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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-68756-1 - The Cosmos: Astronomy in the New Millennium: Fourth Edition Jay M. Pasachoff and Alex Filippenko Index More information

INDEX

References to illustrations, either photographs or drawings, are in italics. Signiﬁ cant initial numbers followed by letters are alphabetized under their spellings; for example, 21 cm is alphabetized as twenty one . M4 appears at the beginning of the Ms. Greek letters are alphabetized under their English equivalents.

0957+561 A and B quasars, 470 Naming the Rings of Neptune, 192 α Orionis (Betelgeuse), 8 , 9 , 287 , 289 , Aquila (constellation), 9 , 290 , 352 , 370, Newton’s Law of Universal 289 , 304 , 304 , 338 , 339 Appendix 7 A0620-00 (binary star, black hole), 369 Gravitation, 110 alpha particle, 317 , 321 , 331 , 339 arcs, blue, 508 AAT (Anglo-Australian 4-m A Night at Mauna Kea, 59–60 Alpher, Ralph, 511 , 512–513 Arcturus (star), 10 , 287 , 333, telescope), 436 Photographing the Stars, 80 Amalthea satellite (Jupiter), 176–177 Appendix 4 Abell, George, 426 Planck Maps the Cosmic Background American Association of Variable Star Arecibo radio telescope (Puerto Rico), Abell 2199 cluster, 426 Radiation, 518 Observers (AAVSO), 299 55 , 142 , 548 , 548 , 549 , 550 Abell 2218 cluster, 432 Proxima Centauri: Th e Nearest Star American Gravity Recovery and Interior Aristarchus of Samos, 98–99 absolute magnitude, 285–288 , 287 , 288 Beyond the Sun, 289 Laboratory (GRAIL) satellites, Aristotle, 38 , 39 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 99 , absorption (dark) nebulae, 313 , 386 , 408 Ptolemaic Terms, 98 133–135 106–107 , 108 absorption (Fraunhofer) lines, 259 Saturn’s Rings and Moons from American Museum of Natural Armstrong, Neil (astronaut), 131t , 135 blueshift/redshift of, 369 Cassini, 183 History, 216 Arp, Halton, 463 coronal spectrum, 263–264 Saturn’s Satellites in Mythology, 181 amino acids, 543 , 543 , 551 , 556 ASCA x-ray telescope (Japan), 460

description, 21–22 , 25 , 27 , 28 , 32–33 Searching for Supernovae, 344 ammonia (NH3 ), 184 , 193 , 205 , 235 , asterisms, 6–7 , 9 , 18 helium, 260 A Sense of Mass: Weighing 403 , 543 , 551 asteroid belt, 204 , 213 , 215 , 219 , 221 , hydrogen, 28 Stars, 297 ammonia-ice clouds, 171 222–224 Lyman-alpha, 347 A Sense of Scale: Measuring Andromeda (constellation), asteroids solar chromosphere, prominence, 270 Distances, 12–14 7, Appendix 7 Annefrank, 213 solar photosphere, 259 Solar Eclipses of 2013, 277 Andromeda Galaxy (M31, NGC 224), Ceres, 202 , 204 , 206 , 221 stars, 281–282 , 293 , 297 Star Clusters in Our Galaxy, 302 8 , 212 , 302 , 372 , 372 , 414–416 , Chiron, 207 absorption lines, 359 , 400 , 401 , 434 , 436 Uranus and Neptune in 417 , 418 , 419 , 421–422 , 423 , defi ned, 197 absorption-line spectrum, 26 , 27 Mythology, 185 425 , 442 dinosaur extinction theory and, 11 accretion disks, 330 , 336–337 , 337 , 339 , Using Absolute Magnitudes, 286 Anglo-Australian 4-m telescope, 436 Eros, 219 , 224 , 224 , 225 355–356 , 357 , 360–361 , 368 , active galactic nuclei, 452 , 452–454 , 454 Ångstrom, A. J., 22 Gaspra, 150 , 222 459–460 , 460 , 464 , 468 Centaurus A (NGC 5128), 453 angstrom measurement units, 22 greenhouse gases created by, 146 black holes, 355 , 360 , 366 , defi ned, 452 , 472 angular momentum, 111–112 , 113 , 136 , Lutetia, 213 , 222 366–367 , 368 , 369 , 370 , 371 , quasars and, 454 , 458–460 , 463 , 144 , 234 , 315 , 365 , 375 Moon collisions by, 132 372–373 , 377 464 , 469 angular resolution, of telescopes, 57 , 63 Near-Earth, 48 , 217 , 224 , 224 cross-sectional view, 460 radio maps anisotropy, 513 Pan-STARRS program, 48 , 62 , 387 hot accretion disks, 367–368 Cygnus A, 452 Annefrank (asteroid), 213 Pasachoff (5100), 219 A Closer Look NGC 6251, 453 Antarctic ice, 543 potential damage caused by, 12 Colors in the Sky, 74 spectra of, 367 , 454 Antarctic rock, 551 , 551 Psyche, 219 Comparative Data for the Major supermassive black holes in, 367 Antares (star), 313 Stardust spacecraft studies, 213 Worlds, 168 “active” galaxies, 372 Th e Antennae (spiral galaxies, NGC Steins, 213 , 222 Comparative Data for the Terrestrial Adams, Fred, 503 4038 and 4039), 61 , 423 , 442 Sun orbit by, 97 Planets and Th eir Moons, 120 Adams, John C., 187 , 187 anthropic principle, 535 , 536 telescopic observation of, 46 , Deep Impact, 213 Adams ring (Neptune), 191 antigravity, 510 , 531–533 , 559 . 55 , 210 Density, 122 adaptive optics (of telescopes), 44 , 50 , See also cosmic antigravity Vesta, xii , 202 , 221 , 222–223 , 223 Dwarf Planets, 202 51 , 57 , 62 , 63 , 66 , 97 , 110 , 142 , Antila (constellation), Appendix 7 astrobiology, 541 , 542 , 556 Extinction of Dinosaurs, Th e, 220 257 , 266 , 284 , 383 , 393 , 395 antimatter, 322 , 459 , 498 , 523–524 , astrology, 16–17 February 15, 2013 – An Exploding Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS, on 524 , 529 , 532 astrometric binaries, 296 , 296–297 Meteor; A Nearby Asteroid, 216 the Hubble Space Telescope), 50 , antineutrinos, 524 , 524 , 529 astrometric method, of exoplanet Finite Flat and Hyperbolic 420 , 423 , 425 , 438 , 438 , 439 , antiparticles, 322 , 376 , 376 , 498 , 500 , discovery, 237 , 285 , Universes, 495 442 , 446 , 499 505 , 522–524 , 532 , 532–533 296–297 , 306 First People on the Moon, 130 Advanced Satellite for Cosmology Antu Unit Telescope, 43t , 45 , 186 Astronomiae Instauratae Mechanica (Tycho How We Measure Basic Stellar and Astrophysics (Japan), 355 , Apollo program (NASA) Brahe), 101 Parameters, 305 360 , 368 astronaut experiments, 131–132 Th e Astronomical Almanac, 8 3 Images from Curiosity on Mars, 231 Advanced Technology Solar Telescope moon landings, 130 Astronomical Observatories, 43t Jupiter and Its Satellites in (ATST), viii, 5 1 rock collection, analysis, 131 Astronomical Unit (au), 106 , 113, Mythology, 176 Albrecht, Andreas, 527 apparent brightness, xxiv , 11 , 40 , 78 , Appendix 2 Kepler’s Laws, 104 Aldebaran (star), 79 , 97 , 287 , 333 285–286 , 287 , 289 , 299 , 299 , astronomy, value of, 11–16 Mars Exploration Rovers, Mars Aldrin, Buzz (astronaut), 131t , 135 306 , 341 , 397 , 416 , 431 , 434 , Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Phoenix, and Mars Science Lab’s ALH84001 meteorite, 158 452 , 456 , 462 , 465 , 484 , Survey (2010), 48 Rover Curiosity, 155 ALICE (A L arge I on C ollider 489 , 494 Astrophysical Institute of the Canary Meteor Showers, 218 E xperiment), 523 , 526 apparent magnitude, 78 , 79 , 91 , Islands, 44 Most Common Elements in the Sun’s ALMA (Atacama Large Millimeter 285–286 , 287 , 288 , 300 , 418 Atacama Large Millimeter Array Photosphere, Th e, 258 Array), 56 , 58 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 64 , Apus (constellation), Appendix 7 (ALMA), 56 , 58 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 64 , Naming the Features of Mercury, 139 243 , 393 , 407 , 407 , 521 , 521 Aquarius (constellation), Appendix 7 243 , 393 , 407 , 407 , 521 , 521

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-68756-1 - The Cosmos: Astronomy in the New Millennium: Fourth Edition Jay M. Pasachoff and Alex Filippenko Index More information

586 Index

atmosphere. See also atmosphere of Earth BepiColombo Mercury mission stellar-mass, 355 , 360 , 397 carbon monoxide (CO), 397 , 403–404 , comparative planetology, 120t (2014), 143 Cygnus X-1, 355 , 360 , 368 , 408 , 543 Earth, 67 , 124–127 BeppoSax satellite (Italy), 374 , 397 368–369 carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle, jovian planets, 167 Betelgeuse (α Orionis), 8 , 9 , 287 , formation, 362 320–321 , 331 Jupiter, 169 , 170 , 171 , 172 , 172 , 174 289 , 289 , 304 , 304 , 338 , 339 , supermassive, 367 , 371–373 , 378 , Carnegie Observatories, 44 , 46 , 485 Mars, 120t , 152 , 154 , 157 Appendix 4 382 , 383 , 392–393 , 394 , 395 , Cartwheel Galaxy, 424 M e r c u r y , 1 2 0 t , 141 Bethe, Hans, 320 396 , 398 Cassegrain telescope, 41 , 62 , 63 Neptune, 188–190 , 189 , 192 , 235 BHR 71 nebula, 5 “virtual particles” in or near, 376 Cassini (spacecraft), xxi , 96 , 120 , Pluto, 55 , 200–201 big bang model of the Universe, 2 , 246 , wormholes, 365–366 , 367 , 367 , 377 144 , 544 Saturn, 179 , 181 , 182 , 235 426 , 428 , 429 , 430 , 437 , 439 , blink (transit) method, of exoplanet Jupiter, 38 , 168 , 170 , 171 , 172 , 239 Sun, 256 , 257 , 260 , 263 , 264 , 480 , 483 , 484 , 490–491 , 492 , discovery, 239 , 240–241 , 241 , Saturn, 68 , 166 , 170 , 174 , 177 , 179 , 269–270 , 278 494 , 502 , 504 , 509 , 510–512 , 242 , 244 180 , 183 terrestrial planets, 235 513 , 514 , 516 , 518 , 520 , 522 , blue, irregular galaxies, 441 , 441 Cassini, Jean-Dominique, 178 Venus, 120t , 144 , 146–147 525 , 529–532 , 535 blue arcs, 508 Cassini’s division, 169 , 178 , 193 atmosphere of Earth problems with original model, blueshifts, 30–31 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 238 , 292 , Cassiopeia (constellation), 6 , 7 , 7 , 10 , bending of sunlight by, 85 526–528 292 , 293 , 306 , 363 , 434 , 454 , 425, Appendix 7 blue-sky explanation, 74 Big Bear (Ursa Major) (constellation), 7 , 456 , 502 , 513 cataclysmic variable stars, 300 , 337 causes of temperature, 126 11 , 176, Appendix 7 blue skies (“Why is the sky blue?”), 74 Cat’s Eye Nebula, 332 electromagnetic-spectrum penetration, big crunch, 491 , 492 , 493 , 503 , 504 blue supergiant stars, 344–345 , 347 , CCDs (charge-coupled devices), 286 , 22 , 23 Big Dipper asterism, 6 , 8 , 10 , 18 , 80 368 , 368 305 , 344 , 348 , 349 , 415 , 415 ionosphere, troposphere of, 125 , 126 binary pulsars, 352–355 , 353 B main-sequence stars, 397 celestial coordinates oxygen component, 26 binary stars, 110 , 237 , 293 , 294 , 368– Bohr, Margrethe, 26 celestial equator, 81–83 , 82 , 84 , primordial/present atmosphere, 3 369 . See also eclipsing binaries ; Bohr, Niels, 26 , 27 85 , 91 twinkling, turbulence of, 41 , 50 , 63 , x-ray binary stars Bohr atom, 27–28 , 29 , 30 , 33 declination, 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 91 67 , 76 bioastronomy, 541 , 556 Bondi, Hermann, 510 zenith, 9 , 11 , 81 , 81 , 84 , 91 upper-atmosphere optical eff ects, 54 bipolar ejection, 314–316 . BOOMERANG (B alloon O bservations celestial equator, 81–83 , 82 , 84 , 85 , 91 Venus comparison, 126 See also Herbig-Haro objects o f M illimetric E xtragalactic celestial poles, 80–82 water vapor component, 42 , 58 blackbody (thermal) radiation, 22 , 24–25 R adiation an d G eophysics) north celestial pole, 81 , 81 , 84 , 91 Atmospheric Imaging Assembly (AIA), COBE observations, 512 , 514 project, 460 , 514 south celestial pole, 80 , 84 51 , 254 , 260 , 262 , 265 cold blackbody, 511 Boötes (constellation), 10 , 333, centaur objects, 204 , 205 atomic time, 4 , 90 description, 24 , 32 Appendix 7 Centaurus (constellation), 372, Appendix 7 atoms, 25–26 mapping eff orts, 522 Bopp, Th omas, 210 Centaurus A (NGC 5128) elliptical or absorption by, 25 , 27 Planck’s formula for description Borrelly (19P) comet, 213 S0 galaxy, 372 , 453 blackbody radiation and, 24 of, 521 BOSS mapping project, 443 Central Bureau for Astronomical Bohr atom, 27–28 , 29 , 30 , 33 and Stefan-Boltzmann law, 25 Brahe, Tycho, 101 , 101 , 102 Telegrams (IAU), 204 description, 26 , 32 and Wien’s law, 24 Brown, Michael, 202 , 204 central pulsar, 6 energy levels, 27 blackbody curve, 127 , 145 , 249 , 257 , brown dwarf stars, 238–239 , 239 , 246 , Cepheid variable stars, xxiv , 281 , helium, 26 280–281 , 305 , 306 , 512 , 247 , 250 , 282 , 284 , 289 , 306 , 298–299 , 300 , 301 , 302 , 416 , hydrogen atom, 21 , 26 521–522 310 , 321–322 , 321–322 , 331 418 , 434 , 436 , 445 neutrino measurements, 16 Th e Black Cloud (Hoyle), 543 Bruno, Giordano, 231 Hubble Key Project team inspiration, nuclei and, 317–318 black-hole era, 503 , 505 Bullet Cluster, 433 485–486 radiation and, 21 black holes, 330 , 330–346 , 420 , 423 Burnell, Jocelyn Bell, 350 , 350 Hubble observations, 302 , 486 and time measurement, 4 , 21 A0620-00, 369 Burns Cliff (Mars), 155 Hubble’s law determination from, 487 atom smashers, 15 accretion disk, 330 Butler, R. Paul, 238 light curve, 300 , 302 , 484 , 485 ATST (Advanced Technology Solar accretion disks of, 355 , 360 , 366 , Butterfl y Nebula, 390 luminosity measurement, 484 , 489 Telescope), viii, 5 1 366–367 , 368 , 369 , 370 , 371 , Byrd Green Bank Telescope, 55 in M100 galaxy, 486 Auger Cosmic Ray Observatory, 348–349 372–373 , 377 period-luminosity relation, 301 , 484 AU Microscopii star, 246 , 248 bending of light and, 3 calcium Ceres (dwarf planet), 202 , 204 , 206 , 221 aurora australis, 127 , 129 , 162 central, of Milky Way Galaxy, 466 H line, 26 , 283 , 480 Cernan, Gene, 131t aurora borealis, 127 , 129 , 162 Chandrasekhar’s studies, 52 , 335 K line, 25 , 26 , 283 , 480 CERN high-energy particle accelerator, autumnal equinox, 82 , 91 Cygnus location, 8 calculus, 109 , 111 , 113 522 , 523 , 525–526 , 529 autumn sky constellations, 6–7 front dark matter and, 430 , 445 calendars, 89–90 Cerro Tololo Inter-America Observatory endpapers defi ned, 356 , 362 California Extremely Large Telescope (CTIO), 445 AV Delphini eclipsing binary, 300 , 301 detecting, 3 , 367–371 , 1330–1334 (C-ELT), 46 Cetus (constellation), 298 , 420 , event horizons, 355 , 360 , 363 , Callisto satellite (Jupiter), 38 , 173 , 174 , Appendix 7 Baade, Walter, 337 363–365 , 365 , 366 , 367–368 , 176 , 176 , 230t Challenger space-shuttle explosion, 59 Baade Telescope (Chile), 43t , 450 370–371 , 377 Caltech 10-m telescope, 43 Chameleon I region, 390 Bahcall, John, 322 , 520 exit cones, 362–363 , 363 , 365 , 377 Cambridge catalogue (3C) objects, 454 Chandrasekhar limit, 335 , 340 , 341 , balloon, expanding spherical (analogy), formation, 340 , 341 , 397 3C 48, 454 , 455 , 455 353 , 362 481–482 , 482 , 492 gamma-ray investigations, 54 3C 147, 455 Chandra X-ray Observatory, 1 , 3 , 52–53 , balloon experiments, 460 , 460 , general relativity, in, 364 3C 196, 455 53 , 64 , 262 , 298 , 300 , 335 , 352 , 514 , 514 Hawking’s ideas about, 376 3C 273, 454–456 , 455 , 456 , 458 , 360 , 392–393 , 397 Balmer series transitions, 28 , 29 , 30 , 33 , hot accretion disks, 367–368 461 , 468 , 470 Andromeda Galaxy image, 372 281 , 293 intermediate-mass, 373–374 , 378 3C 279, 468 , 470 black-hole studies, 372 barred spirals (galaxies), 419 , 419 , 420 mini, 376–377 Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope Centaurus A (NGC 5128), 453 Barringer Meteor Crater (Arizona), 215 , neutron star merger, 54 , 362 (CFHT), 43 , 4 3 t , 66 , 461 Crab Nebula images, 6 , 352 216–217 , 218 NGC 1097 galaxy location, 46 Cancer (constellation), 335, light-year-across region view, 394 Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey NuSTAR’s census of, 421 Appendix 7 M74 galaxy observation, 373 (BOSS), 443 , 445 potential candidates, 369 Canis Major (constellation), 9, mirrors, view of, 53 baryons, 516 properties, 365–367 Appendix 7 PKS 0637-752 (z=0.65) quasar, 460 Bayer, Johann, 7 , 9 , 10 , 79 radio technique investigations, 372 Cannon, Annie Jump, 281 , 368 Sgr A* view, 396 Beagle 2 laboratory, 152 , 483 , 541 rotating black holes, 365–366 , 366 carbon, 477 , 535 , 543 , 552 , 556 Sirius A and B view, 335 beamed radiation, 467 , 468 , 469 , 469 side views, 365 carbon cycle, 552 supermassive black hole, 372 , 471 Bean, Alan, 131t spin, 366–367 carbon dioxide, 44–146 , 125–127 , 127 , 3C 273 quasar, 456 Becklin-Neugebauer object (BN), 405 star conversions to, 330 148 , 151–152 , 153 , 154 , 205 , Very Large Telescope, 521 Bell Burnell, Jocelyn, 350 , 350 stationary limit, 365 , 365 , 377 209 , 214 , 543 white-dwarf-star discoveries, 335

