the precise location of the moothill of Dingwall beyond that the charter of 1503 stated that it was 'beside the town'.

45 The additional case of Elisabeth, claiming the title and dignity of Countess of Sutherland, by her guardians, (London, 1770) - 21 -

A mound, supposed to have been the actual meeting place of the Thing, is referred to about 1503, when James, Duke of Ross, resigned the earldom, and reserved to himself for life the moothill [montem] of Dingwall beside the town, in order to preserve his title of Duke. 46

In England moot, and in Scotland mute, signify an open-air legal assembly. Both moot and mute equate with Scandinavian þing. Logic suggests that the mutehill, or moothill, of Dingwall is likely to have been the þing-haugr (þing-mound), or lög-berg (law-hill) of Þingvöllr. Time and culture separate þing and mute, not function. Through time the culture in Ross which had been Norse gave way to Gaelic, and Gaelic through time gave way to English. Time is of the essence and the year 1503, the year of earliest existing documentation of the moothill of Dingwall, is separated from Viking Ross by more than four centuries.

The medieval assembly place The same property, the hillyard, now shown to be the Moothill of Dingwall, is featured in a document of 1591.47 It was one item amongst chaplainry lands in the burgh of Dingwall, the superiority of which the crown in 1591 granted to Ronald Bayne, the burgh’s commissioner to parliament. In that royal charter of demission the Hilyaird is described as the yard, or enclosure, pertaining to the Trinitie- [figure 8].48 The Trinity Croft is indicated on the Ordnance Survey of 1881 as Trinity, a field to the immediate west of both Church Street and the parish churchyard. It lay beside the Cromartie burial enclosure, the Hilyaird of old, separated from it only by the roadway of Church Street. The royal charter’s legal attachment of the Trinity Croft to the Hillyard conveys a clear hint that historically the two had been components of a single entity.

Courtesy Dingwall Museum Trust

Figure 8. Corn stacks on the Trinity Croft in the 1880s.

46 Watson, W. J., Place-names of Ross and Cromarty, (Inverness, 1904), p.93 47 NAS GD1/436/2 Ross-shire Writs. The charter is contained within papers of Hugh Innes Cameron, provost of the burgh of Dingwall 1833-40 and 1842-47. This suggests that the charter had been issued to Ronald Bayne to be accepted on the burgh’s behalf. 48 croftam lie Trinitie-croft cum ejus horto lie Hilyaird. - 22 -

No medieval moothill could fulfil its function without an adjacent open area, a field on which the people would have congregated, ready as individuals to advance pleas to the court and, as a gathering to receive judicial and legislative decisions when broadcast from the hill. At Dingwall the Trinity Croft had been that field within the assembly place complex on which the people had gathered. The court and clergy would have met first in church in closed session before progressing to take their positions on the hill. They would have returned in similar procession at the close of each sitting of the public assembly. Church, Moothill and Trinity Croft together formed a ritualistic judicial or parliamentary complex, a complete assembly place, a field of assembly.

The three components of Dingwall’s medieval field of assembly - the judicial moothill, the ecclesiastical site in the form of the parish churchyard, and the gathering field named Trinity - are clearly indicated in close contiguity on the Ordnance Survey map of 1881[figure 9]. Together the three components had comprised an assembly complex of apparent similarity to that of the Isle of Man. The Manx Tynwald (Þingvöllr) assembly place similarly comprises the church of St John’s Chapel, the mound of Tynwald Hill and, alongside both, a gathering field - Fairfield. Annually on the 5th of July, Old Midsummer Day, ceremonies similar to those outlined above are celebrated when Tynwald, the Manx parliament, meets on the Tynwald field of assembly. It would seem that a major ping had met on the þingvöllr at Dingwall.

7

Scale: Six-inch to the mile © National Library of Scotland

Figure 9. The site of the assembly complex of church, mound and Trinity Field as shown on Ordnance Survey surveyed 1872. Note Slake. 'Slaik' in 1672 marked the east boundary of 'Hilyard'.

The chaplainry lands in Dingwall released by the crown in 1591 are named in the disposition as 'the Lands of the Holy Trinity and St Michael', but no mention is made of the ecclesiastical institution to which they had previously belonged. A burgh sasine of 1682 records an area of - 23 -

land named as Aikermichael.49 The same name, but in the Gaelic form Achervinchel, appears amongst the chaplainry lands listed in the charter of 1591. The 1682 sasine tells that Aikermichael, and therefore the chaplainry lands of the Holy Trinity and St Michael, of which Aikermichael was a component, had been 'held of the Abbey of Dumfermling'. The significance of this information requires explanation.

The diocese of Ross was established by David I in the later 1140s. The church of Dingwall was not among the churches assigned to the bishop of Ross; it was a property of the priory of Urquhart in Moray. In 1454 the monks of the priory of Urquhart removed from Urquhart to merge into the priory of Pluscarden. The church of Dingwall then became a property of Pluscarden. The bishop of Ross actively, and successfully by 1501, sought transfer of possession of the church of Dingwall from Pluscarden.

The priory of Urquhart was founded by David I around 1135. His new foundation was staffed by monks from Dunfermline Abbey, the premier royal abbey of the Canmore . Urquhart priory was therefore a cell, or daughter house of Dunfermline. The dedications of the priory church of Urquhart and of the abbey church of Dunfermline were to the Holy Trinity. David I richly endowed his Urquhart foundation with the lands of the kin of Angus, king of Moray, the defeat and slaying of whom, at Stracathro in 1130, had given David total domination of Moray. David’s grant of the landed power base of the house of Moray to God’s eternal Church had the intention of ensuring in Moray no further serious rebellion against the Canmore dynasty. Ultimately, of course, all property of Urquhart Priory, being a daughter house, belonged to Dunfermline Abbey.

The information contained in the 1682 sasine that the chaplainry lands of the Holy Trinity and St Michael at Dingwall were 'held of the Abbey of Dumfermling' points towards the three components of the medieval assembly place at Dingwall, - the Trinity Croft, the Hillyard and the church – having been granted to the monks of Dunfermline. Men of Ross had joined the men of Moray in the rebellion of 1130 against David I. In granting the assembly place at Dingwall to the Church, David would appear to have deployed the same strategy as he had in Moray in order to neuter the power centre of the chieftains of Ross, the assembly place at Dingwall.

In the 1130s David also endowed the priory of Urquhart with a right to a tenth of crown revenues (the teinds of his cain) in the of Moray,50 thought to have been the coastal lands between Glenelg and Lochbroom. Oram, in commenting that David was as 'speculative' to the extent and permanence of his control of Ross as he was in granting that right to Urquhart, points to David’s hold on Ross having been not as firm as documentation of such grants at first sight would seem to indicate. Around 1160 Malcolm MacHeth, having been recognised as in 1157, was commanded by Malcolm IV to 'protect the monks of Dunfermline and all that was theirs in the time of King David'.51 It would seem that the hold of the monks of Dunfermline on the assembly place of Dingwall and on their other rights in Ross had required protection as early as 1160.

49 NAS B14/1/1/6 50 Oram, R. Domination and Lordship: Scotland 1070-1230, (Edinburgh, 2011), p.77 51 Barrow, G.W.S., Regesta Regum Scottorum, vol. 1, (Edinburgh, 1960), No.179 p.222 - 24 -

Possession of lands in Dingwall by the abbey of Dunfermline is not reflected in Dunfermline Abbey’s Registrum, initiated in the reign of Alexander II (1214-49). Possession of those lands in Dingwall appears to have been acquired by the family of Dingwall, the probable source of their family surname. The acquisition appears to have taken place earlier than 1342, when John Yonger of Dyngvale was witness to a charter of William earl of Ross. James Fraser, minister of Kirkhill, in his manuscript history of the Frasers, for example, states that Eupham daughter of Dingwall of Kildun married the son of Simon Fraser, who had been executed in 1306.52 The lands of Kildun, a short distance south of the built burgh of Dingwall, but within the burgh territories, were granted in 146053 by William, prior of Pluscarden to Thomas Dingwall, junior. This appears to have been regularisation of a lengthy period of family possession rather than a completely new grant, the prior possibly having been advised of his property rights in the course of the transfer of the monks of Urquhart to Pluscarden in 1454.54

Urquhart Priory was founded approximately seventy years after the death of Earl , and Viking ruler of Ross. David I died less than a century after the death of Thorfinn. The essential aura of legitimacy of medieval law-hills was substantially dependent on their antiquity; the medieval assembly place identified as in existence at Dingwall in the 1130s is indeed the very same assembly place as Þingvöllr, which gave Dingwall its name.

Perhaps older than the name Þingvöllr History cannot date the assembly site at Dingwall further back in time beyond the era during which Norsemen had settled in Ross, the period in which to Norsemen the assembly field had been Þingvöllr. In the kirkyard, however, within the assembly complex stands a Class 1 Pictish sculptured stone, on its face a double-disc and Z-rod, a crescent with V-rod and on its reverse three circles, crescent with V-rod and cup marks [figure 10].

Figure 10. Drawing, front and rear, of Class 1 Pictish inscribed stone in Dingwall parish kirkyard.

52 Alexander Dingwall Fordyce, Family Record of the Name Dingwall Fordyce in 53 NAS GD46/21/2 54 In 1591 a property named the Chamberlain’s Yard appears amongst the properties of the chaplainry lands of the Holy Trinity and St Michael in Dingwall. The Chamberlain’s Yard has been identified as the lands bounded between the Trinity Croft and the High Street. Thomas Dingwall had been Chamberlain of Ross to the MacDonald earls of Ross. The Chamberlain’s Yard remained a property of the family of Dingwall into the 18th century. In 1728 the Burgh Council made arrangements to acquire, for the purpose of erecting a tolbooth, the tenement belonging to Alexander Dingwall, burgess, lying betwixt the tenement belonging to John Dingwall, Cordiner, at the west, the Kirk Street at the east, the High Street at the south & the Trinity Croft at the north. It is possible that the family of Dingwall, unbeknown to the abbot of Dunfermline, in the past had possessed all of the lands of the Holy Trinity and St Michael at Dingwall.

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This stone was discovered in 1875 in use as a lintel, having been built into the fabric of the parish church constructed 1800-3. Its Pictish symbol inscriptions are reckoned to be work of the 6/7th century and its cup marks probably of the Bronze Age, perhaps even Neolithic. Oliver O’Grady has identified a number of examples of Class 1 Pictish stones located at Gaelic medieval assembly places.55 The most similar case to that of Dingwall is the example of Tullich in Aberdeenshire, where in 1866 a was discovered built into the fabric of the parish church, and also where, 145 metres north of the church, there is a low mound 14 metres in diameter. O’Grady also comments that there are numerous examples in Scotland of the juxtaposition of assembly sites with medieval church centres, 'a widespread phenomenon, showing no particular bias to the apparent ethnic/linguistic derivation of the assembly site, such as Scandinavian Norse or Gaelic'.56 He emphasises furthermore that the location of Dingwall parish church and mound by a crossing point on the Peffery 'has striking similarities to other early medieval assembly mounds in Scotland'.57

The style of the mound at Dingwall in apparently having been surrounded by a ditch and juxtaposed to a church bears similarities to the Moothill of Scone at Perth and, probably, to the Doomster Hill of which was levelled in the early 19th century.58 It also bears similarity to the ditched and embanked Manx Tynwald Hill as it had existed in the 18th century before it experienced Victorian 'improvements'. The surrounding of Thingsites or Thing mounds with ditches was not normal practice in medieval Scandinavia. It is possible that pre-existing assembly places in the British Isles had been appropriated by Norse settlers to fulfil a similar, if culturally different, role.

SECTION TWO: The setting in which Þingvöllr lies

2.1 Þingvöllr in its environs

Slaik Since the early 1830s Tulloch Street has formed the eastern boundary of the Cromartie burial place, but in 1672 the Hillyard had been bounded on the east by slaik, common burgh land. In 1684 'Slaick' formed the northern boundary of the Trinity Croft. In 1787 there was 'Slake… at the East and north of the Church'. Indeed in land records of the 17th and 18th centuries the northern boundaries of burgh tenements on the north side of the High Street, except those which backed on to the medieval assembly site, appear as 'the slaik', or alternatively 'the sea, the floodmark, or the fludder' (cf. fløda, Shetland Norn, reaching high water). Slaik was land which the sea 'licked over' at high water (cf. sleikja, Old Norse to lick). In North-eastern England the same term slake carries the meaning of mudflat. Historically the most notable

55 O’Grady, O. J. T., The Setting and Practice of Open-air Judicial Assemblies in Medieval Scotland: a Multidisciplinary Study, Ph. D thesis, (2008), 4.2.5.4, p.152, and Fig. 202 p.405. 56 ibid, 6.7.2, p.365 57 ibid, 4.3.3.1, p.198 58 Both these Scottish examples are located by ancient river crossing points, where the rivers Tay and Clyde ceased to be tidally navigable. The Dingwall assembly place is similarly situated, but on a much lesser river, the Peffery. - 26 -

slake is Jarrow Slake, a great mudflat close to the mouth of the River Tyne. At Dingwall slaik originally had carried the same meaning, but through time some portions formerly slaik had developed into carseland. Tidal mudflats to the east of Dingwall still occupy an extensive area at the head of the .

The sea, at high water, washes a considerable part of the parish, running in apparent canals in several directions along the side of the town, and forms a beautiful variety of islets and peninsulas. But, even in this state, it is very shallow for several miles down the frith, and, at low water, it recedes to the distance of near four miles, leaving nothing but a slimy strand, which makes it unfit for the navigation of any large vessels… Old Statistical Account, Dingwall 1791

On his plan of an intended road from to Dingwall, surveyed in 1790, George Brown represented Dingwall at high water [figure 11]. On that plan the Hillyard is shown clearly as an islet surrounded by tidal water of the Peffery Estuary. In 1793 Brown drew a similar plan of an intended road from Lochcarron to Dingwall [figure 12]. On that later plan the Hillyard is not represented as an islet. Whilst neither of Brown’s plans is totally accurate in representing details in the locality of Dingwall, each plan may be accurate in the case of the Hillyard. In the intervening period of three years it is possible that slaik between the Hillyard and the road leading around the kirkyard had been reclaimed from the sea.

North ↑ © Crown Copyright National Records of Scotland Ref. No. RHP 11591 Figure 11. Extract from a plan of intended road from Culrain to Dingwall surveyed in 1790 by George Brown.

North ↑ ©Crown Copyright: National Records of Scotland Ref. No. RHP 11597 Figure 12. Extract from a plan of intended road from Lochcarron to and thence to Dingwall surveyed in 1793 by George Brown.

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If the Thingsite mound at Dingwall actually had been an islet that would give the Dingwall Thingsite a greater similarity to the Tingwall Tingstead on Shetland Mainland than to the Tynwald assembly place of the Isle of Man [figure 13]. At Tingwall the Tingstead Mound, the Lawting Holm, is an islet just off-shore in Tingwall Loch [figure 14].

Thingsites.com Engraving by J. Newton.

Figure 13. Tynwald Assembly Place in 1787.

Thingsites.com Image courtesy of Prue Heath

Figure 14. The Lochs of Tingwall, Thomas Woore 1828. In the foreground a causeway leads to the islet, the Shetland Lawting Holm.

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On each of Brown’s plans of Dingwall he shows in the tidal water an island east of both the church and Hillyard. In a charter of 1547 that island is recorded as 'Cruke, lying east of the church59 and on Aitken’s plan of 1789 it is named as Easter Cruik [figure 2]. In burgh records the island is variously recorded as Cruik, Little Cruik or Easter Cruik,60 bounded on all sides by 'the sea'. Cruik in Scots means bend (cf. ON, krokr, bend). This indicates that previously the island had been land contained within a bend of the river. An alteration in the course of the river had cut through that land within the bend and had rendered Cruik an island in the estuary. The historical meandering of the river Peffery is demonstrated clearly in Thomas Telford’s plan of Dingwall Canal [figure 15].

New Statistical Account, Dingwall 1837 The tide formerly advanced quite close to the town, but a canal, which was cut some years ago, has served the additional purpose of an embankment, by means of which a good deal of wet carse land, over which the sea formerly flowed, has been converted into fields.

Castle

47

Commission for Highland Roads and Bridges Eighth Report 1821

Figure 15. Extract from Telford’s plan of Dingwall Canal. (The labels Castle and Slakefield superimposed.)

On the 1881 Ordnance Survey map [figure 9] a field named Slakefield is shown east of Tulloch Street and the Cromartie Monument. Slakefield owes its creation as a field to the construction of Dingwall Canal in 1817 and its name to historic slake, mudflat over which the sea had flowed at high water.

Before the development of wharves and quays, naturally well sheltered mudflats, when adjacent to dry land and navigable, provided excellent facility for the safe beaching of

59 NAS GD93/58 60 as opposed to another larger island to the west, recorded as either Meikle Cruik or Wester Cruik (see Figures 11 & 12) - 29 -

medieval ships. The tidally navigable channel, which the River Peffery had cut through the slake mudflats at the head of the Cromarty Firth, had allowed those who attended the þing assembly to safely beach their ships immediately adjacent to the assembly site. There too, merchant traders, equally safely and conveniently, could beach their ships, a facility as useful to a medieval burgh as to a þing-site market.

Vikings, when and where it was appropriate, took advantage of mudflats. Halfdan’s great Viking fleet is reputed to have wintered on the Jarrow Slake in 875/6, having accessed the mudflat by means of the channel of the Don, tributary of the Tyne. Mudflats in Ireland were similarly made use of by 9th century for safe over-wintering of their . The city of Wexford owes its beginnings to Vikings who selected that location for development of a defensible ship camp, such as the Irish termed longphort. The place-name Wexford derives from Old Norse Veisafjorðr (Waesfjord), inlet of the mudflats. The tidal marshes of Waterford, Limerick (Irish, Loimeanach, bare, grassless marsh) and of Cork (Irish Corcaigh, from corcach, marsh.) also had been key factors in the development of ship camps and settlements at those locations. At Waterford the St John’s River, tributary of the Suir, enabled Vikings to beach their longships on mudflats, and there at the rivers’ confluence they established a longphort. The Viking longphort fortification at (Gaelic, dubh linn, black pool), the site on which later Dublin Castle developed ,was located on the Poddle, a minor tributary of the River Liffey. Cargo ships, however, requiring deeper water than longships, berthed on the bank of the larger River Liffey. The significant medieval castle of Dingwall was located at the mouth of the Peffery, a location clearly chosen for a naval purpose. The thought cannot be avoided that the origin of Dingwall Castle is likely to lie in a Viking longphort fortification

Dingwall, a two river port Whilst open boats could navigate the tidal Peffery to landing places at the castle and at the back of the church, the Shore of Dingwall on the north bank of the mouth of the River Conon served throughout the centuries as the landing place for considerably larger vessels. Both the Peffery and the Shore of Dingwall continued in those roles until Dingwall Canal was developed in 1817 to allow sizeable shipping direct access to Dingwall from the Conon Estuary.

Memorial Concerning the Dingwall Canal 1814. On this coast, vessels can be approached only by means of carts at low water, after traversing a large space of heavy, deep and miry sands; in consequence of which not only is grain frequently damaged, but the labour of men and horses employed in the operation is inconceivable.... By this very inconvenient and expensive mode, are also landed all the Coals and lime imported (although on the latter the improvement of the county entirely depends) and it must be continued until a remedy is provided...... The whole groceries, iron, ropes, and other commercial articles, with which its [Dingwall’s] merchants supply the county as far as the West Sea, are in the first instance landed at Cromarty, from whence they are transported up the Frith, a distance of twenty-six miles, in open boats, to the frequent damage and sometimes the total destruction of the goods.61

61 Commission for Highland Roads and Bridges, Memorial Concerning the Dingwall Canal, eighth Report (1817), p.80 Appendix (L) - 30 -

The importance of both the Conon and the Peffery to the economy of medieval Dingwall is indicated by the boundary of the burgh territories having extended into the Cromarty Firth to the confluence of the two rivers among the ever moving mudflats and sandbanks. 62

Dingwall was a significant medieval port and is recorded in 1304 as one of the sixteen burghs comprising 'all the ports of Scotland', the burghs which had possessed sufficient foreign trade to justify grant of an official 'coket'63 – a royal seal stamp of authorisation to collect the King’s great customs. Hides, valued skins,64 wool and grain were exported from Dingwall to foreign ports. Such commodities were brought to Dingwall from its interior hinterland on the backs of packhorses and from coastal lands in open boats to landing places on the Peffery at the castle and further upstream at the back of the church. Duly processed in the burgh for export, goods finally bound for exportation were transported by packhorse to sea-going ships lying waiting on the Shore of Dingwall whence timber and cured Conon salmon were also shipped.

Stavaig – Stava Amongst the mudflats and sandbanks at the head of the Cromarty Firth the Peffery merged with that of the considerably greater River Conon. W J Watson in 1904 noted that:-

In the Dingwall charters, the estuary of the Conon appears as Stavek, plainly Norse, probably Staf-vik, Staff-bay, Watson, The Place-names of Ross and Cromarty (1904)

That same name for the estuary appears in burgh minutes and sasine registers, but mostly in the form of Stavaig, the Gaelic representation of Staf(r)-vik. Moreover, Dingwall’s re-issued royal charter of 1587, in granting the burgh rights to fish for salmon, names the Conon estuary as 'the Waters of Stava'. The place-name Stava owes its derivation to Old Norse staf(r)-a, stave river. The same first element staf(r) is found in the name of the Hebridean island of , staf(r)-ey, Stave Island. Vikings were prompted to give the island that name because of the island’s profusion of tall basalt pillars, which to them were reminiscent of staves, the trunks of pine trees employed in medieval Norway as pillars in the construction of large timber buildings, particularly stave-.

From the obsolete place-names, Stava and Stavaig, Barbara Crawford has made the significant deduction that Norsemen had exploited natural timbers of the Conon Valley by felling, trimming and floating them down stafr-a to stafr-vik.65 From stafr-vik the staves would have been exported in sizeable ships, most probably to treeless Orkney. A notice of 1813 in the Inverness Journal demonstrates that such economic activities are historically plausible.

62 The final perambulation of the burgh marches in 1832 was recorded as setting off westwards from a point near on the Northern Bank or Shore of the River Conon (formerly called Stavaig)… proceeding north west to Loch Ussie, North east to the Peffery and concluding along the said old Channel [of the Peffery] until it is lost in the Sea at low water-mark; from thence Westwards along the said River Conon including all the Islands situate therein until it reaches the point first described. See Macrae, N., Dingwall’s Thousand Years,(1923), p.152 63 or cocket, from French, cocquet - Bain J. ,Calendar of Documents Relating to Scotland, vol II 1884, p.434 No.1631 64 e.g. pine marten. 65 See Crawford, B. E., Earl and , (Groam House, 1996) - 31 -

On Estate of Brahan SUPERIOR TIMBER FOR SALE – Plantation of Scots firs – 350 acres, 160,000 trees, c. 60 years old – best quality and fit for every purpose that straight fir timber is used for… the timber can be easily floated about two miles to the Shore of Dingwall, where vessels of considerable burthen can come with safety to take in cargoes. Inverness Journal, 12 February, 1813

Broadpool, the land link between the rivers Burgh sasine registers of the late 17th century record the name Broadpool as the northern boundary of a large field named Walkman.66 Broadpool was the name of a straight line of roadway which connected the town to the Conon Estuary; Broadpuile 1681, Broadpoole viam ad littus navinum 1686, Broadpool 1696, Brodpoole the way leading to the Shore 1707. Reclamation of carseland and the making in the 1760s of a new cart road67 to the Shore led to disuse of the Broadpool which then came to be described as a grassy bank with an adjacent drainage ditch. Broadpool, it can be deduced, had been a roadway suited to packhorse, but not to wheeled, traffic, a roadway carried through wet carseland on an embankment deliberately created from soil excavated in the digging of the drainage ditch. The last recorded use of the Broadpool place-name appears in a Town Council minute of 1833 when the line of Broadpool was undergoing re-development for access to the mouth of Dingwall Canal. Broadpool was referred to in that minute as 'the Road to the Harbour'.

What precisely the name Broadpool actually conveyed must have become unknown. By the 17th century the word 'Broadpool' had come to require an added explanatory documentation, 'the way to the Shore'. Of the two elements of the place-name, pool has to be the specific component bearing the meaning of harbour or shore. That specific element is explicable as a derivation of pollr, Old Norse 'pool', one which at ebb of tide retained water sufficient to float a ship. The generic component of Broadpool, Broad/Brod, originally must have carried a meaning similar to way. It appears to owe its derivation to Old Norse, c.f. Brott, braut, Old Icelandic, 'made roadway or track' and in Shetland Norn the same term represents as either brød or bröd, both bearing that same meaning of made roadway or track. This posterior positive word order displayed in the place-name Broadpool is common in Gaelic, but into the 14th century it was also common in Old Norse. It can be deduced that Broadpool, the way leading to the Shore, and the ditch on its flank, had been engineered by Norsemen through wet carseland to reach Stavaig, where Norsemen had loaded timber pillar staves on to cargo ships.

It is a small step to envisage the probability that Norsemen had made the same use of Broadpool as had the medieval burgh of Dingwall, the despatch of the surrounding countryside’s produce by way of the town to the sea. The mercat cross of the medieval burgh stood where Broadpool met the burgh’s principal, indeed only, street. At that same location Broadpool and the principal street met the way to the castle. That castle stood on the shore of the merging estuaries of the Peffery and the Conon [figure 2].

66 Walkman in the later 18th century became known as Wakefield. The –man element of Walkman is found within the place-name Longman in Inverness and appears to refer to flat land by a river or estuary. 67 Minute of Dingwall Town Council, 29 September 1767 - 32 -

This building [the castle], situated close to the shore, had on three sides an extensive plain. It was situated at a considerable distance from any rising ground, and a little river with a deep slimy channel, into which the sea flowed, winded about two of its sides. Old Statistical Account, Dingwall 1791

The deep slimy channel of the Peffery remained navigable to vessels of '7/8 tons burthen'68 [figure 2] into the early 19th century, a fact later obscured by development of Dingwall Canal. The river clearly would have been navigable to Viking longships. There is no documentation of the existence of the castle before the 13th century, nor is there any record of its construction. It has been shown that the castle’s location has characteristics similar to those of the longphuirt69 of Ireland from which the first towns in Ireland had developed. The likely origin of the medieval castle of Dingwall lies in the previous existence of a fortified Viking ship-camp, a longphort. The possibility, even probability, arises that the origins of the town of Dingwall lie in a Norse trading and exporting settlement which had been developed in the protective environment of a Norse fortification, origins similar to those of the first towns, later cities, of Ireland.

Water of the Dyke In 1771 the town council of Dingwall70 considered a problem of public hygiene and health.

The Council considering the generall Calamity the Inhabitants Labour under by the water called the Dyke becoming a nuisance and over run with filth & Dirt, altho before its Entry into the Town the sd water is pure & clean & from a fine Spring71…

It was decided to lay wooden pipes as conduit of the water supply. The timber water-pipes were laid, bedded and covered with clay.72 That short-lived system of timber pipe conduits was abandoned in 1781. The Dyke channel then was rebuilt with a base of stone flags and its sides of quarry stone, sealed with clay,73 only to be replaced once again in the 1790s by new timber piping.

In the earlier 18th century the Dyke, an engineered channel, which ran along High Street leading spring water from the west end of town, seems to have been a source of derision as much as of drinking water. In 1741 a petition from the inhabitants of Dingwall, arguing for the importance and considerableness of the Burgh of Dingwall, was met with derision by the brethren of the Presbytery of Dingwall, who responded:-

It’s a wonder they did not swell the considerableness of mentioning that the River, which runs through the town [along High Street] & serves the Frogs & Inhabitants, has six & thirty Stone bridges over it.74

68 NAS RHP 1474, David Aitken, plan of The Burgh Lands of the Estate of Tulloch, 1789 69 Longphuirt is plural of longphort. 70Minute of Dingwall Town Council, 14 June 1771 71 at the west end of the town. 72 Minute of Dingwall Town Council, 11 October 1771 73 Minute of Dingwall town Council, 15 May 1781 74 NAS CH 1/2/78/313-4 - 33 -

The 'bridges' were nothing more than the burghers’ flagstone accesses across the Dyke, enabling them to reach their south side burgh tenements.

The water called the Dyke appears to have been a centuries’ old system of water supply. Macrae reports that King James IV (d.1513) had a degree of amused pride in Dingwall’s Water of the Dyke.

… he used playfully to say that he had in his dominions a city with twice seventy bridges75.

Freshwater springs high on Knockdow flowed into the Knockbain valley at the foot of which, west of the burgh, freshwater was channelled into the man-made Dyke (dick 169176) to run through the burgh along High Street. From the east end of the High Street the water carried by the Dyke continued towards the sea by way of the Stripe (running ditch) of Broadpool. A branch of the Water of the Dyke, however, was led from the High Street by a stripe or aquaduct and joined with the ditch on the southern boundary of the Hillyard, the enclosure of the moothill of Dingwall, and from there continued towards the tidal Peffery.

Icelandic saga tells that in Iceland at Þingvellir the River Oxara had been diverted to provide drinking water for those who attended the Alþing and for the horses which had brought them there. That had been achieved by cutting a new channel for the river through lava rock with axes, hence the name of the river, Oxara - the axed river. It is possible that the system of ditches, or aqueducts, which had carried the Water of the Dyke at Dingwall, like Broadpool, originally had been engineered by Norsemen.

