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Home , Technology management

Customer Relationship and

Mohammad Hassan Yousefi , Department of Administration and Marketing, Allameh Tabatabayi University/ Market Research Head in Hooshmand Tadbir Research Institute, Tehran, Iran [email protected]

Mohammad Hossein Jarrahi , Department of Information Systems, London School of and Political Sciences, London, UK [email protected]

Keywords Information Technology, Customer Relationship Management, eCRM

Abstract

During the last decade, increasing attention has been given to relationship marketing as a way to enhance cooperation between a selling company and its customers and bring benefits to both parties. Globalization and technology improvements have exposed companies to a situation with tough competition. Relationship marketing allows a selling company to better meet competition and exceed their competitors, and hence relationship marketing becomes an important determinator of success in the increasingly competitive business world of today. One method of relationship marketing is Customer Relationship Management (CRM). Nowadays, new have empowered customer relationship management (CRM) to dominate marketing paradigms. However, a large proportion of CRM practices do not yield expected profits. Yet, this phenomenon is attributed to a misconception of CRM and the role of technology in its implementation as there are diverse attitudes toward this issue. Some interpret CRM through a technological framework, and assume software solutions are what the mainly needs for leveraging CRM whereas others contend that CRM is more than a technology, and underscore some required considerations including formulating customer-focused strategy, user involvement, and process alignment before CRM execution. Here, these different perspectives are organized into two main groups of technological and non-technological perspectives, and consequently the position they appreciate for technology in CRM will be pondered and compared.

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Introduction

The term CRM, promising to considerably enhance management of customer affairs, has overtaken the market and is revolutionising marketing as well as reshaping entire business models. Over the past decade, CRM has fascinated not only academics but also practitioners. It is estimated that annual investments in CRM technology will surpass $76 billion within the next three years (GartnerGroup 2001). However, a substantial number of CRM initiatives do not produce advantageous results. Gartner Group report that CRM technology could not lead to the targeted performances, as between 55 and 75 percent of all CRM implementations ends in failure, and more than 50 percent of all CRM projects are disappointments from the standpoint of customers (GartnerGroup 2001). Many studies assert that these failures probably stem from the executives’ insight into technology and its primacy granted in CRM (Rigby, Reichheld et al. 2002) Indeed, one of the most disputable constituents of CRM is the technology, particularly information technology. To date, an increasing amount of research addressing success factors of CRM implementations has been published. These have dealt with CRM from different slants in terms of the role of technology. Equally important, the way in which CRM is defined is not exclusively semantic, but impacts immensely on the implementation approach (Payne and Frow 2005). In this paper, the literature is first separated into two groups based on how the technological aspects of CRM are analyzed. The core ideas about critical factors and stages, in CRM practices will then be explored.

Technological Perspective

Whilst its underlined epistemology comes from positivist traditions, the first group of literature refers to technology as a self-ruling driver of change in organization. Hence, no critical position is acknowledged for other agents such as people (Orlikowski 1996).

Definitions of CRM

It is very common amongst this group to define CRM as a sort of technology or application; therefore, CRM is often equated with technology(Payne and Frow 2005). To some, CRM means information-enabled relationships marketing (Ryals and Payne 2001) or data-driven marketing (Kutner and Cripps 1997; Hansotia 2002); some describe it as an eCommerce application (Khana 2001) ; others conceive it as methodologies or technologies, ranging from a database to internet solutions (Stone and Woodcock 2001) (Burghard and Galimi 2000). In this term, CRM products are categorized into operational (e.g. for automating the sales forces), analytical (e.g. for building a CRM data warehouse) and

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collaborative (e.g. for building web and online communities) as exemplified by (Chang 2001; Firth 2001; Karimi, Somers et al. 2001)

Many executives and practitioners also regularly have the same outlook on CRM. Payne and Frow (2005) report that a manager, who spent $30 million on IT systems integration, defined CRM in terms of sales force automation project. Similarly, Corner and Rogers(2005) state that some managers take are concerned only with the mechanistic aspect of CRM systems and fail to consider the people who will use it.