Index 587

Chandrasekhar, S., 335 PanSTARRS, 196 continental drift theory, 122–124 , craters Chandrayaan-1 mission (India), 133 periodic comet, 207 (see also Halley’s 123 , 125 Barringer Meteor Crater, 215 , Chandrayaan-2 mission (India), 135 Comet) continuous spectrum, 22 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 32 216–217 , 218 Chang’e 1, 2, 4 lunar orbiters periodic numbering of, 203 Copernican principle, 479 , 480 , comparative planetology, 140 (China), 133 radio telescope studies, 209 533 , 535 Endurance Crater, 155 charge-coupled devices (CCDs), 42 , 46 , scattered disk, 206 Copernican theory of the Universe, 39 Gale Crater, 151 , 156 , 540 48 , 62 , 286 , 305 , 344 , 348 , Shoemaker-Levy 9, 209–210 , 210 Copernican time principle, 503 Jupiter, Tupan Caldera, 174 349 , 415 spacecraft to, 208 , 208 , 210–211 , Copernicus, Nicolaus, xxii , 39 , 98–100 , Mars, 140 Charon (Pluto’s moon), 198 , 198 , 199 , 213 102–103 , 105–107 , 113 , 116 , Mercury, 140 , 143 199–201 , 201 Sun, orbit by, 97 384 . See also heliocentric Moon, 127 , 132 , 134 Chelyabinsk meteor explosion, 215–217 tail, 204 , 205 , 205 , 207 (Sun-centered) theory Oralbi crater, 154 Cherenkov radiation, 54 tail-less comets, 206 core, of Earth’s interior, 121 , 121 Venus, 140 China Tempel 1, 211 , 213–214 , 214 , 218 core-collapse supernovae, 337 , 338–339 , “crescent moon,” 69 , 70 , 70 Chang’e 1, 2, 4 lunar orbiters, 133 Wild 2, 211 , 213 340 , 341 , 349 , 352 , 356 critical density, 437 , 491–492 , 492 , radio array for solar studies, 63 comparative planetology, Appendix 3 coronal holes, 257 , 257 , 264 , 265 , 278 493–494 , 497 , 499 , 504 Spectral Radioheliograph, 61 , 64 applications/benefi ts of, 121 , 162 coronal loops, 265 , 265 Cronin, James, 524 Yinghuo-1 orbiter, 157 atmospheres, 120t coronal mass ejections, 205 , 207 , 263 , crust, of the Earth, 121 , 121 Chinese National Space comparative planetary systems, 237 265 , 269 , 270 , 278 Curiosity Rover (NASA), x, 151–152 , Administration, 133 craters, 140 CoRoT (Convection Rotation 155 , 156 , 158 , 159 , 160 , 162 , Chiron (centaur object), 205 equatorial radius, 120t and Planetary Transits) 540 , 542 CHON (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, greenhouse eff ect, 145t spacecraft, 240 Curtis, Heber, 414 , 416 , 418 nitrogen) dust particle, 209 mass, 120t correcting plate (in telescopes), 47 curvature (of space), 494 . See also general chromatic aberration (in telescopes), moons, 157t cosmic antigravity, 341 , 491 , 499 , 559 theory of relativity 40 , 63 rings, 170t Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), negative curvature, 493 , 494 , 504 chromosphere, 52 , 256 , 257 , 257 , semimajor axis, orbital period, 120t 55 , 55 , 511 , 511 , 512 , 513 , 514 , positive, 494 , 504 258 , 259–260 , 262 , 264 , 270 , spots, 177t 514 , 516 , 517 space-time curvature, 272 , 353 , 270 , 278 surface temperature, 146t cosmic background radiation, 448 , 490 , 395 , 490 Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P) systems, 237t 495 , 500 , 502 , 511–513 CY Aquarii (star cluster), 300 comet, 213 Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, 53 , 3 K radiation, 514 Cycle 23 Cycle 24 (sunspot cycles), clouds 53 , 62 angular size measure, 515 267 giant molecular clouds, 312 Burst and Transient Source Experiment blackbody nature of, 514 Cygnus, the Swan (constellation), 7 , Jupiter, 144 , 169 , 172 (BATSE), 355 COBE measurement, 511 , 512 9 , 10 , 241 , 243 , 368 , 380, NGC 281 interstellar cloud, 28 gamma ray bursts detection, 397 ground-based telescopes for, 521 , 521 Appendix 7 Solar System formation theory, gamma ray maps, 392 , 394 , 397 origin, 458–459 Cygnus A radio galaxy, 452 , 452 234–235 Milky Way wavelength views, 392 Planck spacecraft, 512 , 513 , 514 , 515 , Cygnus X-1, stellar-mass black hole, 355 , Venus, 143 , 143–149 , 148 , 162 Cone Nebula, 249 516 , 518–520 360 , 368 , 368–369 , 378 CNO (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) cycle, Conrad, Pete, 131t ripples in, 459–460 , 536 Cygnus X-3, 368 320–321 , 331 conservation of energy, 510 source, 516 , 518–520 cold dark matter, 443–444 , 444 , 446 , constellations, 4–10, Appendix 7 supercluster discovery, 522 Dactyl (asteroid), 224 , 224 462 , 516 , 520 , 536 Andromeda, 7 cosmic coincidences, 535 dark (absorption) nebulae, 386 , 408 Collins, Michael, 131t Aquila, 9 , 290 , 352 , 370 cosmic density of matter, 526 dark energy, 1 , 54 , 55 , 297 , 341 , 367 , color force, 529 autumn sky, 6–7 cosmic jerk, 501–502 , 505 444 , 444–445 , 446 , 490–492 , Coma Berenices (constellation), 373 , Big Bear (Ursa Major), 6 , 10 , 11 , cosmic microwave radiation. See cosmic 499 , 500–503 , 505 , 515 , 515 , 391 , 419 , 422 , 426 , Appendix 7 80 , 176 background radiation 519–520 , 520 , 527 Coma Cluster of galaxies, 422 , 426 , Boötes, 10 , 333 cosmic mirage, 431 dark era, 503 , 503 , 505 427 , 510 Cancer, 335 Cosmic Origins Spectrograph, 50 , dark matter comets, 55 , 204–213 Canis Major, 9 5 0 t , 347 cold dark matter, 443–444 , 444 , 446 , Borrelly (19P), 213 Cassiopeia, 6 , 7 , 7 , 10 , 425 cosmic rays, 21 , 54 , 216 , 322 , 324 , 516 , 520 , 536 centaur relation to, 204 , 205 Centaurus, 372 348–349 , 349 dark energy comparison, 500 Churyumov-Gerasimenko, 213 Cetus, 298 , 420 cosmic strings, 515 , 532 description, 430 , 433 classifi cation, 206 , 206 Coma Berenices, 373 , 391 , 419 , Cosmographium Mysterium (Mystery of the hot dark matter, 443–444 , 444 , 446 collisions with Earth, 12 , 19 , 146 422 , 426 Cosmos) (Kepler), 96 location of, 428–430 , 432 , 496 coma, 205 Cygnus, 7 , 9 , 10 , 241 , 243 cosmological constant, 437 , 490–491 , search for, 324–325 , 428 composition, 205–206 , 208–209 description, 18 491 , 499–501 , 504 in Sun’s galactic orbit, 428 “dirty snowball” theory, 205 , 208 Draco, 241 cosmological principle, 490 , 491 , 504 Davis, Raymond, 322–323 discovery procedures, 204–205 Eridanus, 420 cosmology, 281 , 298 , 477–505 . Dawn spacecraft, 202 , 221 , 222–223 , dust tail, 205 fi nding in the sky, 5 , 7 See also big bang model of the 223 , 226 ecliptic comets, 206 Fornax, 438 Universe daylight saving time, 89 Encke type, 206 Gemini, the Twins, 11, Appendix 7 age of the universe, 483–490 declination, 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 91 gas (“ion”) tail, 205 Great Square of Pegasus, 8 deceleration of the universe, 496–502 decoupled matter and radiation, 512 Hale-Bopp (C/1995 01), 198 , 206 , Hercules, 7 , 10 expansion of the universe, 479–482 Deep Impact spacecraft (NASA), 211 , 210 , 212 , 225 International Astronomical Union future of the universe, 502–503 213 , 213 , 214 , 214 , 225 Halley’s Comet, 11 , 105 , 109 , 111 , scheme, 4 , 6 geometry/fate of the universe, Deep Space I mission, 210 , 213 205 , 207–209 , 208 Lyra, 8 , 241 , 284 490–496 degenerate era, 503 , 505 head, 204 Orion, the Hunter, 8 , 9 , 9–10 Hoyle’s contributions to, 510 Deimos (Mars satellite), 120t , 150 , 151 , incipient comets, 207 Pictor, 246 Hubble’s contributions to (see Hubble, 157 , 160 ISON, 196 Pisces Australis, 244 Edwin) delta (δ) Cephei (variable star), 10 , 298 , isotropic comets, 206 Puppis, 303 , 353 , 354 infl ationary cosmology, 520 300 , 300 , 416 , 484 Kepler’s law application, 104 spring sky, 10 Linde’s vision for, 527–528 density, description and calculation, 122 Lovejoy (C/2011 W3), cover, 198 , summer sky, 10 Olbers’s paradox, 476 , 478–479 deuterium (heavy hydrogen), 246 , 205 , 210 , 212 , 476 Taurus, the Bull, vii, 8–9 , 79 , pillars of, 525 319 , 319–322 , 324 , 509 , 525 , McNaught (C/2009 R1), 210 , 212 300 , 333 scientifi c evolution of, 516 525–526 , 526 omens, 197 Ursa Major, 7 , 11 , 176, Appendix 7 Steinhard’s vision for, 530 Dialogue on the Two Great World Systems Oort comet cloud, 14 , 206 Vela, 316 Supernova Cosmology Project, 488 (Galileo), ix, 107 , 108 orbital motion, 205 Virgo, xxiv , 8 Crab Nebula supernova, 6 , 343 , 343 , Dicke, Robert, 511 origin/evolution of, 206–207 winter sky, 7–9 351–352 , 352 , 362 Dione (Saturn satellite), xxi

588 Index

Discovery Channel Telescope lithosphere of interior, 121 biographical background, 270–271 BepiColombo Mercury mission, 143 (Arizona), 43t magnetic north pole of, 122 , 123 “cosmic gravity” postulation, 341 BeppoSax satellite, 374 , 397 DNA (d eoxyribon ucleic a cid), 543 , 549 , Mars diameter/mass comparison, 120, cosmological constant Gaia spacecraft, 244 , 285 , 290 , 296 , 551 , 556 Appendix 3 introduction, 491 299 , 397 , 486 Doppler, Christian, 30 with Moon (image), 96 electricity/magnetism unifi cation Giotto spacecraft, 208 , 208 Doppler eff ect, 30 , 434 , 436 , 482 Moon’s orbit around, 71 theory, 43 Herschel Space Observatory, 53 , 56 , defi ned, 30 , 33 ocean-fl oor mapping, 125 E = m c 2 formula, 317 , 318 62 , 245 , 249 , 315–316 , 384 , and motion, 30–32 orbit around the Sun, 71 gravitation theory, 15 384 , 390 , 405 , 412 , 417 , 522 and planetary discoveries, 31–32 , orbiting telescopes around, 3 Einstein cross, 471 Hipparcos spacecraft, 6 , 285 , 290 , 32 , 238 orbit radius, 282, Appendix 3 Einstein rings, 430 , 431 , 431 , 470 , 471 296 , 303 , 306 , 397 , 486

in stellar spectra, 293 ozone (O 3 ) layer, 126 , 127–128 , Einstein-Rosen bridge, 367 Integral satellite, 368 temperature anisotropy, 513 128 , 239 EIT (Extreme-Ultraviolet Imaging Mars Express, 151–152 , 152 , 154 , Venus ground-based planet-formation model, 236 Telescope), 73 , 260 , 262 , 270 154 , 158 , 542 measurements, 149 Pluto size-comparison, 197, electromagnetic radiation (waves), 21–22 , Planck spacecraft, 55 , 515 , 516 , 518 , Doppler formula, 437 , 445 , 479 , Appendix 3 23 , 32 518 , 519 , 521–522 , 522 482–483 poles electromagnetism, 528–529 , 535 , 536 Roscosmos (Russian) ExoMars Doppler shifts north celestial, 81 , 81 , 84 , 91 electron cloud, 26 collaboration, 157 blueshifts, 30–31 , 31 , 33 south celestial, 80 , 84 electrons, 26 , 32 , 512 , 516 , 518 , 520 , Rosetta spacecraft, 213 , 222 , 222 , 225 brown dwarf discovery with, 246 , 250 Ptolemaic orbit theory, 108 524 , 533 , 535 SMART satellite mission, 133 Doppler broadening, 264 rotational speed, 83 , 90 electroweak forces, 529 , 531 , 536 SOHO spacecraft, 51 , 205 , 205 , Earth wind measurement, 181 schematic view from space, 85 electroweak theory, 529 207 , 258 exoplanet discovery with, 240 seasons, 85 11-dimensional Universe, 472 , 530 , 531 Venus Express, 95 , 144 , 146 , 147 , Keck telescope detection, 240 sister planet to Venus, 119 El Gordo cluster of galaxies, 521 149 , 149 , 162 measurement development, 32 , soil composition, 142 Elliot, Bruce, 530 XMM-Newton mission, 52 , 298 , 303 , 237–238 Sun/Moon gravitational pull on, 80 Elliot, James, 191 368 , 460 , 522 periodic, 237–240 . (see also Doppler- temperature surface comparison, 146t ellipses Evans, Ron, 131t wobble method) time zones, 85 , 88 , 89–90 , 91 defi ned, 113 EVE (Extreme-ultraviolet Variability redshifts, 30–31 , 33 troposphere of, 125 eccentricity of (pronounced “ek’cen- Experiment), 52 stellar wobble, 32 , 238 turbulent atmosphere of, 41 , 44–45 triss-ity”), 103 , 113 event horizons, 355 , 360 , 363 , Doppler-wobble method, 237–240 , 250 Van Allen belts, 127 , 129 , 162 , 169 , Kepler’s second law and, 104 363–365 , 365 , 366 , 367–368 , double helix (DNA), 543 172 , 181 , 187 Kepler’s third law and, 105 370–371 , 377 Draco (constellation), 241, Appendix 7 visible-light camera recordings of, 68 minor axis, 103 , 113 excited states (of energy), 28 , 33 , 90 Drake, Frank, 547 , 550 , 553 weather of, 125 semimajor axis, 103 , 113 exit cones, 362–363 , 363 , 365 , 377 Drake equation, 550–551 , 553 , 556 winds, 126 semiminor axis, 103 , 113 exobiology, 483 , 541 , 556 Draper, Henry, 368 earthquake wave studies, 122 elliptical galaxies, 417 , 419 , 420–421 , exoplanets (extra-solar planets), 137 , Duke, Charlie, 131t Earth-Sun plane, 70 421 , 426 , 429 , 441 , 442 , 445 143–144 , 232–253 , 543 , dust Easter Island total solar eclipse, 256 M32, 417 , 421 545 , 545 defi ned, 383 , 384 , 386 Eastern Daylight Time (E.D.T.), 89 emission-line continuum, 27 debris disk, xix e ff ects of, 386 , 391 Eastern Standard Time (E.S.T.), 89 emission lines, 22 , 27 , 27 , 27–28 , discovery methods infrared radiation penetration of, 390 Ebb and Flow GRAIL satellites, 134–135 30 , 33 , 384 , 386 , 389 , 400 , astrometric method, 237 interstellar dust, 391 , 391 , 397 , 403 eccentricity, of an ellipse, 103 , 113 400–401 , 402 , 434 , 436 blink (transit) method, 239 , ionized gas, 382 eclipses, 70–76 emission-line spectrum, 27 240–241 , 241 , 242 as Milky Way component, 384 , 408 lunar eclipse, 71 , 71 , 73 , 73–74 , 91 emission nebulae, 386–387 , 387 , 397 , direct imaging, 244 in star formation, 404 prominences, 257 , 264 , 270 , 270 , 277 399 , 408 , 434 Doppler-wobble method, 237–240 dust grains, 403 , 403 , 501 scientifi c value of, 265 “empty space,” 3 gravitational microlensing, 244 dust lane, 419 , 419 , 420 solar eclipse, 71 Enceladus satellite (Saturn), 183 , 184 , radio pulsar timing, 237 dwarf planets (plutoids and Ceres), 97 , annular eclipse, 75–76 , 91 , 277 542 , 544 Fomalhaut b, 245 , 564t 201–202 . See also Eris ; Haumea ; Baily’s beads, 72 , 75 , 91 Encke’s comet, 206 Kepler’s discoveries of, 241–244 , 246 Makemake ; Pluto chromosphere, 256 , 257 , 260 , 264 Endurance Crater (Mars), 155 Kepler’s exoplanet candidates’ radii, dwarf stars, 289 . See also Sun compound image, 73 energy level, 33 239 , 250 brown dwarf stars, 238–239 , 239 , corona, xii , 91 , 256 , 257 , 260–265 , equal areas, law of (Kepler’s second law), mass comparisons, 244 246 , 247 , 250 , 282 , 284 , 289 , 270 , 277 103–105 , 104 observations of, 132 , 143 310 , 321–322 , 331 description, 71 , 71 , 74–76 , 91 ergosphere, 365 , 365 , 377 orbit comparison, 238 red dwarf stars, 246 , 250 diamond-ring eff ect, xiii , 91 , Eridanus (constellation), 420, Appendix 7 size comparison chart, 243 , 250 yellow dwarf stars, 246 256 , 257 Eris (dwarf planet), 202 , 203 , 204 , 222 EXOSAT (European X-ray Observatory Dyson, Freeman, 503 Easter Island, 256 Eros (asteroid), 219 , 224 , 224 , 225 Satellite), 389 Einstein’s theory and, 16 , 273 , 273 ESA. See European Space Agency exploding stars. See supernovae Eagle (M17) nebulae, 161 , 313 , 314 , global frequency, 75 escape velocity, 363 , 377 (exploding stars) 314 , 315 , Appendix 6 hybrid, 72 eta (η) Carinae star, 310 exponential notation, 5 Earth, 120–127, 128 , 129 Jansky VLA observation, 63 ethane, 544 exponents, 4 , 5 Aristotle’s/Ptolemy’s theories, 39 observing, 72 Euclid, fi fth postulate, 492–493 extra-solar neutrino astronomy, 347 association of tides with, 124 , partial, 16 , 75 Euclidean geometry, 492 , 494 extraterrestrial amino acids, 543 128–129 penumbra, 71 , 74 , 91 Europa satellite (Jupiter), 38 , 174–175 , extraterrestrial life atmosphere of, 67 , 124–127 total, xii , 16 , 71–74 , 76 , 91 , 174–176 , 190 , 193 , 533 , 541 , search for, 545–549 “blue marble” image, 118 102 , 124 , 256 , 257 , 262 , 264 , 542 , 542 , 544 , 553 , 556 statistics of intelligent, 550–553 comparative data, 120t, Appendix 3 270 , 277 European Extremely Large Telescope eXtreme Deep Field (XDF), xvii , composite image inclusion, 96 umbra, 74 , 91 (E-ELT), 5 , 46 , 47 438 , 449 continental drift theory, 122–124 , 123 Yohkoh destruction during, 51 European Infrared Space Observatory Extreme-Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope Earth-Moon composite, 121 eclipsing binaries, 295 , 295–296 , 296 , (ISO), 52 (EIT), 73 , 260 , 262 , 270 electromagnetic spectrum 297–298 , 300 European Southern Observatory, 5 , Extreme-ultraviolet Variability Experiment penetration, 22 ecosphere, 544 , 556 44 , 46 (EVE), 52 formation of, 2 , 121 Eddington, Arthur, 430 Antu Unit Telescope, 186 grid divisions (by astronomers), 81 Egg Nebula, 334 Tarantula Nebula, 5 F/A-18 Hornet jet, 234 Halley’s Comet passage, 207–208 Einstein, Albert, 108 , 271 , 436 , 546 , Very Large Telescope array, 44 , 246 failed stars. See brown dwarf stars interior structure, 121 , 121–122 555 , 556 . See also relativity European Space Agency (ESA), 49 . See also Faint Object Camera (on Hubble Space ionosphere of, 66 , 123 , 125 , 126 biggest blunder of, 499–500 Herschel Space Observatory Telescope), 465

