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A Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of the Electronic Monitoring of Offenders

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A Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of the Electronic Monitoring of Offenders Journal of Criminal Justice 68 (2020) 101686 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Criminal Justice journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jcrimjus A systematic review of the effectiveness of the electronic monitoring of T offenders ⁎ Jyoti Belura, , Amy Thorntona, Lisa Tompsona, Matthew Manningb, Aiden Sidebottoma, Kate Bowersa a Department of Security and Crime Science, University College London, 35 Tavistock Square, London WC1H 9EZ, UK b College of Arts and Social Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Keywords: Objective: This paper reports the findings of a systematic review on the effectiveness of Electronic Monitoring Electronic monitoring (EM) on reducing recidivism. It identifies mechanisms through which EM is expected to produce reductions in EMMIE recidivism rates, under what conditions, and at what cost. Reoffending Methods: Eligible studies were identified through a search strategy and quality appraised. The review uniquely Recidivism combines findings of a meta-analysis alongside a realist-inspired qualitative synthesis. Meta-analysis Results: 34 studies met our inclusion criteria. Meta-analytic results from 18 studies found that although overall Systematic review Logic models the effect of EM on recidivism was favourable, heterogeneity between studies meant that the effect wassig- nificant for studies using hazard ratios but non-significant for those using proportional data. Findings indicated statistically significant reductions in recidivism for sex offenders; when EM is compared to the alternative of prison; and in European settings. Situational and behavioural mechanisms that might plausibly reduce re- cidivism were identified. EM is cheaper than prison but more expensive than ordinary probation orparole. Conclusions: The study illustrates the complexity of implementing EM. We present a theory of change for EM in the form of logic models and discuss the implications of the interaction between identified factors on im- plementation of EM to achieve desired outcomes. 1. Introduction rehabilitative tool by providing a structure to offenders' lives and the opportunity to be employed (Hucklesby & Holdsworth, 2016). The electronic monitoring (EM) of offenders is a common but con- EM technology has advanced over time. Initial systems in the 1980s troversial criminal justice measure. It refers to a device being attached were only able to determine whether a tagged offender had strayed to an offender's ankle or wrist to track their whereabouts. EM isused beyond a certain distance from their home (Renzema & Mayo-Wilson, extensively across Europe, the Americas and Australia (Geoghegan, 2005). The move from Radio Frequency (RF) technology to more so- 2011, Whitehead, Kersley, & Mohun, 2013, Pew Charitable Trust phisticated monitoring using Global Positioning Systems (GPS) began in Report 2016) variously as a condition for bail1; as part of a community the 1990s, monitoring offenders over much greater distances and atany sentence or suspended sentence orders (curfew orders); or to allow for time of the day. The proposed move towards a wider GPS-based pro- the early release of prisoners (home detention curfews) (Hucklesby, gramme in England and Wales has been described as a form of ‘e 2008). The proposed aims of EM are many and varied, from reductions governance' and represents a form of increased penalty (Nellis, 2014). in time in custody, thereby allowing governments to reduce costs by EM is now widely used for various offender types as well as those on providing cheaper alternatives to prison (Garland, 2002; Hucklesby & bail, terror suspects, individuals suspected of breaching immigration Holdsworth, 2016), to lowering recidivism through increased deter- laws, as part of alcohol abstinence maintenance requirements and po- rence and through providing greater structure to offenders' lives tentially, it has been suggested, EM could even be used to track those (Hucklesby & Holdsworth, 2016). Other proposed functions of EM in- refusing to pay child support (Paterson, 2007). The conditions asso- clude reducing recidivism through increased deterrence and acting as a ciated with EM differ for different types of offenders. For example, sex ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J. Belur), [email protected] (A. Thornton), [email protected] (L. Tompson), [email protected] (M. Manning), [email protected] (A. Sidebottom), [email protected] (K. Bowers). 1 We acknowledge that in some cases of EM pre-trial, the term alleged offender might be more appropriate. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101686 Received 15 January 2020; Received in revised form 15 April 2020; Accepted 15 April 2020 0047-2352/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. J. Belur, et al. Journal of Criminal Justice 68 (2020) 101686 offenders with tags may have geographic restrictions within a certain approach provides a more pragmatic means of assessing the effective- distance of schools, playgrounds and other areas in which children ness of EM on recidivism. This is done using a transparent and sys- commonly congregate. For perpetrators of domestic abuse, EM might tematic method, laid out in full below. serve as part of a restraining order. Third, previous reviews of the effectiveness of EM have focussed EM is not without its detractors, especially when viewed more as a mainly on the impact of EM on various criminal justice outcome mea- form of state control than a method of rehabilitation (Kornhauser and sures (such as recidivism rates). In this paper, informed by the princi- Laster, 2014). Many commentators advocate caution in the widespread ples of realist evaluation (Pawson & Tilley, 1997) and the recently es- use of EM systems, whether implemented alone or as part of a suite of tablished EMMIE framework (Johnson, Tilley, & Bowers, 2015; interventions (Renzema & Mayo-Wilson, 2005. A recurrent criticism described below), we systematically identify and synthesise informa- concerns so-called net-widening, referring to the increasing use of tion on not only the effectiveness of EM at reducing recidivism, but also sanctions against individuals who otherwise may not have been sanc- on the causal mechanisms through which EM might plausibly reduce tioned (Bryne, Lurigio and Petersilia, 1992). This is often invoked in the recidivism, the conditions in which EM is found to be more or less ef- case of low-risk offenders sentenced to EM when existing community fective, the challenges associated with implementing EM and the cost sentences may be more appropriate (Padgett, Bales, & Blomberg, 2006). effectiveness of EM programmes. This broader assessment of there- Likewise, the heightened surveillance of individuals released from search evidence is important given previous EM schemes have been prison and placed on EM can lead to an increase in technical violations marred by technological and implementation problems (Hucklesby, (such as missing curfew deadlines), which, although not crimes in the 2013; National Audit Office, 2006; Shute, 2007). traditional sense, nevertheless often result in the incarceration of of- The remainder of the paper is organised as follows: the next section fenders who would otherwise have been in the community on parole or discusses the method used to conduct the systematic review, focusing probation. on the search strategy, inclusion criteria, data extraction, and analysis There is an extensive literature on the background, use and effec- of quantitative and qualitative data. Thereafter, the results section re- tiveness of EM. Notable reviews include Corbett and Marx (1991), ports on quality appraisal of studies and reports results of effect size and Mainprize (1996), MacKenzie (1997), Schmidt (1998), Gendreau et al. moderator analyses. The subsequent three sections focus on the me- (2000) and Whitfield (2001). Taken together, these studies converge on chanisms, implementation and economic aspects of EM. This is fol- the finding that EM is shown to have little appreciable effect onre- lowed by a section which maps out the interactions between the various cidivism rates. In 2005, Renzema and Mayo-Wilson conducted a sys- identified elements of the intervention in logic models. The penultimate tematic review focusing specifically on the effectiveness of EMon section discusses the implications of our findings followed by the con- moderate- to high-risk offender populations. The results were in line clusion. with prior research. Despite EM being widely advocated and im- plemented, Renzema and Mayo-Wilson (2005, p. 231) report that they 2. Methods “failed to identify any methodologically sound evaluation comparing EM to incarceration” and “failed to find any convincing evidence that Our review is guided by the EMMIE framework. Johnson et al. EM is superior to other prison diversion programs”. Only two identified (2015) proposed EMMIE as a means to assess the quality and breadth of studies reported promising results following the use of EM (Bonta, systematic review evidence in crime reduction. The first ‘E' of EMMIE Wallace-Capretta, & Rooney, 2000a; Finn & Muirhead-Steves, 2002) but refers to the size and direction of the ‘effect’ of a given policy, pro- these referred to a very specific subset of offenders (sex offenders and gramme or practice. The first ‘M' refers to ‘mechanism' or an explana- prison divertees) and to EM implemented alongside other offender tion as to how a policy, programme or practice is expected to bring treatment
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