The role of technology in CRM implementation

Accordingly, technology is viewed as a main driver of CRM and its most significant success factor. Ling and Yen (2001) contend that technologies such as data warehouse and parallel computing have metamorphosed into the main enabler of CRM. Researchers have identified some key technological aspects, particularly sales force automation, as the critical factors in the success of CRM projects (e.g.; (Morgan and Scott 2001; Pullig, James et al. 2002). Accordingly, Gray and Byun (2001) believe that, although some argue that CRM has a meagre role in CRM success, each key CRM tasks relies upon technology significantly. Yong Ahn et al (2003) indicate revolution in marketing paradigms to be chiefly based on the rapid advances of IT in areas involving data warehousing and data mining. Sandoe et al (2001) characterize in similar fashion the functionality and efficiency of CRM in terms of database technologies. Therefore, IT plays a major role in developing CRM. One of the senior CRM managers of J.P. Morgan states: “ Early on there was a real focus on technology and the idea that technology was going to make it happen”(Fung 2002). In addition, it is assumed that off-the-shelf CRM packages propose a wide and comprehensive range of required technology for running customer relationship management initiatives (Greenberg 2001). These could be executed for CRM planning as is done for ERP and advance database systems (Day 1994; Sivadas and Baker-Prewitt 2000). Moreover, it is sometimes assumed that CRM solutions sold over and over again are appropriate and usable because they have been thriving in analogous environments (Corner and Rogers 2005).

As such, this point of view represents a sort of technology determinism in which design drivers are heavily technological rather than social (Fleck and Howells 2001).This means that by implementing a particular technology, certain changes which are technically possible are made incontestable and inevitable due to the intrinsic nature of technological progress (Leonardi and Jackson 2004). Correspondingly ,many companies assume that by installing the tools (CRM software) the CRM will be rolled out (Rheault and Sheridan 2002). Thereupon, actual implementations tend to be substantially technologically biased and pay

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little attention to managing the changes in processes (Fleck and Howells 2001). For example, the sector and bank industry have had a tendency to leverage advanced IT practices before any other considerations (Ryals and Knox 2001; Goldberg 2003).

Such a context has consequently influenced many proposed frameworks of CRM implementation. Winner (2001) suggests a CRM model which starts with creating a customer database. Meltzer(2005) suggests establishing a customer information infrastructure as the starting point of his framework. Likewise, a number of proposed models suggest technical aspects, particularly data warehousing, as the first step of embracing CRM. These sorts of implementation often continue with data mining or data analysis (Cunningham, Song et al. 2004) (Ahn, Kim et al. 2003; Pan and Lee 2003). Wilson et al (2002) suggest that the majority of managers suppose it to be easier to proceed with hard facets like technology than softer ones like strategy and so frequently start with hard issues first.

Non-technological perspective

This group, with their relatively interpretive research, have a more holistic view of CRM and thus do not limit the CRM concept to the technology. To them, CRM means more than a software solution (Boon, Corbitt et al. 2003) and is not devised by installing a software package (Close 2001; Amerongen 2004). They generally argue that the belief of those managers who assume CRM software plus a data warehouse will make profit is the origin of the CRM failures (McKim 2002; Newell 2003). Wehmeyer (2004) believes that pursuing CRM implementation as simply an IT project leads to trouble. Rigby et al (2002) question the perception which associates CRM with a customer relationship handling software tool and prove this assumption to be the source of several perils. They also report that in a survey of 451 executives many of those who held this line of thought found that not only did their CRM adoption not produce profit but it also damaged their customer relationships.