Index 589

false vacuum, 531 , 532 , 534 F-type main-sequence stars, 545 “peculiar,” 421 , 423 , 441 , 445 Gemini, the Twins (constellation), 11, falsifi cation process, 16 FUSE (Far Ultraviolet Spectrographic Pinwheel (M101), 48 , 330 , 342 , Appendix 7 Far Ultraviolet Spectrographic Explorer Explorer), 55 Appendix 6 Gemini 8-m telescopes, 43t , 244 (FUSE; NASA), 55 pinwheel shaped, 408 Geminids meteor shower, 218 , 218t Fermi, Enrico, 552 Gaia spacecraft (ESA), 244 , 285 , 290 , Planck catalogue, 522 Gemini Planet Imager, 244 Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, 53 , 296 , 299 , 397 , 486 radio galaxies, 462 , 510 Gemini South telescope, 43t , 48 345 , 374–375 , 392 , 397 , 398 , galactic cannibalism, 422 , 426 recession speed, 434 , 434–437 , 483 general theory of relativity, 16 , 272–273 , 463 , 469 Galactic disk, 384 , 389–391 , 391 , redshifts, 494 , 496 , 502 278 , 352–353 , 354 , 362–364 , Field Guide to the Stars and Planets 392 , 408 resistance to expansion, 482 368 , 377 , 471 , 482 , 490 , 491 , (Pasachoff ), 83 , 169 Galactic halo, 390 , 391 , 408 ring, 421 , 424 500 , 504 , 516 Figure It Out Galactic nucleus, 389–390 , 391 , 392 , 408 Sagittarius Dwarf Irregular, 425 Genzel, Reinhard, 395 Angular Resolution of a Telescope, 57 Galactic plane, 513 separation between, 491 , 492 , 496 , geological studies, 121–122 Binary Stars, 294 Galatea (Neptune moon), 191 499 , 499 , 510 geostationary satellites, 105 , 105 Binary Stars and Kepler’s Th ird galaxies, 443 . See also Andromeda Sombrero (M104), 419 , 420 , geothermal energy, 122 , 162 Law, 369 Galaxy ; Large Magellanic Cloud Appendix 6 geysers, 123 Blackbody Radiation and the Stefan- galaxy ; Milky Way Galaxy ; Small spiral arms, xxiv , 14 , 300 , 312 , 399 , Ghez, Andrea, 395 Boltzmann Law, 25 Magellanic Cloud galaxy ; spiral 403 , 403 , 408 , 414 , 417 , 417 , Giacconi, Riccardo, 397 Blackbody Radiation and Wien’s galaxies ; individual NGC entries 419 , 421 , 425 , 441 , 445 giant (jovian) planets. See Jupiter ; Law, 24 “active,” 372 superclusters, 413 , 424–425 , 433 , Neptune ; Saturn ; Uranus Calculating the Mass from the Andromeda (M31), 8 , 212 , 302 , 436 , 443 , 500–501 , 500–502 , Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT), 6 , 13 , Rotation Curve, 429 372 , 372 , 414–416 , 417 , 418 , 522 , 522 45–46 , 47 Central Mass in a Galaxy, Th e, 465 419 , 421–422 , 423 , 425 , 442, Tadpole, 161 Giant Meterwave Radio Telescope, 406 Changing Units, 45 Appendix 6 travelling of light from, 2 giant molecular clouds, 312 , Critical Density and ΩM, 492 average density of, 490 Triangulum (M33), 422 , 425 , 425 , 403–404 , 408 Doppler Shifts, 293 barred spirals, 419 , 419 , 420 427 , Appendix 6 giant stars, 288 , 288 , 289 , 298 , Drake Equation, Th e, 553 black holes at center of, 273 type Ia supernovae in, 489 , 490 303 , 305 Energy Generation in the Sun, 318 bulge, 370 , 371 , 372 Virgo Cluster, 372 , 487–488 , 489 Gillett Gemini North telescope, 5 , 42 , Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, 533 cannibalizing, 376 , 422 , 426 voids, 424 , 436 , 443 , 443 , 444 , 445 43 , 4 3 t Hubble Time, Th e, 484 Cartwheel, 424 Whirlpool (M51), 350 , 368 , 412 , Giotto spacecraft, 208 , 208 I n fl ation of the Early Universe, 529 CCD image, 498 414 , Appendix 6 GJ876 (star), 237 , 239 , 240 Interstellar Travel and Einstein’s Centaurus A, 372 Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX) Global Oscillation Network Group Relativity, 546 central mass in, 465 spacecraft, 52 , 55 , 299 , (GONG) program, 258 Inverse-Square Law, Th e, 286 clusters, xv , 392 , 413–414 , 415 , 421 , 415 , 421 Global Positioning System (GPS), Keeping Track of Space and Time, 3 422 , 508 Galaxy Garden, 355 49 , 269 Kepler’s Th ird Law, 106 Bullet Cluster, 433 , 441 Gale Crater (Mars), 151 , 156 , 540 globular clusters of stars, 7 , 10 , Light-Gathering Power of a Coma Cluster, 422 , 426 , 427 , 510 Galilean satellites (of Jupiter), 38 , 173 , 300–305 , 313 , 352 , 388 , 390 , Telescope, 42 dark matter, 433 174 . See also Callisto ; Europa ; 391 , 397 , 408 Mass-Luminosity Relation, Th e, 298 El Gordo, 521 Ganymede ; Io satellite age determination, 483 Nature of Light, Th e, 23 evolution of, 496 , 497 Galilei, Galileo distribution of, 388 Newton’s Version of Kepler’s Th ird formation/growth of, 443 , 444 biographical background, 107 formation, 483 Law, 110 Hubble’s law application, 435 Dialogue , ix, 107 , 108 M13, 549 , 550 , Appendix 6 Orbital Speed of Planets, 112 superclusters, 436 , 443 , 443 duplicating observations of, 109 omega Centauri, 422 Redshifts and Hubble’s Law, 436 dark matter, 433 early telescope use, 37–38 pulsars in, 353 Relativistic Eff ects, 437 distances to, 485 , 489–490 Jupiter’s moons observations, 37 , 38 , spherical halo, 408 Scientifi c Notation, 4 distribution, 516 39 , 105 star formation, 549–550 Sidereal Time, 81 dust lane, 419 , 419 , 420 Milky Way Galaxy observation, 39 , GOCE (Gravity fi eld and steady-state Size of Jupiter, 169 elliptical, 417 , 419 , 420–421 , 421 , 63 , 105 , 109 Ocean Circulation Explorer) A Star’s Luminosity, 289 422 , 426 , 429 , 441 , 442 , 445 Moon observations drawing, 38 satellite, 125 Stellar Triangulation, 284 evolution of, 440–442 , 440–442 Neptune observations, 188 , 189 Gold, Th omas, 510 Temperature Conversions, 31 expansion rate, 494 and pendulum clock development, 90 Goldilocks planets, 246 , 250 , 545 , 545 Using Hubble’s Law to Determine fi laments, 444 sunspot observations, 39 , 108 GONG (Global Oscillation Network Distances, 436 formation, 515 , 516 telescope defi ciencies, 39 Group) program, 258 Using the Magnitude Scale, 78 giant walls of, 443 telescopic observations, 105 googol, 528 Filippenko, Alex gravitational pull on other telescopic solar-image projection, 107 Gordon, Dick, 131t research projects, 59 , 341 , 342 , 344 , galaxies, 483 Venus discovery, 39 GPS (Global Positioning System), 344 , 369 , 370 , 375 , 488 , 497 , halos, 417 , 419 , 429 , 431–432 , 516 writings of, 107 49 , 269 500 , 502 high-redshift, 439 , 440 , 441 , 442 Galileo spacecraft (NASA), 96 , 120 , GRAIL (American Gravity Recovery and 1st-magnitude star, 78 Hubble diagram, 480 , 481 121 , 124 , 146 , 147 , 169–170 , Interior Laboratory) satellites, Fitch, Val, 524 Hubble’s constant measurement, 487 171 , 172–174 , 174 , 176 , 176 , 133–135 Fobos-Grunt, Mars mission (Russia), 157 Hubble “tuning fork” classifi cation, 193 , 222 grand unifi ed theories (GUTs), 529 , focus, of ellipses, 103 , 113 417 , 419 Galle, Johann, 188 531 , 536 focus, of lenses, 39 , 63 IC 10, 370 gamma-ray bursts, 52 , 54 , 330 , 397 , grand unifi ed theory (GUT) force, 531 Fomalhaut b exoplanet, 245 , 564t lenticular (S0), 421 , 445 398 , 408 , 497 , 502 Gran Telescopio Canarias (GTC), 43t forces in the Universe, 528–531 Local Group cluster, 14 , 422 , distant galaxy locations, 374–375 gravitation laws of Newton, 15 , 99 , 107 , formic acid, 551 424–425 , 425 , 435 light curve montage, 374 109–110 Fornax (constellation), 438 , Appendix 7 Local Supercluster cluster, 424 models, 375–376 gravitation theory of Einstein, 15 Foster, Jodie, 367 luminosity, 485 gamma rays, 3 , 19 , 21 , 23 , 52 , 53 , gravitational lensing, 244 , 430–433 , Fowler, William A., 335 M74, 373 , 373 , Appendix 6 321 , 324 431 , 445 , 463 , 470–471 , 471 , “frame dragging” phenomenon (accretion M77, 349 , Appendix 6 gamma-ray telescopes, 52–54 , 64 472 , 508 disks), 366 , 366 , 377 M87, 372 , 373 , Appendix 6 Gamow, George, 466 , 491 , 511 , gravitational microlensing method, of Fraunhofer, Joseph, 25 , 259 M100, 391 , 486 , Appendix 6 512 , 525 exoplanet discovery, 244 Fraunhofer lines, 25 , 26 , 259 , 259 , 280 Th e Mice (NGC 4676), 442 Ganymede satellite (Jupiter), 38 , 170 , gravitational waves, 273 , 335 , 352–355 , Friedman, Milton, 533 motion measurements, 495 173 , 173–174 , 174 , 175 , 354 , 362 Friedmann, Alexander, 491 movement away from Milky Way 175–176 , 193 , 230t gravity, 470 , 516 , 522 , 527–528 , Friedmann universes, 491 Galaxy, 480 “gas giants,” 239 530–531 frost (snow) line (jovian planets), 193 NGC 3314, xiv , xv Gaspra (asteroid), 150 , 222 , 222 Gravity Probe B spacecraft, 366

590 Index

Great Dark Spot (Neptune), 177t Herbig-Haro objects, i , 315–316 Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), “ice giants,” 239 Great Observatories program, 53 HH-1, HH-2, 315 , 316 50 , 51 , 248 , 420 , 423 , 425 , 438 , inclination (of a planet’s orbit), 111 , 113 Great Red Spot (Jupiter), 169 , 170 , 170 , HH-46/47, 316 439 , 442 , 446 , 499 , 502 Indian Space Research Organization, 133 171 , 174 , 177t , 183 , 188–189 Hercules (constellation), 7 , 10, atmosphere monitoring by, 97 , 155 infl ationary Universe, 526–533 Great Square of Pegasus, 8 Appendix 7 building of, 49 infrared telescopes, 55 Great Wall, 424–425 Herman, Robert, 511 Cosmic Origins Spectrograph, 50 , Herschel Infrared Observatory, 312 Green, Michael, 530 Herschel, Caroline, 417 5 0 t , 347 Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), Green Bank Telescope, Byrd, 55 Herschel, William, 55 , 184 , 196 , Deep Field (HDF), 161 , 437–438 , 55 , 419 greenhouse eff ect, 127 , 145 384 , 418 438 , 445 Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), benefi ts of, 127 Herschel impact crater, 183 description, 64 55 , 419 defi ned, 126 Herschel Space Observatory, 53 , 56 , 62 , eXtreme Deep Field (XDF), xvii , 438 Keck telescopes, 211 Earth, 126 245 , 249 , 315–316 , 384 , 384 , Faint Object Camera component, 465 NASA Infrared Telescope Facility Venus, 145 , 145–146 , 162 390 , 405 , 412 , 417 , 522 image superiority, 5 (IRTF), 43 , 66 , 391 Greenstein, Jesse, 455 Hertzsprung, Ejnar, 288 , 288 Key Project Team, 12 , 485–487 , infrared wavelengths, 3 , 5 , 16 Greenwich, England (0° longitude Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagrams, 487 , 504 InSight (In terior Exploration using line), 89 288 , 317 , 333 , 336 , 336 . launching of, 54–55 S eismic I nvestigations, G eodesy Gregorian calendar, 89–90 See also temperature-luminosity Near Infrared Camera and Multi- and H eat T ransport) lander, 157 ground state (of an atom), 28 , 33 (-magnitude) diagrams Object Spectrometer (NICMOS), INTEGRAL (Inte rnational G amma-R ay Grunsfeld, John (astronaut), 49 Hess, Victor, 54 50 , 50t , 191 , 334 , 405 , 405 A strophysics L aboratory, ESA), G type main-sequence stars, 545 Hewish, Anthony, 350 , 351 object sizes observed by, 79 53 , 368 , 393 , 396 Guth, Alan, 527–528 , 533 , 534 HH-1, HH-2 (Herbig-Haro objects), Origins program missions, 14 interferometry, 56 , 62 , 290 , 291 , 305 , 315 , 316 parent star of planets observations, 237 366 , 467 , 468 H1413+117 “cloverleaf” quasar, 471 HH-46/47 (Herbig-Haro objects), 316 Pluto/Charon discovery, 199 intermediate-mass black holes, Hale, Alan, 210 HH-110, i servicing missions, 49 , 49–51 373–374 , 378 Hale, George Ellery, 267 high-energy astrophysics, 397 , 408 Ultra Deep Field (HUDF), xx , 438 , intermediate redshift quasars, 460 Hale-Bopp comet (C/1995 01), 198 , High Energy Stereoscopic System 438 , 440 International Astronomical Union (IAU), 206 , 210 , 212 , 225 (H.E.S.S.) II telescope, 54 Venus transit refl ection attempt, 4 , 6 , 204 , 488 Hale telescope (Palomar Observatory), High-Energy Transient Explorer 2 xi , 144 International Astronomical Union 42 , 48 , 63 , 190 , 267 , 455 (HETE-2), 374–375 view from space shuttle, 36 Circular (IAUC), 488 Halley, Edmond, 109 , 111 , 207 , 207 high-redshift galaxies, 439 , 440 , Wide Field Camera 3, xxiv , 49 , 50 , international date line (opposite Halley’s Comet, 10 , 105 , 111 , 205 , 441 , 442 50 , 5 0 t , 190 , 210 , 438 , 439 , Greenwich, England), 89 207–210 , 208 , 209 , 225 high-redshift Hubble diagrams, 446 , 453 , 486 International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics H-alpha line, 28 , 260 , 262 , 269 497–498 , 502 Wide Field/Planetary Camera 2, 437 Laboratory (INTEGRAL), 53 , H-alpha photon, 29 high redshift quasars, 456 , 457 , 457 , Hubble “tuning fork” classifi cation, 368 , 393 , 396 H and K lines of calcium, 283 , 480 458 , 461 , 462 , 464 , 470 , 470 , 417 , 419 International Space Station, 36 , 129 , 289 Haro, Guillermo, 315–316 472 , 510 , 516 Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF), xx , International Telecommunications Harriot, Th omas, 37 high-redshift supernovae, 497–498 , 501 438 , 438 , 440 Union, 91 Harrison, John, 90 High-z Supernova Search Team, 488 HUDF (Hubble Ultra Deep Field), xx , International Th ermonuclear Harvard College Observatory, 205 , Hinode spacecraft (Japan-US-Britain), 438 , 438 , 440 Experimental Reactor 281 , 281 51 , 260 , 261 , 262 , 264 Humason, Milton, 434–435 , 435 (ITER), 320 Haumea (dwarf planet), 202 , 203 , Hipparcos spacecraft, 6 , 285 , 290 , 296 , Huygens, Christiaan, 181 international time zones, 86 204 , 225 303 , 306 , 397 , 486 Huygens lander, 181 International Ultraviolet Explorer Hawking, Stephen, 376–377 Hobby-Eberly Telescope, 43t Huygens probe and lander, 181 , 182 , spacecraft, 54 Hawking quantum process, 503 Homestake Gold Mine neutrino 183 , 184 , 193 , 544 interstellar clouds, 28 , 386–387 , 543 . H-beta lines, 28 telescope, 321 , 323 Hyades star cluster, 9 , 9 , 10 , 97 , 304 See also nebulae HDE 226868 (black-hole companion), H I regions, 399 , 408 Hydra-Centaurus Supercluster, 487 interstellar communication, 551 368 , 368 Hooke, Robert, 109 hydrogen, 347 . See also Bohr atom ; interstellar dust, 350 , 352 , 355 , 366 , HDF (Hubble Deep Field), 161 , 161 , horizon problem, 526–528 , 532 , 536 deuterium (heavy hydrogen) 371 , 391 , 391 , 397 , 403 , 546 437–438 , 438 , 440 , 445 Horsehead nebula, 386 , 389 , 411 atomic structure, 16 , 28 interstellar extinction, 388 , 408 Heinlein, Robert, 533 hot accretion disks, 367–368 Balmer series transitions, 28 , 29 , 30 , interstellar medium, 357 , 389 , 399 , 408 Heisenberg, Werner, 26 hot dark matter, 443–444 , 444 , 446 33 , 281 , 293 interstellar reddening, 389 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, 533 Hoyle, Fred, 510 , 510 , 535 , 543 galactic halo and, 390 interstellar space, 551 heliocentric (Sun-centered) theory HR 4796A star, 246 , 249 gas, 543 interstellar travel, 545 , 546 , 553 , 556 (Copernicus), xxii , 98–100 , HR 8799 star, 244 , 245 ground state, 28 inverse-square law 105–107 , 113 H II regions, 361 , 399–400 , 400 , 404 , H α emission, 386 defi ned, 110 , 285 Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager 405 , 408 interstellar atoms, 400 , 401 of gravity, 363 (HMI), 51–52 , 261 , Hubble, Edwin, xxiv , 49 , 302 , 413 , 416 , ionized, 388 , 397 , 399 , 400 star calculations 262 , 262 417 , 418 , 434 , 435 , 445 , 479 , isotopes, 317 , 318–319 , 319 , 321 , 324 apparent brightness, 287 , 298 helioseismology (solar seismology), 485 , 491 , 504 Lyman-series transitions, 28 , 30 luminosity, 289 258–259 , 259 , 268 , 274 Hubble constant, 436 , 437 , 497 , 504 Milky-Way wavelengths, 392 Io satellite (Jupiter), 38 , 169 , 172 , helium, 509 , 525 , 525–526 , 535 Hubble Deep Field (HDF), 161 , molecules, 399 , 403 , 403 , 405 173–176 , 174 , 190 , 193 , 544 atoms, 16 , 26 , 30 437–438 , 438 , 445 nucleus, 317 ionized atoms, 32 in giant planet atmospheres, 167 , 168 , Hubble diagram, 479 , 481 , 487 , as primary star component, 282 ionosphere 177 , 179 , 184 , 193–194 497 , 502 radio spectral line, 403 of Earth, 66 , 123 , 125 , 126 ionized, 399 , 400 Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF), xvii , spectral lines, 21 , 281 , 282 , 283 of Mars, 157 ions, 142 438 , 449 star composition, 282 iPhone/iPad apps, 237 liquid, 55 Hubble fl ow, 487 , 495 , 504 21-cm hydrogen line, 401 , 401 , 402 , Irvine-Michigan-Brookhaven (IMB) neutral/ionized, 30 Hubble Near Infrared Camera and 403 , 408 , 526 , 547 detector, 530 in outer planets’ atmospheres, 249 Multi-Object Spectrometer hydrostatic equilibrium, 313 , 314 Irwin, Jim, 131t primary star component, 282 , 300 , (NICMOS), 334 hypothesis (defi ned), 15 , 18 island universes. See galaxies 302–303 Hubble parameter, 436 ISON comet, 196 in Sun’s atmosphere, 224 , 233 , 256 , Hubble’s law, 375 , 434 , 434 , IC 10 galaxy, 370 isotopes, 318–319 258 , 260 , 262 , 264 , 264 , 270 435–437 , 445 , 456 , 456 , IC 10 X-1 variable x-ray source, 370 chlorine, 322 Helix Nebula (NGC 7293), 332 , 333 462 , 479–480 , 480 IceCube neutrino observatory, 324 , 325 , comets/unusual ratios, 213 Herbig, George, 315 Hubble Space Telescope (HST) 330 , 348 deuterium, 319