Aiker, a field-name generic The burgh sasine register of the later 17th century presents an interesting record of field- names which are indicative of land use and the quality of agrarian land. The naturally well drained, rich arable lands westward of the burgh field-names bore the prefix generic element aiker77 [Figure 16]. Some of the fields are of four roods (one Scots acre) but others, the majority, are more extensive. Aikerscottie, the largest, is recorded as consisting of 32 roods, that is, eight Scots acres. The specific elements of all nineteen aiker- field-names generally are Gaelic, Aikerscottie and Aikerrydie apparently being exceptions. Given the inconsistency in their extent of area, it is unlikely that the meaning of aiker is simply acre, a precise measurement of land area, but is more likely to mean cornfield. The place-name Ackergill (Akergill78 1433, Aikergill79 1522) derives from Old Norse akr, corn-field and gil, ravine.80 Given that Dingwall had been a Norse Thingsite, it is possible that the generic element of Aikerscottie could derive from Old Norse akr-, corn-field, and the specific

75 Macrae, N., Dingwall’s Thousand Years (1923), p.65 76 NAS B14/1/1/33 1 … the common water and dick at the north… 77Aikirridie (1680), Aikernacore (1680), Aikermine (1680), Aikerrydie (1681), Aikernicore (1681), Aikermineid (1682), Aikerfriech (1682), Aikerscottie (1683), Aikergerid (1684), Aikerincleugh or Aikerhuigh (1684), Aikernamalacht (1684), Aikersiacke (1684), Aikernacairne (1692), Aikerbradden (1694), Aikermicheal (1694), Aikernacoire (1699), Aikergarve (1711). 78 NAS GD1/945/1 79 NAS GD1/945/3 80 or, in Iceland Akureyri, corn-field peninsula. - 34 -

element scottie,81 from Old Norse skoti, a legal appeal, or payment of tax, skot (skat). Unfortunately the earliest known recording of the field-name, Latinised as Acris Scotte, dates to no earlier than 1526.

In meaning field of fertile arable land, aiker is recognised as a word loaned into local Gaelic, but whether it owed its origin to Norse akr (cornfield), or to those fields having been 'burgh acres' must remain an open question. The aiker- field-names, however, indicate with some precision the location of the fertile corn-fields of the Norse estate which had provided agrarian maintenance to Þingvöllr. The ton- field-names similarly would confirm the plentiful existence of rich pasture around Þingvöllr at midsummer for the pasturing of the horses which had brought their riders to the þing.

Low-lying rich meadowland pastures are represented by the initial generic element ton/don (Pictish and Old Gaelic, ley land, meadowland). Such field-names are found east of the town lying between the Broadpool and the castle. Others are located westward of the town where spring-water burns from Knockdow converge and again beside the River Peffery in the area around the Mill of Bridgend, the site of the medieval burgh mill. In that latter locality, adjacent to Aikermichael and the millpond82 was the field of Poldam, a place-name derived from Old Norse83 pollr-dammr, millpond. This is an example of pre-14th century Norse posterior positive, similar to that exhibited in the place-name Broadpool. It can be deduced that in Norse times there had been a millpond and therefore a water-powered mill with its necessarily engineered millpond and mill-lades in that same locality.

Road Goyal, Rathad Gual, Knockdow and black peat Robert Bain in 1899 made no mention of Broadpool, but did venture an opinion that another road at Dingwall, the steep road from Hill Street to the top of Mitchell Hill,84 had been engineered by Vikings. The road is represented on Wood’s Plan of the Town of Dingwall, named in error as Road Gael [f igure 3]. They [Norsemen] cut… that road … called after them the Guile Road, or Road Guile.85 Norman Macrae commented on the same road, spelling it differently and adding a dramatic flourish. …and up the Road Goyal… his [Thorfinn the Mighty’s] marauding bands went westward for plunder… 86

To one the roadway was Road Guile, to the other it was Road Goyal. The word order, of course, is Gaelic usage not English. We can assume Gaelic rathad, road, as the generic element of the place-name and guile/goyal as the specific. The oldest known recorded form of that specific is Gowel found in a charter of 1549. In burgh sasine registers the specific element is usually entered as goyal but we also find in 1707 goiall, 1684 goyall, 1804

81 an alternative burgh rental. 82 Consequent to the construction between 1813 and 1819 of the parliamentary road (the present road from Dingwall to ) the millpond was much reduced in area and confined to the north side of the new road. 83 This is an example of pre-13th century Norse posterior positive, similar to Broadpool. 84 The name Mitchell Hill dates back only to the late 19th century. Previously it had been known as Greenhill. West of the Greenhill, the hill ridge had been known as Knockdow. 85 Bain, R., History of the Ancient Province of Ross, (1899), p.46 86 Macrae, N., Dingwall’s Thousand Years, (1923), p.25 - 35 -

gual, 1843 gowal, 1854 goall, the first vowel of the spoken name being represented by oi,oy, ow, u, oa. The place-name is now obsolete and there is no certainty as to how that specific element was voiced. Bain’s assertion, however, that the road had been called after Norsemen would point to his thinking that Guile/Goyal is a representation of Gaelic goill, stranger, hence Norseman.

On the other hand, Bain judged the place-name Guie (lands between Dingwall railway station and the Conon estuary) as 'evidently an abbreviation of Guile'. Guie is pronounced as it reads, with an 'oo' sound as in 'room'. Therefore according to Bain the first syllable of gowal, goyal etc. would have been pronounced with that same 'oo' sound. In land records, however, the name of the roadway is never recorded in the form Guile.

The antiquity of the roadway Guile (Bain), or Goyal (MacRae), is not in question. In initially ascending the hill immediately south of the town in a westerly direction towards common pasture-lands, the road formed the south boundary of original south side burgh tenements. Traditionally these hill pasture-lands bore the name Knockdow, Gaelic cnoc-dubh, black-hill. In English, the Gaelic dubh (pronounced 'doo') is often represented as dow and the vowel sound of the Gaelic adjective ruadh, red, as oy, e.g. Dòmhnall ruadh, red Donald, became Donald Roy. Again, this suggests that the vowel in the first syllable of Goyal/Gowal in its original Gaelic had been pronounced with an ‘oo' sound.

As moorland common pasture, Knockdow at Dingwall was a source of peat. The origin of the name of the roadway just might be Gaelic Rathad Goill, the Norsemen’s Road, but it would seem more likely to be Rathad Gual, the coal road – a road by which black peat, Gaelic gual (coal), capable of the forging of iron and steel had been brought into the town.

Review Land records convey the suitability of the historical topography of the immediate locality of Dingwall to have provided for the meeting of a major þing. Level, yet naturally well-drained, land on the south bank of the estuary of the Peffery supplied the appropriate level field both for the meeting of the þing and for the siting of booths, temporary living-quarters for those attending the þing. There were natural pastures for the feeding of horses and, whilst natural firewood was likely to have been readily available, peat turves could be cut from the moorland hill87, lying south of the þing -site, to be used either as fuel or as building material for construction of the walls of booths. Nearby natural springs on the hillside west of the þing -site guaranteed, even in dry summers, plentiful drinking water which, as downhill flowing burn water, was capable of being channelled a distance. The marshy, muddy estuary of the Peffery provided safe landing places for those who had travelled over water to attend the þing.

This study has also given indication of Norse exploitation of the natural environment of the locality of Dingwall beyond the practice of þing assembly. The place-name Poldam, mill- pond, confirms the presence of the estate which supplied agrarian maintenance of Þingvöllr. The place-names Broadpool, Stavek and Stava indicate Norse exportation of commodities, especially timber, from Dingwall. The later existence of the medieval castle of Dingwall at the mouth of the muddy estuary of the Peffery and the similarity of its marshy location by the

87 Knockdow - 36 -

confluence of minor and major rivers to the locations of Viking longphuirt, which developed into Ireland’s first towns, suggest the beginnings, at least, of a similar process at Dingwall.

Figure 16. The map has been constructed with the aid of information drawn from late 17th century land charters entered into the Dingwall Burgh Register of Sasines. The Kirkyard and the Hillyard occupy a peninsula projecting into Slaik of the Peffery Estuary. The areas of 'Aiker-' cornfields are shown west of the town. Rich meadowlands are shaded green. Knockdow, the hill south of the town, was common pasture and a source of peat. The spring- fed burns which supplied the town with clean water gave the area known as Cleanwaters its name. The immediate environs of Dingwall formed an ideal natural location for supplying the needs of Þingvöllr.

- 37 -

2.2 Dingwall in Ross

Location of Dingwall Dingwall is located deep into the littoral at the inner end of the Cromarty Firth. Dingwall also sits by the mouth of the Conon River, the and glen system of which extend westwards deep into the mainland interior offering undemanding routes through the mountains of the and on to the western sea. Such a location suggests that Dingwall had been a central readily-accessible meeting place of the þing of Norse settlements established around the Cromarty Firth and westward along the river valleys. Topography defines the northern border of that area of settlement as the and the Firth. The river and firth together were known to Norsemen as the Ekkjall, in saga the southernmost extent of the lands of the Orkney earldom. The chain of those Norse place-names which have survived southwards of the Ekkjall indicates the River as the southern boundary of historic Norse settlement. An obsolete place-name, Aulteskadaleguain, in , in referring to a burn of , gives clear indication that the entire length of Strathglass had been known to Norsemen as Eskadale.88 Eskadale, now the name of an estate on the south bank of the Beauly River, is the most southerly place-name of Norse derivation on the northern coastlands of the .

Location of Ross The fertile coastal lands between the Beauly and the Dornoch emerged from the Viking Age into history as the distinct geo-political entity of Ross. The territorial name Ross originally had been restricted to those lands which surrounded the Cromarty Firth and were bounded by the Dornoch and Beauly Firths, lands which in modern times would be recognised as to the north of the Cromarty Firth, the to its south, and Mid Ross around and westwards of the head of the Firth. Three serious possibilities have been put forward for explanation of the origin of the place-name Ross. Firstly, Gaelic 'ros', promontory, secondly Welsh/Pictish 'ros', moor, and thirdly Norse 'hross', horse. Of the three the most favoured, and topographically probably the most logical, choice is Gaelic, 'ros', promontory or promontories. When defined as the land between the firths of Dornoch and Beauly the land-mass of Ross can seen to consist of two great promontories, Easter Ross and the Black Isle. Ross then can be understood to be the territorial inverse of the three firths of the Inner Moray Firth. For the purposes of this investigation into Dingwall as Þingvöllr it is both convenient and in historical terms accurate to apply the term Ross to those lands exclusively. Dingwall at the head of the central firth of the three, the Cromarty Firth, occupies a position at the radial centre of Ross. In later historical times Dingwall was the caput of Ross; its very name suggests that it had held a similar status when Norsemen had ruled Ross.

The map below [figure 17] illustrates well Easter Ross and the Black Isle, the two large promontories which, between the Firths of Dornoch and Beauly, define the land-mass of Ross. The map indicates the location of Norse-derived place-names in Eastern Ross and South Sutherland.

88 Taylor, S., The Toponymy of Strathglass and Beauly, Inverness-shire, in Northern Scotland 23: 2003, p.27 - 38 -

© Barbara E. Crawford

Figure 17. Norse place-names in Eastern Ross and South Sutherland. - 39 -

SECTION THREE: The Question –When did Norsemen first settle in Ross?

3.1 Introduction

Towards the end of the 19th century publication in English translation both of Orkneyinga Saga and of Torfæus’ 'Orcades' encouraged local antiquarians to consider the time of origin of the Dingwall place-name. Report in Icelandic Saga of a Viking invasion and conquest of Northern Scotland, in what has to be the later decades of the 9th century, led the Rev Dr Joass of Golspie, to proffer those final years of the 9th century as the period in which the place- name Dingwall had originated. Robert Bain, author in 1899 of a 'History of the Ancient Province of Ross', credited Thorfinn the Mighty, jarl of Orkney, with conquest of Ross about the year 1035. He consequently offered that year to be the origin in time of the Dingwall place-name. In the late 20th century a general consensus developed that it was unlikely that Norse settlement in Ross could have occurred before Sigurd Hlodversson, the Stout, jarl of Orkney, had been forcibly converted to Christianity. Orkneyinga Saga is the evidential source for that conversion, which, from the contents of the narrative, would be dated to about the year 995. The total lack of archaeological evidence for even one example of Norse pagan burial in Ross has prompted a general acceptance that the Norse who settled in Ross must have been Christian previous to making settlement in Ross presumably, it has been thought, sometime after 995.

The thoughts above as to when it was that Norsemen settled in Ross arose from interpretations of Orkneyinga Saga. The value of the Saga as a historical source for the time- span relevant to this study has come under increasing suspicion. The question as to when it was that Norse speakers settled in Ross and established Dingwall as their þing-site requires revisiting. The potential sources of evidence relevant to seeking an answer to the question, apart from archaeology, each require extensive investigation. Those sources are listed below in the order in which they are presented to the reader.

 Archaeological evidence  Annals, particularly  Norse place-names in the local toponymy  Landnámabók, the Icelandic Book of Settlements  Orkneyinga Saga

3.2 Archaeology as evidence

Archaeology as yet can offer no firm confirmation of a settled Norse presence anywhere in Ross. A late 10th century Viking silver hoard unearthed in 1889 in the parish graveyard at Tarbat, – which, on the southern shore of the outer , lies at the extreme northeasterly corner of Ross - is the one instance of material archaeology which can be taken to indicate a Norse presence in the coastal lands between the firths of Dornoch and Beauly. - 40 -

Figure 18. Extract from Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 109: 1889, p315. It lists the contents of the Tarbat hoard. The Eadgar penny is from the reign of Edgar I of England. Louis le Begue was king of West .

The act of burial of 'Viking' silver would indicate an expectation of return to the site. It is no proof of Viking settlement. No Viking pagan burial places, no Viking grave goods, have been found in Ross. Neither have archaeological remains of a Norse homestead been identified, nor stones bearing Norse sculptures or inscriptions. In recent years however Martin Carver’s excavation of the previously unknown to history Pictish monastery at Portmahomack has yielded tangible evidence that the site had experienced what surely had been a Viking raid. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the monastery had suffered destruction from fire in a violent attack sometime in the period between 780 and 830.89 The possibility is that this event was one of the earliest Viking raids on a location in the British Isles; the first historically recorded being that on the Holy Island of in 793. The devastation of the Portmahomack monastery coincides with the absolute end of production of the impressive late 8th/early 9th century Christian inscriptive slab-stone monuments, monuments which were raised at , and Nigg. This coincidence of time both suggests that it was at Portmahomack where those monuments had been created and that the monks, their creators, had been eliminated by slaughter, or by capture to be traded as slaves. It also suggests that the local political and religious society, of which those monuments had been a product, had been dealt a shattering blow and did not recover the capability of producing such impressive monuments.

3.3 Norse place-names as Evidence

Norse place-names in Ross The absence of identified archaeological evidence on, or in, the ground for settlement in Ross by Norsemen means that the only evidence which indicates Norse settlement is provided by the survival of those place-names in Ross90 which are derived from Old Norse.

89 Carver, M., Portmahomack: Monastery of the , (Edinburgh, 2008), pp.136-139. 90 This section is heavily indebted to Watson, W. J., Place-names of Ross and Cromarty, (Inverness, 1904) - 41 -

Until recently there had been a scholarly consensus that only the presence in the toponymy of Norse place-names bearing one of the habitative farmstead elements –ból, –bólstaðr, -setr, - staðir conclusively pointed to Norse settlement. There is now increasing agreement that immigrant Norse settlers, particularly the earliest settlers, applied topographic names to their settlements. Simple logic supports the idea that topographic place-names can be regarded as evidence of settlement, because survival of Norse place-names in the toponymy was surely dependent on a resident population whose language was Norse. That general principle is borne out in the tabulation below of Norse place-names traceable in Ross. Of the 39 listed, 35 are classed as topographic (Tables 2.1 – 2.4) and only four as habitative (Table 1). Of the topographic place-names tabulated a majority, 22 (63%), either points to, or hints at, agrarian activity or the exploitation of natural woodlands by a resident Norse-speaking population. Each of those 63% of topographic place-names tabulated is indicated by an accompanying asterisk.

Table 1. Habitative Place-names.

Place-name Old Norse Translation Parish Carbisdale kjarr-bólstaðr-dalr copse stead valley Kincardine Arboll ork-ból ark stead Tarbat Cadboll cattar-ból cat stead Fearn Culbo kúla-ból rounded hill stead Resolis

Of these habitative place-names three are suffixed -boll, or -bo, in each case derived from ból, farmstead. The central element of Carbisdale, Watson claimed, derives from bólstaðr, a farm portioned off from a larger farm. Those four place-names as farm settlement or farmstead names are indisputably habitative. No other Norse stead place-names are evident in Ross; no –staðir or –setr place-names.

The 36 topographic Norse-derived place-names have been subdivided into four groups. Those in the first group bear the generic suffix –völlr, level field.

Table 2.1 Topographic -völlr Place-names.

Place-name Old Norse Translation Parish Langwell * * lang-völlr long field Kincardine (two) Braelangwell * lang-völlr long field Kincardine Braelangwell * lang-völlr long field Resolis Syal * sauða-völlr sheep field Kincardine Dingwall * þing-völlr meeting field Dingwall Scatwell * skat-völlr tribute or tax field

The term 'field' carries overtones of land cleared for agrarian purposes. Syal, derived from Old Norse 'sheep field', is clearly indicative of animal husbandry. Dingwall, a þing field, required regular agrarian maintenance to allow it to continue its function. The Dingwall place-name, as a component of the farmed estate which supplied that maintenance, also indicates habitation. - 42 -

Crawford has proposed a possible alternative derivation for Scatwell.91 She suggests replacement of -völlr with -vál, woodland which has been felled and cleared by burning, and also that Scat- may derive from an Old Norse word for the ' top of a tree', or 'the furthest end of something'. Presuming that derivation correct, the Scatwell place-name becomes even more indicative of agrarian land use.

Topographic place-names in the group below bear the generic suffix -dalr, dale or valley

Table 2.2. Topographic -dalr Place-names.

Place-name Old Norse Translation Parish Bindal * bind-dalr sheaf valley Tarbat Tarradale * tarfr-dalr bull valley * hrúts-dalr ram valley Rosskeen Katewell * kví-dalr sheep-pen valley Swordale * svörð-dalr grassy sward valley Kiltearn Ulladale * Ulli-dalr Ulli’s valley Logie Easter Ulladale * Ulli-dalr Ulli’s valley Alladale * Ali-dalr or öl-dalr Ali's or alder valley Kincardine Eskadale * eskr-dalr ash tree valley Eskadale * eskr-dalr ash tree valley Contin Udale * y-dalr yew tree valley Cromarty Obsdale hóps-dalr bay valley Rosskeen Gradal grá-dalr grey valley Kincardine Dibidale djúpr-dalr deep valley Kincardine

In 11 out of the 14 Norse derived place-names listed above the specific element of the place- name relates to farming activity or to the probable exploitation of natural woodlands. Bindal is a clear indication of crop farming. Tarradale and Rusdale provide evidence for the practice of animal husbandry. Katewell could be mistaken for a -völlr place-name but, recorded as Catoll in 1479 Watson judged it a derivation of kví-dalr, sheep-pen dale. Swordale expresses itself as pasturage. Ulladale appears in two parishes and indicates personal ownership of an estate. Alladale, if deduced as Ali’s valley, would indicate the same. Such place-names would indicate at the very least a nearby resident population. Obsdale, Gradal and Dibidale are solely topographical place-names. Carbisdale, listed in Table 1, is primarily a habitative place-name. In regard of that place-name Fraser92 notes copse-stead with a –dalr suffix 'an unlikely combination' but also that it 'fits in with local topography'.

91 Crawford, B. E., Earl & Mormaer, Norse-Pictish relationships in Northern Scotland, (Groam House, 1995), p.23 92 Fraser, I., Norse and Celtic Place-Names around the Dornoch Firth, in Baldwin J. R., ed., Firthlands of Ross and Sutherland, (1986) - 43 -

Topographic place-names in the third group relate to lochs and rivers.

Table 2.3. Topographic Place-names related to water courses.

Place-name Old Norse Translation Parish Locheye eið isthmus Fearn Amat á-mót confluence Kincardine (two) Stava (obsolete) * stafr-á stave river Dingwall Rogie rok-á foaming river Contin Rasay (obsolete) * hross-á horse river Contin

The Norse element eið in Locheye, as with á-mót, Amat, in their respective meanings of isthmus and confluence with no attached descriptive elements, are purely topographical terms, although each is descriptive of a potentially exploitable land formation. The stafr- derived element of Stava, an obsolete name for the lower River Conon, makes a clear statement of the particular practical use Norsemen had made of the river, the floating downstream of timbers. On the River Blackwater between and Contin the place-name Rogie, foaming river, aptly describes the river below the falls of that name, but gives no hint of any use Norsemen might have made of the river. Rasay, horse-river, the name applied to the Blackwater until the end of the 18th century, does not appear to be descriptive of the river itself, but probably describes a use Norsemen made of the river. This merits explorative discussion later in this study.

Nine place-names relating to coastal topography are listed in the final table. A tenth coastal place-name, Obsdale, as a -dalr place-name, is listed in Table 2.2.

Table 2.4. Topographic Place-names – coastal features.

Place-name Old Norse Translation Parish Gruinard grunn-fjörðr shallow firth Kincardine Oape hóp bay Kincardine Steollaidh stagl-ey rock island Tarbat Gizzen Briggs gisnary-bryggja leaky bridge Shandwick sand-vik sand bay Nigg Big Audle vaðill ford (across sands) Nigg Whiteness hvit -nes white headland Tain Stavaig * stafr-vik stave bay Dingwall * alka-vik auks’ bay Urquhart

Of these coastal place-names (including Obsdale), eight reflect appreciation of shoreline topography, but give no indication of specific utility. Whiteness, as a place-name, pre-dates the presence of English in Easter Ross; Watson therefore judged it to be of Norse origin. - 44 -

Stavaig is an obsolete name for the Conon Estuary and, as with Stava (Table 2.3), offers a powerful hint as to Norse exploitation of natural timber resources. Alcaig on the south bank of the Conon Estuary owes its name to the presence of auks, sea birds of the same family as the puffin, a noted Viking delicacy.

One other Norse derived place-name, , in the parish of , has not been tabulated, simply because it is a topographic name in a class of its own. Derived from ON áss-endi, end of rocky ridge, Assynt singularly is the only place-name of Norse derivation in Ross suggestive of anything remotely describable as mountainous. The Norse settlers of Ross, it would seem, had much more interest in economic potential, which they found in the valleys and on the coastal plain, than they had in barren mountain topography.

The addition of Assynt, Broadpool, Gallaber and Poldam to the place-names tabulated brings the total of Norse place-names identified in Ross to 43 and of those 4 are habitative farmstead place-names. Of the 39 topographic place-names 25 are linked to human activity, predominantly utilisation of natural agrarian resources, by a resident Norse population and 14 are nothing but topographic in nature. Only 33% of Norse place-names in Ross are classified as simply topographic; 67% are indicative of an active resident Norse population. That noted 67% indicate an exploitation of rich natural resources and corroborate Crawford’s intuitive judgement that Norse occupation of Ross was not a result of chance but of economic planning and commercial foresight which has been noted as the mark of Viking exploiters everywhere.93 Norse place-names in Ross point to a period of stable uncontested Norse domination during which economic and commercial aspirations had been pursued.

The overwhelming preponderance of Gaelic place-names in the Ross toponymy is a partial explanation for the paucity of Norse -ból, -bólstaðr place-names94 and the total absence of any suffixed -staðir or -setr . Whilst the Dingwall place-name in itself is evidence that the Norse had formed a dominant political élite population in Ross, nonetheless they would have been in a minority and Gaelic would have been the language of the majority. Coexistence with the majority Gaelic-speaking population demanded of the minority cooperation and inter-marriage. A degree of bilingualism was necessary for such relationships and within the space of a few generations the Norse language faded and was replaced by Gaelic. In Ross, until the arrival of English, places thereafter were newly named only in Gaelic, but a proportion of Norse place-names survived adapted into Gaelic, e.g. Stafr-vik, Stavaig. This evidence points to Norse immigrants having settled in Ross when the language of the majority indigenous population was Gaelic, therefore in post-Pictish times, certainly sometime later than the 9th century.

The absence of Norse place-names along the southern side of the Black Isle in contrast to their considerable presence around and at the head of the Cromarty Firth [Figure 17] indicates

93 Crawford, B. E., Earl & Mormaer, Norse-Pictish relationships in Northern Scotland, (Groam House, 1995), p.20 94 Peder Gammeltoft has demonstrated that -bólstaðr was probably not used in Scotland by the earliest Norse settlers in their naming of farms, but rather when original large farms were split up to form smaller farm units for the succeeding generations. He also judged that the use of -bólstaðr in Shetland, Orkney and the is likely to date from the end of the 9th century. The –ból element as yet has not been similarly investigated. It might have been used to name farms by the first Norse settlers in Scotland, but it is equally possible that it may have been used by a succeeding generation to name portioned-off farms in the same manner as –bólstaðr. Gammeltoft, P., The Place-name Element ' bólstaðr' in the North Atlantic Area, (Copenhagen: Rietzel, 2001) - 45 -

that the Firth had been the central focus of Norse settlement in Ross. The, the Dornoch Firth, can be thought of as southern boundary of a long-term Norse occupation and the Cromarty Firth as the boundary of a shorter-term Norse occupation.

The pattern of Norse derived place-names in Ross is quite similar to that in Argyll and on much of the western seaboard but is quite dissimilar to that in Skye, the Western Isles and the where -bólstaðr, -staðir, -setr place-names are numerous. In Ross there are examples of survival of pre-Norse Pictish place-names, the Peffery, Peffeoran, being but one. In Skye, the Western Isles, Orkney and Shetland no pre-Norse place-names survive in the toponymy beyond relics in the names of some islands, the names Skye and Orkney being examples. The place-name evidence from Skye and the Western Isles tells that the Norse language was spoken almost, if not completely, exclusively for at least two hundred years causing obliteration of pre-Norse place-names and the continued coining of numerous Norse settlement place-names beyond the period of first Norse settlement. In Ross Norse clearly had not been spoken for a period anything like as long as two hundred years.

As Crawford first observed in 1986,95 notable absentees from the Norse place-names of Ross are any derived from ounceland or pennyland. These terms were land valuation units on which payment of tax or tribute was calculated and levied. Their non-existence in Ross is particularly surprising for they are found in all other areas of known Norse settlement in Scotland, Orkney, Shetland, the Hebrides and much of the mainland western coastline. Gareth Williams96 in a widely based study embracing the and evidence from archaeology, numismatics and history reached a conclusion that the spread of ouncelands and pennylands (land valued as an ounce of silver or a silver penny) from the Northern Isles is attributable to expansion of the power of the Orkney earls Sigurd Hlodversson, the Stout, and his son Thorfinn the Mighty. Williams credits Sigurd with introduction from Orkney of the ounceland system of land valuation and Thorfinn with further refinement of that system by introduction of additional smaller units of assessment, pennylands. Sigurd flourished in the late 10th into the early 11th century, meeting his death in 1014. Thorfinn died around 1065. The conclusion reached by Williams increases surprise in the absence of ouncelands and pennylands from Ross because the prevailing opinion has been that Ross fell under Norse occupation and settlement in the era of .

Alexander Grant97 has suggested that their complete absence from Ross would point to the survival after Norse occupation of an effective Pictish system of fiscal land valuation 'based on the ubiquitous davoch', a suggestion which, if accepted, would mean that the Norse who overran Ross simply had appropriated that important component of administrative structure from the Picts. If that interpretation were correct, it would sit comfortably with the possibility that a Pictish assembly complex at Dingwall similarly had been appropriated by the Norse invaders and conquerors. The term davoch, however, even if it were to be of Pictish origin, was employed by as a Gaelic term as is demonstrated by the cluster of contiguous davoch (pronounced 'doch') place-names– Dochcarty, Dochnacarn, Dochpollo, Dochnaclear and Davochmoluag - close to the burgh of Dingwall, on the northern slopes of the

95 Crawford, B. E., The Making of a Frontier: The Firthlands from 9th – 12th centuries, in Baldwin, J. R., ed., Firthlands of Ross and Sutherland, (1986), p.43 96 Williams, G., in Williams, G. and Bibire, P., eds., Sagas, Saints and Settlements. (Brill, 2004), pp.203-4 97 Grant, A., The Province of Ross and the , in Cowan, E. and McDonald, A., eds., Alba, (2000), pp.95-6 - 46 -

Strathpeffer Valley. In each place-name the generic Doch- is followed by a Gaelic specific. The absence from Ross of ounceland place-names, therefore, does not necessarily point to appropriation by the Norse of a Pictish system of fiscal land valuation. That absence in Ross can at least equally be attributed to Norse appropriation of an existent Gaelic system of fiscal land valuation.

 Cluster of Norse place-names at Dingwall Gallaber (ON galgeberg, gallow hill) confirms Dingwall as an important Norse legal and judicial centre. Broadpool in its derivation from ON brott-pollr, 'made way to the harbour', signifies an engineered roadway constructed to link a probable proto-urban settlement associated with the þing-site to the shore of the Conon estuary. That shore was named by the Norse stafr- vik, the harbour where constructional timbers floated down the river were loaded into cargo ships. The cluster of Norse derived place-names at Dingwall – Dingwall itself, Gallaber, Broadpool, Poldam, Stavaig and Stava – gives backing to Crawford’s suspicion of a political and judicial linkage of the Dingwall thingsite to commercial exploitation of natural resources, particularly those of the Conon river system. Those latter resources included, as well as natural timber, historically attested riches of salmon and of pearls.