Definitions of CRM

Although there are as many CRM definition as there are writers, CRM is actually widely acknowledged as an indispensable business approach (McCalla, Ezingeard et al. 2003). Previous work defined CRM as a strategy (Davids 1999; Parvatiyar and Sheth 2001; Verhoef and Donkers 2001; Rajola 2003), a process (Srivastava, Shervani et al. 1999; Day and Van den Bulte 2002; Boon, Corbitt et al. 2003), capability(Peppers, Rogers et al. 1999), a philosophy (Hasan 2003), a multifaceted discipline (Renner 1999; Gosney and Boehm 2000; Syspro 2002), or as a customer-centric approach(Deighton 1998; Galbreath 1998; Lockard 1998; Hobby 1999). However, the presence of technology in the definitions is an important point. On one hand, a couple of authors describe CRM in such as to exclude the technology aspect (Anton 1996; Swift 2000; Zablah, Bellenger et al. 2004). For instance, Rigby et al

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(2002) explain CRM as an assimilation of business processes with customer strategy to generate long-term customer loyalty and profits; the word “technology” is deliberately overlooked in this definition. On the other hand, others suggest definitions where the integration of business processes, particularly customer-based ones and information technology, are emphasized (Glazer 1997; Couldwell 1998; Srivastava, Shervani et al. 1999; Kearney 2001; Grabner-Kraeuter and Moedritscher 2002; Wikstrom 2004; Payne and Frow 2005). Although there is no general consensus about the role of technology, they usually recognise technology as one of a number of components of CRM.

The role of technology in CRM implementation Newell(2003) describes how organisations spend a tremendous amount of time and energy looking for a technological solution without having first established a clear business case with goals and objectives as well as metrics to identify the results they hope to achieve. They do not understand that it is intelligence about customers and not technology that drives CRM. Roberts et al(2005) contend that technology is an enabler of CRM success but is not a key factor. Rigby et al (2002) view technology as simply a facilitator in the process of CRM. Furthermore, they nominate certain contributions of technology to the five imperatives of CRM and so highlight the widespread mistake of substituting the hard reality of creating an integrated customer relationship strategy with the easy promise of CRM software. Therefore, technology is only an enabler of success; it enables the business to enhance customer relationships through efficient and congruous processes (Johnson 2004). In the other words, the function of information technology is to promote relationship orientation, customer retention and customer value initiated through process management; and to enable all of these aspects collectively to be implemented (Ryals and Knox 2001). The role of technology in CRM initiatives among some consultant companies has also been minimized in favour of a more holistic approach. Therefore, they imply that CRM is a long-term commitment transcending a single CRM software solution (Hart, Hogg et al. 2004)

A number of empirical studies show similar results. By way of illustration, Reinartz et al (2004) conducted a study among 211 senior managers of consumers products companies in several countries. In their studies, the CRM process was broken down to three phases. These were relationship initiation, relationship maintenance and relationship termination. The influence of process on performance was controlled by technology and organisational alignment. They found that CRM technology did not have a substantial impact on any of above stages. Similarly, Day and van den Butle (2002) conclude in their study of 345 US of over 500 employees that neither customer data nor information technology contribute notably to the overall customer relating capability once other competency factors such as organisational culture have been attained. Thus information technology is merely a necessary condition. Finally, Thompson(2004) advises: “Use technology. Easy-to-use and affordable software options abound. Just make sure you are a good carpenter before buying the latest hammer”.

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It has been argued that the current trend of acquiring expensive information technology for CRM purposes has been encouraged by the enticing claims of CRM vendors. Moreover, literature in the CRM field has been impacted by CRM vendors explicitly or implicitly (Hart, Hogg et al. 2004). One marketing technique of CRM vendors is to persuade companies that huge software and hardware installation will best improve their CRM initiatives (Ceonex 2004). Despite claiming to provide comprehensive solutions, few vendors can truly supply the full range of specifications required for cohesive CRM strategy (Payne and Frow 2005). G.Carr(2003) states that big software and hardware vendors offer appealing features that require companies to buy hardware and software exceeding their real needs.