Index 591

helium, 319 , 321 clouds, 144 , 169 , 172 , 173 Kepler, Johannes, 15 , 94 , 94 , 101–104 , lighthouse model (pulsars), 351 , hydrogen, 317 , 318–319 , 319 , comparative data, 168t 117 , 479 . See also laws of 351–352 , 362 321 , 324 composite image inclusion, 96 planetary motion (of Kepler) light-year, 3 , 6 , 7 , 13–14 , 17 lithium, 321 density, 168 , 239 Kepler mission (NASA), 239 , 240–244 limerick (Brief History of Gravity), 530 radioactive, 130 , 319 , 331 Europa, 541 , 542 , 542 , 544 , 553 , 556 exoplanet candidates, 232 Linde, Andrei, 527 , 534 uranium, 319 Europa satellite, 190 , 193 Kepler 4b-8b, 242 LISA (L aser I nterferometer S pace Van Allen belt distribution, 129 Galileo’s discovery of moons, 39 Kepler-20e exoplanet, 242–243 A ntenna), 354 isotropy Great Red Spot, 169 , 170 , 170 , 171 , Kepler-20f exoplanet, 242–243 lithosphere, of Earth’s interior, 121 comets, 206 174 , 177t , 183 , 188–189 Kepler Objects of Interest, 241 Lives in Science cosmology, 510 , 513 , 515 heavy elements in, 167 KOI (Kepler Objects of Interest), 241 Albert Einstein, 271 Italian Space Agency satellite, 366 interior (model), 172 , 172 spacecraft, 32 , 231 , 234 , 253 Copernicus, 100 magnetic fi eld, 169 , 172 prelaunch, 242 Galileo Galilei, 107 James Clerk Maxwell telescopes, 43 mass, 240 Kepler’s supernova, 104 Isaac Newton, 111 James Webb Space Telescope, 14 , 50–51 , moons of (image), 38 Key Project Team (Hubble Space Johannes Kepler, 104 56 , 384 mythology about, 176 Telescope), 485–487 , 487 , 504 Tycho Brahe, 102 Jansky, Karl, 55 northern/southern auroral ovals, 172 KOI (Kepler Objects of Interest), 241 “Living with a Star” program Jansky Very Large Array (VLA) radio planet-formation models, 235–236 KOI-961 red dwarf, 243 (NASA), 260 telescope, 56 , 58 , 362–363 , 363 , ring, 170t , 173 , 173 Koshiba, Masatoshi, 323 Local Group galaxy cluster, 14 , 372 , 373 , 393 , 406 , 406 rotational-speed comparison, 83 K-type main-sequence stars, 545 375 , 377 , 422 , 424–425 , Japan satellites, 228–229 Kuiper belt, 13 , 205–207 , 206 , 425 , 435 Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Amalthea, 176–177 210 , 235 Local Supercluster galaxy cluster, 424 . Astrophysics, 355 , 360 Callisto, 38 , 173 , 174 , 176 , 176 , Kuiper-belt objects, 97 , 201 , 202 , See also Virgo Cluster ASCA x-ray telescope, 460 229 , 230t 203 , 204 , 225 , 235 , 236 , 244 . Lockheed Martin Solar and Astrophysics BepiColombo Mercury mission, 143 Europa, 38 , 169 , 174–176 , 190 , See also Haumea ; Makemake ; Observatory, 52 solar-neutrino experiment, 323–324 193 , 228 , 230t , 533 , 541 , 542 , Pluto ; Varuna LOFAR (low-frequency radio Subaru telescope, 43 , 4 3 t , 415 , 431 542 , 553 , 556 telescopes), 55 SuperKamiokande, 323 Ganymede, 38 , 170 , 173 , 173–176 , LAGEOS (Laser Geodynamic Satellites) I Longitude (Dava Sobel), 90 Suzaku x-ray telescope, 360 , 368 , 460 174 , 175 , 176 , 193 , 229 , 230t and II, 123 lookback times, 434 , 437 , 439 , 441 , Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency I o , 38 , 169 , 172 , 173–176 , 174 , L arge B inocular T elescope (LBT), 445 , 498 , 501 (JAXA), 51 , 133 , 149 190 , 192 , 193 , 228 , 230t 4 3 t , 44 Lovejoy (C/2011 W3) comet, 198 , 205 , jet(s) “irregular,” 177 L arge H adron C ollider (LHC), 522 , 523 210 , 212 from accretion disk, 372–373 , 460 mythology, 176 Large Magellanic Cloud (galaxy), 5 , Lowell, Percival, 149 , 151 from active galactic nuclei, 452 , 453 , size comparison, 168 , 169 , 14 , 301 , 312 , 343 , 343 , 344 , Lowell Observatory (Arizona), 198 454 , 455 228–229 , 230t 345 , 351 , 396 , 398 , 421 , 422 , low-redshift quasars, 458 , 461 , 462 , 464 , beaming and, 467 Solar-System-formation 431 , 483 470 , 472 from Centaurus A galaxy, 372 , 453 depiction, 236 L arge S ynoptic S urvey T elescope luminosity, 25 and “collapsar,” 375 , 376 spacecraft images, 170 , 172 (LSST), 48 Cepheid variable-star measurement, description, 468 , 469 spacecraft missions, 169–170 and Las Campanas Observatory (Chile), 484 , 489 M87 galaxy, 373 , 453 , 465 , throughout the chapter 4 3 t , 375 defi ned, 484 Appendix 6 surface features, 168–169 L aser I nterferometer G ravitational-wave period-luminosity relation (Leavitt’s NGC 1068 galaxy, 372 telescopic observations, 210 O bservatory (LIGO), 354 , 355 Law), 484 from a protostar, 5 temperature, 170 La ser Re lativity S atellite (LARES), 366 of quasars, 497 from quasars Tupan Caldera volcanic crater, 174 Laughlin, Greg, 503 of supernovae, 501 3C 273, 456 , 468 winds, 170 , 172 , 180 Lawrence Livermore National Lunar Atmosphere and Dust PKS 0637-752 (z=0.65), 460 “zones” (bright bands), 170 Laboratory, 319 Environment Explorer from relativistic particles, Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE), laws of planetary motion (of Kepler) (LADEE), 135 radiation, 376 354–355 fi rst law, 103 Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing under solar surface, 268 second law, 103–105 , 104 , 353 , 395 Satellite (LCROSS), 133 SS433 x-ray binary, 370–371 , Kaguya. See Selenographic and third law, 105 , 106 , 112 , 369 , 382 , lunar eclipse, 71 , 71 , 73 , 73–74 , 91 371 , 378 Engineering Explorer (SELENE) 395 , 428 , 429 Lunar Reconnaissance Observatory from a triple star, 390 mission Newton’s version, 110 (LRO), 118 , 133 , 133 , 134 Jewel Box (open star cluster), 399 KAIT (Katzman Automatic Imaging Leavitt, Henrietta, 281 , 299 , 301 , 416 , Lutetia (asteroid), 213 , 222 Jewitt, David, 202 , 204 Telescope), 344 , 344 484 , 484 Lyman, Th eodore, 28 John Paul II (Pope), 107 Kant, Immanuel, 414 Leavitt’s law, 298 , 299 , 301 , 416 , Lyman-alpha absorption line, 347 Johnson, John, 243 kappa (κ) Crucis (orange star), 399 484 , 484 Lyman-beta photon, 29 jovian (giant) planets. See also Jupiter ; Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope lenticular (S0) galaxies, 421 , 445 Lyman-series transitions, 28 Neptune ; Saturn ; Uranus (KAIT), 344 , 344 Leonid meteor shower, 218 , 218t , 219 Lyra (constellation), 8 , 241 , 284 , 284 , atmospheres, 167 Keck telescopes, 5 , 42 , 43 , 4 3 t , 44 , 44 , Leverrier, Urbain, 187 Appendix 7 Earth-size comparison, 197, 46 , 59 , 59 , 395 Leverrier ring (Neptune), 191 Appendix 4 Cygnus A radio map, 452 Levy, David, 209 , 210 M3 (globular cluster), 304 , 305 , formation of, 192–193 Doppler-shift detection, 240 Lick Observatory, 315 , 344 Appendix 6 frost (snow) line, 193 Europa, icy regions, 175 life M4 (globular cluster), 313 , Appendix 6 nearby solar stars with, 244 gamma-ray burst studies, 374 astrobiology studies, 541 , 542 , 556 M13 (star cluster), 7 , 9 , 11 , 97 , 549 , observation of, 169 high-redshift supernova, 501 habitable zone, 544–545 550 , Appendix 6 terrestrial planets comparison, 167 , HR 8799 image, 244 origin of, 543–544 M32 (elliptical galaxy), 373 , 417 , 421 , 168 , 193, Appendix 3 Hubble Deep Field measured search for, 541–556 Appendix 6 Julian calendar, 89 redshifts, 438 suitable stars for, 544–545 M33 (Triangulum Galaxy), 422 , 425 , Julian Days (JD), 299 Jupiter, 211 light 425 , 427 , Appendix 6 Juno spacecraft, 170 Keck I, 44 , 238 , 240 , 369 photons (energy packets), 23 M55 (star cluster), 305 , Appendix 6 Jupiter, xi , 38 , 168–177 Keck II, 42 , 175 , 182 , 190 , 247 speed of, 2 , 3 , 516 , 527 , 528 , 533 M68 (star cluster), 305 , Appendix 6 atmosphere, 169 , 170 , 171 , 172 , 172 , laser-star guiding, 284 telescope principles, 40 M74 (galaxy), 373 , Appendix 6 174 , 235 Mauna Kea location, 66 wave theory of, 22 M77 (galaxy), 349 , Appendix 6 bright and dark bands, 170 , 171 quasar 4C 31.63 spectra, 462 “light buckets” (giant telescopes), 54 M81 (galaxy), 376 , 415 , 425, brightness comparison, 169 studies of galaxies, 416 , 438 , 439 , 440 light curves, 295 , 295 , 298 , 299 , Appendix 6 chemical composition, 168 Type Ia supernova, 498 299–300 , 300 , 301 , 302 M82 (galaxy), 415 , 425, Appendix 6

592 Index

M87 (elliptical galaxy) (NHC 4486), M ars A tmosphere and V olatile atmosphere, 120t , 141 methane, 125 , 127 , 151 , 181 , 182–183 , 372 , 373 , 421 , 454 , Appendix 6 E volutioN (MAVEN), 156 BepiColombo mission, 143 184–185 , 186 , 188–190 , black hole in, 373 , 464 Mars Express (ESA), 151–152 , 152 , comparative data, 120t 188–191 , 200 , 200 , 235 , 282 , jet, 372 , 373 , 454 , 465 154 , 154 , 158 , 542 , 552 composite image inclusion, 96 284 , 333 , 543–544 spectra of gas disk, 464 Mars Express image, 552 craters, 140 , 143 metric system, 3 , 17 , 22, Appendix 1 superluminal speeds in, 468 Mars Global Surveyor, 118 , 151 , 152 magnetic fi eld, 140 , 191 Mexican National Observatory, 316 M100 (spiral galaxy), 391 , 486 , Mars Odyssey spacecraft, 68 , 151 , MESSENGER spacecraft mission, 118 , Th e Mice (NGC 4676), 442 Appendix 6 152–153 , 154 , 154 , 159 120 , 141–143 micrometeorites, 139 , 173 , 215 M101 (Pinwheel) (galaxy), 48 , 330 , 342 Mars Phoenix, 155 , 156 naming of features of, 139 mid-Atlantic ridge, 125 MACHOs (massive compact halo Mars Reconnaissance Observer, north pole, 142 midnight Sun, 85 , 87 , 91 objects), 431–432 , 444 , 445 , 516 151 , 154 as observed from Earth, 139 Milky Way Galaxy, 1–2 , 10 , 383–408 Magellan, Ferdinand, 422 Mars Science Laboratory, x, 151 , orbit, 15 , 83 , 95 , 100 , 137 Andromeda Galaxy resemblance to, Magellanic Clouds, 6 , 16 , 42 , 299 , 389 , 155–156 , 158–160 , 159 , 165 , origins, 138 419 , 421 424 , 442 540 , 542 phases, 68 anisotropy and, 513 Large Magellanic Cloud, 5 , 14 , 301 , meteorites, 136 , 158 radio radiation, 138 center, 382 , 383 , 384 , 388 , 391–393 , 312 , 343 , 343 , 344 , 345 , 351 , missions, 14 , 151–160 , 540 , 542 radio wave transmission from 406 , 463 , 466 396 , 398 , 421 , 422 , 431 , 483 north polar cap, 154 Earth, 138 Cosmic Background Explorer Small Magellanic Cloud, 301 , 352 , Olympus Mons, 151 , 152 rejuvenated research interest in, 141 mapping, 55 396 , 398 , 422 , 431 Opportunity rover, 151 , 155 , rotation, 83 , 137–138 , 138 Cygnus A energy-emission Magellan Telescopes (Baade and Clay), 158 , 159 scarps (cliff s), 140 comparison, 452 43t . See also Giant Magellan Oralbi crater, 154 spacecraft views, 139–140 , 140–141 Cygnus region, 8 Telescope (GMT) Phobos (satellite), 120t , 150 , 157 , 160 temperature, 138 dark matter component, 428 MAGIC (Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray rotational-speed comparison, 83 temperature surface comparison, 146t diameter estimate, 285 Imaging Cherenkov) telescope, 54 satellites, 157 transits, 137 , 137 , 240 disks, 351 , 384 , 389–391 , 391 , magnetic-fi eld lines, 127 , 266 , 269 , Schiaparelli’s observations of, 149 visibility issues, 137 392 , 408 278 , 349 search for life, 157–158 , 160 , 541 , visible-light image, 142 distance from other galaxies, 483 magnetic fi elds 544 , 553 , 556 Mercury Surface, Space Environment, Einstein/cosmological constant, 491 Jupiter, 169 , 172 , 191 size comparison, 120 Geochemistry and Ranging eta (η) Carinae star, 310 Mercury, 140 , 191 soil composition, 142 (MESSENGER) spacecraft, “falling” toward Virgo Cluster by, 487 Neptune, 189–190 , 191 Spirit rover, 151 , 155 , 158 , 159 95 , 118 , 120 , 139 , 140 , 140 , formation, 442 Saturn, 179 , 181 , 191 surface 141–143 , 162 Galileo’s observations, 39 , 63 , Sun, 257 , 258 , 259–260 , 260 , 265– features, 151–152 , 154 , 155 , 155 MERLIN radio telescope, 56 , 456 105 , 109 266 , 267 , 269 , 269–270 , 278 temperature, 146t , 151 MESSENGER spacecraft (Mercury globular star clusters in, 300 , 302 , Uranus, 187 , 191 surface panorama, 152 Surface, Space Environment, 303 , 304 , 305 , 305 , 310 , 483 magnetic monopoles, 474 Terra Sirenum, 154 Geochemistry and Ranging), halo, 352 , 390 , 391 , 408 magnetic north pole (of Earth), 122 , 123 Viking 2 view, 157 95 , 118 , 120 , 139 , 140 , 140 , infrared penetration, 55 main-sequence band (in temperature- Mars Exploration Rovers, 155 , 155 , 542 . 141–143 , 162 infrared wavelengths, 452 luminosity diagram), 288 See also Mars, Opportunity ; Mars, Messier, Charles, 414 , 415 , 417 in the spring sky, 10 main-sequence stars, 288 , 289 , 297–298 , Spirit Messier numbers, 368, Appendix 6 in the summer sky, 10 303 , 317 , 320 , 320 , 321 , 326 , Mars Express (ESA), 151–152 , 152 , 154 , meteorites in the winter sky, 9 397 , 545 154 , 158 , 542 , 552 ALH 84001, 544 Keck-telescope observation, 44 major axis of an ellipse (Kepler), Mars Global Surveyor, 118 , 151 , 152 amino acid fi ndings in, 543 Kepler spacecraft vantage point, 234 103 , 113 Mars Odyssey spacecraft, 68 , 151 , composition, 209 , 215 in Local Group cluster, 422 Makemake (dwarf planet), 202 , 203 , 152–153 , 154 , 154 , 159 crater formation, 140 , 176 location, 480 204 , 225 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, 151 , 152 , defi ned, 130 Magellanic Clouds companionship, mantle, of Earth’s interior, 121 , 121 159 , 160 discoveries on Earth, 130 , 136 , 136 , 421 , 431 mapping the sky, with telescopes, 46 , 47 , Mars Science Laboratory, x, 155 , 156 , 159 , 215 mapping, 517 48, endpapers 158 , 159 , 162 , 540 , 542 from Mars/Mars studies, 21 , mass of central black hole, 382 , 393 , Marcy, Geoff rey, 238 Mathematical Principles of Natural 158 , 542 395 , 466 maria (Moon), 127–128 , 129 , 130–131 , Philosophy (Newton), 109 micrometeorites, 139 , 173 , 215 measuring distances, 13– 14 135 , 135 , 139 , 162 matter-antimatter asymmetry, 524 from Moon, 162 microwave emissions from, 460 , Mariner 10 spacecraft, 118 , 142 matter-antimatter collisions, 459 Murchison meteorite, 543 514 , 517 Marius, Simon, 38 Mattingly, Ken (astronaut), 131t types, sizes, 215–216 Milky Way in, 422 Mars, 21, Appendix 3 Mauna Kea, volcano (Hawaii), 5 , 43 , 48 . Willamette meteorite, 216 NGC 7331 resemblance to, 418 ALH 84001 meteorite, 544 See also Keck telescopes meteoroids, 197 , 215–220 Northern Coalsack region, 7 atmosphere, 120t , 152 , 154 , 157 Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope, 43 , comet orbit, 207 Northern Cross stars, 9 brightness comparison, 137 4 3 t , 66 , 461 defi ned, 215 , 225 nucleus, 389–390 , 391 , 392 , 408 characteristics, 150–151 Gemini 8-m telescope, 244 impact on Moon, 130 Orion Nebula in, 414 , 416 , 416 composite image inclusion, 96 Gemini Observatory, 66 in Russia, 216 , 217 planetary nebulas in, 333 craters on, 140 Gillett Gemini North telescope, 5 , 42 , Russia, Chelyabinsk, Ural Mountains quasar ejection from center of, crewed mission goals, 160 43 , 4 3 t crash, 215–217 considered, 456 Curiosity Rover, x, 151 , 155–156 , infrared telescope use on, 55 types/sizes, 215 radio observations, 358–359 158–160 , 159 , 165 , 540 , 542 NASA Infrared Telescope Facility, 43 , meteors recession of other galaxies from, 510 Deimos (satellite), 120t , 150 , 151 , 59 , 66 , 391 Barringer Meteor Crater, 215 , rotation curve, 428 , 428 , 429 157 , 160 Subaru telescope, 43t , 59 , 415 , 431 216–217 , 218 as SBbc galaxy type, 419 Endurance Crater, 155 Maunder minimum, 267 , 269 explosion over Siberia, 210 Shapley-Curtis debate about, 414 ExoMars, 157 Maxwell, James Clerk, 43 , 108 , 529 rate of, 11 sky maps, 385 , 393 , 396 , 397 exploration rovers, 155 , 155 Maxwell Montes mountains (Venus), 148 sporadic, 215 SOHO image, 207 “face” on, 493 , 552 Mayor, Michel, 238 meteor showers spiral structure, 355 , 356 , 356 Gale Crater, 151 , 156 , 540 maze of the “Galaxy Garden,” 398 causes, 218 21-cm radio emission mapping, Global Surveyor image, 552 McDonald Observatory, 43t “closer look” data, 218 359 , 511 Hubble Space Telescope images, 150 McNaught (C/2009 R1) comet, Geminids, 218 , 218t Virgo galaxy cluster proximity, 426 InSight (In terior Exploration using 210 , 212 Leonid, 218 , 218t , 219 visible objects, 498 S eismic I nvestigations, G eodesy M-dwarf stars, 241 observing, 220 wavelength studies, 384 , 392 , 395 and H eat T ransport) lander, 157 Mercury, 137–143, Appendix 3 Perseids, 10 , 129 , 215 , 218 , 220 Miller, Stanley, 543 Lowell’s observations of, 149 albedo, 139 , 139 radiant point, 218 mini black holes, 376–377