 Horse River The Old Statistical Account for the parish of Contin attributes to the River Blackwater a much older name, the Rasay, and in other 18th century records the same river is named as the Rarsa. The name derives from Old Norse hross-a, horse river. Norsemen perhaps had awarded that name in recognition of the of that river having served horse-mounted travellers as the principal route west from Contin through the mountains into the interior and on to the western sea, but entries in the poet Robert Southey’s journal prompt an alternative explanation for the name Horse River.

In September 1819 a coach left Dingwall carrying both Robert Southey and his companion, Thomas Telford. It was the first coach to travel the length of the great engineer’s newly constructed Parliamentary Road from Dingwall to Strome on the shore of Lochcarron. Their coach passed through Contin on the first day of the Feil Maree (festival, or fair, of Maelrubha), 'a fair which', Southey noted in his Journal, 'puts all the country round in activity' and 'is supposed to be chiefly for horses'. The road from Contin westward to Garve inevitably followed the course of the Blackwater River, until 1800 known as the Rasay. Southey reported that west of Contin – We fell in with several droves of horses coming from the interior, a small hardy kind: many of them go to the south and are transported into the coal pits of Northumberland and Durham. 98

Place-name evidence points to a long history of the rearing of horses on rich limestone pastures in Wester Ross. At the head of , separated only by a short distance and the Kishorn River, are found two place-names, Rassal and Russel.99 Rassal, recorded in 1583 as Rassor, is derived from ON hross-völlr, horse field. Russel, recorded Ressor in 1583, is derived from ON hryssa-völlr, bearing the meaning of mare field. The respective place-names point to a separation of the sexes,

98 Southey, R., Journal of a Tour in Scotland, p.147 99 NG84SW0004 Township, Rassal; NG84SW0015 Russel - 47 -

stallions from mares, which in turn points to selective breeding. The Summer Isle of Ristol in the parish of Lochbroom gained its name from Glen Ruisteil on the mainland opposite. Ruisteil derives from ON hryss-dalr, mare valley, an indication that there in that glen Norsemen had also bred horses.

In 1754 a report100 on the suitability of the parishes of Lochcarron and Lochbroom for the production of linen yarn commented that a leading export from each of those parishes was horses, driven east to Dingwall and Inverness to be traded for necessary supplies of oatmeal. The practice of rearing horses in Wester Ross for onward driving to market in the agriculturally richer east might have had a very long history, stretching back in time to at least the era of Norse occupation. It might be that the Rasay, the horse river, had earned its name as the route along which Norsemen drove horses to the river’s confluence with the Conon and there entered the fertile lowlands around the Cromarty Firth. This would suggest a degree of economic unity between Norse settlements on the east and west coastal lands.

 Eskadale and Udale Eskadale (eskr-dalr) was the Norse name for Strathglass101 and the name survives as the name of an estate on the south bank of the Beauly River. Eskadale is also an old name for Strathconon, the strath of the River Meig. Both these straths were given the name Eskadale on account of their ash woodlands. Ash was a highly valued timber. The strength of ash is near to that of oak and its flexible strength102 approaches that of yew. Ash wood was therefore valued for its suitability for the manufacture of a wide range of items from archers’ bows and arrows to the beams of building construction. Ash was used for the frames of small vessels and its high flexibility made it suitable for the tillers and rudders of small ships. On a less technical level, ash is a timber well suited to be firewood; it burns well, even when wet or 'green'. The felling and floating of ash timbers down the river systems of the Conon and the Beauly, for both local commercial exploitation and onward export, would have formed a practicable proposition to Norsemen. The yew wood of Udale also would have attracted exploitation. Yew wood is extremely hard and durable. It is also resistant to the effects of water and often were held together by 'hard-as-iron' yew nails. The best known example of military use of yew wood is the long-bow, a weapon which fully exploited yew’s capacity, as the most elastic of woods, to store and to spring-release great tension placed upon it. Not so well known is that the long-bow was introduced to the British Isles by the Vikings.

Dingwall and other Þingvöllr place-names Gaels to this day name the town of Dingwall as Inbhir-Pheofarain (mouth of the Peffery). There is no directly equivalent Gaelic place-name for Dingwall. The survival through the process of Gaelicisation of what is a Norse political and judicial place-name probably indicates that the Dingwall place-name, Þingvöllr, had been retained in the language of the political and judicial élite, which had become Gaelic-speaking, specifically for the highly localised meeting place of the þing, a specific location which lay within the wider local area

100 Report of Richard Neilson General Surveyor of the Manufactures in the Highlands of Scotland, 1754, in Cowper, A. S., Linen in the Highlands 1753-62, (Edinburgh, 1969) 101 Taylor S., The Toponymy of Strathglass and Beauly, Inverness-shire, in Northern Scotland 23: 2003, p.27 102 The flexibility of ash makes it the favoured timber for the manufacture of camans. - 48 -

of Inbhir-Pheofarain. In its turn that suggests survival of Norse political and judicial culture within a culturally hybrid group, i.e. Gaelic speaking GallGaels who led some aspects of their lives in the style of Norsemen.

As a place-name derived from Old Norse þingvöllr, Dingwall is not unique in the British Isles. The þingvöllr place-name occurs wherever surrounding Scandinavian settlements of a sufficient density of population had justified them having their own parliament. Tingwall occurs both in Orkney and in Shetland. Similarly a is found in both Cheshire and in Lancashire103. The place-name Tinwald survives in Nithsdale near Dumfries, and Tynwald, a practically identical name, is applied both to the modern parliament and to the government of the Isle of Man. Each year at the village of St Johns, on the 5th of July, the Manx parliament meets in the open air on Tynwald Hill, the law hill of the Isle of Man, to give final authorisation to laws passed and to receive petitions. Thingwalla, now long vanished as a place-name, appears in Domesday Book as a place near in North Yorkshire. Least known of all are two þingvöllr place-names in the Hebrides, place-names which have survived, adopted and adapted into local Gaelic usage. In Lewis at Tolsta Chaolais there is a hillock which bears the Gaelic name Cnoc an Tiongalairidh ‘the hillock of the Tiongal by the shieling’, Tiongal being a Gaelicised form of Þingvöllr. In Skye a place-name Tinwhil (derived from þingvöllr) is in record as having been located in Glen Hinnisdal (Glen Thing’s dale) [figure 19].

Fellowes-Jensen judges that the thingsites of the British Isles, those of Shetland, Orkney, the Hebrides, Nithsdale and Man, to have been taken into use in the course of the 9th century and that the formerly Scandinavian territories in Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cheshire had passed under the control of the English king well before the middle of the 10th century. Fellowes- Jensen makes no comment on the time origin of the þingvöllr at Dingwall, but judges that the origins of the other Þingvöllr place-names of the British Isles are unlikely to lie later in history than 920.

In Scandinavia the first þingvöllr place-name to have been historically recorded is Tingvalla in 1292, on the largest islet within the present day boundaries of the Swedish city of Karlstad., a clear derivation from Þingvöllr, is found in West Norway. Today Þingvellir is the best known, indeed most famous, of the place-names which derive from þingvöllr. Þingvalla is an older name for the specific meeting place of the Alþing, Iceland’s parliament, on Þingvellir, Parliament Plains. Robert Southey’s knowledge of Þingvalla inspired what in 1819 was an eye opening observation; Dingwall, the capital of Ross-shire, in its name reminding me of the Icelandic capital Thingvalla.

The sound of the Norse place-name þingvöllr as it is voiced is represented in English as thingwall. The letter þ of the Old Norse alphabet conveys the English /th/ sound, but the /th/ sound in þing tended to harden into a /t/ sound. In Scandinavian languages today, except Icelandic, the word is found represented more often as 'ting' than as 'thing'. This evolving principle is apparent in the þingvöllr derived place-names of the British Isles – Thingwall, Tingwall, Tynwald, Tinwald and, in Gaelic, Tiongal. Dingwall however is a particular exception. From 1226 onwards the place-name appears in record variously as Dingwell, Dingwall, Dinkeual, Dyngwell, Dingvale, Dyngvalle, Dyngvall, Dingwal, Dyngvel, Dyngwall, Dinguel, and Dingual – each and every case representing that initial /d/ sound.

103 now within Liverpool. - 49 -

The Scandinavian name was originally adopted by Gaelic speakers, who replaced initial /þ/ by /t/. The initial D- in all the recorded forms of Dingwall probably reflects the fact that the Gaelic starting-point for the subsequent adoption of the name into English was the dative case, probably dependent on the preposition in (later ann, an (n)) ‘in’. The n of the preposition would have had the effect of voicing the initial /t/ of the Gaelic form of the name to /d/. Gillian Fellows-Jensen, 'Tingwall: the significance of the name' 104

Whilst it should to be thought possible that mutation of the initial /th/ into /t/ had developed in spoken Norse previous to Norse settlement in Ross, it is perhaps more likely that the change resulted from interaction in Ross with a majority native Gaelic population, in whose language the /th/ sound had no place.105 For whichever reason, þing came to be pronounced ting and, through further influence from Gaelic, ting uniquely at Dingwall altered into ding.

There certainly are instances in spoken Gaelic of the /t/ sound transforming into a /d/ sound. Tional [a gathering], when in the dative case, or employed as a specific, mutates into a voiced /d/. The initial /d/ of Dingwall is likely to have arisen in a similar way. Dingwall land records of the 17th century exhibit a similar tendency; Gaelic place-names beginning with /t/ are found alternatively recorded with an initial /d/, Toneanvaunt, for example, becoming Doneanvaunt.

A credible case has been made that in the 10th century the Norse-speaking settlers in the Wirral Peninsula of Cheshire pronounced their Þingvöllr (today Thingwall) as Dingwall.106 Place-names in the Wirral derived from Old Norse, such as Irby - 'Irishman’s farm' – give an indication that amongst the Norse expelled from Dublin in 902 who had settled in the Wirral there had been a minority of Gaelic-speaking Irish who had also settled there. In a poem contemporary to the battle of Brunanburgh fought in 937 a reference is made to Dingesmere, a place-name which translates as marshland of the þing, the þing of the Norse settlers of the Wirral. As with Dingesmere therefore the Þingvöllr of the Wirral in the mid 10th century would have been pronounced Dingwall, not Thingwall. The spoken language of the 10th century Norsemen of the Wirral is judged to have been influenced by contact and interaction with the Gaelic-speaking indigenous population of Ireland. For Dingwall in Ross the meantime unanswerable chicken or egg question arises. Was the transformation by 1226 of the initial /th/ sound of Þingvöllr into the /d/ sound consequent to Norsemen having settled in Ross amongst a predominantly Gaelic speaking population, or had the language of the Norse settlers experienced a Gaelic linguistic influence previous to their settlement in Ross? If the former, that would suggest a post-Pictish origin for the Dingwall place-name.

In Scandinavia, and also in Iceland, a hierarchy of þings developed. The þing of the immediately local unit of administration, the herrað, or herred,107 sent representatives to participate in the higher level þing which dealt with affairs of a province; provincial þings similarly despatched representatives to national þings. At local þings local disputes were resolved, local political decisions taken and local rules determined. Provincial and national þings acted as supreme courts and set the law code of a whole province or country. In

104 in Waugh, D. J., ed., Shetland’s Northern Links Language and History, (1996) 105 Witness Irish pronunciation of 'three' as 'tree' 106 Cavill, Harding and Jesch, Revisiting Dingismere, Journal of the English Place-name Society 36: 2004, pp.25-38. 107 hundred, a settled area of approximately a hundred free families, or an area which was capable of supporting a hundred . - 50 -

medieval Iceland the Alþing was established in 930 to meet at a chosen location accessible overland from all inhabited areas of the island, a location which was awarded the name Þingvöllr. The Alþing took precedence over the earlier founded þings of the local regions. It was, as it is today, the national Þing, the national parliament, of the Icelandic Republic.

In Scotland it was only in Shetland that a pyramidal structure of þing courts developed. Parish place-names of Shetland suffixed ting108 offer confirmation - Aithsting, , Lunnasting, Nesting, and . Such place-names indicate the meeting places of local tings. Tingmen had been delegated by these local tings to attend the all-Shetland ting, the Lawting, which continued regularly to meet at Tingwall109 on until the 1570s. The creation of the administrative structure which introduced parish tings to Shetland is dated however to sometime after 1195, the year in which Shetland was detached from the Orkney earldom and became a province of the kingdom of Norway. From the time of Norse settlement of Shetland in the 9th century, however, it is likely that Tingwall had been the meeting place of a single ting for all Shetland. That all-Shetland ting certainly had been a Lawting (Old Norse, Lögþing), a court which settled disputes and established laws and it possibly also had been an Alting (Old Norse, Alþing) a ting which every Norse freeman settler in Shetland by right could attend. Whatever the specific early status of the ting at Tingwall previous to 1195, it would have been an institution, a parliament, of justice and administration for all Shetland. Tingwall is therefore judged to be an older place-name than those of the ting suffixed parish place-names.

A pyramidal ting structure did not develop in Orkney; there, Tingwall on is the only unquestioned ting site place-name. This would suggest that where Þingvöllr place- names appear they indicate meeting places of alþings or lögþings, single þings established at an early stage of colonisation at which all freemen Norse settlers of the colonised area could participate, e.g. one Þingvöllr for Shetland, one for Orkney.

Neither do place-names indicate that any hierarchical þing structure had ever developed on the northern Scottish mainland. Tain, which long had been conjectured as a ting-name, is actually a very ancient place-name, its origins long pre-dating the Viking era. Thing’s Va Broch in the Caithness parish of Reay recently has been discredited as a þing-site place- name110. Dingwall therefore is the only convincing example of a thing-site place-name on the northern mainland of Scotland. It would appear that Norse Ross in its governance had possessed a greater degree of autonomy than had Caithness and Sutherland which, late medieval records indicate, had sent Tingmen to attend the Orkney Ting which by then convened not at Tingwall but within ’s .

108 Þing, now voiced as ting characterises the names of the parliaments of Norway (Storting, great ting), of Denmark (Folketing, people’s ting) and of Faroes (Løgting, law ting) 109 There is also a Tingwall in Orkney and, of course, the parliament and government of the Isle of Man is Tynwald. 110 Waugh D., Caithness: Another Dip in the Swelchie Well, in Woolf, A., ed., – Twenty Years After, (St John’s House Papers No 12, (, 2009), pp.31-48. Quote: 'likely to be a toponymic relict of Victorian antiquarian enthusiasm in the area'. p.42 - 51 -

Figure 19. Locations of Þingvöllr place-names in Northern Scotland

Tingwall in Shetland Tingwall in Orkney Tiongal in Cnoc an Tiongalairidh in Lewis Tinwhil in Skye in Glen Hinnisdal, 'Glen Þing’s Dale'

Note how these Þingvöllr place-names are well dispersed. This is suggestive of separate, probably substantially autonomous, areas of Norse colonial settlement.

3.4 Annals as Evidence

Annals The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba111 is regarded as the one notable Scottish contemporary record to have survived the Viking era. It was composed in the early 11th century, however, well towards the end of the Viking Era. The Chronicle makes brief record of events from the reign of Kenneth MacAlpin (Cináed mac Ailpín), whose death was in 858, until the reign of Kenneth II (Cináed mac Mail Coluim), who reigned as King of Alba from 991 to 995. The one yet surviving version of the Chronicle is contained within the Poppleton Manuscript, held in the Bibliothèque, Paris. Scottish annals contemporary to the Viking onslaught of the late 9th and early 10th centuries, have not survived but the annals of were removed for safety

111 Previously called the 'Scottish Chronicle' or the 'Older Scottish Chronicle'. - 52 -

to Ireland and seem to have become a source for annals kept by Irish monks. Irish annals provide us with considerably more snippets of historical information about Viking activity in Scotland than does the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba and such snippets extend over the entire length of the period termed the Viking Era, the beginnings of which are dated to the final decade of the 9th century.

Annals are bare records of events recorded in time order. Originally they were kept as a means by which monks could determine the yearly chronology of holy days, the feast days of saints. Annals record the deaths of priests, abbots and bishops and also through time came to record notable military and political events. Such events feature in a very brief form, practically as 'one liners'. Of the various Irish annals, the Annals of (AU) offer the greatest totality of information telling of activities of Vikings in Scotland. The contents presented in the , although it is a compilation of annals made towards the end of the 15th century, are regarded as reliable historical sources because the Ulster annalists copied the older sources verbatim. Another compilation of annals useful to Scottish historians is the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland, much fewer in number than those of the Annals of Ulster. They were also compiled much earlier, around AD1000, from both older annals and elements of narrative history.

Fortriu: Moray and Ross Nowhere in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, in the Annals of Ulster, or in the Fragmentary Annals is there any direct reference to Ross. In 2006 however Alex Woolf convincingly demonstrated that the most significant and leading of the Pictish kingdoms, , had been located in what would be the later medieval provinces of Moray and Ross.112 References to Fortriu in these sources therefore become recognisable as references to historical events in Moray and/or Ross.

Year 839 Fortriu: Catastrophe The Annal of Ulster for the year 839 records catastrophic defeat of the men of Fortriu by 'the heathens' - Viking forces.

AU839.9.The heathens won a battle against the men of Fortriu, and Eóganán son of Óengus, Bran son of Óengus, Aed son of Boanta, and others almost innumerable fell there.113

Eóganán was king of Fortriu, Bran was his brother and Aed (Aedh) was the king of Dál Riata, the Gaelic kingdom which for some time previous had been and had continued to be dominated by Pictish Fortriu. The Annal entry reports utterly total military disaster for the kingdom of Fortriu (Moray and Ross).

Clearly much had been at stake in the conflict of 839. The presence on the battlefield of not only the king of Fortriu and his brother, but also of Aedh, the king of Dál Riata, suggests that the Pictish forces, dependents and allies of Fortriu, had been called together from far and wide to combat a present, known and formidable enemy. The Viking forces must have

112 Woolf, A., Dún Nechtáin, Fortriu and the geography of the Picts, in Scottish Historical Review 85: 2006, pp.182-201 113 All quotes from Annals of Ulster are taken from CELT: The Corpus of Electronic Texts. http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100001A/index.html - 53 -

occupied an area of Fortriu for a length of time sufficient to give Eóganán opportunity to summon to the coastal lands of the Inner Moray Firth not only Aedh, his client king of Dál Riata, from Argyll but also noblemen 'almost innumerable' from throughout Pictavia, each at the head of fighting men. This was not a response to a short term opportunistic raid, but the commitment of the whole force available to the kingdom of Fortriu in a concerted attempt to expel an unwelcome and threatening alien presence. Although the specific location of that threatening Viking presence in Moray and Ross is unknown to us, the safe anchorage of the Cromarty Firth, 'portus salutis', has potential as the type of well sheltered base which a Viking fleet required. What is certain is that the concerted Pictish resistance to the Viking presence had ended in absolute failure and catastrophe for the kingdom of Fortriu, Moray and Ross.

Year 866 Fortriu: Amlaíb/Óláfr The Annal of Ulster for the year 866 records a Hiberno-Norse invasion and ravaging of Fortriu.

AU866.1 Amlaíb and Auisle went with the foreigners (Norsemen) of Ireland and Scotland to Fortriu, plundered the entire Pictish country (Cruthentúath) and took away hostages from them.

Cruthentúath may be translated from Irish either as 'the Pictish country' or 'the Pictish folk [nation]'. In Irish Cruithne means Pict, Cruthen means Pictish and túath means either folk or country. Fortriu, of course, is Moray and Ross. Amlaíb is the Irish Gaelic representation of the Norse Óláfr of Dublin recorded in Icelandic sources. Auisle similarly is the Gaelicised form of the Norse name Ásl, or Auðgísl, probably Amlaíb’s brother. Amlaíb makes his first historical appearance in the Annal of Ulster for the year 853114 which records the arrival in Ireland of 'Amlaíb, the son of the king of Laithlind'. Irish historians contentiously debate whether Laithlind was a district of western Norway or a term for the Northern and Hebridean Isles and the western coastal lands of what today is Scotland. Amlaíb/Óláfr soon established himself as the first Norse king of Dublin, possibly with ĺmar as joint-ruler.115 The Annal entry tells that the Norsemen led by Óláfr and Ásl included, as well as Norsemen from Ireland, Norsemen from 'Scotland', presumably from Argyll, the territory of the formerly Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata which had fallen under Norse domination.

The Fragmentary Annals of Ireland also report the plundering of Fortriu in 866.

The laid waste and plundered Foirtriu, and they took many hostages with them as a pledge for tribute; for a long time afterwards they continued to pay them tribute.116

This offers the additional information that Norsemen collected tribute from the Picts of Fortriu for what presumably was years thereafter. Whether Norsemen under Amlaíb/Óláfr remained in Moray and Ross during that time to collect tribute, or returned from time to time for that purpose is not made clear. Whichever was the case, a secure base would have been a necessary requirement.

114 AU 853.2 115 possibly same person as the Boneless 116 Radner, J., ed., The Fragmentary Annals of Ireland, (Dublin, 1978), No. 328 p.119 - 54 -

The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba seems to record the same events. 117

And two years later Amlaíb and his gentiles plundered Pictland and occupied it from the first of January to the Feast of St Patrick [17 March].

A convincing case has been made by Smyth118 from analysis of the evidential sources that Amlaíb/Óláfr arrived in Fortriu sometime in 866, plundered and took hostages, before settling at some base within Fortriu on 1 January 867 and then not actually departing for Ireland until two years later. Therefore he would have left Fortriu in early 869 in time for him to reach Armagh for that year’s Feast of St Patrick, the celebration of which the Ulster Annal for 869 (AU 869.6) reports him as having ravaged. That ravaging is the first report in Irish Annals of Amlaíb being once again active in Ireland since he had left Ireland for Fortriu in 866.

If Óláfr and his forces had indeed wintered in Fortriu through three winters that would point to the certainty of a secure base from which repeated plundering and enforcement of tribute would have been mounted. The Cromarty Firth again presents itself as possessor of the appropriate qualities to have been that required safe haven.

Year 870-1: The Sacking of The Annals of Ulster contain report in 870 of the siege and destruction of the citadel of Dumbarton, Al Clut (Clyde Rock), the capital of the British kingdom of , by Norse forces led by Amlaíb/Óláfr and Ímar.

AU870.6 The siege of Ail Cluaithe by the Norsemen: Amlaíb and Ímar, two kings of the Norsemen, laid siege to the fortress and at the end of four months they destroyed and plundered it.

The next year they returned to Dublin with two hundred ships and a great many enslaved captives.

AU871.2 Amlaíb and Ímar returned to Áth Cliath [Dublin] from Alba with two hundred ships, bringing away with them in captivity to Ireland a great prey of and Britons and Picts.

Almost certainly the Picts of Fortriu, Moray and Ross, had been on the receiving end of similar treatment during the preceding years.

Raids or settlement Record of the experience of Fortriu during the years 866 to 869, and of Strathclyde in 870-1, points to ruthlessly violent plundering and the taking of merchandisable slaves and aristocratic hostages to ensure payment of tribute, but nothing in the Annals points directly to concurrent or subsequent Norse settlement. However the taking of captives, the removal of persons from the land and a lengthy presence of plunderers and collectors of tribute might have created opportunities for localised seizures of land and settlement by individual

117 See Skene, Chronicles 8, and Anderson, M.O., Kings and kingship in early Scotland, (Lanham, Maryland, USA, 1973), p.250 118 Smyth, A. P., Scandinavian Kings in the British Isles. (Oxford, 1977), pp.143-9, and see Woolf, A., From Pictland to Alba, (Edinburgh, 2007), pp.107-109 - 55 -

Norsemen, but the Annal entries give no suggestion of co-ordinated extensive settlement such as would justify existence of a significant Thingsite such as has now been identified at Dingwall.

Woolf suggests a possibility that Dumbarton on the at the mouth of the River Leven might have been considered as a possible 'north British longphort or pirate base, similar to those that were growing up at places like Dublin, Waterford and Limerick'.119 Given the observations made earlier on Dingwall’s location at the head of the Cromarty Firth between the River Peffery and the larger river, the Conon, there is a similar possibility for the location of what would become Dingwall in Ross to have served as a 'north British longphort or pirate base', but nothing in Annals is suggestive of a settled Norse presence anywhere in the territory of the Pictish kingdom of Fortriu.

Death of Amlaíb/Óláfr Amlaíb/Óláfr appears to have met his death before Ímar who died in 873. Until then, of the two kings of the Norsemen, Amlaíb always had been given prime billing over Ímar. In 873 the late Ímar is accredited as sole king.

AU873.3 Ímar, king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain, ended his life.

The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba confirms Amlaíb/Óláfr’s death at some unnamed location in Scotland – Amlaíb, drawing tribute, was killed by Constantín, king, from 862 to 876, of the emerging kingdom of Alba.

Destructive Viking attacks on the northern Picts of Fortriu appear to have renewed sometime between 889 and 900, the eleven year reign of Donald son of Constantín. The Chronicle relays that during Donald’s reign the Northmen wasted Pictland.120

Year 904 Fortriu: Last record In 902 the Irish succeeded in driving the Norsemen from Dublin.

AU902.2 The heathens were driven from Ireland, i.e. from the fortress of Áth Cliath [Dublin]… and they abandoned a good number of their ships, and escaped half dead after they had been wounded and broken.

That expulsion may be reflected in the presence and violent death in Scotland in 904 of a leading member of the Norse Dublin dynasty, Ímar grandson of Ímar.

AU 904.4 Ímar grandson of Ímar, was slain by the men of Fortriu, and there was a great slaughter about him.

The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba informs of the same event in recounting that in the fourth year (904) of the reign of Constantín II the Northmen were slain in Strath Erenn121. It is

119 Woolf, A., From Pictland to Alba, (Edinburgh, 2007), p.110 120 Hudson, B. T., ed., and tr., The Scottish Chronicle, Scottish Historical Review 77: 1998, pp.129-161, p.155 121 ibid, pp.129-161. Constantín son of Ed held the kingdom for 40 years in his third year [903], the Northmen plundered and all Albania. Yet in the following year [904] the Northmen were slain at all p.155 - 56 -

possible that where Ímar grandson of Ímar was slain by the men of Fortriu was actually in Fortriu in the Strath of the (Gaelic Strath Find Erenn, Strath of the White Erenn). However, given that the Chronicle locates the Norse plundering of the year before to Dunkeld and all Albania (Alba); it is more likely that Ímar had met his fate in the Strathearn.

Slaughter of the Norsemen in 904 by the men of Fortriu appears to point to some recovery in the strength and power of Fortriu, yet it is in that record of victory and slaughter that Fortriu is last witnessed in historical record. Fortriu fades from history and a new territorial power emerges, Moréb or Moray. In reference to the reign of Malcolm (Mael Coluim) I, King of Alba 943-954, the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba contains the first historical mention of Moréb,122 the province of Moray. Reference in the mid-10th century to Moréb ( Gaelic) may be taken as indication of Gaelic having replaced the in the formerly Pictish kingdom of Fortriu. The lengthy poem, The Prophecy of Berchán, probably written in the 12th century, gives its later confirmation of Moray as successor to Fortriu. It refers to Macbeth, previous to his winning of the kingship of Alba, not as , but as 'king of Fortriu '.123 This could be interpreted as meaning that in the early 11th century Macbeth, whether as mormaer or king, had been overall ruler of the lands which had comprised Fortriu. In other words, in the early 11th century Moray had included Ross which only later, certainly before the end of the 12th century, became a separate province.

3.5 The Icelandic Book of Settlements as Evidence

Introduction to saga and Landnámabók Icelandic Saga comprises a unique medieval literary genre which flowered in Iceland during the 12th to 15th centuries. The greater bulk of saga was written as narrative literature, but the narratives were constructed portraying a Viking past. The huge difficulty for historians in making use of saga as historical evidence is distinguishing genuine historical information from narrative fiction. Yet there are works of saga which were compiled and written down largely from folk tradition and oral history in order to be regarded as histories. The greatest such work is , the sagas of the kings of Norway. A similar, yet somewhat different, work is Orkneyinga Saga, a compilation of sagas of the individual jarls (earls) of Orkney up to about the year 1200, when the Saga was originally compiled. Landnámabók, the Icelandic Book of Settlements, is somewhat different again. It was written early in the 12th century to chronicle Norse settlement of Iceland.

It is Orkneyinga Saga which one might expect to offer the best hope of throwing some light on the history of the north of Scotland in the Viking Age. Orkneyinga Saga, however, contains no reference to a meeting of a þing, or a meeting place of a þing, anywhere on the Scottish mainland. Dingwall as Þingvöllr occupies no place in history, not even in saga. Orkneyinga Saga, however, does make references which appear to throw some limited light on the history of Ross from the 9th to the early 12th century.

122 ibid, p.158, Malcolm proceeded into Moray and killed Cellach. Here Moray is English translation of Middle Irish Moréb, which appears to be derived from a British, or Pictish, word bearing the meaning of 'low lying land near to the sea' 123 Anderson, A. O., Early Sources, Vol. I, p.601 - 57 -

Landnámabók, The Icelandic Book of Settlements, was compiled in Iceland in the early 12th century to form a detailed record, particularly for genealogical purposes, of the Norse Settlement of Iceland which had taken place during the late 9th and early 10th centuries. It presents detailed personal histories of the original settlers of Iceland and also brief histories of their descendant families into the early 12th century. The narrative history of one particular family, a history which explains that family’s eventual settlement in Iceland, is of potentially important relevance to this study.

