Journal of the Korean Astronomical Society https://doi.org/10.5303/JKAS.2019.52.4.99 52: 99 ∼ 108, 2019 August pISSN: 1225-4614 · eISSN: 2288-890X Published under Creative Commons license CC BY-SA 4.0 http://jkas.kas.org THE EVOLUTION OF ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY DESIGN Miguel Angel´ Castro Tirado1,2 and Alberto J. Castro-Tirado1,2 1Instituto de Astrof´ısicade Andaluc´ıa(IAA-CSIC), Glorieta de la Astronom´ıas/n, 18008 Granada, Spain; [email protected] 2Unidad Asociada al CSIC Departamento de Ingenier´ıade Sistemas y Autom´atica,Escuela de Ingenier´ıaIndustrial, Universidad de M´alaga, Arquitecto Francisco Pe~nalosa,29071 M´alaga,Spain; [email protected] Received May 4, 2019; accepted June 11, 2019 Abstract: This work addresses the development of the astronomical observatory all through history, from an architectural point of view, as a building in relation to the observing instruments and their functioning as a heterogeneous work center. We focused on 32 observatories (in the period 1259{2007) and carefully analyzed the architectures. Considering the impact of the construction itself or its facilities on the results of the research (thermal or structural stability, poor weather protection, turbulence, etc.), there is little attention paid to theories or studies of the architectural or construction aspects of the observatories. Therefore, this work aims to present a theoretical-critical contribution that, at least, invites the reflection of those involved in the development of astronomical observatories in the future. Key words: history and philosophy of astronomy | telescopes 1.I NTRODUCTION tro Tirado 2019a), starting from the examination of plans, ruins and the buildings themselves, this study The theoretical approach to astronomical observato- goes back to the genesis of the observatories trying to ries has its origin in the roots of the modern observa- illustrate the reciprocal relationship that exists between tory (Brahe 1602; Caramuel de Lobkowitz 1678). How- the design strategies of the building and the practice of ever, historical-descriptive works that consider a par- its astronomical function, with the goal of theorizing ticular project are the most common during the next about their future development. We have focused on centuries. In addition, some studies appeared focused 32 observatories which we consider to be representative on specific periods (Sayili 1960; Kwan 2012; Levering- ones in the period 1259{2007, deeply analyzing the ar- ton 2017), others with a more general retrospective chitectural drafts. nature (Donnelly 1971; Krisciunas 1999; Wolfschmidt 2008) and only a few works focused on the architectural- 2.O RIGINS constructive aspects of the observatories (Dumitrache & Dumitrache 2009; Waumans 2013). Astronomy is one of the oldest scientific disciplines of The concept of astronomical observatory it- mankind. Since man raised his gaze to the sky and self lacks a precise and globally accepted definition contemplated the stars with his own eyes, a relationship given that historically there has not been a critical- of fascination and devotion was established. This would intellectual movement that theorized about its nature be reflected in one way or another in different cultures or conception. Although it may seem obvious, what that would arise across the planet. And even without is understood by an observatory has changed over the having tools of precision or a basic understanding of the years, and, in addition, it depends on the perspective physical laws that rule the functioning of the universe, from which it is valued. In this paper, the intention is the first civilizations already had certain notions of the to present an approach from the point of view of the main astronomical facts. All based, always, on mere architecture of the building itself, so that other aspects observations. such as its astronomical equipment or its possible sci- In any case, it is not possible to determine the date arXiv:1911.10271v1 [astro-ph.IM] 22 Nov 2019 entific usage will be set aside. That is to say, we will on which astronomy arises, although its roots probably study the particularities related to the construction in extend to the origins of the human societies. What does which the instruments are located and whose purpose seem clear is that, regardless of a spiritual or pseudo- is the astronomical function. The analysis will also be religious sense, the beginnings of this science point to- limited to optical observatories. wards an instrumentalization of the sky as a system for Talking about evolution necessarily implies the ex- measuring periods of time and as a mean of orienta- tension of the study over time to analyze and assess tion. Beyond the numerous artistic representations of how, when and why the changes that have defined the Sun, the Moon and the stars that have been found the development of these astronomical centers have oc- (Pannekoek 1961; Pasztor & Roslund 2007), sometimes curred. For this reason, following an earlier