As was previously indicated, many investments in CRM technology have not had desirable performance outcomes. To exemplify, despite the fact that 74% of U.S. businesses spent more on CRM technology in 2001 than they did in 2000 (by as much as 50%), fewer than half of the IT managers surveyed by Unisys report a positive return on IT investment; 42% report a level return and 14% a negative return (information-week.com 2001). It has been noted in previous studies such as Hitt and Snir (1999) that IT has a complementary role by boosting process effectiveness. Generally, one factor is assumed to be complementary to another when raising the first triggers an increase in the second’s marginal value (Milgrom and Roberts 1995). Reinartz et al (2004) denote that CRM technology plays a complementary part since it boosts the marginal value of information processes. Additionally, Ocker and Mudambi (2003) develop a three dimensional model in which technology alignment is one of CRM ‘s complementary readiness factors. Although information technology could enhance the marginal value of organizational processes, it could not be a substitute for them (Brynjolfsson and Hitt 2000). The Meta Group report reinforces this by pointing out that putting investment in CRM technology before the adoption of a customer-based culture is an important fault (MetaGroup 1998). Hence it can be seen that in order for CRM technology investments to be successful there are several considerations that should be taken into account before selecting and installing the CRM software.

Other elements of a successful CRM program

Since from the non-technological perspective CRM technology is interpreted in a different way, the proposed implementation processes are also totally different. If first priority is not granted to technology then the question remains as to what the main components of a CRM program are. As a matter of fact, many researchers, in addressing this question, have examined the success factors and consequently developed success models from different points of view. Their findings are here categorized into four major groups; namely people, customer-based strategies, processes and technology. The findings of these researchers on

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technology and its role in CRM implementation have already been examined and so the focus will now be on the remaining three groups.

A number of information systems researchers - such as Edin-Dor(1987), Orlikowsky(1994), Marakas et al (Marakas 1996) - state that the essential differences between successful information systems and futile ones lie in the people who use them. Hence various studies discuss people and the roles they play in the success of CRM. In their recent study, Fjermestad and Romano(2003) maintain that concepts like usability and resistance should be emphasised; thus key CRM design should involve incremental and iterative approaches to best focus on people-related considerations. Themes such as user acceptance and user involvement are often interwoven with effective information systems implementation. Khalifa and Liu (2003) point out that materialization of new phenomena such as e-commerce have caused customers to become end-users of information systems. Additionally, some researchers suggest relative CRM success factors such as top-manager commitment (Yu 2001; Ocker and Mudambi 2003; Alt and Puschmann 2004; Jegham and Sahut 2004; Roh, Ahn et al. 2005) as senior executives fall into a huge pitfall once they assume the CRM initiative to be the role of IT managers (Rigby, Reichheld et al. 2002). CRM initiatives do not assist the organization until senior managers get involved (Hansotia 2002). In addition, others stress training and employee empowerment issues before CRM implementation (Ryals and Payne 2001; Shoemaker 2001; Harding, Cheifetz et al. 2003; Jegham and Sahut 2004; Wikstrom 2004; Roh, Ahn et al. 2005) (Markus 1983; Fisher 2001). As a result the requirements of users comprising customers, staff, and partners have appeared to be a fundamental concept of successful CRM design (Amerongen 2004). Nevertheless, many approaches fail to take user involvement into account - with users being obliged to use the information systems despite their best interests (Brown, Massey et al. 2002).

In the past, CRM projects traditionally encompassed new technology and rarely started with a consolidated strategy supporting business objectives as well as changing management programs (Burn 1989). However, Henderson and Venkatraman (1993) argue that the main factor preventing companies from exploiting the expected benefits of IT investments is misalignment between business and IT strategies. So far, several researchers have accommodated customer-based strategy before CRM implementation (Hansotia 2002; Syspro 2002; Wilson, Daniel et al. 2002; Alt and Puschmann 2004; Wikstrom 2004).They conclude that rolling out CRM before providing customer strategy is analogous to constructing a building without a plan or measurements (Rigby, Reichheld et al. 2002). The creation of a customer relationship strategy is the vital step in a CRM project (Rajola 2003), and such a strategy should be beyond technical aspects (Amerongen 2004). Gartner(2003) identified eight distinct layers or building blocks used by the world’s leading businesses to reach excellence in CRM. Strategy is placed in the front stages and CRM technology is ranked next to last. Similarly, Payne and Frow(2005) developed a model for CRM implementation which commences with the strategic development process and addresses technology issues towards the end. Likewise, some CRM utilisation frameworks being presented by consulting