Although Landnámabók was originally compiled in the earliest decades of the 12th century, the earliest extant copies date to no earlier than the mid to late 13th century. It was partly and probably substantially compiled by Iceland’s earliest chronicler Ari Thorgilsson (1067-1148), the Learned. Ari along with Kolstegg the Wise are recognised as the compilers of the original version of Landnámabók. Ari previously had compiled Íslendingabók, a brief notation of the histories of the first Norse settlers of Iceland. Landnámabók is a later and considerably more detailed and comprehensive attempt by Icelandic scholars to chronicle the settlement of Iceland between the years 870 and 930.

The content of Landnámabók and of Orkneyinga Saga, indeed the content of the whole body of Icelandic saga literature, currently faces a serious academic challenge. Alex Woolf has judged the content of these works as hearsay and therefore 'inadmissible in court' without corroboration from reliable contemporary sources.124 Any content, drawn from Landnámabók or Orkneyinga Saga, which on first reading is apparently relevant to this study, must undergo a process of considerable investigation. This section of the study, in reviewing Landnámabók, as potential historical evidence, is necessarily and unavoidably lengthy.

Landnámabók and Scotland Landnámabók contains one particular family narrative which would appear to be of great interest to any historian seeking to understand late 9th century Viking presence in northernmost mainland Scotland.

Óláfr the White [Óláfr Hvitr] harried in the West-viking,125 and conquered Dublin in Ireland, and Dublin’s 'sheath', 126 and was made King over it. He married Aud the Deep-minded, the daughter of Ketil Flatnose [Flatnefr]. was their son. Óláfr fell in battle in Ireland, and Aud and Thorstein went thence to the Suðreyjar [Southern Isles, the Hebrides]… Thorstein became a war-lord; he entered partnership with Sigurd the Powerful, the son of Eystein Glumra; they conquered Caithness, Sutherland, Ross and Moray, and more than half Skotland, and Thorstein became King thereover, until the Skots betrayed him, and he fell there in battle. Aud was then in Caithness, when she heard of the fall of Thorstein; she caused a merchant ship to be made in a wood, in secret, and when it was ready she held out to the Orkneys; there she gave in marriage Gróa, the daughter of Thorstein the Red. She was the mother of Grélöðr, whom Thorfinn Skullsplitter

124 Woolf, A., From Pictland to Alba, (Edinburgh, 2007), p.285 125 The Atlantic islands west of Norway, in this case probably Hebrides, western seaboard of mainland Scotland and Ireland. 126 probably carrying the meaning of Dublinshire - 58 -

had in marriage. After that Aud went to seek Iceland; she had aboard with her twenty free men. 127

The extent of territory which Landnámabók narrates as conquered requires some explanation to the modern reader. Whilst Caithness, Sutherland and Ross are self-evident, Moray included the lands from the Spey to the Beauly. 'More than half of Skotland 'would appear to be an excessive claim, but Skotland in Norse meant the land of the Skots, whose language was Gaelic. Therefore Landnámabók’s Skotland probably best equates with Argyll,128 Gaelic Earraghaidheal, the boundary or limit of the Gaels. With that in mind 'half of Skotland ' should be interpreted as North Argyll, the name applied in the 12th century to the western coastal lands from Glenelg to . Commonsense dictates that Landnámabók presents a claim that the territories conquered by Sigurd and Thorstein comprised much of the Scottish mainland north of the , the area where Norse place-names are found, with the more puzzling addition of Moray where no Norse place-names are found. Those territories which Landnámabók reports as conquered by Thorstein and Sigurd in the 9th century were Pictish kingdoms, Moray and Ross together being the kingdom of Fortriu and Caithness and Sutherland the kingdom of Cait. Landnámabók’s use of the later territorial names Caithness and Sutherland, Ross and Moray, is therefore anachronistic. The 12th century compiler resorted to use of the geo-political terms contemporary to him, but such anachronism does not interfere with the reader’s understanding of the narrative

Landnámabók as a historical source All the leading characters in the above narrative, quoted from Landnámabók, can be dated to the second half of the 9th century but Landnámabók was first compiled in writing in the early years of the 12th century. Such a distance in time inevitably and rightly, raises doubt as to historical reliability. Memories unwittingly can be corrupted both by the passing of time and by subsequently acquired 'knowledge'. When memory fails, or facts are unknown, 'borrowing', or, worse, sheer invention, might fill the gaps. Folk memory however contrasts with individual memory. It has the capability of handing down through several generations strikingly memorable truths, fundamentals of real historical events. Icelanders certainly maintain their full trust in Landnámabók as the prime historical source telling of the beginnings of their country.

The reader will have observed that Irish Annals provide the standard for judging the content of Landnámabók as to its reliability as history. That standard is necessarily crude; if confirmation of 'something' expressed in Landnámabók is found in Irish Annals, then that 'something' is more likely to be accepted as being historical, not error or invention. It is suspected, however, that 12th century Icelandic scholars had access to annalistic sources, The Fragmentary Annals of Ireland in particular. In consequence some narratives presented by Landnámabók may have been fleshed out by 'borrowing' from Irish sources. That possibility increases the difficulty in judging the worth of Landnámabók as history. Moreover, opportunities to cross match entries in Landnámabók with annalistic records are rare; personalities, events and happenings of the late 9th and early 10th centuries in the Norse- overrun islands and coastal lands of western Scotland were pretty well completely beyond the radar of those Irish monks who maintained the annalistic record.

127 http://www.northvegr.org/sagas Landnámabók part 2 page 4 ch. xv 128 Argyll is the geographic name chosen by Pálsson and Edwards to translate Skotland - 59 -

It is not surprising that historians continue to debate the historical worth of Landnámabók. Alex Woolf in 2007, as previously indicated, condemned it, along with all Icelandic saga literature, as a non-valid historical source. He particularly criticised acceptance of identification of the Caitil Find of the Ulster Annal for 857 with the Ketill Flatnefr of Icelandic saga, most strenuously pointing to the different epithets, nicknames, attached to Caitil/Ketill.

Jennings and Kruse in 2009129 made a vigorous defence of Landnámabók as a historical source in arguing that it and the entire body of Icelandic saga literature 'should not be summarily written off as void of any historical value'. They pointed out that Ari the Learned confidently acknowledged his descent from Aud, and, of course, from Ketill. Ari well understood his direct descent from Óláfr Feilan, a son of Thorstein the Red, whom Aud - in Landnámabók at least - had brought with her to Iceland. Since well-informed Ari is by far the most likely source of the family narrative, it has to carry credibility. From the Icelandic sources Jennings and Kruse have argued that Ketill Flatnose and his daughter Aud are significant historical personages and that Ketill is identifiable as the same person as the Caitil Find of the 857 Ulster Annal. They also point out that the already firm Icelandic tradition of Aud having settled in the Breiðafjörður area of western Iceland is reinforced by place-names in that district.

The personalities The Norse personalities who feature in the narrative of an aristocratic family’s attempt to win for itself a kingdom on the northern Scottish mainland give the appearance of real historical characters, but whether they are, or are not, is more complex.

'Óláfr the White' can be identified as the Óláfr whom Irish annals name as Amlaíb on his first arrival in Dublin in 853.

AU 853.2 Amlaíb, son of the king of Laithlind,130 came to Ireland, and the foreigners of Ireland submitted to him, and he took tribute from the Irish.

Óláfr, as Landnámabók states, was the first Norse King of Dublin, referred to in Irish Annals as Amlaíb Conung131. Only in Landnámabók, however, is Óláfr named as 'the White', never in Irish Annals. Landnámabók reports that Óláfr was killed in conflict in Ireland, but the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba more accurately places his violent demise in Scotland in an encounter c.871/2132 with Causantín mac Cináeda,133 King of Alba.

Ketill Flatnefr [Flatnose] makes several appearances in Icelandic saga as ruler of the Suðreyjar [the Hebrides], and is prime candidate to be the same person as the Caitil Find ['the White or Fair'] 134 recorded in the Ulster Annal for 857.

129 Jennings, R. and Kruse, A., From Dál Riata to the Gall-Ghádheil in Viking and Medieval Scandinavia 5 (Turnhout, 2009), pp.123-149 130 Irish scholars debate as to whether Laithlind was an area in West Norway or a sea kingdom of islands and lands of western Scotland settled by conquering Norwegians. 131 Norse konungr, king 132 See Woolf A., From Pictland to Alba, (Edinburgh, 2007), pp.106-110 133 Constantín son of Kenneth mac Alpin 134 c.f. River Findhorn, 'the White Earn' - 60 -

AU 857.1 Ímar and Amlaíb inflicted a rout on Caitil Find and his Gall-Gaedhil in the lands of Munster. In order to accommodate the Landnámabók narrative this rout of Caitil/Ketill by Amlaíb/Óláfr and Ímar has been interpreted as indication that Óláfr sometime earlier had married Ketill’s daughter, Aud, in guarantee of a truce between the two enemies: the truce obviously having broken down, Óláfr set Aud aside and returned her with her young son into Ketill’s family in the Hebrides. Rejection of Aud by Ó láfr is not reported in Landnámabók and Irish Annals contain no reference to, and therefore no historical corroboration of, Aud, her marriage to Óláfr, or to their son 'Thorstein the Red'. Aud however is firmly regarded in Iceland as a historical figure and appears in several of the most notable Icelandic sagas, including Njal’s Saga, Laxdæla Saga, Eyrbyggja Saga, Grettir’s Saga and the Saga of .

Sigurðr the Powerful is identifiable as the Sigurd who, according to Orkneyinga Saga, was the first earl (jarl) of Orkney and would appear to be the historical figure Sigfrith the jarl reported in the Annal of Ulster for the year 893.

AU 893.4 A great dissension amongst the foreigners of Áth Cliath [Dublin] and they became dispersed, one section of them following İmar’s son and the other Sigfrith the jarl.

Landnámabók’s reported invasion and conquest of Northern Scotland by Sigurd and Thorstein, if historical, has to be placed in the or no later than the 880s. It is therefore likely that Thorstein had met his death well before 893. It remains credible however that a departure from Dublin of angered Norsemen could have stimulated further Viking activity in northern Scotland. The date 893 certainly sits comfortably with report in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba135 of a wasting of Pictland during the reign of Domnall mac Causantín,136 king of Alba, 889 to 900.

According to Landnámabók, Thorstein the Red married Thuriðr the daughter of Eyvinder the Austmaðr (Eastman) and he, Eyvinder, had married Rafarta a daughter of Kjarval, (Irish, Cerbhall), king of the Irish province of Ossory (), who died in 888. That would make Thuriðr, Thorstein’s wife, a grand-daughter of Cerbhall and therefore in bloodline half-Irish. Orkneyinga Saga narrates that the Orkney earl Hlodver married 'Eithne [Eðna], daughter of Kjarval, King of the Irish' which, if true, would make her the mother of earl Sigurd Hlodversson, the Stout. This Sigurd was killed at Clontarf in Ireland in 1014. That latter date makes it impossible for a daughter of Cerbhall (d.888) to have been the mother of Sigurd Hlodversson, the Stout. If the compiler of the saga in confusion erroneously allotted the mother of Sigurd the Powerful to Sigurd the Stout, the possibility is that Sigurd, maternal grandson of Cerbhall, was a first cousin of Thorstein’s wife, also maternal grand-daughter of Cerbhall. That might be so, but it is also possible that Icelanders in their writings had attached Cerbhall to their ancestry through their acquaintance of The Fragmentary Annals of Ireland in which Cerbhall is recounted as a heroic warlike king.

135 Anderson, A. O., Early Sources of Scottish History: AD500-1286 Vol. 1, (Edinburgh, 1923) 136 Constantín - 61 -

Aud and family in Pictland Two Icelandic place-names offer a degree of confirmation that Aud’s family had experienced contact with Picts. An island within the Breiðafjörð of western Iceland bears the name Pjattlan, Pictland whilst Pjattasteinn Rock, or Boulder, of the Picts, is a place-name found on the north side of the fjord. The only other example of representation in early Icelandic of the term Pict is in Péttlandsfjorðr, literally Pictland Fjord, the . Landnámabók moreover tells that Aud had a bondsman Erpr, to whom she granted freedom. He, it tells, was a son of the Jarl Meldún of Skotland (Argyll), whom Sigurd had slain in the course of the reported conquest. The name Erpr is Pictish, recorded in the Pictish Chronicle as the name of the father of legendary 5th century King Drust.137 The name Erpr could not have been in use in the 12th century when Landnámabók was committed to writing. It must have entered into Icelandic oral history in the late 9th century. The credibility of Erpr’s presence with Aud in late 9th century Iceland is strengthened by Erpr being progenitor of an Icelandic family, the Erplings. The corollary also applies; credibility of the presence of Aud and her family in late 9th century Pictland is reinforced.

Gall-Gháedheil Jennings and Kruse make a convincing case that the Norseman Ketill Flatnefr of Icelandic saga and Caitil Find are indeed one and the same person. Additionally they judge that the Gall-Gháedheil, whom he reportedly had led in Munster in 857 against Amlaíb/Óláfr and Ímar, were Christian Gaels from the former territory of Dál Riata, today , which, overrun by the Vikings, had become Ketill’s power base. His Gaelic warriors had accepted Norse leadership but would appear to have retained their Christian faith. To back this latter point Jennings and Kruse cite the Ulster Annal 856.3 which reports heathens warring against Christians.

AU856.3 Cocadh mor eter gennti & Mael Sechlainn co n-Gall-Ghoidhelaib [Gall- Gháidheil, Scots Gaelic] leis. AU856.3 Great warfare between the heathens and Mael Sechnaill, supported by Norse- Gaels.

They also demonstrate that the place-name pattern of Argyll and Bute indicates that the Norse élite underwent a speedy cultural assimilation into the majority Christian and Gaelic-speaking population within a short period of possibly no more than three generations. The place-names of Argyll and Bute are overwhelmingly of Gaelic derivation. The comparatively few Norse derived place-names are practically all topographic place-names with but only very few purely Norse-derived habitative place-names represented, suffixed by -ból, -bólstaðr, -staðr, - setr. That pattern of Norse-derived place-names is quite similar to what is found in Ross.

Norsemen in the Christian milieu of the Hebrides and Ireland Icelandic saga relays that Ketill had converted to Christianity in the Hebrides and that he had all his children, except his eldest son, baptised. His daughter, Aud, Landnámabók tells, remained a practising Christian until her death.

137 Skene, W.F., Chronicle of the Picts and Scots, (Edinburgh: H.M. General Register House 1867) - 62 -

She dwelt at Hvamm, at the mouth of the Char river, there the place is called Aud’s tofts. She had her prayer station at Kross-Knolls; there she caused them to raise crosses because she was baptised and was a true believer.138

The next night she died, and was buried on the shore, between high and low water mark, even as she herself had ordered, for this reason that she would not lie in unhallowed earth, being baptised.139

Jennings and Kruse accept the message from Icelandic saga that Ketill’s family and those of many other Norsemen who had migrated into the Christian milieu of Argyll and the inner Hebridean islands, but not all, did indeed convert to the Christian faith. In Christian tradition was quite uninterrupted by the new Norse élite.140 The same is true of 9th century Argyll and Bute.

Aud is but one example of Norse migrants from the Hebrides to Iceland recorded in Landnámabók as being of Christian faith, either sure or faltering. Landnámabók reads convincingly in its presentation of reports of the numerous factors which predisposed Norsemen enveloped in a Hebridean or an Irish environment towards Christian conversion. Indeed Landnámabók’s story of Ketill Flatnose and his family reflects an actuality of the ethnic and cultural mixing of the new Norse elite in the Hebrides with the pre-existing native majority population. Archaeological evidence offers confirmation of such a population mix and the same is suggested by place-names. Intermarriage may be the most obvious facilitator of conversion, but other factors which predisposed second generation Norse immigrants to Ireland and the Hebrides towards conversion are evident in the narratives of Landnámabók. These can be listed - the taking and holding of Christian Gaelic hostages; out of wedlock relationships with native captive bondswomen or slaves, and consequent parenting; the fostering of Norse sons and daughters within native families; the entrusting of the care of children to Gaelic bondswomen; the persuasive personalities of individual Gaelic clerics dedicated to the work of conversion; the impact of the veneration of locally revered and locally enshrined Christian saints, in particular. Landnámabók’s commentary on Helgi the Lean’s141 hedging of his bets as to religious faith is so redolent of human nature that it is laughable, yet convincing. Helgi had been fostered for a time to a Gaelic family but for the most part he had been brought up in Ireland with his Norse parents. As a young adult he had married into the Christian family of Ketill Flatnose. He migrated to Iceland and there he “believed in Christ … gave his name to Christness his dwelling place”, but since Norse supremacy rested on superior seamanship and skills in warfare, Helgi “made vows to for sea-faring and hardy deeds”. Such hedging of faiths is instructive of the religious pragmatism of the sons of those Norsemen who had migrated into the Christian milieu of Ireland and the Hebrides. Helgi’s reliance on a god, or gods, according to his personal circumstances reflects a typical feature of Norse paganism; Norse pagans prayed to whichever god they felt was likely to be of best help to them in the circumstances they found themselves. When Norse immigrants settled in a locality absolutely new to them and culturally different, a locality

138 http://www.northvegr.org/sagas Landnámabók ch. xvi 139 ibid ch. xix 140 see Pidel, E., The Celtic sea-route of the Vikings, in Smith, B., Taylor, S., Williams., G., West over Sea, (Brill, 2007) 141 son of Eyvinder the Austmaðr, and brother in law to Aud - 63 -

where the majority population prayed to various saints at a variety of holy places, the immigrants were disposed to doing the same.

There is evidence from Irish Annals that even Óláfr/Amlaíb had not been immune to the enveloping Christian environment of Ireland. Year 867 of the Fragmentary Annals makes mention of the 'daughter of Cináed' as being Amlaíb's wife. Cináed is identifiable as Cináed mac Conaing, king of Knowth. It therefore seems that, sometime after having set Aud aside, Ólaár/Amlaíb had married an aristocratic Irish woman, a Christian. Annals record at least two of the sons of Amlaíb as having borne Christian names. Year 866 of the Annals of the Four Masters records that Carlus, son of Amlaíb, had been killed in war, fighting alongside Irish lords. The death of Oistín, son of Amlaíb, king of the Norsemen, is reported in the Ulster Annal for 875. Carlus [Charles] is quite evidently a Christian name and Oistín is Norse representation of the Christian name Águistin, Augustine. 142

AM866.9 There were slain therein Flann son of Conaing, lord of Braegh; Diarmaid, son of Ederscel, lord of Loch Gabhar; and Carlus, son of Amhlaeibh, i.e. son of the lord of the foreigners.143

AU875.4 Oistín son of Amlaíb, king of the Norsemen, was deceitfully killed by Albann.144

Acceptance of the Christian religion by Amlaíb/Óláfr is not as far-fetched an idea as it first might seem. His base in Dublin and his marriages exposed him to the influences of the Irish Church and, whilst he is best remembered as a Viking raider and despoiler, it should not be forgotten that in his time many more raids were made on Irish monasteries and church centres by Christian Irish kings and chieftains than by Vikings. The religious centres of co- religionists, when they were political enemies, were regarded as legitimate targets.

Conversion to Christianity could account for why Óláfr in Landnámabók, and elsewhere in Icelandic saga, appears under the name Óláfr Hvitr, Óláfr the White. Adoption of the Christian faith by Ketill Flatnefr similarly offers a reason why he was recorded as Caitil Find, Caitil the White, in the Ulster Annal for 857. The nickname 'the White' awarded in Icelandic Old Norse to Ólfr and in Irish Gaelic to Ketill might be seen as allusion to their conversion to Christianity. Consider Heimskringla’s tale of Toki. 145

Toki answered, “I've been prime-signed146, but not baptised, as I've spent my time among both heathens and Christians, although I believe in the White- Christ147. In fact, that's also the reason I came to see you, because I want to get

142 Christian name borne by Augustine of Hippo d. 430, reputed founder of the Augustinian Orders, and also by Augustine, first bishop of Canterbury d. 604 143 CELT: The Corpus of Electronic Texts http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/T100005A/ 144 Woolf equates 'Oistín' with the Old Norse 'Eystein'. From Pictland to Alba, (Edinburgh, 2007), p.113 145 the Saga of King Olaf the Holy 1015-30 146 .prímsigndr. He had received the prima signatio, a preliminary to baptism in the early church consisting of being marked on the forehead with the sign of the cross. Many heathen Scandinavians underwent this ritual as it allowed them to have dealings with Christians, e.g. as merchants or as mercenaries. 147 Hvítakristr, Jesus, so called because of the prevalence of white in Christian worship; in vestments, churches, etc. - 64 -

baptised”. ….The king was glad that he wanted to be baptised and serve God. Toki was baptised then…. and died in white148.

Aspects of the character of the claimed Norse conquest  Landnámabók tells that Thorstein had made himself king of the conquered territories, but his kingship had been dramatically curtailed.

Thorstein made himself king over it [Northern Scotland] before the Skots betrayed him and he fell in battle.

The allusion to betrayal suggests that Thorstein’s position as king of Northern Scotland had been won not simply by military conquest, but with the initial cooperation and acceptance of native lords. Landnámabók also tells that Aud arranged the marriage of Gróa, her grand-daughter, daughter of Thorstein the Red, to Dungad (Duncan) of Caithness, a native lord. The daughter of that marriage, Grelod, became wife to149, and mother of the sons of, the Orkney Earl Thorfinn Skullsplitter, son of, and successor to, Torf-Einar. For the incoming minority Norse élite in Northern Scotland ethnic cleansing, it seems, had neither been a driving force nor an option; domination of the indigenous majority population, it would seem, had been achieved through assimilation of a proportion of native lords into that élite. The evidence in Landnámabók which prompts such thoughts, however, relates to Caithness; Landnámabók is silent in regard of Ross.

 The historical fact that Óláfr of Dublin in the late had exacted tribute in Fortriu, i.e. Moray and Ross, gives a greater credibility to Landnámabók’s report of Thorstein having won a short-lived kingdom for himself in Northern Scotland. Indeed Thorstein’s invasion might be seen as pursuit of a paternal inheritance. No details of the campaign, co-led by Thorstein, Hebridean war-king, and Sigurd, jarl of Orkney, are given in Landnámabók beyond report of Sigurd’s slaying of Meldún, 'an earl of Skotland', most possibly in North Argyll, today’s Wester Ross. Sigurd of Orkney, all but certainly, would have seized the Far North and Thorstein may have gained for himself a short-lived kingdom in the lands of the Inner Moray Firth, but Landnámabók contains no clarity on the latter.

 Landnámabók blames the Skots for the betrayal and death of Thorstein. It is most likely that the 12th century compiler anachronistically applied the term Skots to the 9th century indigenous people of Northern Scotland. There is a remote possibility that the betrayers were Skots in the Old Norse meaning of the term, Gaels. Persuasive identification by Jennings and Kruse of Thorstein’s maternal grandfather Ketill Flatnose as Norse leader of Gall-Gháedheil and the record in Landnámabók of a son of Thorstein awarded a Gaelic pet name, fáelán, 'little wolf', would suggest that Thorstein had been bilingual in Norse and Gaelic. It also raises the possibility of the presence of Gaels amongst Thorstein’s followers. Thorstein, of course, fell in battle and his kingship died with him. Thorstein’s mother, Aud, acting as guardian of the family, moved with twenty noblemen ever further north from Caithness, to Orkney, to Faroes and finally to Iceland. Landnámabók gives no indication that followers of Thorstein,

148 that is, in his Christening robe, within a week of being baptised 149 Landnámabók chap. 36. Laxdæla Saga chap. 4. - 65 -

Hebridean Norsemen and Gall-Gháedheil, remained and settled in Ross. The narrative conveys a total collapse of Aud’s family ambitions in Northern Scotland and consequent retreat to Iceland. Thorstein’s conquest of Moray and Ross had failed. Suggestion that Christian Gall-Gháedheils and Norse Christian converts settled in Ross in the late 9th century has to be judged as unfounded speculation. The contents of Landnámabók cannot be employed to explain the absence from Ross of evidence of 9th century Viking pagan burials.

Constructed as a record of Norse settlement of Iceland during the period 874 to 930 Landnámabók cannot throw light on happenings in Northern Scotland later than Aud’s departure for Iceland. This study now turns to Orkneyinga Saga.

3.6 Orkneyinga Saga as Evidence

Introduction Orkneyinga Saga was compiled and written down about 1200 either by an Orcadian or by an Icelander who had been resident in Orkney for some period of time. It is composed in an apparently historical format in presenting narratives of the individual earls of Orkney from the late 9th century until the time the Saga was written down. These tales are presented in chronological order and hence Orkneyinga Saga was intended to be read as a history of the earls of Orkney.

The concept of saga as history is strong and in the the word 'saga' continues to carry the meaning of history. All saga, however, ought to be regarded as tales of events and persons of a long distant Viking past. These tales were woven, centuries after the events they narrate, from a variety of sources, primarily among which are tradition, folk memory, oral history, oral poetry and also, but much more rarely, earlier writings. It is certainly the case that saga contains elements which are historical, but the problem saga continually poses the historian is the difficulty of separating historical fact from narrative fiction. In narration of events closer in time to their commitment to vellum tales in saga naturally tend to carry a greater historical plausibility. An increasing credibility is apparent in narrative of events and persons historically dateable from AD1000 onwards and that general rule applies to Orkneyinga Saga. The lifetime of Earl Thorfinn Sigurdsson, the Mighty (c.1009 – c.1060) merits a full forty pages. This is in marked contrast to the fifteen pages150 devoted to the telling of events from a mythological account of the foundation of Norway up to the death in 1014 of Earl Thorfinn’s father, Earl Sigurd Hlodversson, the Stout.

Historians in their interpretation of historical circumstances and events tend to be unconsciously influenced by their own cultural and political environment. Orkneyinga Saga, in telling tales of events and persons dateable to times before the death of Thorfinn the Mighty, exhibits that tendency in an unrestrained form. It regularly recounts relationships of military and political power in terms contemporary to the compiler. In Orkneyinga Saga anachronism is a recurring feature.

150 Page calculations are based on The Orkneyinga Saga, translated by A B Taylor, published 1938. - 66 -

 Orkneyinga Saga’s compiler’s lack of knowledge of Scottish history of the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries left him little alternative but to employ the geo-political terminology of his time, the late 12th century, to territories in Northern Scotland. This does very little to impede the reader’s understanding of the Saga narratives.  The Saga applies the term earl (jarl) to indigenous Celtic chieftains as early as the 9th century; earls were not created in the before the 12th century. Anachronism of this sort, however, in no way prevents the reader from following the sense of the Saga narrative.  The Saga anachronistically refers to the 9th and 10th century native inhabitants of Northern Scotland as Skots, Gaels. Pictavia, Pictland and Picts never feature. Yet 9th century Norsemen had been well aware that the northern mainland of Britain was inhabited by Picts as is evidenced in the name Péttalandsfjörðr,151 Pictland Firth, which they gave to the channel between Orkney and the mainland.  To Norsemen of the 9th century Skotland meant simply the land of the Skots, land of Gaelic speakers. They applied the name first to Dál Riata, subsequently to Argyll152 and they also named the seas between the western mainland and the Hebrides as Skotlandsfjorð. Well before the end of the 10th century the Gaelic language had comprehensively spread into Moray. In consequence, when Orkneyinga Saga makes mention of Skots and Skotland in relation to events placed in the late 10th and 11th centuries, it generally makes reference to the men and land of Moray. At times, however, the Saga compiler employs Skotland to mean the kingdom of Scotland contemporary to him. This form of anachronistic inconsistency leads to confusion and difficulties for the historian, particularly because the Saga refers to of Moray as kings of Skots and also uses that same term in reference to kings of Alba. Such historical difficulty especially applies to events around the turn of the 10th century when the Saga makes mention of a Malcolm, King of Skots, who could be Malcolm II, King of Alba (1005-34), or Malcolm, mormaer of Moray (1020-29).

The earls of Orkney The Saga’s tales of the earls of Orkney begins in the late 9th century with an apical ancestral figure, Rögnvald, lord of Møre, a province of western Norway. The Saga tells that Rögnvald had accompanied Harald Harfagr (Harald Fair-hair), legendary first king of Norway, on his voyage to pacify 'the West' to put an end to Viking raids on Norway from bases in Shetland and Orkney.

Harald Hair-fair sailed west to punish the Vikings, as he had grown tired of their depredations, for they harried in Norway during the summer, but spent the winter in Shetland or the Orkneys. He subdued Shetland and the Orkneys and the Hebrides and sailed right west to the Isle of Man… Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.138 . One of Rögnvald’s sons was killed in the campaign. In compensation for his loss Harald gave Orkney and Shetland to Rögnvald, who assigned them to his brother Sigurd. Sigurd then became first earl (jarl) of Orkney, who, Landnámabók tells, conquered Northern Scotland in alliance with Thorstein the Red.

151 Pentland Firth 152 Earraghaidheal, Gaelic, 'boundary or limit of the Gaels'. - 67 -

Few of the tales in the Saga are relevant to Ross. This study therefore restricts itself to tales identifiable as having direct or indirect relevance to Ross, tales which relate only to the times and persons of the following earls:

 Earl Sigurd the Powerful, the first earl of Orkney  Earl Torf-Einar, his nephew  Earl Ljot, Earl Skúli, Earl Hlodver, grandsons of Earl Torf-Einar  Earl Sigurd the Stout, Earl Hlodver’s son  Earl Thorfinn the Mighty, son of Earl Sigurd the Stout

Earl Sigurd the Powerful The account presented in Orkneyinga Saga of a late 9th century Norse conquest of the northern mainland of Scotland in consisting of no more three sentences is much briefer than that presented in Landnámabók. The final sentence of the three, however, contributes an additional point, the building of a borg, a fortified camp.