Index 593

minor axis of an ellipse (Kepler), NASA (National Aeronautics and nebular hypothesis, 313 NGC 1097 galaxy, 46 103 , 113 Space Administration). Neptune, Appendix 3 NGC 1097 spiral galaxy, 46 minor planets. See asteroids See also individual observatories, Adams ring, 191 NGC 1365 barred spiral galaxy, 420 Mira long-period variable, 299 missions, spacecraft, telescopes atmosphere, 188–190 , 189 , 192 , 235 NGC 1365 spiral galaxy, 420 Mitchell, Ed (astronaut), 131t astrobiology institute, 542 comparative data, 168t NGC 2362 galaxy, 304 MMT refl ecting telescope, 43t Great Observatories program, 52 , 53 , composite image inclusion, 96 NGC 2403 galaxy, 342 MODIS (Mod erate Resolution I maging 62 , 392 , 439 Galle’s discovery of, 188 NGC 2419 galaxy, 305 S pectroradiometer), 118 Hubble Space Telescope, building Great Dark Spot, 177t , 188–189 , NGC 3310 galaxy, 416 Moon of, 49 189 , 193 NGC 3314 galaxy, xiv , xv albedo, 139 inner planets, relative scale view, 118 interior, 189–190 NGC 3324 galaxy, 278 and angular telescopic resolution, 57 James Webb Space Telescope, 14 , Leverrier ring, 191 NGC 3613 galaxy, 419 Apollo program landings, 130 , 131t 50–51 , 56 , 384 magnetic fi eld, 189–190 , 191 NGC 3664 galaxy, 419 association of tides with, 124 , “Living with a Star” program, 260 moons NGC 3938 galaxy, 419 128–129 Origins program, 11 , 14–15 Galatea, 191 NGC 4026 galaxy, 419 astronaut landings, 131 , 131t , SETI Institute sponsorship, 547 Triton, 190–192 , 192 , 193 , 194 NGC 4038 spiral galaxy, 423 . 133 , 135 Structure and Evolution of the objects passing by, 48 See also Th e Antennae astronaut messaging delays from, 12 Universe investigations, 14 occultations, 190 , 191 NGC 4039 spiral galaxy, 423 . China’s orbiter missions, 133 Wide-fi eld Infrared Survey Explorer Palomar Hale Telescope views, 190 See also Th e Antennae comparative data, 120t (WISE, NASA), 284 , 392 , 469 planet-formation models, 235–236 NGC 4214 galaxy, 400 craters, 127 , 132 , 134 Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope rings, 170t , 190 , 191 , 192 NGC 4258 spiral galaxy, 464 , 464 “dark” side of, 68 , 69 , 70 , 133 (WFIRST, NASA), 445 Voyager spacecraft passage, 97 , NGC 4260 galaxy, 419 with Earth (image), 96 NASA-Canada-Japan Terra MODIS 188–190 , 189 , 191 NGC 4261 galaxy, 371 Earth-Moon composite, 121 (Mod erate Resolution I maging neutrinos, 16 , 311 , 312 , 430 , 444 , 445 , NGC 4305 galaxy, 419 “earthshine” on, 70 S pectroradiometer), 118 512 , 516 , 523 , 524 , 530 , 533 NGC 4477 galaxy, 419 Galileo discoveries, 96 , 105 NASA Infrared Telescope Facility (IRTF), astrophysical neutrinos, 323 NGC 4486 (M87) giant elliptical galaxy, Galileo spacecraft image, 121 43 , 59 , 66 , 391 defi ned, 319 , 331 421 , Appendix 6 GRAIL spacecraft mission, 134–135 National Ignition Facility (Livermore, detection, 347 NGC 4565 type Sb spiral gravitational pull on Earth, 80 California), 320 discovery, 348 galaxy, 419 Harriot’s observations of, 37 National Radio Astronomy Observatory, emission of, 339 , 341 NGC 4636 galaxy, 419 human visits to, 119 55 , 406 extra-solar neutrino astronomy, 347 NGC 4676 (Th e Mice), 442 India’s Chandrayaan-1 mission, 133 National Solar Observatory, 258 Homestake Gold Mine neutrino NGC 4977 galaxy, 419 interior, 135 Nazca lines (Peruvian desert), 552 telescope, 321 , 323 NGC 4999 galaxy, 419 Kaguya mission (SELENE), 133 Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR IceCube neutrino observatory, 324 , NGC 5128 elliptical or S0 galaxy, 453 lunar eclipse, 71 Shoemaker) mission, 224 , 225 , 225 325 , 330 NGC 5252 galaxy, 469 Lunar Prospector map, 133 Near-Earth asteroids, 48 , 223–224 Irvine-Michigan-Brookhaven (IMB) NGC 5334 galaxy, 419 Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Near-Earth Objects, 48 , 223–224 detector, 471 NGC 5584 spiral galaxy, xxiv mission, 133 Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object solar-neutrino experiment, 322–325 NGC 5907 galaxy, 419 lunar rocks, 131 Spectrometer (NICMOS), 50 , Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, NGC 5908 galaxy, 419 Mare Imbrium region, 132 5 0 t , 191 , 334 , 405 , 405 324 , 331 NGC 6166 galaxy, 426 maria, 109 , 127–128 , 129 , 130–131 , NEAR Shoemaker, 224 , 224 , 225 SuperKamiokande neutrino NGC 6251 galaxy, 453 135 , 135 , 139 , 162 nebulae detector, 323 NGC 6397 galaxy, 305 mascons, 134–135 , 162 absorption (dark) nebulae, 313 , Type Ia/II supernovae, 340 NGC 6397 star cluster, 305 “new moon,” 68 386 , 408 neutron-degeneracy pressure, 349 , 361 NGC 6782 galaxy, 440 Newton’s acceleration calculations, 109 Andromeda (M31), 370, Appendix 6 neutrons, 26 , 30 , 32 , 54 , 131 , 133 , 154 , NGC 7331 spiral galaxy, 417 , 418 orbital plane of, 71 BHR 71, 6 317–322 , 330–331 , 516 , 520 , NGC 7541 galaxy, 344 , 344 orbit around the Earth, 71 Butterfl y , 390 523–524 , 524 , 525–526 , 535 NGC 7626 galaxy, 452 origin, 135–136 Cat’s Eye Nebula, 332 neutron stars, 54 , 122 , 330 , 330 , 337 , NGC 7814 galaxy, 419 paths of, 83 Cone, 249 340 , 341 , 347 , 349 , 349 , 351– NICMOS. See Near Infrared Camera phases, 68 Crab (M1), 7, Appendix 6 353 , 355–356 , 423 , 430 , 445 and Multi-Object Spectrometer “crescent moon,” 69 , 70 , 70 defi ned, 14 , 27 , 331 New Gravitational-wave Observatory (NICMOS) “gibbous moon,” 70 Eagle (M17), 161 , 313 , 314 , 314 , (NGO), 354 1987A supernovae, 345 , 362 “waning moon,” 70 315 , Appendix 6 New Horizon mission (NASA), 200–201 north celestial pole, 81 , 81 , 84 , 91 “waxing moon,” 70 Egg Nebula, 334 Newton, Isaac, 16 , 22 , 108–109 , Northern Coalsack region (Milky radio wave distancing of, 19 emission, 386–387 , 387 , 397 , 399 , 111 , 428 Way), 7 rotation, 128–129 408 , 434 biographical background, 108–109 Northern Cross asterism, 7 , 9 SELENE mission (Kaguya), 133 Helix Nebula (NGC 7293), 332 , 333 calculus invented by, 109 , 111 , 113 Nova Cygni, 337 shadows cast by, 129–130 Horsehead, 386 , 389 , 411 Kepler’s third law, 110 novae, 336–337 , 337 , 339–341 , 356 . SMART satellite mission, 133 Lagoon Nebula (M8), 388 , motion/gravitation laws of, 16 , 99 , See also supernovae soil composition, 142 Appendix 6 107 , 109–110 Nova Cygni, 337 studies of rocks from, 21 Orion Nebula (M42), 10 , 10 , 39 , 80 , Th e Principia, 109 , 110 , 111 V838 Monocerotis, 337 , 338 surface, 128 , 130–131 , 132 , 134 246 , 248 , 313 , 314 , 386 , 387 , sunlight-prism studies, 22 nuclear bulge (in the Galactic nucleus), surface mapping, 118 387 , 389 , 399 , 404 , 404–405 , telescope contributions, 39–40 , 40 , 49 , 351 , 389 , 391 , 408 synodic period, 68 405 , 414 , 416 , 416 , Appendix 6 63 , 108 nuclear burning, 317 tides’ association with, 124 , 126 Pistol, 320 unifi cation of electricity and nuclear decay experiment (NDE) velocity of light from, 2 planetary, 330 , 332 , 387 , 390 , 399–400 magnetism, theory, 43 neutrino detector, 323 Mount Wilson Observatory, 41–42 , r e fl ection nebula, 313 Newtonian telescopes, 39 , 63 nuclear fusion, 11 , 12 , 16 , 246 , 256 , 416 , 418 Ring Nebula (M57), 332 , 333, Newtonian theory of gravitation, 555 282 , 313 , 317–318 , 320–321 , M-type stars, 289 Appendix 6 Next Generation Space Telescope. 331 , 333 , 335 , 337 debris disk, xix solar nebula, 168 , 177 , 189 , 216 , 235 , See James Webb Space Telescope Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array multiverse, 533–535 , 534 , 536 235 , 236 NGC 188 galaxy, 304 (NuSTAR), 53 , 298 , 303 , 394 , Murchison meteorite, 485 , 543 spiral, 413 , 414 , 415 , 434 , 445 NGC 205 galaxy, 417 421 , 460 Mystery of the Cosmos (Cosmographium as star birth beginning, 312 NGC 224 spiral galaxy, 417 nuclei, 26 , 32 Mysterium) (Kepler), 94 Tarantula, 6 , 16 NGC 281 interstellar cloud, 28 nucleosynthesis, 321 , 331 30 Doradus, viii NGC 752 galaxy, 304 NuSTAR (Nuclear Spectroscopic naked singularity, 365 , 377 Trifi d (M20), 20 , 401 , Appendix 6 NGC 1068 galaxy, 372 Telescope Array), 53 , 298 , 303 , nanometers, 22 Veil, 343 , 343 NGC 1073 spiral galaxy, 420 394 , 421 , 460

594 Index

Observatories of the Carnegie Institution black-hole measurement, 368 Planck, Max, 22 , 280 axis rotation, 185 , 199 for Science, 13 measurement, 397 Planck curve, 24 , 280 Charon (moon), 198 , 198 , 199 , Occam’s Razor (Principle of Simplicity), spectroscopic, 289 Planck length, 530 199–201 , 201 , 225 555 , 556 trigonometric (triangulation), 282 , Planck mission. See Planck spacecraft composite image inclusion, 96 occultations 284 , 305 Planck’s constant, 23 discovery of, 198 , 198 Ceres, 223 Paris Observatory, 204 Planck spacecraft, 55 , 385 , 515 , “dwarf planet” reclassifi cation, 97 , 201 Charon, 201 particle-antiparticle pairs, 522–523 , 532 516 , 517 , 518 , 518 , 519 , Earth, size comparison, 197, Chiron, 199 , 205 Pasachoff , Jay M. 521–522 , 522 Appendix 3 M e r c u r y , 142 research projects, x , xi , xii , 52 , 59–60 , Planck time, 522 , 530–531 , 536 ground-based views, 199 Moon, 150 61 , 73 , 131 , 137 , 143 , 144 , 171 , planetary motion laws (Kepler), 15 inclined orbit of, 112 , 144, Neptune, 190 , 191 191 , 200 , 205 , 256 , 260 , 262 , fi rst law, 103 Appendix 3 Pluto, 55 , 199 , 199 , 200 , 201 265 , 304 , 406 , 524 , 526–527 second law, 103–105 , 104 Kuiper-belt location, 14 stars, 193 , 202 , 204 , 205 peculiar motions, 487 , 489 , 504 third law, 105 , 106 , 112 mass, 110 , 198–200, Appendix 3 Uranus, 170 , 185 , 186 peculiar spiral, 421 , 423 , 441 , 445 planetary nebulae, 333–334 , 387 , 390 , moons, 110 , 198–199 , 201 Venus, 140 penumbra, 71 , 74 , 91 , 266 , 266 , 278 399–400 Moon size comparison, 162 occulting disks, 142 , 205 , 207 , 247 Penzias, Arno A., 457 , 511 , 511 , 512 Cat’s Eye Nebula, 332 occultations, 55 , 199 , 199 , 200 , 201 ocean-fl oor mapping, 125 perfect cosmological principle, 510 , 536 formation, 336 , 356 size, 198–200, Appendix 3 Olbers, Wilhelm, 423 , 424 , 479 perihelion, 104 , 113 Helix Nebula, 332 , 333 Solar-System formation depiction, 236 Olbers’s paradox, 476 , 478 , period (orbital period), 113 HST views Polaris (“north star”), 6–7 , 8 , 80 , 81 , 478–479 , 504 periodic comet, 207 . See also Halley’s Egg Nebula, 334 82 , 91 Olympus Mons (Mars), 151 , 152 Comet ; Wild 2 comet Helix Nebula, 332 Pollux 11, Appendix 4