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companies such as Syspro and Ceonex concentrate on strategy calculation in initial stages and reflect technology in last stages (Syspro 2002; Ceonex 2004). As previously indicated, a group of researchers believe there is a crucial need to formulate customer-focused strategies before any other stages. A consequence of this strategic alignment might be some modification in key processes (Wikstrom 2004). Roberts et al (2005) show that CRM technologies alone cannot achieve CRM goals owing to significant needs for ongoing process alignment. A few researchers (Stone, McFarlane et al. 1993; Domegan 1996; Elliott 1997) declare that coordination challenges rather than technological ones - such as the reluctance IT managers to share customer information with others due to a notion of losing of power – cause most obstruction to CRM programs. For that reason, several studies investigating CRM success factors suggest process reengineering as an indispensable means of the cross-functional integration (Massey, Montoya-Weiss et al. 2001; Ryals and Knox 2001; Wilson, Daniel et al. 2002). In addition, some address the reengineering of all the processes which generate customer experiences comprising sale channel process, personalization process and after sale process (GartnerGroup 2001; Ocker and Mudambi 2003; Kale 2004; Roh, Ahn et al. 2005). This might also encompass organization staff, customer-facing members as well as suppliers (Roberts, Liu et al. 2005). In short, the reengineering of critical processes should be finished ahead of installation of any CRM technology. Putting the technology into practice before establishing a customer-focused structure through respective organisational change will put the CRM in danger. In a recent survey conducted among managers, 87% attributed the failure of their CRM to insufficient in their company while 4% said it was due to software problems (Rigby, Reichheld et al. 2002). Likewise, through analyst fieldwork with their client, research and consulting firm Gartner Inc., found that successful enterprises have become more aware of the importance of focusing on customer satisfaction rather than on technological applications (Nelson 2003).

Conclusion

Once an organization decides to implement CRM, overcoming disagreement about the components of a well-designed CRM plan presents a significant challenge (Payne and Frow 2005). Indeed, CRM means different things to different people (Winer 2001). Two perspectives on the importance and the role of technology in CRM have been examined in this paper; their different views could also be scrutinized on the basis of different forms of change. Organisational studies such as those conducted by Orlikowski (2000) recommend three different roles executed by technology in an organisational context. These are; (a) “inertia” - where the technology triggers limited change so that status quo is maintained; (b) “application” - where technology assists the organisation in complementing and refining current processes; (c) “change” which refers to use of technology to significantly modify operations in an organisation. The first group of literature places technology in category (b) and hence other organisational aspects like processes or strategy remain unchanged. On the

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contrary, the second group considers CRM to be properly categorized under (c). They call for fundamental change and reconstruction of business processes. Eventually, according to the Socio-Technical approach to information systems for which the social factors are central, the information system is designed more successfully if human agencies are kept in mind(Cornford and Lin 2000). It is also predicated that CRM as a leisurely maturing business practice will switch from technological dominance to an era where issues such as people and organisational alignment will play even more significant roles (Nairn 2002). This paper does not intend to evaluate all the factors relating to CRM success. Indeed, its focus is limited to the role of technology. Therefore, further investigations are needed in order to explain the key parameters of organisational readiness to implement CRM across the organisation. Further research might explore topics such as change management and organisational alignment in order to provide a more comprehensive CRM success framework from the customer’s perspective while relying upon more acceptable definitions of CRM.

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