Earl Sigurd became a mighty chief. He made an alliance with Thorstein the Red, son of and Aud the Deep-minded, and they conquered all Caithness and much more of Skotland, and Moray and Ross. And he had a borg built there in the south of Moray. Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.139

That final sentence surely reflects a long-held folk memory and the probable actuality of a fortification in the region of the Inner Moray Firth having been of considerable significance to Norsemen who had sought to win, or to hold on to, domination of territory in that area. A borg, a fortification - and logic suggests a longphort, a naval fortification – could have facilitated warfare in its three seasons and in winter would have been protective of beached warships. The later history of Dingwall as the seashore location of a significant medieval castle of no documented origin and that location’s sharing of topographic characteristics with those locations of Viking longphuirt in Ireland combine to suggest Dingwall as a possible location for that borg. Dingwall, sitting at the head of the Cromarty Firth, where it occupied a hugely strategic position at the apex of a double frontier, both northern and western, unavoidably would have been a focal point for those who would seek to win or to hold all Northwest Scotland. Record in Annals of extended taking of hostages and tribute by Óláfr of Dublin in the area of the Inner Moray Firth in the later 860s raises the possibility that a borg/longphort at the head of the Cromarty Firth could have had an active existence then. On the other hand it is equally possible that folk memory might have misplaced the building of any such Norse fortification from a later to an earlier era. Speculative discussion results in nothing positive. There is simply no evidence to confirm precisely where the fortification had been built, or when, or if it had ever been built. The only evidence that exists is entry in the Saga that Sigurd had a borg built there in the south of Moray. It therefore is a statement which is impossible to corroborate, to prove false, or to judge as partly true beyond commenting that the brevity and firmness of that statement encourages belief that a Norse borg had been constructed in the area of the Inner Moray Firth, but precisely where and precisely when are both unknown. - 68 -

The Saga recounts nothing more of Sigurd’s activity in the area of the Inner Moray Firth beyond a tale of how he met his death.

Melbrigd Tönn (tooth), an Earl of the Scots, and Earl Sigurd, made an arrangement to meet in a certain place, with forty men each, in order to come to an agreement concerning their differences. When the appointed day arrived Earl Sigurd was suspicious of treachery on the part of the Skots. He therefore caused eighty men to be mounted on forty horses. When Earl Melbrigd saw this, he said to his men:- “Now we have been treacherously dealt with by Earl Sigurd, for I see two men’s legs on one side of each horse, and the men, I believe, are thus twice as many as the beasts. But let us be brave, and kill each his man before we die.” Then they made themselves ready. When Sigurd saw it, he also decided on his plan, and said to his men:- “Now, let one-half of our number dismount and attack them from behind, when the troops meet, while we shall ride at them with all our speed to break their battle array.” There was hard fighting immediately, and it was not long till Earl Melbrigd fell, and all his men with him. Earl Sigurd and his men fastened the heads [of the slain] to their saddle-straps, in bravado, and so they rode home triumphing in their victory. As they were proceeding, Earl Sigurd, intending to kick at his horse with his foot, struck the calf of his leg against a tooth protruding from Earl Melbrigd’s head, which scratched him slightly; but it soon became swollen and painful, and he died of it. Sigurd the powerful was buried in a mound at Ekkjallsbakki.153

A. B. Taylor has judged that this story of Sigurd’s death originated in Caithness and that it has the appearance of a Celtic morality tale – posthumous revenge repaying treachery. Although the tale can be regarded as myth or fable, the detail it contains deserves consideration. Sigurd’s and his men’s triumphant celebration of victory indicates appreciation of a decisive victory, one which would appear to have ended a recurrent threat. That victory, moreover, had been won away from home outwith the mainland territory of the Orkney earldom. The combat had been fought between Sigurd and a Celtic chieftain whose name suggests, probably anachronistically that he was a Gael, not a Pict, Maelbrigte certainly being a name which in the 11th century appears in the ruling family of Moray. The combat, if real, would appear to have been fought in Ross, but it could have been fought beyond Ross, in Moray. The combat, as narrated, was fought south of the mainland limits of Sigurd’s Orkney earldom, the line of the River Oykel and the Dornoch Firth, and can be understood as having been fought by Sigurd either to remove a direct threat to his earldom or to defend lands which acted as a protective buffer against Moray.

Orkneyinga Saga in its final comment on how Sigurd met his death states that he was buried in a mound at Ekkjallsbakki. On the north shore of the Dornoch Firth, by the farm of Cyderhall, there are several grassy mounds. That farm is recorded in a charter dated 1222 as Syvardhoch, a derivation of Sigurðarhaugr, Sigurd’s mound. It therefore might be concluded that Ekkjallsbakki was the north shore, or bank, of the Dornoch Firth. Such a conclusion, however, could be insecure. The validity of the place-name evidence presented by Cyderhall, Syvardhoch, Sigurðarhaugr, is challenged by the possibility that award of that place-name to one of the natural mounds, which feature at that location, could have been prompted by the tale itself.

153 Anderson, J., ed., The Orkneyinga Saga, (Edinburgh, 1873), pp.203-204 - 69 -

The compiler of Orkneyinga Saga, who in a later narrative placed the location of Ekkjallsbakki somewhere on what today would be the coast of Moray,154 had no clear idea, it seems, as to the precise location of Ekkjallsbakki. In its origin Ekkjallsbakki was a representation in Norse of Alta Ripa, the geographic feature to which Ptolemy (c. AD90 – c. AD168) had applied that term on the map of Britain in his Geographia. Alta Ripa translates from Latin as High Bank. Whilst Old Norse -bakki translates simply as bank, Ekkjalls- is not purely Norse, but results from an attempt by Norsemen to repre sent the Pictish or Britonnic word uchel meaning high.155 Ptolemy’s Alta Ripa, High Bank, is identified as the mountain range which extends from the northern slopes of the Conon Basin to the River Oykel, the name of which shares its origin with Ekkjall. There is no doubt that in the later Middle Ages the River Oykel marked the boundary of Ross with the joint earldom of Orkney and Caithness. Whether the earliest uses in Old Norse of the term Ekkjallsbakki would have equated with the River Oykel, or the Dornoch Firth, or the Ben Wyvis Range is unknown. The folk memory represented in the Icelandic Heimskringla, Sagas of the Kings of Norway, defines the extent of the lands of Northern Scotland conquered by Thorstein and Sigurd to no further than 'as far as Ekkjallsbakki'.156 From earliest historical times the boundary between the Orkney/Caithness earldom and Ross was the line of the Oykel and the Dornoch Firth. We can be confident that that boundary was an outcome of the late 9th century Norse invasion of Northern Scotland. When Sigurd and his men rode home after combat with Melbrigd, they made for a crossing point on the River Oykel. If they had sailed home they would have made for the Dornoch Firth, the Ekkjall.

Earl Torf-Einar Sigurd’s death, the Saga recounts, was followed by a period of ineffectual rule of the earldom, first by his son Guthorm who died within a year, and then by a son of Rögnvald’s, Hallad, but he completely failed to impose his authority, gave up and returned to Norway. Rögnvald despatched another of his sons, Einar, who by force restored order to the Isles and became the Orkney earl from whom the Saga implies all later earls were descended.

And after that Einar brought the land under him, and became the greatest of chiefs. He was the first man to find out how to cut torf (peat) from the bogs for fuel, at Torfnes in Skotland, for timber was scarce in the Isles. Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.141

Henceforward Einar is known as Torf-Einar. Whatever doubts are held about his nickname, historians generally accept Torf-Einar as a historical personality. The strongest evidence for his real existence is provided by his composition of skaldic verse, some stanzas of which are preserved in Orkneyinga Saga. In the 13th century gave recognition to Torf- Einar, his name and his poetic prowess in the final section of the Prose Edda, Háttatal, in which he employed Torf-Einar’s name for a specific type of poetic metre, Torf-Einarsháttr, 'Torf-Einar’s metre'.157 The lifetime of Torf-Einar cannot be firmly dated but his estimated floruit158 is placed from the early 890s into the 920s.

154 Taylor, A. B., The Orkneyinga Saga (Edinburgh, 1938), p.263 and p.19 155 cf. Welsh uchel, high 156 Heimskringla, Harald Harfagr’s Saga, chapter 22 157 Poole, R G., Viking Poems on War and Peace: A study in Skaldic Narrative, (University of Toronto, 1991) 158 This Latin word translates as 'flourished' and is used in English as a noun to indicate the period in which a historical person 'flourished'. - 70 -

The Saga narrates that Einar (Torf-Einar) was the first to find out how to cut bog-peat and that he had done so at Torfnes in Skotland. These apparently absurd claims are nonetheless of interest to this study. Torfnes is a Norse name which translates as peat-headland or peat- promontory. This Norse-named place in Skotland has to lie southwards of the Dornoch Firth, the mainland boundary of the Orkney earldom, therefore making it a headland somewhere on the Moray Firth coastline. Torfnes in Skotland could be an example of anachronistic placing of the Norse-named Torfnes in the land of the Skots, where Gaelic was the spoken language. If so, the term Torfnes can be interpreted as reference to a headland which, in Torf-Einar’s time, had lain within a Norse dominated locality, but which in 1200, when the Saga was compiled, lay within the kingdom of Scotland. An equally acceptable interpretation of the phrase Torfnes in Skotland is that the character of the peaty promontory, although beyond the limits of Torf-Einar’s Orkney earldom, was well known to the sea-faring Norse and to them was Torfnes. It is by no means certain that the location of Torfnes, in Torf-Einar’s time, had lain within a Norse-speaking locality.

Earls Ljot, Skúli, Hlodver, grandsons of Torf-Einar Following Einar’s death the Saga makes no reference, direct or oblique, to Ross during the rule in Orkney of his son, Thorfinn Skullsplitter. After Skullsplitter’s death, probably in the late 970s, the Saga narrates that civil war broke out between two of his sons, Ljot and Skúli; Ljot, it would seem, had inherited the Orkney Isles. The Saga relays that Skúli went to Skotland and was made an Earl by the King of Skots. Skúli then invaded Orkney from Caithness and in heavy fighting was repulsed by Ljot. Skúli retreated into Caithness and back into Skotland from where Skúli now rode down from the hills with a large army which the King of Skots and Earl Magbíod had got for him. In a fierce struggle Skúli was killed and Ljot succeeded in winning Caithness. After Skúli’s failure and death in Caithness Earl Magbíod came down with a huge army, and they (Magbíod and Ljot) met on Skitten Mire159 in Caithness. The Saga tells that Ljot’s forces were outnumbered, but they fought so bravely that the Scots fled. Ljot returned victorious, with a sorely battered train. Earl Ljot also got that wound of which he died. If the story has historical foundation, the King of Skots would have been a lord or mormaer of Moray. The name Magbíod is a representation in Norse of the name Macbeth. However, this Moray lord, active c.980, cannot be the same person as Macbeth, mormaer of Moray, who in 1040 became king of Alba.

If we consider the above account as being in any way historical – and no other potentially historical source is available to us - we have to ask what, if anything, the account conveys about Ross, a territory of which it makes no direct mention. The Saga narrative certainly contains nothing whatsoever which communicates an Orcadian strike southwards of Caithness and invasion of Ross. It does however report overland invasions of Caithness by Skots, i.e. Moray forces. Those invasive forces must have made their way northwards overland through Ross. That raises a number of possibilities – Ross previously might have experienced integration into Moray, either by force or by agreement; Moray forces might have overrun Ross in order to enable invasion of Caithness; Ross might have been a territory of the Orkney earldom loyal to Skúli, or an autonomous territory which had entered into military alliance with Moray, Skúli’s ally. These are all possibilities, but the probability is that Ross had continued to be a territory integral to Moray.

159 The Moss of Killimster near Wick. - 71 -

The Saga narrative in no way suggests an invasion and overrunning of Ross by Ljot’s Orcadian forces and recounts nothing of the activities of Ljot’s brother and successor, Earl Hlodver, beyond that he was a mighty chief, who died in his bed.

Earl Sigurd the Stout Sigurd, Hlodver’s son and successor, was, according to the Saga, a mighty chief with wide dominions, although the Saga does not specify where these dominions were located. Njal’s Saga, a later work composed towards the end of the 13th century, claims that his lands included Ross, Moray, Sutherland and Argyll, but the detailing of these lands appears to be a borrowing from Landnámabók. Whilst the personalities, Njál and Gunnar, on whom Njal’s Saga is founded, are judged historical, the details woven into the narrative are notoriously unreliable as history. The Irish saga The Battle of Ross na Rig160 informs that Sigurd’s wide dominions had included the Hebrides, for it names him Siugraid Soga rig Súdiam, a representation in Irish of Norse terms, which in English translate as 'Sigurd the big, powerful man (the Stout), king of the Hebrides'. Orkneyinga Saga offers confirmation of Sigurd the Stout’s western focus in telling that Sigurd …every summer had a war-cruise abroad. He harried in the Hebrides, in Skotland, and in Ireland.161 Skotland here is not the Scotland of the inner Moray Firth, but is plainly the coastal lands of the Gaelic-speaking western mainland.

The Saga tells there was a summer in which Sigurd’s programme of annual Hebridean harrying had to give way to a menacing interruption.

One summer it happened that Finnleikr (Findláech) the Skots Earl challenged Sigurd to a pitched battle on Skitten Mire. Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.148

Sigurd beat off the challenge from Findláech, mormaer of Moray, but not easily.

He [Sigurd] gave the Orkneymen their odal rights in return for war-service… three standard-bearers of the Earl were killed, but he won the day. Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.149

There are striking similarities between this battle at Skitten Mire and the conflict fought at the same place by Sigurd’s uncle Ljot against Earl Magbíod. Whether or not, in some confusion, the compiler of the Saga made one battle at Skitten Mire into two need not concern us. What is of relevance is that neither account delivers a narrative which in any way suggests that a consequence of hard fought victory was invasion and subjugation of Ross. Indeed Njal’s Saga - as history admittedly less than reliable – makes that very point in recounting what seems to be the same battle won by Sigurd at Skitten Mire,162 but the name Hundi is substituted for Finnleikr (Findláech). In this account Earl Hundi eventually fled the hard fought battle.

Then Earl Hundi fled, and Sigurd pursued them until they learned that Melkólf [Mael Coluim/Malcolm] had gathered a large army at Duncansby. Earl Sigurd

160 Cath Ruis na Ríg, contained within The Book of Leinster (c.1160), translated Hogan, E. 1892. 161 Taylor, A. B., The Orkneyinga Saga, p.148 162 The battle is placed however at Duncansby, some ten miles from Skitten. - 72 -

took counsel with his men and all thought it advisable to turn back [to Orkney] and not to fight against such a large army. So they retreated.163

In totality these accounts indicate that Sigurd found himself hard pressed in defence of Caithness. The greatest accolade Orkneyinga Saga awards him is that by main force he held Caithness against the Skots. That, the Saga tells, was Sigurd’s greatest achievement, decidedly a northern hold, not a southwards gain.

The absence of ounceland derived place-names in Ross also offers itself as evidence that Sigurd had not gained control of Ross, for it is to the power of Sigurd that introduction beyond the Orkney earldom of ouncelands as fiscal units is attributed. The absence from Ross of ounceland place-names and the clear presence of davoch place-names surely point to a re- establishment of the recovered power of Fortriu, or rather its successor Moray, over Ross.

Orkneyinga Saga tells next that Olaf Tryggvason, Christian king of Norway, made a surprise encounter with Sigurd in Orkney (c.995) and enforced his Christian conversion. This is portrayed as the earliest conversion of an Orkney earl to Christianity. Sigurd’s son, Hundi or Hvelp, was baptised with the Christian name Hlodver and taken hostage to Norway, where he lived but a short time. A peculiarity of this story is that the father of 'pagan' Sigurd also had borne that same Christian name Hlodver, a Norse representation of the French Christian name Louis. This raises doubt on the accuracy of this dating of the conversion of Orkney earls to Christianity, a doubt reinforced by the authoritative conclusion reached by Graham-Campbell and Batey that 'the totality of archaeological evidence for Norse pagan burial with grave goods suggests that the practice had largely ended in Scotland, even in Orkney, by the early years of the 10th century'.164

After the death in Norway of his hostage son, Sigurd …repudiated all allegiance to King Olaf. He married the daughter of Malcolm, King of Skots, and their son was Earl Thorfinn.165

Historians have debated, and continue to do so, whether this Malcolm, King of Skots is Malcolm II, King of Alba from 1005 to 1034, or Malcolm, mormaer of Moray from 1020 to 1029. Given that Thorfinn, according to the Saga, was five years old in 1014, his parents’ marriage must be dated to c.1009. That would seem to tip the balance of argument in favour of his grandfather being Malcolm II, since Malcolm of Moray did not become ruler of Moray until 1020. Saga however regularly introduces a new personality to a narrative as titled with the highest status he would gain in life. Which of those two Malcolms is the Saga’s Malcolm, King of Skots, continues to be debated, but of the two historical Malcolms it is the mormaer of Moray who is the stronger candidate.

Sigurd’s marriage, his second, to a daughter of Malcolm, King of Skots, it seems, would guarantee him possession of his threatened lands of Caithness and Sutherland for as long as he lived, on the apparent condition that at his death they would fall to the son of that marriage, Thorfinn, grandson of Malcolm, King of Skots. Such an arrangement would have

163 Bayerschmidt, C. F. and Hollander, L. M., tr., Njál’s Saga, (1998), pp.165-6 164 Graham-Campbell, J., and Batey, C., Vikings in Scotland, an archaeological Survey, (Edinburgh, 1998), p.154 165 Taylor, A. B., The Orkneyinga Saga, p.150

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removed from Sigurd during his lifetime fear of a future invasion of Caithness from Moray and would have allowed him freedom to re-engage in his western adventures, a re- engagement which ended in his death as a key player in the Viking army defeated at Clontarf, outside of Dublin, in 1014.

Before leaving for Ireland Sigurd had handed over his son Thorfinn to his grandfather, the King of Skots, to foster… Thorfinn, now five years old, was with the King of Skots when his father Sigurd was killed. The Skots King now gave his grandson Thorfinn Caithness and Sutherland and the title of “Earl” and appointed regents to rule the land with him. Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.150

Thorfinn’s step-brothers, Sumarlidi (), Brusi and Einar, sons of Sigurd through his previous marriage, inherited Orkney and Shetland between them as Orkney earls.

Earl Thorfinn the Mighty, Thorfinn Sigurdsson It generally has been accepted as historical fact that sometime around 1030-35 Thorfinn gained dominion over Ross which he retained until his death c. 1060. That belief is founded on a single source, the tale in Orkneyinga Saga of a campaign waged by Thorfinn on land and sea against the forces of Karl Hundi’s son, King of Skots. The military campaign which culminated in the battle of Torfnes is not a simple tale of Norse jarl against a king of Scots. Thorfinn in personal background, the Saga vouches, was every bit as much a Gael as a Norseman. The early ambition of the young Thorfinn was to extend his personal influence from Caithness into Orkney where he aimed to eventually replace the rule of his older step- brothers with his own.

An Orkney aristocrat, Thorkel Amundi’s son, became greatest ally in furthering that aim. As a dissident to rule in Orkney by Thorfinn’s step-brother Einar, Thorkel had sought refuge in Caithness with the young Thorfinn.

He fostered the Earl when he was young, and was thence called Thorkel Fosterer. Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.152

As foster-father Thorkel transformed the young Gaelic prince into an acceptable Norseman better fitted to fulfil the ambition that Thorfinn, with Thorkel’s aid, should become sole earl of Orkney. His step-brother Sumarlidi had already died of natural causes. Thorkel slew Einar, leaving Thorfinn and his remaining step-brother, Brusi, each with a share of the Northern Isles, Brusi in possession of two thirds and Thorfinn one third. Further progress towards Thorfinn’s fulfilment of his ambition to be sole Orkney earl was put on hold, when his unfettered possession of Caithness came under threat. Thorfinn and Thorkel are the heroes in the tale of the consequent conflict which culminated in battle at Torfnes, sometime between 1029 and 1035.

Thorfinn’s grandfather, the King of Skots, had died and was succeeded by Karl Hundi’s son,166 who demanded of Thorfinn tribute for Caithness. Thorfinn would have none of it and war broke out between them. King Karl gave his nephew Muddan, as his 'earl', charge of Caithness. Thorfinn and Thorkel, with troops gathered from both Caithness and Orkney,

166 Orkneyinga Saga names Thorfinn’s adversary as Karl Hundasson [Hundi’s son]. Taylor’s use of 'Hundi’s son' is retained for convenience. - 74 -

forced Muddan to retreat from Caithness. Thorfinn pursued the retreating forces, subdued Sutherland and Ross and then harried far and wide over Skotland. Anticipating that enough had been done to deter a further Scots assault on Caithness, the army returned home and Thorkel returned to Orkney. Thorfinn stationed himself with five warships and their fighting men at Duncansby.

Muddan, however, reported to an angry King Karl at Beruvík who sent Muddan back to Caithness overland with a large force. King Karl set sail with eleven warships and their fighting crews to trap Thorfinn in a pincer attack. Thorfinn, somehow aware of the danger, led his five warships in a tactical retreat to Orkney and there summoned Thorkel to raise an army. The sails of Thorfinn’s retreating fleet had been spotted by Karl and next morning he and his fleet made a surprise attack on Thorfinn’s ships off . The battle was prolonged and fierce until Karl’s ship was boarded with the aid of grappling hooks. Karl escaped to another ship and sailed south into the Breidafiord (the Broad Firth, the Moray Firth) to raise fresh forces. Thorfinn held back until joined by Thorkel.

They then sailed south into the Moray Firth after Karl and his men; and as soon as they struck the coast of Skotland they began harrying. Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.166

Thorfinn remained harrying in the Breidafiord while Thorkel with part of the army marched overland to Caithness. He mounted a night attack on Muddan’s base at and killed him. Thorkel then raised more forces in Caithness, Sutherland and Ross and rejoined Thorfinn in the Moray Firth, where they continued to harry, apparently awaiting King Karl’s response.

King Karl... gathered a fresh army. He raised an army from the whole of the south of Skotland, both from the east and from the west, and south as far as . And there came to join him that army from Ireland which Muddan had sent for... The whole army he summoned against Earl Thorfinn and they met at Torfnes in the south of the Moray Firth. There was a great battle, and the Skots had by far the larger army…There was then a great struggle and the upshot was that Karl took to flight… Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.167

Serious doubt however has been expressed about the narrative culminating in battle at Torfnes being in any way historical. Orkneyinga Saga’s tale of the campaign reads as a really good story, a fine example of saga literature, but as ever with saga the tale may be just that, a tale, a work of narrative fiction. Those who judge the Saga’s account of the Torfnes campaign to be founded on actual historical events and persons have to overcome three major difficulties.

Firstly, there are two good candidates, Malcolm II, king of Alba (1005-34), and Malcolm, mormaer of Moray (1020-29), each of whom might have been the historical personage of Malcolm King of Skots, credited by Orkneyinga Saga as being Thorfinn’s grandfather.

Secondly, the Saga tells that Thorfinn’s opponent in the campaign was Karl Hundi’s son who, according to the Saga had succeeded Malcolm King of Skots as king, but no king of Alba or mormaer of Moray ever bore the name Karl.

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Thirdly, there has been an inability to confidently and convincingly identify the actual location of the place on the shores of the Moray Firth which the Saga names in Norse as Torfnes.

The Torfnes campaign – history or fiction? Incorporated within the narrative of the Torfnes campaign are stanzas composed by Arnórr jarlaskald, composer of poetry in praise of Earl Thorfinn. These do not allow the Saga’s tale to be thought of as total fiction. Arnórr was retained and maintained by Thorfinn as his jarlaskald, his praise poet. It might be suspected that Arnórr would have praised his master to the point of unhistorical exaggeration, but skaldic laudatory verse demanded firm foundations of fact. Snorri Sturluson, the greatest exponent of compilation of saga as history, ruled all military content of skaldic praise poetry to be historically factual.

We find the best evidence in the poems that were recited in the presence of the chiefs themselves or of their sons; we take everything to be true that is found in these poems about their journeys or battles. It was the way of skalds to give most praise to those in whose presence they were reciting; but no one would dare tell the chief himself what he and all the listeners knew to be false and imaginary; that would be mockery, not praise.167 Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.126

Crafted with skaldic skill for memorised oral recitation, Arnórr’s stanzas survived unaltered for more than one and a half centuries before they were captured in Orkneyinga Saga. Whether those stanzas were inserted in the narrative as illustration or indeed inspired the narrative is of no concern. What is important is that they confirm elements fundamental to the narrative. Arnórr confirms in stanza 10 that in the sea battle off Deerness Thorfinn’s possession of Caithness, inherited from his father, was at stake, challenged by Karl.

Once, I believe, the hero taught Karl the monstrous verdict of the mail-coat - the realm of the ruler’s son was not for the taking- east off Dyrnes.168

Arnórr also confirms what Orkneyinga Saga conveys, that the entire campaign, in which Thorfinn three times trounced the Scots took place over one summer – defeat of the initial invasion of Caithness, defeat in the sea battle off Deerness and defeat in the land battle at Torfnes.

Dwellings perished as they put to flame - peril never ceased that day; red fire leapt in the smoking thatch – the realm of the Scots. The battle-master paid men back their malice; in a single summer they got from the prince three times over the poorer deal.169

167 Taylor’s quote from Snorri Sturluson: Prologue to Heimskringla. 168 Whaley, D., The Poetry of Arnórr jarlaskald, (Turnhout, 1998), p.124, stanza 6 - 76 -

One stanza in particular presents significant memorable historical detail of the battle at Torfnes.

On the wolf’s mouthful bright blades grew red at a place called Torfnes; young, the ruler caused that; it fell upon a Monday. Sang there slender swords, south of the Ekkjall, as the princeling, swift into conflict, fought with Scotland’s lord.

High bore the liege of Shetlanders his helmet in the tumult of spears. 170

Arnórr’s verse conveys that at the time of the bloody conflict Thorfinn was still young and fought at Torfnes not as earl of Orkney but as lord of Shetland.171 The battle took place at Torfnes, apparently a location of Thorfinn’s choosing, on a Monday. The location of Torfnes lay south of the Ekkjall, the Dornoch Firth. There Thorfinn fought with Scotland’s lord. Arnórr Jarlaskald described a real conflict at a real place, Torfnes.

Malcolm, King of Skots and Karl Hundi’s son No King of Skots mentioned in Orkneyinga Saga is firmly identifiable as a historical king of Alba (Scotland) previous to mention of Melkólmr Langháls,172 King of Skots whom the Saga reports as having married Ingibjorg, Thorfinn’s widow. That identifies him as the historical Malcolm III, king of Alba from 1058 to 1093. He was the eldest son of Duncan who in 1034 succeeded Malcolm II as king of Alba. Mention in Orkneyinga Saga of Kings of Skots in times previous to the reign of Malcolm III are recognised as references to mormaers of Moray, Skots simply meaning Gaels, speakers of Gaelic. Historians continue to debate whether the Saga’s Melkólmr King of Skots, Thorfinn’s grandfather, was Malcolm II, king of Alba who died in 1034, or Malcolm, mormaer of Moray who died in 1029.

Since the Saga places the marriage of Thorfinn’s father, Sigurd the Stout, at least five years before his death in 1014, the balance, as previously stated, would tip in favour of Malcolm II, king of Alba, to have been the Malcolm named in the Saga as Thorfinn’s grandfather, for Malcolm of Moray did not become mormaer until 1020. Saga however regularly introduces a personality into a narrative bearing the highest status he would achieve in life. Malcolm of Moray therefore should not be eliminated as candidate for having been the King Malcolm, who, the Saga tells, was Thorfinn’s grandfather. The possibility that the Saga’s Melkólmr, King of Skots could indeed be Malcolm of Moray is given support by the personal names awarded to Skots Earls who appear earlier in the Saga. They are all recognisably names

169 ibid, p.125, stanza 11 170 ibid, p.125, stanzas 9 and 10 171 This identifies Shetland as the one third of the Isles of the Orkney earldom which Orkneyinga Saga tells Thorfinn had gained before his right to Caithness was challenged. Orkneyinga Saga, chap. xix. 172 Malcolm Long-neck - 77 -

which were borne by close descendants of Ruaidrí mormaer of Moray (d.1020), named in the Annal of Tignerach for the year 1029173 as rí Alban, king of Alba. Finnleikr is historically Findláech, Ruaidrí’s son. Magbíod, as discussed earlier, is the name Macbeth which later was borne by Findláech’s son, who did become king of Alba in 1040. The name Melbrigd174 is easily recognised as the name Mael Brigte, a name borne by another son of Ruaidrí, the father of Malcolm of Moray. Melsnati of Njal’s Saga175 is a representation of another name found within the noble family of Moray, Mael Snechtai, e.g. Mael Snechtai, who died in 1085 entitled king of Moray. It is therefore very likely that Thorfinn’s grandfather, Melkólmr, King of Skots, was Malcolm mormaer of Moray rather than Malcolm II of Alba.

A. B. Taylor’s extensive study of sources and textual context judged that the events of the campaign between Karl and Thorfinn had taken place in the year 1029 because he judged the King of Skots, Thorfinn’s grandfather, to have been Malcolm of Moray whose death is reported in the Irish Annal of Tignerach for 1029.176

AT1029. 5 Mael Colaim mac Mael-Brighdi mac Ruaidrí, rí Alban mortuus est. In translation Malcolm son of Mael-Brigte son of Ruaidrí, king of Alba177 is dead.

Malcolm of Moray’s death is also reported in the Annal of Ulster for 1029.

AU1029.7 Mael Coluim son of Mael Brigte son of Ruaidrí … died.