Ω M , 491–492 period-luminosity relation (Leavitt’s NGC 6826, 333 positronium atoms, 503 , 503 Onizuka, Ellison (astronaut), 59 law), 281 , 298–299 , 301 , 341 , NGC 7662, 333 Prague astronomical clock, 17 Onizuka Center for International 484 , 484 mass-loss examples, 334 pre-main sequence stars, 313 , 313–317 , Astronomy, 59 Perlmutter, Saul, 488 , 497 Ring Nebula (M57), 332 , 333, 320 , 321 , 326 , 331 Oort, Jan, 206 Perseids meteor shower, 10 , 129 , 215 , Appendix 6 Prestwich, A., 370 Oort comet cloud, 14 , 206 , 207 , 210 , 218 , 220 planetary systems primordial nucleosynthesis, 525 , 219 , 225 , 235 Perseus double cluster, 7–8 , 215 , comparative planetary systems, 525–526 , 536 open cluster stars, 7–9 , 300 , 300 , 218 , 304 232–253 , 237 primordial soup (of organic molecules), 302–303 , 303 , 304 , 306 , 355 , PG 0052+251 quasar, 461 Doppler eff ect role in discovery of, 31 525–526 , 543 , 543 389 , 391 , 397 , 399 , 408 phase changes, 531 formation, 246 , 247–248 , 249 , 249 Th e Principia (Newton), 109 , 110 , 111 Opportunity (Mars Exploration Rover), phases Jupiter’s miniature planetary system, Principle of Simplicity (Occam’s Razor), 151 , 155 , 155 , 542 Mercury, 68 168 , 193 555 , 556 optical/infrared ground-based Moon, 68–70 , 69–70 types of objects, 228–230, 239 prisms, 22 , 280 telescopes, 45–46 “crescent moon,” 69 planetesimals, 222 , 235 , 236 , 236 , prograde motion of planets, 96 , 97 , Optical Monitoring Camera, 368 “gibbous moon,” 70 244 , 249 97 , 113 Oralbi crater (Mars), 154 “new moon,” 68 planets Project Ozma, 547–548 organic compounds, 543 , 544 , 551 , 556 “waning moon,” 70 comparative data, 120t, Appendix 3 Project Phoenix (SETI Institute), 547 , Origins program (NASA), 11 , 14–15 “waxing moon,” 70 comparative systems, 228–230, 237 548 , 548 Orion, the Hunter (constellation), 8 , 9 , Venus, 39 , 68 , 106–107 , 108 detection methods, 238 proteins, 543 , 556 9–10, Appendix 7 Phobos (Mars satellite), 120t , 150 , exoplanets (see exoplanets) proton-proton chain, 320–321 , 321 , Orion Molecular Cloud, 404–405 , 157 , 160 exploration history, 3 , 12 324 , 331 405 , 408 Phoenix Lander Mars mission, 152 , 158 formation models, 235–236 protons, 26 , 32 , 512 , 516 , 520 , 523– Orion Nebula (M42), 10 , 10 , 39 , 80 , Photodetector Array Camera and giant (see Jupiter ; Neptune ; Saturn ; 526 , 524 , 528–529 , 530 , 535 246 , 248 , 313 , 314 , 386 , 387 , Spectrometer (Herschel Space Uranus) protoplanetary disks, 235 , 245–246 , 248 , 387 , 389 , 399 , 404 , 404–405 , Observatory), 316 Goldilocks planets, 246 , 250 250 , 313 , 314 405 , 414 , 416 , 416 , Appendix 6 photons inner planets, relative scale view, 118 protoplanets, 235 , 245–246 , 248 , 249 Oschin Schmidt telescope, 46 , 48 , absorption of, 28 , 30 Kepler’s understanding of orbits, 94 protostars, 6 , 313 , 313 , 331 342 , 418 age of Universe and, 522–524 , 525 mass, Sun comparison, 428 protosun (pre-Sun), 235 , 249 OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral blue light vs. red light, 26 massive, 430 Proxima Centauri star, 14 , 282 , 284 , 289 Interpretation, Resource defi ned, 23 , 26 , 32 measuring distance, 14 pseudoscience, 16–17 Identifi cation, Security-Regolith emission lines of, 27 , 33 orbital speeds, 429, Appendix 3 Psyche (asteroid), 219 Explorer) mission, 223 escape from high-density clumps, 514 orbits/speed calculations, 112 , 112 PTF11kly supernova (SN 2011fe), 48 , O-type main-sequence stars, 397 H-alpha photon, 29 paths of, 83 342 , 342 Overwhelmingly Large Telescope hydrogen atoms study, 28 phases, 68 , 69 , 70 Ptolemy, Claudius, 38 , 39 , 97–98 , 100 , (OWL), 46 infl ationary theory and, 532 prograde motion of, 96 , 97 , 97 , 113 106–107 , 108 , 112 , 113 OWL (Overwhelmingly Large Lyman-beta photon, 29 radio-wave distance measure, 19 pulsars, 4 , 7 , 90 , 349–356 Telescope), 46 origin, 512 retrograde motion of (see retrograde binary, 352–355 , 353

ozone (O3 ) layer (of Earth), 126 , quark-gluon-photon mixture, 523 , 536 motion of planets) central, 6 127–128 , 128 , 239 thermal equilibrium of, 522 search for life on, 541–556 Crab Nebula in, 351–352 , 352 ozone shield, 551 photon sphere, 362–363 , 363 , 377 spectral line blueshifting, 31 description, 350–351 photosynthesis, 544 spectrum of, 24–25 discovery, 349–350 Palomar Observatory, Hale telescope, 42 , physical constants, 533–535 , 534 , 535 , star-brightness comparison, 9 distribution, 351 48 , 63 , 190 , 267 , 455 536, Appendix 2 star-temperature comparison, 24 double, 353 Palomar Observatory Sky Survey, 46 Pictor (constellation), 246, Appendix 7 terrestrial (see Earth ; Mars ; Mercury ; fast pulsars, 352 Palomar Schmidt telescope, 46 , 48 , Pierre Auger Cosmic Ray Observatory, Venus) lighthouse model, 351 , 351–352 , 362 342 , 418 348–349 plates (of the Earth), 122–124 millisecond pulsars, 353 Palomar Transient Factory (PTF), 48 pillars of cosmology, 466 , 525 PLATO (Planetary Transits and Origins Puppis, double pulsar, 303 , 353 , 354 Pangaea supercontinent, 122–123 Pinwheel (M101) Galaxy, 48 , 330 , 342 , of Stars) mission, 240–241 radio pulsar timing, 237 , 249 Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Appendix 7 “Platonic solids,” 94 slowing pulsars, 352 Response System (Pan-STARRS), Pioneer spacecraft, 147 , 545 Pleiades, the Seven Sisters (open star Taylor-Hulse pair, 354 48 , 62 , 387 Pioneer 10 and 11, 169 cluster), 9 , 42 , 300 , 386–387 , ultra-dense, 3 PanSTARRS comet, 196 Pisces Australis (constellation), 244, 389 , 396 , 408 x-ray binaries, 355–356 paraboloid-shaped mirrors (in telescopes), Appendix 7 Pluto, 198–201, Appendix 3 40 , 41 , 53 , 63 PKS 0637-752 (z=0.65) quasar, 460 atmosphere, 200–201 QMAP balloon experiment, 514 parallax, 285 , 286 PKS 2349-014 quasar, 461 atmosphere observations, 55 , 59 Q S O s . See quasi-stellar objects

Index 595

quantum fl uctuations, 446 , 474 , 500 , NGC 6251 453 special theory of, 3 , 271–272 , 278 , density, 122 , 177 532 , 532 , 534 , 534 , 536 radio observatory observations, 406–407 , 293 , 320 , 348 , 363–364 , 437 , Encke Gap, 179 quantum mechanics, 271 406–407 458 , 467 , 472 , 546 , 556 energy radiation, 179 quantum physics, 24 , 271 , 280 , 334 , radio pulsar timing method, of exoplanet research projects heavy elements in, 167 349 , 361 , 376 , 401 , 500 discovery, 237 Filippenko, Alex, 59 , 341 , 342 , 344 , Hubble Space Telescope images, 178 quantum theory, 23 , 26–28 , 32 , 522 , “radio-quiet” quasars, 455 344 , 369 , 370 , 375 , 488 , 497 , interior, 172 , 179 , 181 527 , 530 , 532 , 532– 534 radio spectral lines, 400–401 , 403 , 404 500 , 502 magnetic fi eld, 179 , 181 , 191 quark-gluon-photon mixture, 523 , 536 radio telescopes, 55–56 Pasachoff , Jay M., x , xi , xii , 52 , 59–60 , moons, 179 quarks, 317 , 523 , 524 , 525–526 , Allen Telescope Array, 548 , 554 61 , 73 , 131 , 137, 143 , 144 , 171 , Dione, xxi 529–530 , 536 Arecibo, 55 , 142 , 548 , 548 , 549 , 550 191 , 200 , 205 , 256 , 260 , 262 , Enceladus, 183 , 184 , 542 , 544 quasars, 420 , 431 , 436 , 443 , 445 comet studies, 209 265 , 304 , 406 , 524 , 526–527 Iapetus, 183 accretion disks and, 459–460 , 460 , giant arrays of, 386 retrograde motion of planets, 96 Mimas, 183 464 , 468 Giant Meterwave Radio Telescope, 406 Copernicus’s explanation of, 98 , 100 , Pan, 178–179 active galactic nuclei and, 454 , global linking of, 393 101 , 113 Rhea, 183 458–460 , 463 , 464 , 469 Jansky Very Large Array (VLA), 56 , defi ned, 97 , 113 Titan, xi , xxi , 169 , 181 , 182 , apparent magnitude scale, 79 58 , 362–363 , 363 , 372 , 373 , Mars planetarium simulation, 97 183 , 184 , 184 , 188 , 193 , 542 , black holes and, 273 , 372 , 373 , 451 393 , 406 , 406 Ptolemy’s explanation of, 97 , 99 544 , 553 “clover leaf” (H1413+117), 471 MERLIN, 56 , 456 rho (ρ) Ophiuchi star, 313 orbit, 83 , 112 description, 451 , 459 , 460–462 new projects, 56 , 58 , 63 Riess, Adam, 444 , 488 , 497 , 499 , 502 origin, 177 discovery of, 454 Orion Molecular Cloud mapping ring galaxies, 421 , 424 rings, 96 , 167 , 170t , 177–179 energy sources, 458–459 by, 408 Ring Nebula (M57), 332 , 333, ringlets, 180 evolution of, 451 Square Kilometre Array (SKA), 58 Appendix 6 rotational-speed comparison, 83, gravitational lensing and, 244 , 463 , Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), 56 , “ring of fi re” volcanoes, 124 Appendix 3 470–471 , 471 , 472 62 , 368 , 373 , 468 Robotic Optical Transient Experiment size, 177, Appendix 3 in interacting (merging) galaxies, 463 V L A (see Jansky Very Large Array) (ROTSE), 375 Solar-System-formation depiction, 236 luminosity range, 497 radio waves, 2 , 3 , 10 , 21 , 23 , 64 , 125 , Roche limit, 178 Titan (moon). See Saturn, mapping of, 48 138 , 256 , 348 , 351 , 368 , 390– Roche lobe, 336 , 336 , 337 , 356 , 366 moons, Titan PG 0052+251, 461 392 , 452 , 456 , 547 , 554 , 556 Rogers, Alan, 526 Voyager spacecraft passage, 97 PKS 0637-752 (z =0.65), 460 R Coronae Borealis (irregular variable Roosa, Stu (astronaut), 131t scale factor of the Universe, 491 PKS 2349-014, 461 star), 300 Roscosmos (Russian) ExoMars scattered disk, 202 , 203 , 206–297 , 210 , puzzling qualities of, 455–456 recession speed (of galaxies), 434 , 434–437 collaboration, 157 219 , 225 , 235 radio-quiet quasars, 455–456 recombination process, 512 , 513 , Rosetta spacecraft, 213 , 222 , 222 , 225 Schiaparelli, Giovanni, 149 , 151 redshift quasars 516 , 518 Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer, 355 , Schmidt, Bernhard, 46 high, 456 , 457 , 457 , 458 , 461 , reddening, 484 , 501 360 , 368 Schmidt, Brian P., 488 462 , 464 , 470 , 470 , 472 red dwarf stars, 243 , 246 , 288 rotating black holes, 365–366 , 366 Schmidt, Maarten, 455 , 485 intermediate, 460 red giant stars, 288 , 299 , 303 , 305 , 330 , rotation curves Schmitt, Harrison (astronaut), 131 , 131t , low, 458 , 461 , 462 , 464 , 470 , 472 332–333 , 336 , 336 , 400 calculating mass from, 429 133 , 134 scientifi c debate about, 462–463 redshift of quasars, 4 , 85 Milky Way Galaxy, 428 , 428 Schwartz, Anna, 533 SDSS 1254+0846 system, 450 description, 454 of spiral galaxies, 428 , 429 , 430 , 445 Schwarz, John, 530 spectra of, 455 , 462 , 470 , 472 , 485 high, 456 , 457 , 457 , 458 , 461 , 462 , ROY G BIV (color-spectrum Schwarzschild, Karl, 440 telescopic discoveries of, 46 , 54 , 450 , 464 , 470 , 470 , 472 , 510 , 516 mnemonic), 22 Schwarzschild radius, 363 , 363–364 , 455 , 460–461 , 462 intermediate, 460 RR Lyrae variable stars, 299–300 , 300 , 365 , 377 3C 48 quasar, 455 low, 458 , 461 , 462 , 464 , 470 , 472 305 , 305 , 306 , 484 science 3C 273 quasar, 456 , 458 nature of, 456–458 Rubin, Vera, 428 , 430 defi ned, 15–16 3C 279 quasar, 468 plotting, 454 Russell, Henry Norris, 288 , 288 pseudoscience vs., 16–17 ULAS J1120+0641, 457 scientifi c debate about, 462–463 Russia scientifi c method visible light image, 431 wavelength observations, 454 Fobos-Grunt (Mars mission), 157 defi ned, 15 , 16 , 18 x-ray source IXO 5, 420 redshifts, 440–442 meteoroids in, 216 , 217 UFOs and, 553–555 0957+561 A and B, 470 of galaxies, 479 , 482 Roscosmos ExoMars collaboration, 157 scientifi c notation, 3 , 4 quasi-stellar objects (QSOs), 455–456 . high, 494 Special Astrophysical Observatory, 43t Scott, Dave (astronaut), 131t See also quasars high-redshift galaxies, 440 , 442 Ural mountains, meteoroids crash, 215 SDO (Solar Dynamics Observatory), 1229+204, 461 high-redshift Hubble diagrams, Rutherford, Ernest, 26 xiii , 51 , 118 , 254 , 258 , 260 , 2dF QSO Redshift Survey 497–498 , 502 262 , 267 collaboration, 462 Hubble Space Telescope, 496 Sa (spiral) galaxy, 420 SDSS. See Sloan Digital Sky Survey Queloz, Didier, 238 ionized calcium, 480 Sb (spiral) galaxy, 419 , 425 SDSS 1254+0846 quasar system, 450 large (up to 4 or 5), 442 Sc (spiral) galaxy, 419 seasons, 82–85 radial-velocity method, of exoplanet low, 497 , 498 Sagan, Carl, 367 , 544 , 550 , 551 autumn sky constellations, 6–7, front discovery. See Doppler-wobble measurements of, 487 , 489 Sagittarius, the Archer (constellation), 11, endpapers method of quasars (see redshift of quasars) Appendix 7 autumnal equinox, 82 , 91 radiation. See also blackbody (thermal) redshift-distance relation, 491 Sagittarius A (Sgr A*), 382 , 393 , 394 , rainy season prediction, 10 radiation ; cosmic background three-dimensional survey, 443 396 , 466 spring sky constellations, 10, back radiation Two Degree Field Galaxy Redshift Sagittarius Dwarf Irregular galaxy, 425 endpapers beamed radiation, 467 , 468 , 469 , 469 Survey, 436 , 443 San Andreas fault (Earth), 124 summer sky constellations, 10, back Cherenkov radiation, 54 Type Ia supernovae, 497 , 501 , Sandage, Allan, 485 endpapers cosmic microwave radiation, 511–513 501 , 502 Saturn vernal equinox, 82 , 82 , 84 , 91 electromagnetic radiation, 21–22 red-supergiant stars, 10 , 10 , 336 , 338 , atmosphere, 179 , 181 , 182 , 235 winter sky constellations, 9–11, front Mercury, radio radiation, 138 339 , 344 , 356 , 399 auroras, 181 endpapers Milky Way Galaxy, 21-cm radiation Rees, Martin, 533 brightness comparison, 137 , 169 seismology studies, 121 map, 359 r e fl ection nebula, 313 capture model, 136 Selenographic and Engineering Saturn, energy radiation, 179 Regiomontanus, 16 Cassini’s division, 169 , 178 , 179 , 193 Explorer (SELENE) mission Sun, hydrogen radiation, 260 relativity Cassini spacecraft, 68 , 170 , 174 , 177 , (Kaguya), 133 ultraviolet radiation, 439 , 440 general theory of, 16 , 272–273 , 278 , 179 , 180 semimajor axis, Appendix 3 radio galaxies, 462 , 510 352–353 , 354 , 362–364 , 368 , Chiron’s semimajor axis, 205 of an ellipse, 103 , 113 Radioheliograph (China), 61 377 , 430 , 437 , 447 , 471 , 482 , close-up view, 166 of Chiron (centaur), 205 radio maps, active galactic nuclei 490 , 491 , 500 , 504 , 516 , 555 comparative data, 168t, Appendix 3 planetary comparative data, 120t , Cygnus A, 452 interstellar travel and, 546 composite image inclusion, 96 168t, Appendix 3

