The Science of Generosity

A white paper prepared for the John Templeton Foundation by the Greater Good Science Center at UC Berkeley May 2018 The Science of Generosity Written by Summer Allen, Ph.D. ggsc.berkeley.edu greatergood.berkeley.edu The Science of Generosity EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Generosity comes in many forms, from charitable donations to formal volunteering to helping a stranger to caring for a spouse or a child. What these and other examples have in common is that they involve “giving good things to others freely and abundantly”—the definition of generosity according to the University of Notre Dame’s Science of Generosity Project. When they are generous, people (and sometimes animals) prioritize the needs of others, often above their own. But where does this generosity come from? What are the benefits that result from helping others? And how can generosity be further cultivated within individuals and in society as a whole? These questions have motivated studies from fields as diverse as economics, neuroscience, psychology, sociology, and ecology; their key findings and insights are the focus of this paper. The Roots Of Generosity Humans are a generous species. Indeed, generosity has its roots not just in That statement seems to fly in the face of our individual development but also in our decades of research—and centuries of conven- very biology and evolutionary history. Species tional wisdom—equating “human nature” with as diverse as bees, birds, vampire bats, rats, and selfishness and aggression. Yet in recent years, a chimpanzees all exhibit forms of generosity, more complex and nuanced understanding of or what can be broadly described as “prosocial human nature has emerged. While studies no behavior”—acts that benefit others. The broad doubt suggest that humans have a propensity occurrence of generosity across species suggests for self-interest—and these studies have drawn that generosity may be an evolutionary adapta- understandable attention—research has revealed tion that has helped promote the survival of that currents of generosity also run deep through us. these species—and our own. Executive Summary 2 And sure enough, a host of studies have in the future. And even small acts of kindness, uncovered evidence that humans are biologically like picking up something someone else has wired for generosity. Acting generously activates dropped, make people feel happy. Generosity is the same reward pathway that is activated by sex also associated with benefits in the workplace, and food, a correlation that may help to explain such as reducing the likelihood of job burnout, why giving and helping feel good, as well as and in relationships, where it is associated with provide further evidence for the idea that proso- more contentment and longer-lasting romantic cial activity has been an important evolutionary relationships. adaptation. Further evidence of the deep roots of human Individual Factors Linked to Generosity generosity comes from studies finding consistent There are several intrapersonal factors that displays of generosity among young children— can influence generosity. Feelings of empathy, even young toddlers. Multiple studies have compassion, and other emotions can motivate us shown that children appear to have an innate to help others. Certain personality traits, such as drive to cooperate and to help others, but that humility and agreeableness, are associated with this drive is tempered as children grow older and increased generosity, and a person’s tendency to their giving behavior becomes more selective engage in prosocial behavior may be considered and nuanced. a personality trait in itself. A person’s values, morals, and sense of identity can also modify Positive Effects On Givers how willingly they engage in generous acts. Many studies point to the possible positive conse- In addition, research suggests that gender and quences of generosity for the giver. Giving social religion may influence generosity, although the support—time, effort, or goods—is associated findings from different studies have sometimes with better overall health in older adults, and shown conflicting or nuanced results. volunteering is associated with delayed mortality. Generosity appears to have especially strong Social and Cultural Drivers associations with psychological health and A host of social and cultural factors also influence well-being. For example, a meta-analysis of 37 generosity. Many studies suggest that people often studies of older adults found that those who act generously out of an expectation that their volunteered reported greater quality of life; generosity will be reciprocated or because they another study found that frequent helpers reported feel it will help their reputation. A person’s gener- feeling greater vitality and self-esteem (but only osity is also influenced by cultural norms, such as if they chose to help of their own accord). standards of fairness. Strong social networks may Other studies have shown a link between also influence generosity. For example, people generosity and happiness. Some studies have with more friends engage in more volunteering, found that people are happier when spend- charitable giving, and blood donations. What’s ing money on others than on themselves, and more, generosity is contagious; it can propagate this happiness motivates them to be generous within social networks and workplaces. Executive Summary 3 Other social and cultural drivers of gener- Finally, other social or situational factors, osity range widely. The influence of socioeco- such as the timing or setting of a request, can nomic status on generosity is complex, with impact generosity. In one experiment, people studies suggesting that both poorer and wealthi- were more generous when forced to make a er individuals are more generous, depending on decision quickly; another study found that the study and its context. The characteristics of a seminary students were much less likely to stop potential recipient of one’s generosity also influ- to help a person in need when they were running ence a person’s decisions to give. For example, late to give a speech than when they had plenty of people are much more likely to help an identified, time. Natural settings may inspire generosity— specific person rather than an abstract or anony- one study even found that people behaved more mous individual, and they’re more likely to help generously in a room filled with plants than they individuals than groups. Even where you live can did in a room without them. influence your generosity, as both geographic and governmental factors have been associated Future Research with increased or decreased generosity. Clearly, the science of generosity is a broad and And of course, parenting also plays a role in complex topic, and there are several promising cultivating generosity. Some studies have found avenues of future exploration. Those include that various parenting practices—particularly developing interventions to increase people’s role-modeling and discussing generosity—may empathy—and, thus, their generosity—toward help children grow up to be more generous others, more rigorous studies about the health adults. Other studies have found that engaging benefits of volunteering, and practical methods with media—including television, music, and for increasing charitable donations. videogames—that have prosocial messages may lead people to behave more generously. Executive Summary 4 Table of Contents Introduction Page 6 What is Generosity? Page 8 The Deep Roots of Human Generosity Page 9 Consequences of Generosity Page 19 Individual Factors that Influence Generosity Page 29 Social and Cultural Factors that Influence Generosity Page 41 Limitations and Future Directions Page 62 References Page 64 Acknowledgements Page 81 Introduction Americans gave a record $390 billion to charitable organizations in 2016 through a combination of individual giving and philanthropy from estates, corporations, and foundations (Giving USA, 2017), although giving as a percentage of household disposable income has hovered around two percent for decades (Crary, 2017). Roughly a quarter of Americans volunteered for This paper presents an overview of research religious, public, and nonprofit organizations, on the science of generosity, predominantly focus- contributing an estimated $193 billion worth of ing on studies from the past 20 years. While their time to their communities in 2016 (National concentrating on studies from psychology Philanthropic Trust, 2016). But the percentage of (especially developmental and social psychol- people who volunteer each year has been steadi- ogy), it covers research from a wide range of ly decreasing over the past decade in the United academic disciplines, including economics, States (Kiersz, 2016) and the United Kingdom ecology, neuroscience, sociology, and religious (Office of National Statistics, 2017). studies, among others. People demonstrate generosity in myriad It primarily draws on studies that have other ways, from everyday acts of kindness toward been highly cited (>50 citations). The number of loved ones to large acts of altruism, like donating citations for a paper (as of July 2017) is indicated a kidney to a stranger, though they are often not in brackets [ ] next to that citation; highly cited as generous as they could (or want) to be. studies are in bold. In short: People clearly have the capacity to be A few caveats should be kept in mind while generous, but they don’t always act on this capacity. reading this paper: What are

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