As to the specific identity of the mysterious Karl Hundi’s son it is the body of saga which offers a clue. E. J. Cowan in a stimulating essay178 has made a convincing case that Karl can be identified as Macbeth of Moray, the future king of Alba. The case is substantially based on interpretation of the Skots Earl Hundi, whom Njal’s Saga narrates as having waged war in Caithness against Sigurd the Stout, as identifiably the same person as Findláech, father of Macbeth. Macbeth, Findláech’s son therefore can be understood as Hundi’s son. Such identification of Karl Hundi’s son sits comfortably with identification of Malcolm mormaer as the Malcolm King of Skots, Thorfinn’s grandfather.

There is some historical confusion as to whether it was Macbeth or his uncle Gilla Comgáin179 who became mormaer of Moray in 1029 on the death of Malcolm. The Annal of Ulster records the death of Gilla Comgáin (pronounced Gillichoan) in 1032 as burned together with fifty people and describes him as mormaer of Moréb (Moray).

AU1032.2 Gilla Comgáin son of Mael Brigte, mormaer of Moréb [Moray], was burned together with fifty people.

173 Annals of Tignerach, AT1029. 5 174 This name is carried in the Saga by the Melbrigd, whose tooth caused the death of Sigurd the Powerful 175 Njal’s Saga, chapters 83-6 176 Taylor, A. B., The Orkneyinga Saga, p.361 note 2 177 Ruaidrí of Moray was slain in 1020 by his nephews, Malcolm and Gilla Comgain. The king of Alba at the time was Malcolm II (1005-34). That Ruaidrí of Moray was recognisable to an Irish annalist as king of Alba reflects the power and significance of Moray as well as its rulers’ claim to the kingship of Alba. It is perhaps not surprising that Orkneyinga Saga would refer to rulers of Moray as kings of Scots. 178 Cowan, E.J., The Historical Macbeth, in Sellar, W. D. H., Moray Province and People, The Scottish Society for Northern Studies, (Edinburgh, 1993), pp.117-142 179 brother of Mael Coluim. - 78 -

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, however, in reporting the submission of Malcolm II and two other kings to Cnut in 1031 names Macbeth as one of the those two other kings.

Malcolm, king of the Scots, submitted to him, and became his man with two other kings, Mælbæþe [Macbeth] and Iehmarc.180

It would seem that both Macbeth and Gilla Comgáin had claimed succession as mormaer or rí (king) of Moray, but that contest had been won by Macbeth, possibly by 1031. Macbeth is suspected as having been behind the burning of Gilla Comgáin in revenge for the slaying of his father Findláech in 1020 by Gilla Comgáin and his brother Malcolm. However, Thomson has suggested that Gilla Comgáin’s death in a mass burning in 1032 is consistent both with the time period in which the battle at Torfnes took place and the burnings Arnórr reported as having been inflicted on the Scots following their heavy defeat.181 However, if that had actually been the case, it would be surprising that the Annal reports nothing of a great battle with the Norse. Nonetheless, Gilla Comgáin is Macbeth’s only serious rival for the historical personage who, in Arnórr’s verse, is named as Karl, Scotland’s lord. Duncan, who did not succeed Malcolm II until 1034 can be ruled out for Arnórr in his verses on Torfnes describes Thorfinn, born c.1009, as young, apt for a medieval aged 20, but not for one aged 25 or more

Alex Woolf182 unconvincingly has suggested that Karl Hundi’s son is likely to have been a son of Hundi, a half-brother of Thorfinn, who is recounted in the Saga as having been taken to Norway as hostage by King Óláfr Tryggvason c.995. The Saga however tells that Hundi was otherwise known as Hvelp, whelp, puppy, and died soon after arriving in Norway. This would suggest that Hundi had been a young boy not likely to have fathered children. Moreover Óláfr Tryggvason had Hundi baptised in Orkney with the Christian name Hlodver and he would have carried that name thereafter. If he ever had a son, that son would have been Hlodver’s son, not Hundi’s son. That Thorfinn fought at Torfnes not with an Orkney Norseman but with Karl… Scotland’s lord is made clear in Arnórr’s verse. These verses, however, assign to Thorfinn’s opponent only the name Karl and do not refer to him as Hundi’s son. The description, Scotland’s lord, is a translation of Arnórr’s Scotlands harra. The Norse word harra was only ever used in poetry and is translatable as either lord or king. The verses in praise of Thorfinn and his victory at Torfnes were composed after Arnórr’s arrival in Orkney from Iceland soon after 1040 to become Thorfinn’s jarlaskald. Arnórr’s use of the ambiguous harra, lord or king, might be thought appropriate; Macbeth, mormaer of Moray, in 1040 became king of Alba.

Macbeth mormaer of Moray is judged to be the prime candidate to have been Scotland’s lord or king, Karl Hundi’s son, who was defeated at Torfnes. The precise identity of Karl Hundi’s son however, whether Macbeth or Gilla Comgáin, successors to Malcolm mormaer of Moray who died in 1029, or even Duncan, who in 1034 succeeded Malcolm II as king of Alba, does not materially affect the consequences for Ross of Thorfinn’s decisive victory at Torfnes.

180 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Ms, E 1031. 181 Thomson, W. P. L., The New , (Edinburgh, 2001), pp. 79-80 182 Woolf, A., From Pictland to Alba 789-1070, (Edinburgh 2007), pp.309-10 - 79 -

The location of Torfnes An identification of the location of Torfnes is crucial to an understanding of the impact of the battle on the history of the North of Scotland. The Orkneyinga Saga narrative as translated by Taylor in 1938 states that Thorfinn and Karl met at Tarbatness in the south of the Moray Firth.183 The translation by Pálsson and Edwards, published in 1978, states a little more specifically that they faced each other at on the south side of the Moray Firth. 184 Joseph Anderson’s publication of 1873 is apparently even more specific. Whilst it places Thorfinn and his forces in the Breidafiord (Broad Firth/the Moray Firth]) he states that Thorfinn and Karl met at Torfnes, on the south side of the Bæfiord.185

Tarbatness in Easter Ross has become the location favoured to be identified as the Torfnes of Orkneyinga Saga, so much so that translators and historians, as we have seen above, have been content to make an unambiguous substitution of Tarbatness for Torfnes The foundation for belief in Tarbatness as Torfnes, however, is seriously insecure and unconvincing. It is founded on little more than the thought that Tarbatness is the place-name in Northern Scotland which exhibits most approximation to Torfnes. The case is then further developed by suggestion that the torf- element of the Torfnes place-name could be a Norse corruption of the Gaelic tairbeart, a crossing, portage, or isthmus, the origin of the anglicised Gaelic place- name Tarbat.

That case neglects to take into account that the place-name Tarbatness was created long after the Viking Age by addition of the Scots/English suffix ness, promontory or headland, to the anglicised Gaelic place-name Tarbat. The earliest recorded place-name for the promontory now known as Tarbatness is Arterbert (1227) where Ar(t) is for airde, Gaelic, promontory. Recent Gaelic usage for Tarbatness has been rudha Thairbeirt, Tarbat promontory. These facts torpedo the thought that the torf- of Torfnes could be a Norse corruption of the Gaelic tairbeart. The -ness in the Tarbatness place-name is not of direct Old Norse origin, nor is it Gaelic usage.

The peninsula of Tarbatness projects into the Dornoch Firth, at its southeastern extremity. It is therefore questionable that Tarbatness lies south of the Ekkjall,186 south of the Dornoch Firth. Burghead in Moray, on the other hand, certainly does lie south of the Ekkjall and has been proposed as an alternative candidate for Torfnes. In that sense the headland of Burghead is potentially a better candidate for Torfnes than Tarbatness. However, the complete absence of Norse place-names in Moray187 argues against Burghead as the location of Torfnes. The recent novel suggestion, based on the Pictish Bull Stones of Burghead, that the torf of Torfnes might be a corruption of tarfr, ON bull, is an argument which does not convince. Torfnes should be accepted as what it clearly is, an Old Norse composite place-name, the second

183 Taylor, A. B., The Orkneyinga Saga, p.167 184 Pálsson, H. and Edwards P., The Orkneyinga Saga, (London 1978), p.54 185Anderson, J., ed., Hjaltalin, J. A. and Goudie, G., trs., The Orkneyinga saga, (Edinburgh, 1873), p.20 186 the Dornoch Firth 187 Geoffrey Barrow has suggested ( and Strathspey, in Northern Scotland 8:1988) two place-names in the historic province of Moray which might be of Norse origin: Kerdale in upper Strathnairn and Budgate beside Cawdor. Simon Taylor states (The Toponymy of Strathglass and Beauly in Northern Scotland 23: 2003, p.28) that Kerdale is of Gaelic origin – cèarr d(h)ail, crooked or bent haugh – and that early forms of Budgate make a Norse derivation 'highly unlikely'. - 80 -

syllable of which, as the generic, means 'a cape, a headland, a promontory, or a strip of land projecting into a body of water', and the first syllable, as the specific, means 'peat'.

That clear meaning of torf has largely been ignored, probably because historians have ruled the statement that Einar was the first to find out how to cut torf from the bogs for fuel as no more than a ridiculous assertion. A P Smyth, however, does treat the point seriously.

Peat had provided fuel in this region from prehistoric times, but Einar’s nickname is probably genuine. Orkneyinga Saga states that he organised peat cutting as far south as Tarbatness in Easter Ross, confirming those numerous other Norse traditions which put the frontier between the Orkney earls and the Scots at least as far south as the Oykel if not south of the Moray Firth.188

It should be remembered that Orkneyinga Saga tells that Einar was the young Norwegian warrior who was despatched by Rögnvald of Møre to regain the Orkney earldom by military force. As a warrior from tree-rich Norway he well understood the importance of high quality wood charcoal for the forging of steel. Steel weapons regularly broke in combat and required replacement or repair by forging. Only the highest quality peat charcoal, termed by Gaels gual, coal, successfully forged steel – more successfully even than wood charcoal. Cutting of peats of a high calorific value at Torfnes would have been of significant value, both military and commercial.

Torfnes is a Norse place-name indicative of land use. The land mass -nes, which projected into water, whether in area restricted or extensive, had been awarded its name because of deposits of peat which were particularly worthy of extraction. The entry in Sinclair’s Statistical Account for the parish of Tarbat offers little promise that Tarbatness had been a headland rich in peat.

The parish labours under a considerable disadvantage, from the scarcity of peats and other fuel. Old Statistical Account, Tarbat 1792

Today no headland or promontory on the coast of the inner Moray Firth is recognisably possessed of a profusion of peat resources. Nonetheless, since Torfnes convinces as a historical place-name for a real location, the probability is that in the past there had been notable peat deposits on a promontory on the coast of the Moray Firth.

Around the Inner Moray Firth late 18th and early 19th century agrarian improvement, particularly drainage and liming of the soil, brought considerable areas of former bogs, carseland and moorland into arable production. At Dingwall the moorland on the hill ridge immediately south of the burgh before improvement had served as common pasture and had been known by the now obsolete place-name, Knockdow, Gaelic cnoc dubh, black hill. Black (or dubh) in this instance did not necessarily indicate that the hill was black in colour, but that it was non-arable land allocated to be rough pasture and a source of turf or peat for fuel. The name of a roadway (Road Goyal, Gaelic rathad gual) leading from the town to the crest of Knockdow indicates that historically the hill had been a source of peat, particularly black peat, gual (Gaelic, coal). From the top of Knockdow, highly visible in its near proximity

188 Smyth, A. P., Warlords and Holy Men: Scotland AD80-1000, (Edinburgh 1989), p.154 - 81 -

across the Conon estuary, lies the Black Isle, Gaelic, An t’Eilean Dubh. That the place-name Eilean Dubh might have a similar origin to the place-name Knockdow, where peat in earlier times had been cut, prompts the thought that historically the Black Isle might have been a projection of land rich in peat, possibly the Torfnes of Orkneyinga Saga. The Black Isle, of course, is no island; it is a peninsula. Washed on either side by the firths of Cromarty and Beauly, it tapers northeastward to project itself as a headland into the Moray Firth. Whilst the eastern headland of the Black Isle in its extent is comparable to the promontory of Tarbatness, it should be noted that the suffix –nes in the Norse Katenes, Caithness, applied to a much more extensive land mass. If the Black Isle had been given a –nes place-name by Norsemen, they might have applied it to the full length of the Black Isle peninsula or only to its eastern extremity.

There are a number of hypotheses as to the origin of the Black Isle place-name. Of these the most persuasive relates to the historical moorland features of the Mulbuie Commonty.189 That commonty had extended the entire length of the Mulbuie Ridge, the peninsula’s central higher ground. Previous to division of the Commonty among landowners in 1827, the extensive dark moor of the Mulbuie had dominated the peninsula’s appearance. Fifty years later, after agrarian improvement, a dramatic change in the peninsula’s visual character was noted.

Before the division a dark dreary shade was cast over the whole peninsula by the black heathy moor, which then ran along the ridge; now the many green fields and thriving plantations that occupy the greater part of the old Mulbuie, lend a pleasant, smiling aspect to the whole district.190

That latter appearance of the peninsula contrasts emphatically to the description presented in 1792 by the minister of the parish of Kirkmichael and (Resolis). He commented on the then restricted cultivation of the Black Isle, a name he judged to be a very just description of its situation and appearance.

4-fifths of it being as yet uncultivated, and producing nothing but short heath, give a black and dreary appearance to the whole… This parish is… bounded on S. by the ridge of the Mull-bui, or that extensive track of common which stretches along the summit of the Black Isle, from the Mains of Cromarty almost to the county road that leads from the Ferry of Scuddal to the Ferry of Bewley; being almost 16 miles in length from E. to W., and 2 in breadth from N. to S. Old Statistical Account, Kirkmichael and Cullicudden 1791

'Almost 16 miles' is as reasonable an estimate as the 'perhaps 30km', ventured by Scottish Natural Heritage191, of the length of the extensive area of mires, lochans and peat bogs which in the past had stretched the length of the Mulbuie. The Special Area of Conservation located close to the western extremity of the Mulbuie and east of the , now known as the Monadh Mór, is scientifically acknowledged both as the last remnant of the formerly great

189 See Willis, D. P., Discovering the Black Isle, (1989), p.3 190 MacDonald, J., in Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, (1877) 191 Egret Consultancy, Wet Woods LIFE Project Hydrological Survey of Monadh Mór, (1999) Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report F99PA18M. - 82 -

Mulbuie peat bog system and as the closest approximation in Britain to Scandinavian peat mires.

By the early 19th century the previously greatly valued peat resources of the Mulbuie were nearing exhaustion. Hugh Miller in writing the entry on the parish of Cromarty for the Second, or New, Statistical Account acknowledged that point in his description of the Mulbuie as:-

… extensive moss, which before the opening of the coal trade with Newcastle, supplied the place with fuel, but it gradually wore out. New Statistical Account, Cromarty 1836

It is of at least equal historical significance however that he commented on a vast accumulation of drift peat close to the little town of Cromarty.

A short half mile to the east of the town, in an inflection of the bank, there is a vast accumulation of drift peat covered over by a layer of soil. Somewhat more than thirty years ago, it was laid open by a waterspout to the depth of twelve feet… a black solid peat moss. New Statistical Account, Cromarty 1836

Crown records relating to lands of the forfeit earldom of Ross indicate that peat was a notable Black Isle resource throughout the 16th century. Loads of peat formed significant components of annual feu rents specified in royal grant of earldom lands in the Black Isle to William Keith in 1586. An annual total of 660 loads were set on properties in the parishes of Kilchrist, Killearnan, Kilmuir Wester, and Cullicudden.192 Drumderfit in Kilmuir Wester from 1564 was to deliver annually 80 loads of peat directly to the castle of Dingwall.193 In 1557 the bishop of Ross set annual payment of 100 loads of peat on Easter Culbo and 60 loads similarly on Easter Balblair, both in the parish of Cullicudden.194 These documented rental payments in loads of peat represent only a fraction of peat extraction from the Black Isle in the late 16th century.

Torfnes features in Orkneyinga Saga in three different narratives, firstly in the tale of Torf- Einar’s 10th century peat-cutting and secondly as the site of the 11th century battle between Thorfinn and Karl Hundi’s son. The third and final reference to Torfnes appears in the account of the return voyage from Norway to Orkney undertaken by Earl Rögnvald Kali in the mid-13th century. His ship’s departure had been seriously delayed into the winter months and it was struck by tempest in the North Sea.

They reached Skotland in the depth of winter and lay a long time off the coast of Skotland in the shelter of Torfnes. The Earl came a little before to the Orkneys… Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.304

192 Innes, C. N., Origines Parochiales Scotiae Vol. II, part 2, Bannatyne Club, (Edinburgh, 1851) - Kilchrist - Hiltoun of Tarradale 60 p.523, Killearnan - Garguston 80, Hiltoun 80, both p.530. Kilmuir Wester - the wester half of Little Daokis, 40 p.534, Drumderfit 120, Wester Kessock 120, both p.536, Drynie 80 p.537, Cullicudden - Drumquhidden 80, p.554. 193 ibid, p.535 194 Bid, pp.554 and p.557 - 83 -

Writing in late 18th century, the minister of the parish of Cromarty emphasised that during severe gales no harbour on the east coast of Scotland offered safer shelter to sailing vessels than did the Cromarty Firth.

In all violent easterly storms, when no vessel can venture to look into any port of the E. coast of Scotland from the Firth of Forth northwards, all vessels, thus situated, flock into this bay as a place of safety.195 Old Statistical Account, Cromarty 1793

In sum, directly and indirectly, Orkneyinga Saga presents to the reader a number of defining features of Torfnes. It was a promontory. The specific land-use value of that promontory lay in its natural resource of peat. It was located on the coast of the Moray Firth. It was located to the south of the Dornoch Firth. In storms ships safely sheltered in its lee. The terrain was appropriate as a site for major land battle. It provided good safe harbourage for longships to disembark fighting men and to await their return from battle. It is true to say that historically the Black Isle possessed those same geographical characteristics as the Saga’s Torfnes.

The possibility that the Black Isle might be the Torfnes of Orkneyinga Saga has the support of local folklore. The Old Statistical Account entry for Cromarty reports a popular tradition of conflict with invading Scandinavian forces. That tradition had become associated with the then numerous tumuli on the Mulbuie - now lost to field clearance - which were thought of as graves.

It is generally conjectured that the were wont to land at this place, and that the inhabitants of the country met them in a large moor, called Mullbuy, where they often fought, as graves are to be traced distinctly for several miles in different parts of it. Old Statistical Account, Cromarty 1793

A similar tradition is reported by the minister of the neighbouring parish of Kirkmichael and Cullicudden, to whom the tumuli, were encampments… supposed to have been formed by the Danes when they invaded Scotland. He also presents a worthy tactical explanation for the Scandinavians’ choice of that place to be a defensive encampment.

There is an extensive prospect in all directions, to prevent their being surprised in their camp; and as they are seldom found above a mile from the shore, if they should have been surprised and defeated by the natives, they could easily have retired on board their ships… Old Statistical Account, Kirkmichael and Cullicudden 1791

The minister of , on the southern side of the Black Isle, in his contribution to the Old Statistical Account also associated the Mulbuie tumuli with a great conflict with the Danes, and reported the belief that battle took place after they had landed at Cromarty. Folklore’s concept of major conflict against Scandinavians is not diminished by association with what are now thought more likely to have been products of prehistory.

195 Old Statistical Account, parish of Cromarty. Buchanan in Rerum Scoticarum historia (1582), lib i c.30 made a similar point in describing a safe harbour and certain refuge against every tempest. - 84 -

Wyntoun’s Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, a work of the early 15th century, tells the tale that Macbeth in fearful dream received prophecy from the thre werd sisters of his advance towards the kingship of Alba, firstly as Thane of Crumbachty, secondly as Thane of Moray, and finally as king. He sawe thre wemen by gangand And thai wemen than thoucht he, Thre werd systers mast lyk to be. The first he hard say gangand by Lo yonder the Thane of Crumbachty. The tothir woman sayd agayne Off Morave yonder I see the Thane. The Thryd than sayd I se the king. All this he hard in his dremyng. Andrew Wyntoun (1350-1423), Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland196

Crumbachty is the older form of the place-name Cromarty and it is credible that previous to 1029 Macbeth had been Thane of Cromarty;197 a location whose strategic position at the entrance to the Cromarty Firth and its nearness to the southern limit of the territories of the Norse Orkney earldom made it an appropriate posting for a leading member of the ruling kindred of Moray.

Thorfinn, according to the narrative in Orkneyinga Saga, clearly had wished to provoke his opponent into decisive battle at a provocative location of his, Thorfinn’s, choosing. If, as seems most likely, Macbeth was the Scots opponent whom he wished to provoke into battle, Thorfinn’s landing with his forces at Cromarty certainly would have been a provocation to Macbeth, lately Thane of Cromarty. This adds support to identification of Karl Hundi’s son as Macbeth.

Support to the concept that the battle of Torfnes was fought on the north side of the Black Isle is offered in the oldest extant version of Orkneyinga Saga entered in Flateyjarbók, copied on the island of Flatey198 in the late 14th century from an earlier now lost version. The Saga as represented in Flateyjarbók acknowledges that the wider area in which Torfnes was located was in the Breidafiord, the Moray Firth, but it more specifically places the battle site on the south side of the Bæfiord.199 This would imply that the battle at Torfnes was fought on the shore of an inner firth – Dornoch, Cromarty or Beauly. In Old Icelandic the specific element, bæ-, of the Bæfiord place-name carries the meaning of dwelling, settlement. Norse place-

196 Laing, D., ed. & tr., Andrew of Wyntoun: Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, 2 vols, Historians of Scotland II & III, (Edinburgh, 1872), B. VI Ch XVIII 197 There is no documentary evidence for such a thanage at Cromarty. Alexander Grant has suggested that the temporary surrender in 1382 of the thanage of Dingwall by Euphemia Countess of Ross to King Robert II points to the existence of a Scots thanage at Dingwall as far back as the early 11th century. He credits Malcolm II, King of Alba (1005-34), for such an extension of Moray thanages into Ross, but others have suggested that these thanages were creations of rulers of Moray rather than of Kings of Scots. For Grant’s case see Grant, A., The Province of Ross and the Kingdom of Alba, in Cowan, E. J., and. McDonald R. A., eds., Alba:Celtic Scotland in the Middle Ages, (East Linton, 2000), pp.88-126. Also Grant, A., Thanes and Thanages for the Eleventh to the Fourteenth Centuries, in Grant, A. and Stringer, K..J., eds., Medieval Scotland,; Crown, Lordship and Community, (Edinburgh, 1993), pp.88-126 198 in Breiðafjörður off the west coast of Iceland 199 Anderson, J., ed., Hjaltalin, J. A. and Goudie, G., trs., The Orkneyinga saga, (Edinburgh, 1873), p. 21 - 85 -

names are not evident on the south shore of the . There certainly are Norse place- names on the south shore of the Dornoch Firth, but, guided by Arnórr’s firm statement that Torfnes lay south of the Ekkjall, the Cromarty Firth would appear to be the best candidate of three to have been Bæfiord just as the Black Isle, or at the least its eastern headland, is the best candidate by far to have been Torfnes

The Orkneyinga Saga narrative of Thorfinn’s campaign against Karl tells that Thorfinn following his victory at Deerness had pursued the defeated enemy as far as the Inner Moray Firth and that both antagonists had summoned all their available forces to join them there. Thorfinn had sought a decisive victory in an area of his choosing, his prime objective being to ensure lasting security in his possession of Caithness. He had aimed to win that decisive victory in a key strategic area and there gain a defensively advantageous boundary to his mainland territories. At Torfnes on the south side of the Cromarty Firth he fully achieved his aims and objectives. Thorfinn had won total command of the Cromarty Firth and the productive lands around its shores

Control of the Cromarty Firth harbourage gave Thorfinn’s forces ready opportunity to harry the coast of Moray and to deter or to intercept seaborne attacks from Moray. Moreover at the head of the firth, sandwiched between the sea and the mass of the Ben Wyvis mountain range, lay the narrow land corridor comprising Ferindonald, the only practicable overland route for armies northbound for Caithness. Command of the Cromarty Firth made Thorfinn secure in Caithness. To be lasting, that newly won security required Norse occupation, settlement and, as is reflected in the name Dingwall, dominion over the indigenous Gaelic population. Of the Norse place-names identified in Ross 28 out of 43, a substantive majority, point to agrarian activity and exploitation of natural woodlands. That pattern of place-names reveals that Thorfinn the strategist was also Thorfinn a Viking opportunist.

Review The sources investigated indicate no lasting dominance of Ross by a Norse authority previous to Thorfinn’s victory at Torfnes c.1030. Whilst earlier settlement by individual Norsemen is not ruled out, the widespread exploitative Norse colonial settlement indicated by place-names only became possible through a stability which had been brought by conquest. The Dingwall place-name similarly is indicative of a Norse political supremacy which owed its authority to Thorfinn’s conquest of the lands around the Cromarty Firth. Thorfinn, when war with Karl Hundi’s son erupted, resided mainly in Caithness. There is no Þingvöllr in Caithness, but there is in Shetland, where, helmeted at Torfnes, Thorfinn fought as the liege of Shetlanders.200 It seems possible that personal experience had taught Thorfinn the value of the Tingwall all-Shetland Ting in effecting good governance of the Isles in his often unavoidable absence. Serious consideration should be given to the possibility that at the head of the Cromarty Firth, the radial centre of Ross, Thorfinn established the meeting place of the Thing of all Ross, charged with resolution of disputes, dispensation of justice, orderly settlement, managed exploitation of resources and, of course, collection of his skat, in what was his Norse-dominated colony. Any initial dubiety that the Dingwall place-name atypically should be outwith the time-zone of other Þingvöllr place-names in the British Isles is reconciled. It seems both that is and that it is not; the older well-established Shetland place-name probably had been newly introduced to Ross by Thorfinn, lord of Shetland.

200 Whaley, D., The Poetry of Arnórr jarlaskald, (Turnhout, 1998), p.125, stanza 10 - 86 -

Parliaments once established tend to develop their own stamina. The Þingvöllr place-name at the head of the Firth survived assimilation of the Norse minority élite with the Gaelic majority population. Pronounced by Gaelic-speakers as Dingwall it demonstrates the eventual emergence in Ross of a hybrid Gaelic-Norse political culture, one which continued to make use of the assembly place at Dingwall and which survived as the polity of Ross for a century and more after the death of Thorfinn the Mighty.

SECTION FOUR: Concluding Summary

Dingwall

A major outcome of this investigation is identification of the medieval assembly place, the Thingsite, which gave Dingwall its Norse place-name. Located on the south bank of the River Peffery, the Thingsite occupied the whole of a small peninsula projecting into the river estuary. The assembly field, which existed long before the burgh of Dingwall was founded in 1226, consisted of three component parts.

 a mound on which the assembled Thing Law Council received petitions and made proclamations  an area set aside for the freemen who had gathered to petition the Law Council, to listen and to observe  a site of religious ritual

The latter lay within what is today the historic parish kirkyard, beside the lowest crossing point on the Peffery, close to where the river ceases to be tidal. The Thing Mound, which became the late medieval Moothill of Dingwall, was contained within the Hillyard, in 1714 the burial place of the first earl of Cromartie. The site of the Hillyard since 1947 has been the Cromartie Car Park. The former field where the freemen had gathered, known in historical times as Trinity Croft, is now incorporated within the precincts of a superstore as the upper part of the store’s car park and fuel station. The execution site associated with the Thingsite, Gallaber, later Gallowhill, lies 600 metres west of the Thingsite.

In the Christian era the Law Council would have assembled in a church built on the site of religious ritual. There the of the Law Council would have received blessings and spiritual authority from the priest in its convening as the Thing Court. From the church the Law Council would have progressed to the Thing Mound to exercise its courtly authority over the gathered assembly.

The suitability of the historic topography of the immediate locality of Dingwall to provide for a major Thingsite is conveyed in 17th and 18th century burgh land records.

 Level, naturally well-drained land on the low-lying floor of the valley on the south bank of the estuary of the Peffery supplied the appropriate field both for the meeting - 87 -

of the Thing and for the siting of booths, the temporary living-quarters of those who attended the Thing.  Plentiful natural pastures close by the Thingsite catered for the horses which had brought participants to the Thing.  Whilst natural firewood was likely to have been readily available, peat turves could also be cut from the adjacent moorland hill for use as either fuel or building material for construction of booth walls.  Nearby natural springs on the southern hill slopes guaranteed plentiful drinking water which, as downhill flowing burn water, could be channelled to the site.  The marshy, muddy estuary of the Peffery provided safe landing places for those who had travelled over water to attend the Thing.

Such an environment had the capability to accommodate a Thing gathering of substantial proportions.

This study has given indication of Norse exploitation of the natural environment of the locality of Dingwall over and above the practice of Thing assembly.

 The place-name Poldam, mill-pond, confirms the presence of an estate to supply the required agrarian maintenance of a Thingsite.  The place-names Broadpool, Stavek and Stava indicate Norse exportation of commodities, particularly timber, from Dingwall.  The castle of Dingwall, first documented in the 13th century, occupies a marshy location close to the confluence of a minor and a major river, the Peffery and the Conon. Such a location is similar to those of Viking ship-camps in Ireland. From these developed Ireland’s first towns.

The beginnings of a process of proto-urbanisation appear to be detectable at Norse Dingwall.