596 Index

semiminor axis of an ellipse (Kepler), annular eclipse, 61 , 75–76 , 76 , 77 , energy levels, 30 standard candles, 298 , 430 . 103 , 113 91 , 277 Halley’s comet, 209 See also Cepheid variable stars SERENDIP (Search for Extraterrestrial Baily’s beads, 91 hydrogen, 28 , 281 Star Party Radio Emissions from Nearby chromosphere, 256 , 257 , 260 , 264 solar chromosphere, 260 , 270 Galileo’s Observations, 109 Developed Intelligent Populations) compound image, 73 solar corona, 253–264 , 264 Observing a Meteor Shower, 220 project, 548 corona, 91 , 256 , 257 , 262 , 263 , 264 , solar photosphere, 259 , 259 , 264 Observing Galaxies, 425 SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial 270 , 277 solar prominences, 270 , 270 Observing Sunspots, 266 Intelligence), 545–553 description, 71 , 71 , 74–76 , 91 stars, 27 , 281 , 281–282 , 292 , 293 , Observing the Giant Planets, 169 SETI@home project (UC Berkeley), 548 , diamond-ring eff ect, 91 , 256 , 257 294 , 305 Observing the Milky Way, 386 548 , 556 Einstein’s theory and, 16 visibility of, 22 Observing Total Solar Eclipses, 72 SETI Institute, 547 , 550 , 553 , 554 future, 74 Spectral Radioheliograph (China), 61 Paths of the Moon and Planets, 83 Sgr A* supermassive black hole, 382 , global frequency, 75 spectral types of stars, 246 , 281–282 , Prograde and Retrograde Motions, 96 392–393 , 394 , 395 , 396 hybrid, 72 283 , 287 , 288 , 289 , 290 , Using the Sky Maps, 8 Shapley, Harlow, 384 , 388 , 388 , 408 , Jansky VLA observation, 61 , 63 291 , 304 Stardust mission (NASA), 211 414 , 416 , 418 maps, 76 , 77 Spectrometer on Integral (SPI), 368 Stardust-NExT (New Exploration of Shapley-Curtis debate, 414 , 416 , 445 observing, 72 spectroscopic binary stars, 294–295 , 295 , Tempel) mission, 213 Shepard, Alan (astronaut), 131t partial, 11 , 75 296 , 297 Th e Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) Shklovskii, Joseph, 550 penumbra, 71 , 74 , 91 spectroscopic parallax, 289 (Galileo), 38 , 39 Shoemaker, Carolyn, 209 prominences, 257 , 264 , 270 , 277 spectrum, visible/nonvisible, 3 , 4 stars. See also constellations ; globular Shoemaker, Eugene, 209 total, 16 , 71–74 , 76 , 91 , 102 , 124 , spherical aberration (in telescopes), clusters of stars ; Roche lobe ; Shoemaker-Levy 9 comet, 209–210 , 210 256 , 257 , 262 , 263 , 264 , 40 , 63 supernovae (exploding stars) shooting stars. See meteors 270 , 277 spin-fl ip deuterium, 526 A0620–00 (binary star, black Sicardy, Bruno, 204 umbra, 74 , 91 spiral arms of galaxies, xxiv , 14 , 300 , hole), 369 sidereal month, 70 , 70 Yohkoh destruction during, 51 312 , 399 , 403 , 403 , 408 , 414 , absolute magnitude measure, 285–288 , sidereal time, 81 solar fl ares, 257 , 262 , 269 , 278 417 , 417 , 419 , 421 , 425 , 287 , 288 Sidereus Nuncius (Th e Starry Messenger) solar granulation, 258 , 258 , 266 , 278 441 , 445 absorption lines, 281–282 , 293 , 297 (Galileo), 38 , 39 solar interior, 256 , 257 , 258–259 , 278 spiral density wave, 397 , 408 absorption lines of, 27 Silverman, Jeff rey M., 370 solar magnetic fi eld, 257 , 258 , 259–260 , spiral galaxies, 417–419 . Aldebaran, 79 , 97 , 287 , 333 Sirius (the Dog Star), 8 , 9 , 10 , 335, 260 , 265–266 , 267 , 269 , See also Andromeda Galaxy; Antares, 313 Appendix 4 269–270 , 278 Milky Way Galaxy apparent brightness calculations, Sirius B (“Th e Pup”), white dwarf solar nebula, 168 , 177 , 189 , 216 , 235 , Th e Antennae (NGC 4038, 4039), 287 , 298 star, 335 235 , 236 391 , 423 , 442 Arcturus, 333 “sister planets.” See Earth ; Venus solar-neutrino experiment description, 417 , 419 astrometric binaries, 296 , 296–297 6dF project, 436 Borexino, 324 M100, 486 , Appendix 6 AU Microscopii, 246 , 248 SKA (Square Kilometre Array) radio gallium, 324 NGC 224, 417 autumn sky, 8–9 telescope, 58 , 64 Homestake Gold Mine, 323 NGC 1073, 420 Bayer’s lettering system, 8 , 10 sky, colors in, 74 initial measurements, 322–323 NGC 1097, 46 β Pictoris, 247 sky constellations, 6–7 Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO, NGC 1365, 420 Betelgeuse, 8 , 9 , 10 , 287 , 289 , Sky Maps, 8 , 9 , 80 , 82, endpapers SNO+), 324 , 324 NGC 4258, 464 , 464 338 , 339 Slipher, Vesto, 434 SuperKamiokande, 323–324 NGC 4565 type Sb, 419 binary stars, 110 , 237 , 293 , 294 , Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), 48 , 48 , solar oscillation studies, 258 . NGC 5584, xxiv 368–369 62 , 63 , 342 , 419 , 427 , 436 , 443 , See also helioseismology NGC 7331, 417 , 418 birth of, 311 , 312 , 312–317 , 313 443 , 445 , 450 , 458 , 462 Solar Probe Plus mission (NASA), 265 “peculiar,” 421 , 423 , 441 , 445 blue supergiant, 344–345 , 347 , Small Magellanic Cloud galaxy, 301 , solar prominences, 257 , 264 , 265 , pinwheel-shaped, 408 368 , 368 352 , 396 , 398 , 422 , 431 269–270 , 270 , 277 rotation curves, 428 , 429 , 430 , 445 B main-sequence stars, 397 Small Mission for Advanced Research solar seismology (helioseismology), 258 S a , 420 bright stars, Appendix 4 and Technology (SMART), 133 Solar System, 118–231 , 228– 230, Sb, 419 , 425 brown-dwarf stars, 238–239 , 239 , SMART (Small Mission for Advanced Appendix 3 Sc, 419 246 , 247 , 250 , 282 , 284 , 289 , Research and Technology), 133 brief survey of, 95–97 , 96 supernova in, 344 321–322 , 322 , 331 Smith, Brad, 174 formation of, 3 , 234–236 , 236 Whirlpool Galaxy (M51), 412 , cataclysmic variables, 300 , 337 Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, clues to, 111–112 Appendix 6 Cepheid variables, xxiv , 281 , 370 , 416 , 43 , 52 , 204 Galileo’s observations, 37 , 39 , 107 spiral nebulae, 413 , 414 , 415 , 434 , 445 418 , 430 , 432 , 432–433 , 433 , SN 1987A supernova, 343–344 , 345 , heliocentric theories, 98–99 , 98–100 , Spirit (Mars Exploration Rover), 151 , 434 , 436 , 445 346 , 362 105–107 , 113 155 , 155 , 542 as Hubble Key Project team SN 1997cj supernova, 498 largest objects in, 228– 230 Spitzer Space Telescope, 1 , 55 , inspiration, 485–486 SN 2004dj supernova, 342 Ptolemy’s theory, 99 246–247 light curve, 431 SN 2011fe (PTF11kly) supernova, 48 , search for life, 541–556 Th e Antennae, 423 long-period, 431 342 , 342 Sombrero Galaxy (M102), 419 , 420 , gas and dust cloud, 14 luminosity measurement, 484 , 489 Sobel, Dava, 90 Appendix 6 Herbig-Haro objects image, 316 in M100 galaxy, 486 SOFIA. See Stratospheric Observatory for sound barrier, 234 infrared band images, 392 period-luminosity relation, 431 Infrared Astronomy South African Large Telescope (SALT), NASA launch of, 384 , 391–392 short-period, 431 solar-activity cycle, 267 , 268 , 269 , 278 42 , 43t nebula BHR 71, 5 chemical composition, 3 , 305 Solar and Heliospheric Observatory south celestial pole, 66 , 80 , 84 NGC 7331 spiral galaxy, 418 classifi cation, 281–282 (SOHO), 51 , 205 , 205 , 207 , 258 South Pole Telescope, 393 Orion Nebula, 387 cloud collapse, 312–314 , 313 Extreme-Ultraviolet Imaging space-time curvature, 272 , 353 , 395 , 490 redshift galaxy observation, 439 color correlations, 287 Telescope, 260 space-time foam, 510 Sombrero galaxy, 420 cool stars, 282 , 283 Solar-B spacecraft (Japan-US- Special Astrophysical Observatory star formation discovery, 439 CY Aquarii cluster, 300 Britain), 260 (Russia), 43t Tarantula Nebula, 14 delta (δ) Cephei variable, 10 , 300 , solar core, 256 , 257 , 278 special theory of relativity, 4 , 271–272 , Whirlpool Galaxy (M51), 414 416 , 484 solar corona, 256 , 257 , 257 , 260 , 278 , 293 , 320 , 348 , 363–364 , spring sky constellations, 10 back distances to, 282 , 284 , 284–285 , 285 261–265 , 263–265 458 , 467 , 472 endpapers eclipsing binaries, 295 , 295–296 , 296 , Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), spectral lines. See also absorption lines Square Kilometre Array (SKA) radio 297–298 , 300 xiii , 51 , 118 , 254 , 258 , 260 , blueshifting of, 31 telescope, 58 , 64 end states, 330 262 , 267 calcium, 282 SS433 x-ray binary star, 370 , 370–371 , energy source, 317 solar eclipse defi ned, 21 371 , 378 eta (η) Carinae, 310

Index 597

exploding stars (see supernovae) rising and setting, 80 subatomic particles, 16 , 318 rotation periods, 9 , 259 51 Pegasi (hot Jupiter), 238 , 238 rotation rate, 305 SU Cygni variable star, 300 schematic view from space, 85 1st-magnitude, 78 RR Lyrae variable, 299–300 , 300 , 305 , summer sky constellations, 10, back “slow solar wind,” 257 formation of, 403–405 , 404 , 405 305 , 306 , 484 endpapers SOHO mission, 51 , 262 , 262 F-type main-sequence, 545 Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*), 382 , 393 , Sun, 255–274 Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), giants, 288 , 288 , 289 , 298 , 303 , 305 394 , 396 activity cycle, 267 , 268 , 269 , 278 51 , 254 , 261 , 262 , 263 , 265 GJ876, 237 , 239 , 240 selected nearby stars, Appendix 5B and angular telescopic resolution, 57 solar eclipse (see solar eclipse) Gliese 876, 239–240 shining source, 320–321 apparent motion of, 85 solar equator, 207 G-type main-sequence, 545 Sirius (Dog Star), 8 , 9 , 10 , 335, astrology and, 16 spicules, 257 , 259 , 260 , 278 HDE 226868, 368 , 368 Appendix 4 atmosphere, 256 , 257 , 260 , 263 , 264 , streamers, 257 , 260 , 262 , 266 , 278 heavyweight stars, 330 Sirius B (“Th e Pup”), white dwarf, 335 269–270 , 278 supermassive-black-hole comparison, hot-star formation, 314 size, 305 basic structure, 256–257 393 , 395 HR 4796A, 246 , 249 spectral lines, 27 , 281 , 281–282 , 292 , black-hole mass comparison, 4 tides induced by (solar tides), 138 HR 8799 244 , 245 293 , 294 , 305 chromosphere, 52 , 256 , 257 , 257 , TRACE images, 51 Hubble Wide Field Camera 3, view spectral types, 246 , 281–282 , 283 , 258 , 259–260 , 262 , 264 , 270 , travel of light from, 3 of, xxiv 287 , 288 , 289 , 290 , 291 , 304 270 , 278 Universe structure location, 386 Hyades cluster, 9 , 9 , 10 , 97 , 304 spectroscopic binaries, 294–295 , 295 , composite image, 254 visible-light spectrum of, 4 , hydrostatic equilibrium, 313 , 314 296 , 297 convection eff ect, 257 , 258 , 259 , 278 22–23 , 23 intermediate-mass stars, 337 spring sky, 10 convective zone, 257 visible-light surface view, 258 Jewel Box open cluster, 399 SS433 x-ray binary, 370 , 370–371 , core, 256 , 257 , 278 white-light surface studies, 257–258 κ Crucis (orange star), 399 371 , 378 corona, 207 , 256 , 257 , 257 , 260 , sungrazing comet, 205 Kepler planetary candidate stars, 230 stellar evolution, 330 261–265 , 263–265 sunspot cycle, 256 , 267 , 268 , 269 , 278 Kepler-62, 253 studies of, 22 coronal holes, 257 , 257 , 264 , sunspots, 39 , 108 , 256 , 257 , 260 , K-type main-sequence, 545 suitability for life, 544–545 265 , 278 265–270 , 268 , 278 light curves, 295 , 295 , 298 , 299 , summer sky, 10 coronal loops, 254 , 265 , 265 observation of, 266 299–300 , 300 , 301 , 302 supergiants, 288 , 289 , 298 , 305 coronal mass ejections, 205 , 207 , 263 , Suomi NPP (National Polar-orbiting lightweight stars, 330 temperature, 280 , 280–282 , 283 , 284 , 265 , 269 , 270 , 278 Partnership) mission, 239 luminosity, 285–286 , 305 287 , 288 , 289 , 291 , 295 , 298 , coronal streamer, 257 superclusters of galaxies, 413 , 424–425 , M4 globular cluster, 313 , Appendix 6 305 , 320 death of, 332–337 433 , 436 , 443 , 500–502 , 522 M13 cluster, 7 , 9 , 11 , 97 , 549–559 , temperature-luminosity (-magnitude) developmental theories about, 15–16 super-Earths, 239–241 , 240 Appendix 6 diagrams, 287 , 287–289 , 288 , diameter, 332, Appendix 2B supergiant stars, 288 , 289 , 298 , 305 M55 cluster, 305 , Appendix 6 302 , 303 , 304 , 305 diamond-ring eff ect, 91 , 256 , 257 SuperKamiokande nuclear decay M68 cluster, 305 , Appendix 6 3rd-magnitude, 78 Earth’s orbit around, 71 experiment (NDE), 323 magnitude scale, 78 tidal disruption of, 467 Einstein’s theory and, 16 superluminal speeds, 348 , 437 , 467 , main sequence, 288 , 288 , 289 , trails, 66 , 67 , 80 , 82 energy generation in, 318 468 , 472 297–298 , 303 , 317 , 320 , 320 , T Tauri star class, 316 evolution summary, 336 supermassive black holes, 367 , 371–373 , 321 , 326 , 545 twinkling, causes of, 76 , 78 fi laments, 257 , 269–270 378 , 382 , 383 , 393 , 394 , mass, 288 , 305 , 315 , 320 2MASS infrared survey, 55 , 282 , fl ares, 257 , 262 , 269 , 278 396 , 398 M-type, xix , 289 392 , 398 Galactic age, 356 accretion disk surrounding of, 460 , nearest stars chart, Appendix 5A ultraviolet (UV) light, 235 Galileo’s sunspot observations, 39 463 , 472 neutron stars, 54 , 122 , 330 , 330 , 337 , upsilon Andromedae, 239 giant molecular cloud comparison, in Andromeda Galaxy, 372 340 , 341 , 347 , 349 , 349 , 351– V2252 Ophiuchi, 300 , 301 404 , 408 Chandra X-ray Observatory image, 353 , 355–356 , 423 , 430 , 445 variable (see variable stars) granulation, 258 , 258 , 266 , 278 372 , 471 NGC 6397 cluster, 305 Vega, 7 , 9 , 10 , 287 , 290 , 396 gravitational pull on Earth, 80 description, 371 Northern Cross stars, 9 velocity of light from, 3 , 4 hydrogen radiation photo, 260 formation, 466 occultations, 193 , 202 , 204 , 205 white dwarfs (see white dwarf stars) interior, 256 , 257 , 258–259 , 278 in galaxies, 104 , 372 open clusters, 7–9 , 300 , 300 , winter sky, 9–11 Jansky VLA observation, 406 Hubble Space Telescope image, 302–303 , 303 , 304 , 306 , 389 , Wolf-Rayet star, 4 , 370 location in Milky Way Galaxy, 234 , 371 , 450 391 , 397 , 399 , 408 yellow-dwarf stars, 246 384 , 388 , 389 , 391 , 397 , 403 infl uence on close star, 467 orbits of planets around, 3 stationary limit (black holes), 365 , luminosity calculation, 286 locating, 464 , 465 , 466–467 O-type, 397 365 , 377 magnetic fi eld, 257 , 258 , 259–260 , mass of, 373 , 378 , 466 parallel light from, 40 steady-state theory, 510–512 , 525 , 536 260 , 265–266 , 267 , 269 , Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*), 382 , 393 , period-luminosity relation, 281 , Stefan-Boltzmann law, 25 269–270 , 278 394 , 396 298–299 , 301 , 341 Steinhardt, Paul, 527 , 530–531 Maunder minimum, 267 , 269 “tidal disruption fl ares,” 466–467 , photographing stars, 80 Steins (asteroid), 213 , 222 Mercury, Venus location relation, 14 467 planet brightness comparison, 9 stellar-mass black holes, 355 , 360 , midnight sun, 85 , 87 , 91 Supernova Cosmology Project, 488 planet coolness comparison, 24 362 , 397 neutrino studies. See also solar supernovae (exploding stars), xxiv , 46 , Pleiades cluster, 9 , 42 , 300 , 386–387 , stellar spectrum, 240 neutrinos 16 48 , 59 , 324 , 337–349 , 415 , 416 , 389 , 396 , 408 stellar triangulation, 282 , 284 , 286 night sky and, 9 423 , 435 , 442 , 446 Polaris (“north star”), 8 , 80 , 81 , stelliferous era, 503 , 505 onset of revolution of, 3 core-collapse, 337 , 338–339 , 340 , 341 , 82 , 91 STEREO (Solar Terrestrial Relations origins of, 12 349 , 352 , 356 pre-main sequence, 313 , 313–317 , Observatory) spacecraft oscillation studies. Crab Nebula, 6 , 343 , 343 , 351–352 , 320 , 321 , 326 , 331 (STEREO-Ahead A and B), 262 , See also helioseismology 258 352 , 362 proper motion of, 285 , 290 , 291 , 296 269 , 270 outer corona, 207 , 262 dark energy contributions, 527 protostars, 6 , 313 , 313 , 331 Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared photosphere, 256 , 256–260 , 262 , early discovery of, 337–338 Proxima Centauri, 14 , 282 , 284 , 289 Astronomy (SOFIA), 14 , 55 , 263–265 , 267 , 270 , 270 , 278 High-z Supernova Search Team, 488 radial velocities of, 290–292 , 294 200 , 312 plages, 259 , 260 , 265 , 270 naming scheme, 337–338 R Coronae Borealis irregular streamers, 257 , 260 , 262 , 266 , 278 planetary formation models, 235–236 observing, 341–343 variable, 300 string, 530 , 532 , 536 . See also superstring plasma composition, 16 remnants, xiv , 343 red dwarfs, 243 , 246 , 250 , 288 theories prominences, 257 , 264 , 265 , 269–270 , searching for, 344 red giants, 288 , 299 , 303 , 305 , 330 , strong nuclear force, 320 , 331 , 529 , 531 , 270 , 278 SN 1987A, 343–344 , 345 , 346 , 362 332–333 , 336 , 336 , 400 535 , 536 Ptolemaic-orbit theory, 108 SN 1997cj, 498 red supergiants, 10 , 10 , 336 , 338 , Structure and Evolution investigations radiative zone, 257 SN 2004dj, 342 339 , 344 , 356 , 399 (NASA), 15 r e fl ectivity of light from, 25 SN 2011fe, 48 , 330 , 342 , 342 rho (ρ) Ophiuchi, 313 Subaru telescope, 43t , 66 , 415 , 431 relativity theory and, 270–273 Tycho’s remnant, 345