work (Cas- more realistic and others more allegorical or figurative, or of the written testimonies that have lasted over time, Corresponding author: M. A. Castro-Tirado this astronomical predilection remains through the in- 99 100 M. A. Castro Tirado & A. J. Castro-Tirado cidence of some celestial phenomena in the disposition 3.T HE MEDIEVAL ISLAMIC OBSERVATORY of certain archaeological sets. Coinciding with the beginning of the Middle Ages, a Although certain remains of ancient civilizations period of cultural darkness began in the Western world show an impact of astronomy on their culture, it will from which astronomy would not escape. During this be the proto-observatories that stand out as points of period, Islamic culture came to play an essential role in interest to know the way in which these peoples ap- the history of astronomy by preserving the vast Greek proached the practice of this science. In these spaces knowledge of this subject and incorporating its own the astronomical observatories have their deepest an- findings. All this would be recovered for the West by tecedents and roots. Although the astronomical princi- the School of Translators of Toledo of Alfonso X, during ples that underlie the constitution of these assemblies the thirteenth century (Gargatagli 1999). are undoubted, there is no evidence to support the ex- The medieval Islamic observing sites can indeed be istence of research or scientific work in these places. called observatories because of two main reasons: i) the The oldest site that has been recorded so far is the fact that they were spaces dedicated specifically to the Goseck Circle, in Germany, a solar proto-observatory collective and prolonged study of celestial phenomena with an annular plan that consists of a Neolithic struc- and ii) to the exchange of scientific knowledge. It can ture dating back almost 7000 years (Brown 2016; Scher- be said that the observatory, as such, appears for the rer 2018). Of a similar period is the megalithic group of first time in this civilization. This is not a coincidence; Nabta Playa, in Egypt. There are many other cases of the features of the Islamic culture as a society link with lesser antiquity, among which the temple of Mnajdra, in the observatory as a scientific institution (Sayili 1960). Malta, or the famed Stonehenge, in England (Scherrer However, although this permanence is implemented in 2018). All these sites belong to ancient societies, with the Islamic observatory, they would have a reduced life a low degree of technology and even, frequently, of no- (Sayili 1960). madic habits. These facts propitiate relatively simple Two singularities that would ultimately be deci- identifications of their constructions. In addition, the sive for the relevance of the Islamic observatory as an scale and materials of these structures favor their dura- institution were the size of the observing tools and its bility up to the present, allowing them to be studied patronage. The fact that the tools of observation and and identified, where relevant, as proto-observatories. study reached a dimension such as to prevent their However, the evolution towards more advanced civ- portability led to a necessary settlement. Royal or state ilizations tend to create settlements of multiple build- support meant the formation of institutions larger and ings that do not reach the precise degree of special- longer lived than an individual scientist (Sayili 1980). ization for the observation function as such. Since no Although several observing posts, more or less tem- scientific instruments had been developed that required porary, had previously been established, it is difficult demanding conditions, systematic surveying of the sky to speak of observatories as an institution before Al could be carried out with the naked eye in almost any Mam^un(ninth century). The numerous observations construction or, even, in the vicinity of these out in the collected by different authors allow us to recognize cen- open. ters established in Shammasiya, Baghdad and Mount Qasiyun, Damascus (Mujani et al. 2012). However, the The oldest building strictly dedicated to astronomy fact that there are no remains, descriptions or illustra- of which there is evidence is Cheomseongdae, in South tions of observatories could mean that no specific space Korea. It was designed as a small bottle-shaped hollow was devoted to this use. This lack of material legacy tower made of masonry. Its function was to enable the makes it extremely difficult to distinguish between the use of astronomical instruments from an elevated posi- observatories of this period and the specific observing tion to avoid surrounding obstacles. It dates from the posts established for an ephemeral study. The main dif- seventh century and remains in a great state of preser- ferences amongst medieval islamic observatories were in vation (Park 2010) and its square top and round body the number of personnel dedicated to them, the qual- reflect the astronomical concept of the time (i.e.