Place-names

 Compared with the overwhelming preponderance of Gaelic place-names relatively few Norse place-names are evident in eastern Ross. That place-name pattern, combined with the Dingwall place-name indicative of the centre of a Norse government, offers clear demonstration that the Norse had been an élite who had ruled over a much more numerous pre-existing Gaelic population.  Of 43 identified Norse-derived place-names 39 are topographic place-names, referring to landscape. Toponymists now understand that during the initial period of Norse settlement in newly colonised areas the settlers gave topographic names to their settlements and that farmstead names were coined later, when larger farms were subdivided.  Of the 39 Norse topographic place-names only 14 are purely topographic. The remainder point to agrarian activity and exploitation of natural woodlands by a resident Norse population. Utilisation of the rich natural resources had been a feature of Norse settlement in Ross. That widespread Norse exploitation, revealed in the - 88 -

place-name evidence, points to an organised Norse colonial activity which could only have occurred during a period of stable Norse supremacy.  The paucity of surviving Norse farmstead place-names, only 4, indicates that few Norse place-names were coined after the first Norse settlements had been established. This signifies that the Norse language had been spoken in Ross for no more than a few generations until speedy assimilation into the majority Gaelic-speaking population caused the Norse language to fade away.  Some Norse place-names were adopted into spoken Gaelic and survived in Gaelic usage. Survival of Norse-derived place-names, however, does not reveal precisely when it was that Norsemen had settled in Ross, but does suggest that happening to have occurred at a time in Ross after the Gaelic language had replaced Britonnic Pictish, c.950. The survival of the Þingvöllr place-name, pronounced by Gaels as Dingwall, demonstrates the eventual emergence in Ross of a hybrid Gaelic-Norse political culture, one which continued to make use of the assembly place at Dingwall

Þingvöllr place-names in general appear to signify central meeting places, either of Alþings or Lögþings, established at a relatively early stage of colonisation for the good governance of a Norse colony. This is particularly evident in the case of both Iceland and Shetland. Þingvöllr at the head of the Cromarty Firth earned its name in having served a similarly central function following Norse conquest of Ross.

Annals

The Ulster Annal for the year 839 leaves us in no doubt that the nobility and military of the Pictish kingdom of Fortriu (Moray and Ross) in that year had experienced catastrophic defeat at the hands of 'the heathens', Viking forces. By its very nature the annalistic source offers no subsequent information beyond that the defeat was absolute. We may speculate on the possibility of the Cromarty Firth having provided a safe haven for the Viking fleet and on the possibility that Ross consequently had been detached from Fortriu, but such thoughts remain no more than speculation. Less speculative is the probability that the slaughter of the king of Fortriu and his brother, along with the client king of Dál Riata and 'noblemen almost innumerable' deprived Fortriu for a period of time of the capability of organised resistance to Viking predatory raiding.

The Ulster Annal for the year 866 records the predatory presence in Fortriu of Óláfr of Dublin as leader of the Norsemen 'of Ireland and Scotland' in the taking of hostages and tribute. Other annalistic sources have been interpreted as informing that Óláfr had remained in Fortriu for three years. Again the possibility is raised of the Cromarty Firth, perhaps even a Viking pirate ship-camp at Dingwall, having provided a base for summer raiding and a safe haven in winter Thereafter Óláfr raided Armagh in 869. The next year, 870, he was leader of Vikings in the siege and destruction of the fortress of Dumbarton, returning to Dublin in 871 'with two hundred ships bearing great prey of Angles, Britons and Picts'. This pattern of piratical activity makes it most unlikely that organised land seizure and settlement in Fortriu had been an aim or a consequence of Óláfr’s arrival there in 866.

- 89 -

The Ulster Annal for 904 reports that the men of Fortriu had slain with 'great slaughter' Ímar, grandson of the Ímar of Dublin who was described in the Annal for 873 as 'king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and Britain'. That slaughter points to some recovery by 904 in Fortriu’s military strength but Fortriu then disappears from the historic record. Around the mid 10th century, however, the term Moray first enters history. Moray by 980, according to interpretation of Orkneyinga Saga, was powerful enough to launch overland invasions of Caithness and rival the Orkney earldom for supremacy in Northwest Scotland.

Annals offer no convincing evidence, however, of long-term Norse domination and settlement in either Ross or Moray during the 9th century.

Landnámabók

The purpose of the brief narrative in Landnámabók of an invasion and conquest of Northern Scotland, co-led by Thorstein the Red and Sigurd the Powerful, is to enter the personal background of Aud, Thorstein’s mother, as a significant personality in the Norse Settlement of Iceland which took place between 870 and 930. Landnámabók claims that Óláfr of Dublin was Thorstein’s father and that, following his death, Aud with her son Thorstein returned to the Hebrides, presumably to rejoin the family of her father, Ketill, a Christian convert. There Thorstein was raised and became a warlord. Having made himself king in Northern Scotland, he was killed in battle. The widowed Aud, bereft of her son, sailed from Caithness to settle in Iceland, where she conducted her life as a devout Christian.

The body of Landnámabók’s content is persuasive that as a founder of Iceland Aud is a historical person who was a Christian believer. The narrative of invasion also appears to have some historical substance. The Ulster Annal for 893, in recording the presence in Dublin of 'Sicfrith the jarl' as a leading personality among Norsemen in the West, appears to confirm the historical existence of Sigurd the Powerful, jarl of Orkney, but no Irish Annal makes mention of Aud or of her son Thorstein. Two place-names in the region in Iceland where Aud settled, however, contain the rare Icelandic word element pjatt, Pict. This offers circumstantial evidence that Aud actually had been in Pictland. Moreover Landnámabók tells she had a bondsman of the strikingly Pictish name Erpr. That Pictish name could not have been in use in the 12th century when Landnámabók was committed to writing and therefore must have entered into Icelandic oral history in the late 9th century.

Report in Landnámabók that Thorstein the Red had a son who had a Gaelic pet-name possibly relates to Thorstein’s earlier life, raised among the family of Ketill, father of Aud, whose power-base was located in the Norse-dominated former lands of Dál Riata. Landnámabók however gives no indication that there were Gaels amongst those who followed Thorstein in invasion of Northern Scotland. In fact Landnámabók gives not even a hint that followers of Thorstein, Gaels or Norse, had settled in Ross. The question as to whether there had been a Christian element amongst the invaders becomes irrelevant.

If, as Landnámabók claims, Óláfr of Dublin was father of Thorstein, Óláfr tribute-taking presence in Fortriu, recorded in the Annal of Ulster for 866, might have been inspiration for - 90 -

Thorstein to aspire to a kingdom in the lands of the Inner Moray Firth. In this manner of 'ifs' and 'mights', however, discussive investigation breaks down and departs into speculation. What has to be stressed is that Landnámabók narrates nothing of happenings in Northern Scotland after Thorstein’s death, other than his mother’s departure for Iceland. Landnámabók is in no way whatsoever an informative witness as to historical circumstances in Ross following failure of Aud and Thorstein to achieve their family ambition in Northern Pictland. Aud’s retreat to Iceland indicates that the claimed conquest of Moray and Ross, historically Fortriu, had suffered such serious reverse that it had been abandoned.

Orkneyinga Saga

Orkneyinga Saga makes only two direct mentions of Ross in our period of study up to the death of Thorfinn the Mighty c.1065. The Saga, in echoing Landnámabók, states that Ross was amongst the lands reputedly conquered by Sigurd the Powerful and Thorstein the Red in the late 9th century. The next time Saga makes mention of Ross is in narrative of the events which culminated in Thorfinn’s decisive victory at Torfnes c. 1030. The two particular circumstances in which the Saga makes clear reference to Ross are separated in historical time by a century and a half. Nonetheless, the Saga’s narratives of the activities of successive Orkney earls from the time of Sigurd the Powerful to Thorfinn the Mighty contain items of narrative material which potentially bear relevance to the historical circumstances of Ross.

In its short account of the claimed late 9th century conquest of Northern Scotland by Sigurd and Thorstein the Saga states that Sigurd 'had a borg built there in the south of Moray'. This concise statement is judged to result from a folk memory, and probable actuality, of a fortification, a borg, in the region of the Inner Moray Firth having been of major significance in Sigurd’s struggle to maintain military influence in that area. The peculiar tale of how Sigurd met his death through combat with Melbrigd Tönn reflects a Caithness tradition that security of the southern border of the Orkney/Caithness earldom, at the line of the River Oykel and the Dornoch Firth, had depended on military action south of that border. Logically, if Sigurd had built a borg, it had been built before combat with Melbrigd Tönn. Reference to that borg and the tale of combat are commentary on Ross having remained a contested area from the initial Norse invasion of Northern Scotland until Sigurd’s death.

Following the death of Sigurd, the Saga tells of a period of confused and indecisive rule of the Orkney earldom. Eventually, Sigurd’s nephew Einar was despatched from Norway to forcefully impose his authority. The story that Einar learnt to cut torf (peat) from the bogs for fuel, at Torfnes in Skotland is certainly of relevance to Ross. Torfnes, clearly a Norse place- name, confidently has been identified in this investigation as the Black Isle peninsula. Norse seafarers, rather than Norse settlers, are likely to have given the name Torfnes to such a prominent maritime feature.

The Saga relays nothing of relevance to Ross in its narrative of events during the period of rule of Einar’s son and successor earl, Thorfinn Skullsplitter. After Skullsplitter’s death c.977 war broke out between two of his sons. Skúli challenged Ljot for the earldom and the King of Skots, a mormaer of Moray, intervened in aid of Skúli, who invaded Orkney, but was repulsed. He retreated to Caithness and thence to Skotland from where he re-invaded Caithness, backed by an army supplied by the King of Skots and Magbíod, a Moray lord. The - 91 -

Scots army fled from Ljot’s forces. The abandoned Skúli fell fighting. The Scots, led by Magbíod, re-invaded Caithness but were again defeated. Ljot, however, had been mortally wounded in the conflict and was succeeded as Orkney earl by another brother, Hlodver, who peacefully retained Caithness and died in his bed.

Those invasions of Caithness mounted by Moray forces, probably in the late 970s, point to Ross in that period having been within Moray’s military sphere of influence, simply because, in order to invade Caithness, overland invasions mounted from Moray had to make their way through Ross. If, in the course of the 10th century, Ross had been a contested area that contest remains hidden from history. By 980 however Moray clearly had won any such contest.

The Saga’s narrative of Skúli’s attempts to wrest rule of the Orkney earldom from his brother Ljot and of Moray invasions of Caithness contains no report of an Orcadian strike from Caithness into Ross. Nor does the Saga report any advance into Ross by the forces of earl Sigurd the Stout, Hlodver’s son and successor. The greatest accolade the Saga awards this earl Sigurd is that 'by main force he held Caithness against the Skots', having narrowly defeated invading forces led by Findláech, Mormaer of Moray. Orkneyinga Saga also tells of Sigurd’s western focus in telling that he …every summer had a war-cruise abroad. He harried in the Hebrides, in Skotland, and in Ireland. Ireland knew him as 'king of the Hebrides'. Undoubtedly Sigurd’s richly rewarding sphere of domination lay in the western islands and much of the western seaboard of mainland Scotland. As Williams201 concludes, a significant consequence of Sigurd’s authority over the western islands and the seaboard of Scotland was his introduction of the Orcadian fiscal divisions of ouncelands for the purposes of proportioning rents and tribute. In Ross the noted absence, from coast to coast, of ouncelands should not be surprising. Sigurd, who succeeded to the Orkney earldom no earlier than 990, never had dominion over Ross.

Orkneyinga Saga’s reported marriage of Sigurd to a daughter of Malcolm, King of Skots is best interpreted as an arrangement which guaranteed Sigurd possession of Caithness and Sutherland for as long as he would live on condition that at the end of his life these lands would be inherited by the son of that marriage, Thorfinn. Sigurd, his territories in Northern Scotland secure, resumed his westward focus. Before departing for Ireland on what turned out to be his final adventure, he placed the five-year old Thorfinn in the care of Malcolm, King of Skots. After Sigurd’s death at Clontarf in 1014, Thorfinn was awarded Caithness and Sutherland by Malcolm, his grandfather.

The Saga presents next a detailed and lively tale of conflict between Earl Thorfinn and his grandfather’s successor as king of Skots, who is named in the Saga as Karl Hundi’s son. Thorfinn rejected Karl’s claim that he should pay tribute for Caithness. He repelled a Skots invasion of Caithness and harried in Skotland, but failed to deter Karl Hundi’s son who launched a pincer attack on Caithness by land and sea, the final outcome of which was Thorfinn’s winning of a decisive victory at Torfnes. Investigative study of the narrative has led to a conclusion that its contents are substantially historical. Malcolm King of Skots is identified as Malcolm mormaer of Moray, who died in 1029. Karl Hundi’s son is identified as Macbethad mac Ruaidrí, mormaer of Moray, the historical Macbeth, or his uncle Gilla Comgáin. Torfnes is identified as the Black Isle. Thorfinn’s decisive victory was won on the south side of the Cromarty Firth. His intention in choosing that location for battle was to win

201 Williams, G., in Williams, G. and Bibire, P., eds., Sagas, Saints and Settlements, (Brill, 2004), pp.203-4 - 92 -

command of the Firth and the strategic land route around its head. Decisive defeat of Karl at Torfnes meant that Thorfinn had gained a domination of Ross which guaranteed him security in his possession of Caithness.202 Orkneyinga Saga makes no reference to Thorfinn having resided in Ross. His domination of Ross however was not challenged in his lifetime.

In the British Isles Þingvöllr names appear to indicate locations which had been selected as meeting-places for central authorities of newly settled Norse colonies. The Norse parliament field at Dingwall clearly would have been central to administration and justice in the Ross which Thorfinn dominated. Despite judgement that the origins of the majority of Þingvöllr place-names of the British Isles are likely to date before 920, a conclusion is drawn that the origin of the Dingwall place-name lies in Thorfinn’s dominance of Ross won at Torfnes. He, for the most part an absentee lord, chose the meeting-place of a central þing to carry responsibility for collective administration of a Norse colony in Ross. He had chosen well.

Seen as a geopolitical whole, the coastal lowlands, the sea firths and river valleys of Ross are spread out like a spider’s web, and at the heart of the web sits Dingwall.203

There Thorfinn, lord of both Caithness and Shetland, established the meeting-place of the Thing of all Ross. Initial dubiety that the Dingwall place-name atypically should be outwith the time-zone of other Þingvöllr place-names in the British Isles is reconciled. The older well- established Shetland place-name had been introduced to Ross by Thorfinn, lord of Shetland.

The inscribed Pictish symbols stone in the Dingwall kirkyard is suggestive that the location might previously have been in use as an assembly place or at least as a site of social ritualistic activity. If George Brown’s representation in 1790 of the Hillyard as an islet is accurate the assembly site appears to have borne a remarkable similarity to the Shetland Tingwall and its Lawting Holm offshore in Tingwall Loch. There can be no doubt, however, that in the time of Thorfinn a Christian church had been a significant component of the Dingwall Thingsite. Thorfinn was certainly a Christian. He appointed the first , built the Christchurch at , where he would be buried, and he undertook a pilgrimage to Rome. Like other medieval rulers, Thorfinn employed the backing of the Church in its preaching that all earthly authority came from God. Delivery of that message and the blessing of participants in the Thing would have been important functions undertaken by priests of the Þingvöllr.

Orkneyinga Saga makes no reference whatsoever to Ross in its narratives of Thorfinn’s adventures after his victory at Torfnes. Thorfinn had not been a permanent resident of Ross. At Dingwall, however, he had established a centre of government where the Thing of Ross met. He had charged the Thing at Dingwall with resolution of disputes, dispensation of justice, orderly settlement, managed exploitation of resources and, of course, collection of his skat in what was his Norse-dominated colony.

202 The conflict which reached culmination at Torfnes is substantially historical. Identification of the location of Torfnes as on the Black Isle, on the south side of the Cromarty Firth, is a key result of this investigation. The reader is directed to pages 73 to 86, Earl Thorfinn the Mighty, Thorfinn Sigurdsson. 203 Crawford, B. E., The Southern Frontier of Norse Settlement in North Scotland, in Northern Scotland, 23: 2003, pp.1-19 at page 14 - 93 -

After Thorfinn: Ross 1065-1226

Orkneyinga Saga tells that Thorfinn died in the latter years of Harald Sigurd’s son, better known to British history as , king of Norway, who in 1066 was killed in the Bridge. Thorfinn’s two sons, Paul and Erlend, inherited his lands as joint- earls, but they failed to maintain their control beyond the earldom’s core territories of Orkney and Caithness. … in those lands which he had brought under him by the sword, it seemed to many a hard lot to live under his rule. Many realms that the Earl had subdued fell away and men sought protection for themselves under the hereditary chiefs in their realms. Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.189

The Saga tells that Ingibjorg, Thorfinn’s widow, married Malcolm III, King of Alba (1057- 93), as his first queen. That marriage is likely to have given Malcolm a status which would have allowed him to act as successor to Thorfinn in Northern Scotland.

Ingibjorg Earls’-mother married Malcolm King of Skots, nick-named Long-neck. Their son was Duncan King of Skots, father of William the Nobleman; his son was called William… whom all the Skots wished to take as their King. Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.190

Malcolm III (Canmore) fathered by Ingibjorg at least two sons, Duncan and Donald. Duncan did indeed become king of Scots as Duncan II, but only for a brief period in 1094. His descendants, the MacWilliams, from 1181 to 1215 were to lead serious risings which would threaten the Canmore dynasty’s hold on the kingship.

The apparently violent death of Donald, second son of Malcolm III and Ingibjorg is entered in the Annals of Ulster, year 1085.

AU 1085.2 … Domnall son of Mael Coluim, king of Scotland… [and others] ended their life unhappily.

Alexander Grant suggests the possibility that Malcolm III had given his young son Donald authority over Ross. tradition holds that it was Malcolm II who granted strategic lands in Ross to Donald Munro, progenitor of the clan, laying on him the duty to prevent Viking incursion. Those strategic lands, the medieval parishes of Alness, Kiltearn and Lemlair commanded the narrow land route north of Dingwall, and are yet known as Ferindonald, Gaelic, Fearainn Domhnuill, Donald’s Land. Written record of this Munro tradition dates only from the late 17th century and Grant204 makes the point that there is no historical evidence of Munro presence in the lands of Ferindonald before the 14th century.205 He therefore suggests that the original 'Donald of Ferindonald' could have been Donald, second son to Malcolm III and Ingibjorg. The possibility that this Donald, son of Malcolm

204 Grant, A., The Province of Ross and the Kingdom of Alba, in, Cowan E. J. and McDonald, R., eds., Alba: Celtic Scotland in the Middle Ages, (2000), pp.104-5 205 Munro, R. W., ed., The Munro Tree, (Edinburgh, 1978), pp.1-3. Cf. Skene, W. F., The Highlanders of Scotland, ed. A. Macbain (2nd edn. 1902), pp.416-17 (note by Macbain). - 94 -

III, had wielded authority over Ross is given some additional, if indirect, support through an entry in the Annals of Ulster. It tells that Donald, son of King Malcolm III, had a son named Ladhmann and that Ladhmann was killed in 1116 in a continuing northern power struggle.

AU 1116.6 Ladhmann son of Domnall, grandson of the king of Scotland, was killed by the men of Moray.

The name Ladhmann, or lagh-mann, is derived from Old Norse lögmaðr, the judge who was delegated by a higher authority, presumably in this case the king, to have authority over meetings of a Thing court. That Ingibjorg was his grandmother might go some way to explain this Norse name for the son of Donald, but it is also possible that his name bore some relationship to an authority which Donald, and later his son, had held over Ross. That authority may well have been exercised, in much the same manner as Thorfinn seems to have done, through dominance of a law council held on the assembly field at Dingwall. In the time of Donald and Ladhmann, however, the language of the ruling authority was Gaelic, not Norse. The Norse language had faded but a Gaelic-Norse political culture had evolved as is indicated by the survival of the Dingwall place-name.

David I’s apparently optimistic grant c.1135 of the entire Dingwall assembly place to the priory of Urquhart justifiably can be regarded as evidence that he had aimed to neuter a site which he recognised as power centre of Ross. However a Gaelic-Norse collective decision- making political process appears to have continued in Ross, visible in the collective invitation of the thanes of Ross in 1211 to invite , son of Donald ban MacWilliam, to come to Ross from Ireland to lead them in rebellion against King William.

Gothredus, filius MacWilliam… de consilio… thanorum de Ross, venit in partes illas ex Hibernia. Chronicle of Fordun I p.278, ii p. 274

In 1215 the MacWilliam kindred, who claimed the kingship, in alliance with the MacHeths, who sought of their rights to the earldom of Ross, rose in rebellion against the new young king, Alexander II. A previously unheard-of Gaelic chieftain, Ferchar Mac an tSacairt, somehow had command of sufficient military force drawn from Ross to defeat the combined forces of MacWilliams and MacHeths. Ferchar subsequently presented the heads of the defeated leaders to King Alexander, who immediately created him a knight.

Ferchar’s Gaelic patronym, son of the priest, prompted the long uncontested mid-19th century hypothesis that it originated in a family possession of a lay abbacy of Applecross in Wester Ross. There is another possibility. It is conceivable that the origin of Ferchar’s patronym and of the power at his disposal in Ross lay in some kind of hereditary right to a lay priesthood of the assembly place at Dingwall.

The royal burgh of Dingwall, chartered in 1226 by Alexander II, contained the assembly place from which the burgh took its name. About the same time, c.1226, ten years and more after he had made him his knight, Alexander II granted Ferchar Mac an tSacairt the title of earl of Ross. The lands of Ferchar’s earldom were restricted, however, to Ross north of the Cromarty Firth. The king’s creation of the earldom of Ross and the founding of his royal burgh of Dingwall marked the end of the Gaelic-Norse political culture which had continued to characterise the polity of Ross long after the death of Thorfinn the Mighty.

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Archaeological Update

With permission from The Highland Council and with sponsorship from the Council, the THING Project and Dingwall History Society, archaeological excavation of a 20mx2m wide trial trench was undertaken within the Cromartie Memorial Car Park in September 2012. The excavation, conducted by OJT Heritage and supervised by Dr Oliver O’Grady, was consequent to previous geophysical survey of the site, which historical research had identified as the probable location of the Þingvöllr mound.

The excavation revealed that what had been a large earth mound contained within the Hillyard of Dingwall had been located within estuarine mud. This confirmed George Brown’s plan of 1790 showing the Hillyard as an estuarine islet. Analysis of C14 radio-carbon dating of samples taken across the mound would indicate that it had been originally constructed in the estuary of the Peffery around the mid-11th century. That dating is consistent with the period in which, following his victory at Torfnes until his death c.1065, Earl Thorfinn the Mighty had exercised authority over Ross. It therefore reasonably can be concluded that the mound had been constructed on Thorfinn’s instructions to be a man-made islet adjacent to the eastern shore of what historically had been a small peninsula projecting into the estuary of the Peffery. Thorfinn, not yet earl of Orkney, was lord of Caithness and also of Shetland when he won the decisive battle at Torfnes on the south side of the Cromarty Firth. Construction at the head of that Firth of an islet mound similar to the Lawting Holm of Shetland’s Tingwall raises a real possibility that Thorfinn had replicated Shetland’s Þingvöllr to be the judicial and administrative centre for his newly won Ross. Certainly, as O’Grady comments, 'The substantial man-power and effort required to create a monument on the scale of the Dingwall mound would seem in keeping with the establishment of a major regional judicial and administrative centre'206

Thorfinn’s command of such man-power as engineered the Dingwall Thing mound makes it credible that it was in his time that the Broadpool roadway and ditch were constructed to access the Conon Estuary from Dingwall. It is similarly possible that the aqueduct, known later as the Water of the Dyke, had been excavated at that same time to lead water from the southern hillside springs to Dingwall, the assembly place. It has to be considered likely that a fortification downstream at the mouth of the Peffery Estuary had existed during that same period. Thorfinn the Mighty has to be credited with the foundation of Þingvöllr as an urban, or at least proto-urban, settlement, a settlement which would develop into the Scottish royal burgh of Dingwall.

Archaeology further revealed that the original earth mound, constructed in the mid-11th century, had been augmented 'from approximately the 12th century with the addition of a surface deposit’ 207 This is in keeping with the historical deduction that Dingwall, the assembly place, had continued into the 12th century to be central to a Gaelic-Norse polity of Ross.

206 O’Grady, O. J. T, Cromartie Memorial Car Park, Dingwall, Highland, Archaeological Excavation 2012. Data Structure Report, (The Highland Council, June 2013) 6.6.2, p. 11 207 ibid. 6.1.2, p.10 - 96 -

Closure of historical investigation

The prime objective of this investigation was to meet the THING Project’s request for more in-depth information about the Dingwall Thingsite and its history. As far as evidential sources allow, that objective has been fulfilled. The enigma of Dingwall as Þingvöllr has been resolved in three particulars.

 the precise location of the Dingwall Thingsite

 the origin in time of the Dingwall Thingsite

 the historical background to the origin of the Dingwall Thingsite

The investigation has also raised important historical questions as to the significance of the Dingwall Thingsite in the history of Dingwall, Ross, Northern Scotland and the Scottish kingdom from c.1030 to 1226.

The success of the investigation has been achieved through adoption of a decidedly multi- disciplinary approach to the problem of Dingwall as Þingvöllr. Historical investigation has been aided by interpretation of historical plans, topography, toponymy, archaeology and informed interpretation of Orkneyinga Saga.

In the context of the THING Project, an important outcome is that the Cromarty Firth, the Black Isle and Dingwall can now embrace one of the liveliest and best constructed narratives in Icelandic saga, the conflict between Thorfinn the Mighty and Karl Hundi’s son, as a fascinating episode in their history.

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Appendix A

Ross: from the death of Thorfinn to 1226

Death of Thorfinn Orkneyinga Saga tells that Thorfinn died in the latter years of Harald Sigurd’s son, better known to British history as Harald Hardrada, king of Norway, who in 1066 was killed in the battle of Stamford Bridge. Thorfinn’s two sons, Paul and Erlend, inherited his lands as joint- earls, but they failed to maintain their control beyond the earldom’s core territories of Orkney and Caithness. … in those lands which he had brought under him by the sword, it seemed to many a hard lot to live under his rule. Many realms that the Earl had subdued fell away and men sought protection for themselves under the hereditary chiefs in their realms. Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.189

Marriage of Ingibjorg to Malcolm III The Saga also tells that Ingibjorg, Thorfinn’s widow, married Malcolm III, King of Alba (1057-93) as his first queen. That marriage is likely to have given Malcolm a status which would have allowed him to act as successor to Thorfinn in Northern Scotland. Ingibjorg Earls’-mother married Malcolm King of Skots, nick-named Long-neck. Their son was Duncan King of Skots, father of William the Nobleman; his son was called William… whom all the Skots wished to take as their King. Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.190

The marriage of the joint-earls’ mother, Ingibjorg, Thorfinn’s widow, to Malcolm III, King of Alba must have been a factor in their failure to maintain control of Ross. Her marriage to Malcolm would have allowed him to act as successor to Thorfinn in Northern Scotland. There is no evidence from contemporary sources of Malcolm’s personal presence in Ross but there are strong traditions dating from the 15th century that he had confirmed the right of the sanctuary of St Duthac at Tain to hold markets.208

Malcolm III (Canmore) fathered by Ingibjorg at least two sons, Duncan and Donald. Duncan did indeed become King of Scots as Duncan II, but only for a brief period in 1094. His descendants, the MacWilliams, from 1181 to 1215 were to lead serious risings which threatened the Canmore dynasty’s hold on the kingship. That dynasty was the bloodline of Malcolm III and his second queen, Margaret.

The sons of Malcolm and Margaret Duncan II on his death in 1094 was succeeded as king by his half-brother Edgar, the eldest surviving son of Malcolm III and his second queen, Margaret. Following Edgar’s death in 1107 he was succeeded by his brother, Alexander I, who in 1115 faced serious challenge from northern lords. Wyntoun in his Orygynale Cronykil209 tells that Alexander chased

208 Munro, R.W. and J., Tain through the Centuries, (1966), pp.14-17 209 Laing, D., ed. & tr., Andrew of Wyntoun: Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland, ii, (Edinburgh, 1872), p. 174 - 98 -

rebels from Moray and the Mearns owre the Stockford into Ross, the Stockford being a tidal ford at the mouth of the Beauly River, the boundary of Ross with Moray.

David I, the youngest son of Malcolm III and Margaret, succeeded Alexander I in 1124. David was confronted by a major northern rebellion led by Óengus, king of Moray, supported by the men of Ross. The rebellion was crushed in 1130 at Stracathro in Angus where Óengus was killed. From 1134 onwards David pursued ruthless suppression of all resistance to his rule in Moray and the north. He founded the priory of Urquhart, staffed by monks from the Canmore dynasty’s royal Abbey of Dunfermline, and endowed the priory with the lands of Óengus’ kin. He further endowed the priory with the promise of the teinds of his cain, the royal revenues, of the Argyll of Moray – the coastal lands between Glenelg and Loch Broom. It was about the same time that David would have granted the assembly complex of Ross at Dingwall, church, lawhill and assembly field, to the priory of Urquhart and monks of Dunfermline. David apparently sought to neuter opposition to his rule in Ross as he had done in Moray.