598 Index

supernovae (exploding stars) (cont.) global linking (“world-wide”) “telluric” planets, 239 Trifi d Nebula, M20, 20 , 401 , Type Ia, 339 , 340 , 341 , 486 , 489 , telescope, 393 Tempel 1 comet, 211 , 213–214 , Appendix 6 489–490 , 497–498 , 498 , 501 , Hale telescope, 42 , 48 , 63 , 190 , 214 , 218 trigonometric parallax (triangulation), 501 , 502 , 502 , 516 267 , 455 Tempel-Tuttle comet, 218 282 , 284 Type Ib, 339 , 340 , 356 , 375–376 , 378 helioseismology telescopes, 258 temperature anisotropy, 513 triple-alpha process, 321 , 326 Type Ic, 339 , 340 , 356 , 375–376 , Herschel infrared telescope, 55 temperature-luminosity (-magnitude) tritium, 525 , 525 376 , 378 on Herschel Space Observatory, 384 diagrams (for stars), 287 , Triton (Neptune moon), 191–194 , Type II, 330 , 339 , 340 , 342 , 345 , H.E.S.S. II telescope, 54 287–289 , 288 193 , 236 348 , 356 High Energy Stereoscopic System Terra Sirenum (Mars), 154 troposphere (of Earth), 125 white dwarf companion, 337 (H.E.S.S.) II , 54 Terrestrial Planet Finder, 244 T Tauri star class, 316 superstring theories, 530–531 , 531 , Hobby-Eberly Telescope, 43t terrestrial planets. See also Earth ; Mars ; Tupan Caldera volcanic crater 536 , 555 Homestake Gold Mine neutrino Mercury ; Venus (Jupiter), 174 Suzaku x-ray telescope (Japan), 360 , telescope, 321 atmosphere development, 235 21-cm line of hydrogen, 401 , 402 , 403 , 368 , 460 James Clerk Maxwell telescopes, 43 comparative data, 120t , 228– 230, 408 , 526 , 547 Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope, 40 , 51 , 260 James Webb Space Telescope, 15 , Appendix 3 25-Jupiter-mass brown dwarf, 246 Swift satellite, 374–375 , 397 , 398 , 408 50–51 , 56 , 384 description, 162 2MASS infrared survey, 55 , 282 , symmetry breaking, 529 , 531 , 534 , 534 KAIT (Katzman Automatic Imaging formation models, 235 392 , 398 synodic month, 70 , 70 Telescope), 344 , 344 jovian-planets comparison, 167 , 168 2-Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS), 55 synodic period, 68 Large Binocular Telescope, 43t , 44 origin of, 235 , 236 Two Degree Field (2dF) Quasar Système International d’Unités (SI), 22, Large Synoptic Survey Telescope similarities of, 119 Survey, 462 Appendix 1A (LSST), 48 size range of, 197 , 228–230 Two Degree Field (2dF) sky-mapping lens-size importance, 41 Solar-System-model depiction, 236 project, 427 , 443 , 443 Tadpole Galaxy, 161 “light buckets” (giant telescopes), 54 “Telluric”-planets comparison, 239 Two Degree Field Galaxy Redshift Survey Tarantula nebula, 5 , 14 light-gathering power of, 42 theories of everything (TOEs), 530 , 536 (2df GRS), 443 Tarter, Jill, 548 , 548 Lyman series observations, 28 theory (defi ned), 15 , 18 two-dimensional analogues, 439 , 493 , Taurus, the Bull (constellation), vii, 8–9 , MAGIC telescope, 54 thermal (blackbody) radiation. 494 , 504 9 , 79 , 300 , 333, Appendix 7 mapping the sky with, 46 , 47 , 48 See blackbody (thermal) 2-m Faulkes Telescope North Taylor, Joseph, 353 , 353 mechanics of, 39–41 radiation (Hawaii), 342 Taylor-Hulse binary pulsar, 354 MMT refl ecting telescope, 43t thermal-continuum fi tting, 367 Two New Sciences (Galileo), 107 telescopes. See also Hubble Space modern telescopes, 41–46 , 43t thermal pressure, 317 , 320 , 326 Tycho-2 catalogue, 285 Telescope ; infrared telescopes ; NASA Infrared Telescopic Facility 3rd-magnitude star, 78 Tycho Brahe, 101 , 101 , 102 Keck telescopes ; radio telescopes ; (IRTF), 43 Th ird Sloan Digital Sky Survey Type Ia (white dwarf) supernovae, 339 , Spitzer Space Telescope ; X-ray nebulae discoveries, 46 (SDSS), 443 340 , 341 , 486 , 489 , 489–490 , telescopes Newton’s contributions, 39 , 40 , 49 , 30 Doradus (nebula), viii 497–498 , 498 , 501 , 501 , 502 , adaptive optics of, 44 , 50 , 51 , 57 , 62 , 63 , 108 Th irty Meter Telescope (TMT), 5 , 502 . See also white dwarf stars 63 , 66 , 97 , 110 , 142 , 257 , 266 , Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array, 46 , 47 Type Ic supernovae, 339 , 340 , 356 , 284 , 383 , 393 53 , 298 , 303 , 394 , 421 , 460 3C objects. See Cambridge catalogue 375–376 , 376 , 378 amateur participation, 48–49 Oschin Schmidt telescope, 46 , 48 , (3C) objects Type II supernovae, 330 , 339 , 340 , 342 , Anglo-Australian 4-m, 436 342 , 418 tidal disruption fl ares, 466–467 , 467 344 , 345 , 348 , 356 angular resolution of, 57 , 63 Overwhelmingly Large Telescope, 46 tidal forces, 126 , 174 , 178 , 191 , 193 , Antu Unit Telescope, 43t , 45 , 186 Pan-STARRS, 48 , 62 , 387 210 , 245 , 341 , 364 , 364 , 377 UFOs (unidentifi ed fl ying objects), 16 , ASCA x-ray telescope, 460 paraboloid-shaped mirrors, 40 , 41 , tides 17 , 78 , 553–555 Atacama Large Millimeter Array, 393 , 53 , 63 description, 162 UKIRT (United Kingdom Infrared 407 , 407 radiation detection with, 4 e ff ects on Earth-Moon system, 124 , Telescope), 32 , 43 Baade Telescope, 43t , 450 r e fl ecting telescopes (list), 43t 128–129 ULAS J1120+0641 quasar, 457 Byrd Green Bank Telescope (GBT), 55 Schmidt telescopes, 46 high tide/low tide, 126 ultra-dense pulsars, 3 California Extremely Large size references to, 58 solar tides, 138 ultraviolet imaging, 415 , 421 , 438 , 440 Telescope, 46 solar oscillation studies, 258 tails, 423 , 442 Sun, 254 , 261 , 262 , 263 , 265 , Caltech 10-m, 43 solar telescopes, 40 , 51–52 , 62 , time dilation, 364–365 , 377 , 267 , 271 Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope 260 , 266 497–499 , 498 ultraviolet radiation, 3 , 21 , 64 , 235 , (CFHT), 43 , 43f , 4 3 t , 66 , 461 South African Large Telescope (SALT), timekeeping, 90–91 439 , 440 Cassegrain design, 39–40 , 41 42 , 43t timescale, astronomical, 2–3 ultraviolet-wavelength telescopes, 54–55 chromatic aberration, 40 South Pole Telescope, 393 time zones, 85 , 86 , 88 , 89–90 , 91 umbra, 71 , 74 , 91 , 266 , 266 , 278 comets mapped by, 55 spherical aberration, 40 , 63 international time zones, 86 uniform expansion, 434 correcting plate, 47 Spitzer Space Telescope, 3 , 6 , 16 , 55 Titan (Saturn satellite), xi , xxi , 166 , 169 , United Kingdom (UK) Discovery Channel Telescope, 43t Subaru Telescope, 43 , 4 3 t , 66 , 181 , 182 , 184 , 188 , 193 , 542 , Th e Astronomical Almanac, 8 3 discovery role of, 3 415 , 431 544 , 553 Beagle 2 laboratory, 152 , 483 , 541 European Extremely Large Telescope, Suzaku x-ray, 360 , 368 , 460 Tombaugh, Clyde, 198 , 201 MERLIN radio telescope, 56 , 456 5 , 46 , 47 Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope, 40 transit (blink) method, of exoplanet Schmidt telescope site, 46 Extreme-ultraviolet Imaging Th irty Meter Telescope (TMT), 46 , 47 discovery, 239 , 240–241 , 241 , UK Infrared Telescope (UKIRT), Telescope, 260 2-m Faulkes Telescope North, 342 242 , 244 32 , 43 Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, for ultraviolet wavelengths, 54–55 Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite William Herschel Telescope, 196 53 , 345 , 374–375 , 392 , 397 , United Kingdom Infrared Telescope (TESS) (NASA), 244 units, changing, 45, Appendix 1B 398 , 463 , 469 (UKIRT), 43 Transition Region and Coronal Explorer universal gravitation, constant of, 437, focus of lenses, 39 , 40 University of Texas, 42 (TRACE) spacecraft, 51 , 52 , 137 , Appendix 2A gamma-ray telescopes, 52–54 Very Large Telescope (Chile), 6 , 7 , 144 , 258 Universe. See also big bang model of the Gemini 8-m, 43t , 244 4 3 t , 44 , 45 , 46 , 46 , 186 , 194 , transit of Venus. See Venus, transit Universe ; cosmology ; multiverse Gemini North, 43t , 182 244 , 310 , 390 , 391 , 395 Trans-Neptunian objects. See Kuiper-belt accelerating, 487 , 498–499 , 501–502 , Gemini South, 43t , 48 Visible and Infrared Survey Telescope objects 505 , 515 Giant Magellan Telescope, 6 , 13 , for Astronomy (VISTA), 332 Trapezium (group of hot stars), 361 , age of, 11 , 483–490 45–46 , 47 William Herschel Telescope, 196 404 , 404–405 birth, 509–536 Giant Meterwave Radio Telescope, 406 Wisconsin-Indiana-Yale-National triangulation (“trigonometric parallax”), deceleration measure, 496–502 Gillett Gemini North, 5 , 6 , 42 , Optical Astronomy Observatory 282 , 284 early history, 522–526 43 , 4 3 t telescope (WIYN), 342 Triangulum Galaxy (M33), 422 , 425 , expansion model, 479–482 , 510–511 , global large telescopes, 42 , 43t , 44–45 Yerkes Observatory, 40 , 41 425 , 427 , Appendix 6 520 , 525–526 , 526 , 532

Index 599

forces in, 528–531 RR Lyrae, 299–300 , 300 , 305 , 305 , Voyager spacecraft 487 , 495 , 512 , 515 , 515 , 516 , future of, 502–503 306 , 484 Jupiter, 169 , 170 , 172 , 173 , 174 , 517 , 518 geometry and fate of, 490–496 SU Cygni, 300 174 , 180 Willamette meteorite, 216 infl ationary theory, 526–533 Varuna (Kuiper-belt object), 202 messages to outer space, 545 , 545 William Herschel Telescope, 196 NASA Origins program, 11 , 14–15 Vega (star), 7 , 9 , 10 , 287 , 290 , 396 Neptune, 177 , 188–190 , 189 , 191 Wilson, Robert W., 511 , 511 , 512 non-expanding model, 478 Vega spacecraft, 209 Saturn passage, 177 , 178 , 180 , WIMPs (weakly interacting massive overall geometry of, 515 Veil nebulae, 343 , 343 181 , 182 particles), 430 , 432–434 , post-big bang supercooling model, Vela (constellation), 316 , Appendix 7 Uranus passage, 97 , 185 , 185 , 187 445–446 , 526 531–532 Venera 7 (Soviet spacecraft), 146 Voyager record, 545 , 545 window of transparency (terrestrial primordial nucleosynthesis of, 525–526 Venera 8 (Soviet spacecraft), 146 atmosphere), 23 scale/distances, 12–14 Venera 13 (Soviet spacecraft), 149 warped space-time, 272 , 430 , 470 winds search for life in, 541–556 Venera 15/16 (Soviet spacecraft), 147 warped spatial dimensions, 362 on Earth, 126 steady-state theory, 510–512 , Venus Wasserburg, Gerald, 132 on Jupiter, 170 , 172 , 180 525 , 536 atmosphere, 120t , 144 , 146–147 water on Venus, 126 time aspect, 2–3 clouds, 143 , 143–149 , 148 , 162 in Antarctic rock, 551 winter sky constellations, 7–9, front as the “ultimate free lunch,” comparative data, 120t signs of, on Mars, 542 endpapers 532–534 , 536 composite image inclusion, 96 slush on Europa, 544 Wisconsin-Indiana-Yale-National Optical universe heredity, 477 craters, 140 water jets on Enceladus, 544 Astronomy Observatory telescope University of Texas telescope, 42 cycle of phases, 39 , 68 , 108 water hole, 547 (WIYN), 342 upsilon Andromedae star, 239 distance from the Sun, 137 water vapor, 543 WISE (Wide-fi eld Infrared Survey Uranographia (Bayer), 79 Doppler ground-based wavelength, 6 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 23f Explorer), 284 , 392 , 469 Uranus measurements, 150 blackbody (thermal) radiation, 24 Witten, Edward, 530 atmosphere, 184 , 185 Galileo’s discovery of, 39 , 106–107 infrared wavelengths, 3 , 5 , 16 Wolf-Rayet star, 4 , 5 , 370 brightness comparison, 169 greenhouse eff ect, 145 , 145–146 microwave wavelengths, 15 Wolszczan, Alex, 355 Chiron’s semimajor axis, 205 Mariner 10 reconstruction, 118 Milky Way wavelengths, 384 , Worden, Al (astronaut), 131t comparative data, 168t Maxwell Montes (mountains), 148 392 , 395 wormholes, 365–366 , 367 , 367 , 377 , 533 composite image inclusion, 96 MESSENGER spacecraft orbit, 118 , redshift of quasars, 454 W particles, 529 dimensions, 177 139 , 139 wave theory of light, 22 discovery of, 184 phases, 39 , 106–107 , 108 weak nuclear force, 529 , 535 , 536 XDF (Hubble eXtreme Deep Field), xvii , distance from Sun, 184 Ptolemaic-orbit theory, 108 weather forecasting, 126 438 , 449 greenish color of, 333 rotation, 83 , 144–145 weather satellites, 120 XMM-Newton mission (European Space heavy elements in, 167 sky positions, 39 Weber, Joseph, 354 Agency), 52 , 298 , 303 , 368 , Herschel’s discovery of, 55 , 384 soil composition, 142 Weisberg, Joel, 353 460 , 522 interior/magnetic fi eld, 187 surface WFIRST (Wide-Field Infrared Survey x-ray astronomy. See BeppoSax satellite ; magnetic fi eld, 191 radar observations, 147–149 Telescope), 445 Chandra X-ray Observatory ; methane absorption, 186 topography, 120 Whipple, Fred L., 205 EXOSAT ; Rossi X-ray Timing mythology, 185 Venera 13 spacecraft image, 149 Whirlpool Galaxy (M51), 412 , 414 , Explorer ; Suzaku x-ray telescope ; occultations, 170 , 185 , 186 temperature of, 119 , 126–127 , Appendix 6 XMM-Newton mission ; Yohkoh planet formation models, 235–236 145–146 white-dwarf stars, 430–431 , 445 spacecraft polar cap, 185 transits, x , xii , 137 , 137 , 143 , Chandra X-ray observatory studies, X-ray binary stars poles, 185 143 , 240 52 , 335 black holes in, 356 rings, 170t , 173 , 185 , 186 , 187 , 190 21st century exploration, 149 density of, 273 Centaurus A, jet gas emission, 372 Voyager spacecraft passage, 97 , 185 , twinkling of, 78 mass comparison, 334–335 emission lines, 460 185 , 187 winds, 126 origin, 333 , 334 GS 2000+25, 369 Urey, Harold, 544 Venus Express (ESA), 95 , 144 , 146 , 147 , Sirius B, 335 SS433, 370 , 370–371 , 371 , 378 Ursa Major (Big Bear) (constellation), 7 , 149 , 149 , 162 size comparison, 289 , 334 V404 Cygni, 370 11 , 176, Appendix 7 vernal equinox, 82 , 82 , 84 , 91 stellar evolution illustration, 330 X-ray telescopes, 52–54 , 64 , 397 , U.S. Geological Survey, 132 Very Large Array (Jansky VLA) radio temperature-luminosity diagrams, 287 , 398 . See also Chandra X-ray U.S. Naval Observatory (Washington, telescopes, 56 , 58 , 362–363 , 363 , 288 , 305 Observatory D.C.), 157 372 , 373 , 393 , 406 , 406 Type Ia supernovae, xxiv , 330 , 339 , ASCA (Japan), 460 Very Large Telescope (VLT Chile), 5 , 6 , 340 , 341 NuSTAR, 53 , 298 , 303 , 394 , V404 Cygni binary star, 370 7 , 4 3 t , 4 4 , 45 , 46 , 46 , 186 , 194 , x-ray light curves, 335 421 , 460 V838 Monocerotis nova, 337 , 338 244 , 310 , 390 , 391 , 395 white light, 22 , 22 , 39 , 40 , 109 , Suzaku x-ray telescope, 360 , 368 , 460 V2252 Ophiuchi irregular star, 300 , 301 Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) radio 257–258 , 261 , 262 , 265 , 274 XMM-Newton mission, 52 , 298 , Van Allen, James A., 127 telescope, 56 , 368 , 373 , 468 Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 368 , 460 Van Allen belts, 127 , 129 , 162 , 169 , Vesta (asteroid), xii , 202 , 221 , 222–223 , (on Hubble Telescope), 50 , 161 , 172 , 181 , 187 223 , 230t 405 , 486 yellow-dwarf stars, 246 variable stars. See also Cepheid Viking Lander, 157 , 542 Wide Field Camera 3 (on Hubble Space Yerkes Observatory, 40 , 41 variable stars Virgo (constellation), xxiv , 8, Appendix 7 Telescope), xxiv , 49 , 50 , 50t , 190 , Yinghuo-1 Chinese orbiter, 157 cataclysmic variable stars, 300 , 337 Virgo Cluster, of galaxies, 372 , 422 , 210 , 438 , 439 , 446 , 453 , 486 Yohkoh spacecraft (Japan), 51 delta (δ) Cephei, 10 , 298 , 300 , 424–425 , 426, 464 , 487–488 , 489 . Wide-fi eld Infrared Survey Explorer Young, John (astronaut), 131t 416 , 484 See also Local Group galaxy cluster (WISE, NASA), 284 , 392 , 469 eclipsing binaries, 298 virtual-particle pairs, 532 , 532–533 Wide-Field Infrared Survey Telescope zenith, 9 , 11 , 81 , 81 , 84 , 91 Herschel images of, 56 Visible and Infrared Survey Telescope for (WFIRST, NASA), 445 zodiac signs, 16 , 17 , 82 . Leavitt’s studies, 281 Astronomy (VISTA), 332 Wien’s law, 24 See also constellations light curves for, 300 VLA (Jansky Very Large Array) radio Wild 2 comet, 211 , 213 Z particles, 529 long-period variables, 298 telescope, 56 , 58 , 362–363 , 363 , Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe Zuber, Maria, 134–135 Mira long-period variable, 299 372 , 373 , 393 , 406 , 406 (WMAP), 55 , 385 , 444 , 479 , Zwicky, Fritz, 337 , 429–430