Malcolm MacHeth Malcolm MacHeth is deduced to be a son of the earl Aedh whose name appears about 1115 as a witness to Alexander I’s founding charter of the priory of Scone. The same earl Aedh was also witness in the 1120s to early charters of David I. Earl Aedh appears in these charters without specification of his territorial earldom, but, because the territories of all other earls of David I are known, a process of elimination identifies Aedh as earl of Ross. It is believed that Aedh’s son, Malcolm MacHeth, joined Óengus of Moray in his failed rebellion of 1130. In consequence David I withheld the earldom of Ross from Malcolm. Decades later in 1157 Malcolm MacHeth finally reached reconciliation with David’s successor, Malcolm IV, who gave royal recognition to Malcolm as earl of Ross. Sometime between 1157 and 1161 Malcolm earl of Ross was commanded by King Malcolm IV to protect the monks of Dunfermline and all that was theirs in the time of King David.210 The assembly place at Dingwall would have been included in that command. When Malcolm MacHeth died in 1168, , who had succeeded Malcolm IV in 1165, withheld grant of the title earl of Ross. Loss of the earldom gave the MacHeth kindred reason for future rebellion.

William the Lion, Harald Maddadsson and the MacWilliams Before his death in 1168 Malcolm MacHeth had arranged the marriage of his daughter Hvarfloðr, a remarkably Norse name, to Harald Maddadsson, earl of Orkney and Caithness. In the late a rebellion in Ross mounted by MacHeths against King William received Maddadsson’s backing. William led a great army into Ross in 1179 and built two new castles, Eddirdour [Redcastle] on the south side of the Black Isle and Dunskeath on the North Sutor at the entrance to the Cromarty Firth. Repairs to royal castles in Ross undertaken by William are recorded in a charter of around 1185 which was entered into the Registrum of the Abbey of Dunfermline. The charter is not specific as to which castles or as to how many. When I repaired my castles in Ross, the men belonging to the Abbot and Monks of Dunfermline assisted, of their own goodwill, at my request, along with other honest men of mine...211

210 Barrow, G.W.S., ed., Regesta Regum Scottorum I: The Acts of Malcolm IV, (Edinburgh, 1960), No.179, p.222 211 Barrow, G.W.S., ed., Regesta Regum Scottorum II: The Acts of Malcolm IV, (Edinburgh, 1971), No.500, p.454 - 99 -

The monks of Dunfermline with good reason have been described as 'shock troops of the Canmore Kings'.

Apart from evidence for royal castles, however, there is no evidence that William introduced a 'feudal system' of royal authority to Ross. No were erected, no lands were granted to incoming vassals, no burghs were established and no religious houses were founded, although the Abbey of Dunfermline had been granted lands in the area of Dingwall by David I who, by the late 1140’s, had established the bishopric of Ross. David’s choice of Rosemarkie212 as the seat of the diocese made eminent sense; Rosemarkie reputedly was where in the late 6th century Moluag had established his cathedral in Ross; Rosemarkie had been the centre for the mission of Curadán (Boniface) to the northern Picts in the early 8th century. Indeed Rosemarkie is likely to have been the seat for religious administration of the entire Pictish kingdom of Fortriu. Two other factors made Rosemarkie an ideal seat for David’s diocese of Ross. Its location offered direct access by sea from Moray and it possessed a pre-existing dedication to St. Peter. It was from Moray that the Canmore Kings sought to extend into Ross both their secular authority and their favoured spiritual authority, that of the Bishop of Rome, successor of St. Peter, and head of the European Roman Church.

The Canmore Dynasty faced its most threatening northern rebellion in 1181.That year Donald ban MacWilliam launched his and his family’s claim to the kingdom. Why it took 80 years and more after the death of Duncan II, father of William and grandfather of Donald ban MacWilliam, for the MacWilliam claim to the kingdom to be pressed is unknown. Having led an invasion into Ross from Ireland or the Hebrides, MacWilliam gained local support, seized Ross and progressed into Moray. This man, relying upon the treachery of some disloyal men, had first, indeed, wrested from his king the whole of Ross, by his tyrannous insolence ; and then, having for no little time held the whole of Moray, he had seized upon the greater part of the kingdom, with fire and slaughter, and aimed at the whole thereof Chronicle of , volume II ch. XVI

MacWilliam, however, was eventually forced to retreat from Moray back into the reputed wildernesses of Ross. In 1187 he and his followers were tracked down by Lochlann213 of , Constable of the King of Scots, at Mam Garvia, a location thought to be in the vicinity of Strathgarve. ’s force of some 3,000 overcame the MacWilliams and Lochlann delivered Donald ban MacWilliam’s head to King William at Inverness.

In the later , Thorfinn Haraldsson, Earl Harald Maddadsson’s first son by Hvarfloðr, invaded Moray in a probable attempt to force William to recognise the claim to Ross he had inherited from his MacHeth mother. William responded with great force, compelling Earl Harald in 1197 to surrender his son Thorfinn into captivity. Earl Harald, however, continued to refuse to repudiate his MacHeth wife and with it, of course, his family claim to Ross. The consequence of such defiance was the blinding, castration and eventual death of the captive Thorfinn. The final word on the Maddadsson family claim to Ross rests with Orkneyinga Saga in its dubious claim that on Earl Harald’s death in 1206 his son Heinrik possessed Ross.

212 By the 13th century the seat of the diocese had transferred to the Chanonry of , less than a mile distant. 213 otherwise known as Roland of Galloway. - 100 -

After Earl Harald his sons John and David took over his realm. His son Heinrik has Ross in Skotland. Orkneyinga Saga, Taylor p.349.

In 1211 a son of Donald ban MacWilliam, bearing the Norse name Guthred, landed in Ross from Ireland on the invitation of the thanes of Ross. Gothredus, filius MacWilliam… de consilio… thanorum de Ross, venit in partes illas ex Hibernia. Gesta Annal xxvii. Chronicle of Fordun I p.278, ii p.274.

In this context the term thane does not convey its standard meaning of a lord appointed by the king to defend and administer a royal territory. Nor is collective executive decision-taking by local lords a standard Scots medieval practice. A collective decision as exercised by the thanes of Ross required a meeting; a meeting required a meeting place. It is more than possible that the decision to invite Guthred had been made by thanes, or thingmen, of Ross possibly gathered at Dingwall. The eventual outcome of the invited invasion was that Guthred’s forces were scattered by an army commanded by the aged William the Lion’s 13 year old son and heir, Alexander. Guthred MacWilliam was captured and executed.

The authority of Canmore kings over Ross throughout the whole of the 12th century was recognisably tenuous. It can be fairly stated that by the time of King William’s death in 1214 Moray had been effectively integrated into the feudal kingdom of Alba, but Ross, as yet, had not. The boundary which separated Ross from Moray still maintained the character of a frontier. The pattern of repeated military opposition to the Canmore kings mounted by both MacWilliams and MacHeths and their various allies is clear. North Argyll, modern Wester Ross, acted as landfall for invasions which originated in Ireland, the Hebrides, or Argyll and provided base camps for assaults on the Canmore kingdom. Ross, it seems, provided the kings’ enemies not simply with a staging post for deeper invasion into Moray and thence into the wider kingdom of Alba, but also with the military resource of apparently ready and willing fighting forces. Natural geography gave rebels significant advantages. Only a handful of miles westward of the head of the Cromarty Firth the terrain changed from fertile populated coastal plain into wilderness of mountain, peat bog and thick forest. To forces hostile to the Canmore kings the remote wild country offered launch-points for the mounting of offensives into the rich lowland Moray plain. Conversely, to rebels withdrawing in retreat the wild terrain offered the ability to disappear westwards, to escape over sea to the Isles, or even to Ireland. In addition, savage countryside imposed its own significant handicaps on a pursuing feudal cavalry.

Alexander II and Ferchar Mac an tSacairt In 1214 the young Alexander II succeeded his father. This prompted a further MacWilliam invasion of Ross led by another Donald ban MacWilliam and supported by an unnamed Irish king. This uprising was different. For the first time MacWilliams, who claimed the kingdom, were joined by the MacHeths under a Kenneth MacHeth, who claimed Ross. Suppression of this rebellion was also different. This time it was crushed not by the king, nor by forces led by one of his Anglo-Norman noblemen, but by a native Gaelic chieftain, named in the Chronicle of Melrose Machentagar. This name is recognisably Mac an tSacairt, Gaelic, son of the priest. The Lord King of Scotland’s enemies entered Moray – namely Donald Bán, the son of Mac-William, and Kenneth MacHeth, and the son of a certain King of Ireland – with a numerous band of malignants. Machentagar attacked them, and mightily overthrew the King’s enemies and he cut off their heads, and presented - 101 -

them as new gifts to the new King, on the seventeenth day before the Kalends of July and because of this, the lord king appointed him a new knight214…

Royal grant of knighthood to Ferchar Mac an tSacairt marked a significant first step in the entry of this Gaelic chieftain into the military feudal society of the Canmore kingdom. Ferchar had become the king’s knight, the king’s man. The alliance of Gaelic magnate and feudal king ensured their mutually secure domination of Ross. Although in the 1220s there were further rebellions in the Highlands, those risings received no aid from Ireland and produced no potent threat to Alexander’s kingdom. Stability in Ross allowed Ferchar to point his ambition westward into the Gaelic/Norse world of the Hebrides, in particular towards the , a lordship of the kings of Man. Sometime before 1223 Ferchar had arranged the marriage of his daughter, Christina, as second wife of Óláfr, King of Man. The marriage provoked civil war in the Isles between Óláfr and his brother Godred. Ferchar gave refuge to Óláfr and his allies and allowed the finally decisive attack on Godred at his camp on St Columba’s Isle in Skye to be launched from Wester Ross.

The tide had indeed turned. The power over Ross exercised by Ferchar on behalf of, and backed by, the Scottish king made invasion of the Scottish kingdom from the Hebrides by way of North Argyll and Ross all but an impossibility. The future from now on would be westward invasion of the Hebrides from Ross. In retrospect, the rebellions against the Canmore dynasty can be seen as longstanding resistance by the Gaelic/Norse periphery to the rigid policy of Europeanisation pursued by the Canmore kings. Ross, an epicentre of that resistance, had been not simply a convenient route from the northwestern periphery into the kingdom of Alba but a vital strategic element in Gaelic-Norse resistance. It is believable that a Gaelic-Norse assembly at Dingwall, a location which in 1226 yet retained its meaningful Gaelic-Norse place-name, had played a significant role in co-ordination of resistance of Gaelic-Norse Ross to the Canmore kings.

There is no certainty as to how the Gaelic chieftain Ferchar Mac an tSacairt had gained command of sufficient military force to have defeated in 1215 the combined rebel forces of MacWilliams and MacHeths. His patronym, son of the priest, prompted the long uncontested mid-19th century hypothesis developed by W. F. Skene and Dr. W. Reeves that Ferchar’s might was founded on a lay abbacy of Applecross in Wester Ross. Alexander Grant recently has argued against that hypothesis and has proffered an alternative. Grant suggests that the source of Ferchar’s power might have been a lay custodianship of the shrine and girth of St Duthac at Tain in Easter Ross215. There is another possibility. In the reign of David I the assembly site at Dingwall had been placed in the care of the monks of Dunfermline. Therein might lie the origin of Ferchar’s priestly patronym or, much more likely, in a hereditary right to the priesthood of the church of the assembly place at Dingwall. Such could be the source of power in Ross wielded by Ferchar Mac an tSacairt.

Ferchar, earldom of Ross and royal burgh of Dingwall Only a few years prior to Ferchar’s rise to prominence, the crown, probably in the final years of the reign of William the Lion, made the first grant of lands in Ross to an Anglo-Norman lord. John Bisset received extensive, highly strategic, lands at the head of the Beauly Firth.

214 Anderson, A. O., Early Sources of Scottish History, vol. 2, (Stamford, England, 1990), p.404 215 Grant A., The Province of Ross and the Kingdom of Alba, in Cowan, E. J. and McDonald R. A., eds., Alba:Celtic Scotland in the Middle Ages, (2000), pp.88-126 - 102 -

The core of Bisset’s lordship comprised , the relatively high lands lying on the south side of the as far as . On the north bank of the Beauly and therefore in Ross he had been granted the parish of . There in 1230 on land close to the mouth of the Beauly River he founded his priory of Beauly. Across the Beauly Firth in the Black Isle, again in Ross, Bisset was granted 'the tenement of Eddirdover,'216 the Gaelic place-name of which means lands between the waters - the Firths of Beauly and Cromarty. Award to an Anglo-Norman lord of lands in Ross might have acted as an incentive to the Gaelic chieftain Ferchar Mac an tSacairt to take King Alexander’s side by resisting the rebel invasion of Ross.

Although Alexander II made Ferchar his knight in 1215 it was not until years later, sometime between 1223 and the end of 1226, that he erected Ferchar his earl of Ross. Alexander did not grant all of Ross to Ferchar as his earldom. Nor was Ferchar granted Dingwall. Around the same time, possibly the very same year that he created Ferchar earl of Ross, Alexander in 1226/7 chartered Dingwall his royal burgh. Ferchar’s earldom was restricted to lands north of the Cromarty Firth. A possible explanation arises for Alexander’s contemporaneous erection in Ross of the royal burgh of Dingwall and the granting to Ferchar of an earldom restricted to northern Ross.217 Such an arrangement denied Ferchar the assembly site of Ross, plausibly the source of his original power. In consequence the assembly site would have lain under the authority of Alexander’s royal burgh and Ferchar would have owed his title and his authority as earl of Ross to no source other than the king.

One reason why Alexander II would have erected Dingwall to be his royal burgh would have been to strengthen royal authority in an area where acceptance of royal governance had proved difficult to establish and sustain. Moreover, the immediate area in which Dingwall is located was of considerable strategic significance. Through Dingwall, at the head of the Cromarty Firth, ran the overland coastal route from south to north. On that route, Dingwall sat between two significant crossing points; to its north a way across the marshy estuary of the Peffery and to its south, the ford across the Conon estuary. The Conon’s river system of straths and glens provided strategic routes westwards through the mountains to reach the sea lochs on the west coast and on to the Hebrides, which in 1226 were yet within the Norwegian kingdom. The burgh of Dingwall was therefore a frontier town, in which a royal castle held key significance. Alexander would have hoped that his burgh would encourage attraction of a loyal population and stimulate development of an economic base for the maintenance of his castle at Dingwall. The free burgesses of the burgh would have had to render service in the garrisoning of that castle, and its presence guaranteed the King’s Peace for the flowering of the commercial activities of burgh and burgesses.

The original charter granted to Dingwall in 1226/7 no longer is traceable, but a further charter granted to Dingwall by James IV in 1497, repeats and confirms its contents.

At Falkland 12 Feb. 1497. The King confirms the charter of Alexander II King of Scots [that he founded a burgh at Dingwell in Ros, and granted to that burgh and burgesses all the liberties and free customs which the burgesses of Inverness had, and also that in that burgh there be a market one day in seven [i.e. weekly] on Mondays; he granted to the

216 centred on the fortress of Redcastle 217 today Easter Ross - 103 -

burgesses that persons coming to the burgh and settling there should have free kirset for ten years from the feast of Saint Martin [i.e. 11th November] in the year 1226 for ten complete years, and that they be free of tolls, etc, anywhere throughout the land on their belongings218 forever. At , 26 February in year 13 of our reign.

Of particular interest is the burgh charter’s promise of a kirset of ten years. Kirset is a legal term which appears only in Scots burgh law. It signifies a grace-period free from rent for incoming burgesses to encourage and allow for the development of their dwelling house and place of business on their burghal tofts. Normally in Scots medieval burghs that grace-period was of one or two years. Dingwall’s kirset of ten years therefore is exceptional, even more so than that of the five years granted to the burgh of Dumbarton founded in 1222. The burgh charters of Dumbarton (1222) and of Dingwall (1226) are the earliest documented use of the term kirset. Both these instances demonstrate royal desire to attract incomers into remote, probably dangerously unsettled, localities. Introduction of new people, on apparently generous terms, to inhabit the newly chartered burgh of Dingwall leaves open the question as to whether the urban trading settlement at Dingwall was completely new in 1226, or if the motive had been to attract additional, or even replacement, inhabitants to a pre-existing urban, or, perhaps more appropriately, proto-urban, settlement. The legal term kirset, similar to the place-name Dingwall, is derived from Old Norse, in this case kyr setr, to leave undisturbed. An explanation offered for the introduction of the term kirset to the burgh charter of Dumbarton in 1222 is that it might have reflected Dumbarton’s trading contacts with the islands of the , which until 1266 were within the Norwegian kingdom. In the case of Dingwall it is equally possible that the term kirset reflects a traditional trading relationship with the Norse Orkney earldom

Dingwall initially, at least, was a commercially successful burgh. In 1304 it is recorded, along with both Inverness and Cromarty, as one of the sixteen burghs which comprised 'all the ports of Scotland'. Those sixteen ports were burghs which had sufficient foreign trade to justify royal grant to them of an official 'coket'219 – a royal seal stamp of authorisation to collect the King’s 'great customs' which had to be levied on those staples exported from the burgh.

In the year 1226 Ross entered into a completely feudal polity, the three fundamental elements of which were:-  At the head of the Beauly Firth and in the Black Isle the lordships granted by the Crown to the Anglo-Norman John Bisset.  At the head of the Cromarty Firth the royal burgh of Dingwall and the royal castle of Dingwall.  Between the north shore of the Cromarty Firth and the south shore of the Dornoch Firth the earldom of Ross granted by the Crown to Ferchar Mac an tSacairt.

The Gaelic-Norse polity of Ross had finally ended.

218 Macrae, N., The Romance of a Royal Burgh: Dingwall’s Story of a Thousand Years, (1923), p.90, erroneously translates the Latin 'catallis' as 'cattle'. The most direct translation would be chattels, belongings. 219 coket or cocket, from French, cocquet - Bain, J., Calendar of Documents Relating to Scotland, vol. II, (1884), p.434 No.1631 - 104 -

Appendix B

Mackenzie Monument: Cromartie burial place

During the first decade of the 18th century Mackenzie dominance of Ross came under serious threat. Following the Revolution of 1688, Sir George MacKenzie, Viscount Tarbat, a subtle 'trimming' politician, had successfully accommodated himself to the new regime of William III. The great majority of Mackenzie lairds, however, either sided or sympathised with the Jacobite cause of the deposed James VII. Mackenzie lairds and their kinsmen were for the most part Episcopalian. The clan chief, the fifth earl of Seaforth, had been educated abroad, and lived most of his life as a Jacobite exile. He continued to be deeply distrusted by government even after permission had been granted for his return to Scotland. During the 1708 Jacobite invasion scare, Seaforth was an obvious candidate for internment. Clans Ross and Munro, traditional rivals of for dominance in the affairs of Ross, were politically active Presbyterians and through their whole-hearted support for the 1688 Revolution had established impeccable Whig credentials, which won them the favour of the ruling regime. It was politically advantageous for the Whig and Rosses to seek to focus attention on the discredited Seaforth as head of the Mackenzie interest, but in fact effective leadership of the clan had devolved upon Sir George MacKenzie, since 1703 the first earl of Cromartie, making him de facto chief of clan Mackenzie.

The anti-Mackenzie faction in Ross-shire became greatly reinforced through the arrival and intervention both of the finances and of the lawyers of William, twelfth Lord Ross of Hawkhead. His name of Ross had no blood connection with the Rosses of Ross-shire, but in 1706 he had bought a reversionary interest in the indebted estate of David Ross, laird of Balnagowan, titular head of . Hawkhead then developed the ambition to become earl of Ross. In 1707 and again in 1708 he petitioned the Crown to re-grant the title of earl of Ross to him in his person. To Mackenzie gentlemen, who as a kin had established themselves as 'in all but name' earls of Ross, such audacity was highly offensive. They regarded the county of Ross as Mackenzie country. Family status mattered. Mackenzie lairds held their lands directly from the crown; they would be demeaned if the self-styled leading representative of clan Ross, as earl of Ross, were to become their direct feudal superior.

The issue of the earldom was reflected in the evenly matched, but heated, campaign for the Ross-shire seat in the general election of 1708, the first election to the Westminster House of Commons after the Act of Union of 1707. Election irregularities perpetrated by each side, by Tory Mackenzies and by Whig Rosses and Munros, and following two subsequent voided elections the Ross seat was finally, but very narrowly, decided in October 1710 in favour of the Hon. Charles Rosse, Lord Hawkhead’s younger brother. Throughout those years of clan electoral warfare Lord Ross had his campaign directed from the clan Ross stronghold of Tain, head burgh in Easter Ross, whilst the Cromartie camp ruled in Dingwall, head burgh in Wester Ross. Meanwhile Cromartie had fought the war effectively with the pen, petitioning the , his fellow Episcopalian and successor as Secretary of State for Scotland. Hawkhead’s petition for the earldom was twice rejected and he transferred his reversion on the Balnagowan estate to his brother, the Hon. Charles Rosse MP. Cromartie, satisfied that Hawkhead would not be granted the title of earl of Ross, did not put forward a candidate for the Ross seat at the subsequent general election of 1713.

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The case presented by Cromartie to the earl of Mar in its final point was sound in law, but clearly the heart-felt argument which Cromartie had directed against Hawkhead’s petition was a warning of the dangerous consequences of any diminution of Mackenzie status in the royal earldom. …to …steal from the Queen many good vassals from the crown… and to make these vassals to Lord Ross… many would esteem this no less than a forfeiture; and as the interposing of men ‘twixt the crown and its vassals is against law and all prudence, either by making them vassals or feuars, especially to less men than themselves; so to make any, the king’s second son excepted, to be Earl of Ross, is against a very deliberate and express act of parliament.220

Cromartie had certainly made his case with feeling, but his words had hidden the full extent of his anger. Amongst the Cromartie Papers is a further memorandum aimed at Mar, in which Cromartie allowed his anger full vent. Hawkhead he characterised as a hot headed fool, who had his head turned round ever since he meddled with Bellnagowan; he had no more relation to the old Earls of Ross, directly or indirectly, than the miller of Carstairs has to the Prince of Parma. The further impudence of his project was that …Her Majesty and her servants know that very considerable families have parts of this Earledom of Ross, some of which … think my Lord but a little man either in Scotland, Brittain, or in himself. Such are the Earles of Seaforth and Cromartie, and several other of that [Mackenzie] name.221

The monument, which Cromartie erected proud on the moothill of Dingwall, 'the capital of Ross-shire',222 all but certainly was raised in proclamation that Ross was Mackenzie country. A contemporary understanding that the moothill had served as the site of installation of earls of Ross is suggested by a local tradition.223 This maintains that Cromartie had banished a dairymaid both from his employ and from Ross for threatening to micturate on his grave. This folk memory is probably best understood as a demeaning representation of Ross of Hawkhead, a lord whose home estates were in the counties of and , dairy country, in southwest Scotland. Cromartie erected the monument in his lifetime, but not with the intention that it should mark his grave; the monument until the 20th century bore no inscription. As both a symbol and a physical fact the towering Mackenzie Monument would never allow any of a name inferior to Mackenzie to desecrate the summit of the moothill of Dingwall, the spot on which Cromartie would have it believed that earls of Ross had been installed in the presence of noble kinsmen and vassals pledging their fealty.

Cromartie, it should be remembered, as well as having been a long experienced and subtle politician through troubled times, was a recognised intellectual, a founder member of the Royal Society, and a lawyer of repute who regularly had held high office under the Crown. As Lord Clerk Register he had long overseen the land records of Scotland. If anyone during the 17th century had awareness that the Dukes of Ross, royal successors to the earls of Ross, had held the moothill of Dingwall to give them title, that person would have been Cromartie. Cromartie’s ownership of that moothill symbolically ensured that no one, other than the second son of the monarch, would have title over Ross. Cromartie’s Mackenzie Monument in

220 Fraser, W., The Earls of Cromartie, Vol. II, (Edinburgh 1876), p.50 221 ibid. vol. I, pp. clxi-clxii 222 Southey, R., Journal of a tour of Scotland, (London, 1929), p.118 223 Macdonald, D.. The Book of Ross, p.23 - 106 -

rising high on the moothill of Dingwall, which Cromartie had purchased, was a proud proclamation of Mackenzie dominance in Ross.

There is no known evidence, however, that earls of Ross had ever been installed in such a manner on that mound or at any other location. The only clearly documented example amongst Scotland’s Gaelic clans of such a process of installation into title is that of the MacDonald Lords of the Isles at Finlaggan on . However, a somewhat similar ceremonial elevation to the chiefship of the Macleods of , one which included presentation of the sword of preceding chiefs in the presence of an assembly of the kindred’s nobles, is contained within the Bannatyne Manuscript.224 Cromartie as great-grandson of Torquil Sìol, Macleod of Lewis, was proud of his Macleod descent. Indeed he introduced his forceful protest to the earl of Mar with the reminder that he, being of noble Macleod descent, was a little chief of the only Norwegian family remaining in Scotland, viz., the race of Olavs, one of the last Royalets of Man, and of his son Leodus, who was heritor of the Island of Lewes.225 Cromartie was proud of that Isle of Man connection; the three leg symbol of the Isle of Man figures prominently in his chosen coat of arms. Kings of the Isles and lords of Man, of course, had been installed on Tynwald Hill. Cromartie might have believed that earls of Ross had been installed on Dingwall’s moothill.

Cromartie died in 1714 and was buried within the earth of the moothill of Dingwall close to his monument, the tall obelisk which soon became known as the Pyramid. The Sasine Registers of Dingwall hold evidence of local knowledge and understanding that George, first earl of Cromartie, lay buried in the Pyramid Ground within its earthen mound. Scottish historians and antiquarians of the second half of the 19th century, however, attached much mystery to what to them was the unlocated last resting place of the earl. He himself had declared a wish to rest alongside the remains of his dearly loved second wife, Anne countess of Wemyss, whom he had married late in life, but, there being no memorial in Wemyss to the earl, it seemed that wish had not been fulfilled. Mere expression of that wish reveals that Cromartie was not committed to burial in the resting place of his immediate family predecessors. That was the kirkyard of Dingwall.

The precise location of that family burial place in the Dingwall kirkyard has been a local mystery. Sir Roderick (Rorie) Mackenzie of Coigeach, purchaser of Tarbat, and grandfather of the first earl, was progenitor of the Cromartie line of Mackenzies. Better known to history as the Tutor of Kintail, Sir Rorie in his will had advised his family of his future burial place. He ordered his entombment in the Kirk-yeard of Dingwall, at the east gewill [gable] of the Kirk thairof… At whilk I ordain… my eldest son … and my spous to cause build ane lairge fair Iyle or Chapell, weil wowit abone and theckit with hewin stone.226

Norman Macrae in Dingwall’s Thousand Years227 recounts, however, an apparent tradition that no such aisle was ever built. The burial aisle of the Tutor, however, certainly existed in 1790, but was then apparently ruinous, for in that year the Presbytery of Dingwall offered, amongst others the stones of the Tutor of Kintail's Aisle and those of the Dingwall’s of Ussie

224 National Library of Scotland, Adv. MS. 1.1.6 225 Fraser, W., The Earls of Cromartie, Vol. I, (Edinburgh 1876), p.clxi 226 Fraser, W., The Earls of Cromartie, Vol. I, (Edinburgh 1876), p.li 227 Macrae, N., The Romance of a Royal Burgh: Dingwall’s Story of a Thousand Years, (Dingwall, 1923), p.109

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Aisle to be used for re-building the kirkyard wall. The offer, it seems, was not taken up. The kirkyard wall was accepted as complete in September 1794, but a year later the continued existence in the kirkyard of the Ussie Aisle is documented. The likelihood is that the Tutor’s Aisle also had remained in existence - somewhere within the kirkyard of Dingwall.

The Genealogy of the Mackenzies,228 compiled in 1669 by John Mackenzie, laird of Applecross, reports the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth sons of the Tutor as buried at Dingwall. The Wardlaw Manuscript reports the interment in 1662 of Kenneth Mackenzie of Scatwell, the second son of the Tutor, in St Clemens Chappell in Dinguall.229 The Tutor’s fourth son, Alexander, is reported in the History of the Mackenzies as buried in 1629 'in St. Clement’s Church in Dingwall', which has to be the St Clement’s Chapel, or Aisle. William Fraser in his authoritative volumes on The Earls of Cromartie states that the Tutor’s son and successor, Sir John Mackenzie of Tarbat (father of George, first earl of Cromartie) following his death at the castle of Ballone in 1654 'was buried in his father’s vault at Dingwall'. 230 Monica Clough reported that the first earl of Cromartie, while yet Viscount Tarbat, paid for repairs to the Clement Aisle in Dingwall where his father was buried231. The Clement Aisle, therefore, is clearly the burial place of the first, second and fourth sons of the Tutor. There can be little doubt that his third, fifth and sixth sons 'buried in Dingwall' were also buried in that same Aisle. The laws of probability dictate that it was the St Clement’s Chapel or Aisle in which Sir Roderick Mackenzie, Tutor of Kintail, had been interred. It is reasonable to conclude that the Tutor of Kintail's Aisle, his family burial place, is the very same building as the St Clement’s Chapel or Aisle in the Dingwall kirkyard.

228 The Genealogy of the Mackenzies preceding the year 1661. John Mackenzie, laird of Applecross, in Macrae, N., The Romance of a Royal Burgh: Dingwall’s Story of a Thousand Years (1923), pp.356-9 229 The Wardlaw Manuscript, Chronicles of the Frasers, ed. Mackay, W., - Scottish History Society, (1905), p.447 230 Fraser, W., The Earls of Cromartie, Vol. I, (Edinburgh 1876), p.lxiv 231 Clough, M., Two Houses: New Tarbat, Easter Ross: Royston House, (Edinburgh, 1990), p.107 - 108 -

Bibliography

Primary Sources Minute Books of Dingwall Town Council 1707-1833, Dingwall Museum Trust Dingwall Burgh Register of Sasines NAS B14 Cromartie Muniments NAS GD93 Ross-shire Writs NAS GD1/436/2 Various additional documentary sources, all acknowledged in footnotes

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