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End-to-end approach to flexible and sustainable commercial initiatives: Evaluation of operational scenarios, safety aspects, and associated economic

Original End-to-end approach to flexible and sustainable commercial spaceflight initiatives: Evaluation of operational scenarios, safety aspects, spaceports and associated economic elements / Santoro, F.; Del Bianco, A.; Albino, V.; Viola, N.; Fusaro, R.. - (2019). ((Intervento presentato al convegno 70th International Astronautical Congress, IAC 2019 tenutosi a usa nel 2019.

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04 August 2020 70th International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Washington D.C., United States, 21-25 October 2019. Copyright ©2019 by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). All rights reserved.

IAC-19-D6,3,4,x 49579

End-to-end approach to flexible and sustainable commercial spaceflight initiatives: evaluation of operational scenarios, safety aspects, spaceports and associated economic elements

F.Santoroa*, A. Del Biancob, V. Albinoc, N.Violad , R.Fusaroe a ALTEC S.p.A., Torino, Italy, [email protected] a ALTEC S.p.A., Torino, Italy, [email protected] c Politecnico di Bari, Bari, Italy,[email protected] d Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy, [email protected] e Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy, [email protected] * Corresponding Author

Abstract

Multiple initiatives are going on today, aimed at developing new technologies for commercial exploitation of space. The potential benefits of widening up the access to space to a broader users community affect different applications ranging from to microgravity experimentation to and pilots training; moreover, in the new space economy users communities may include parties that do not traditionally operate in the space business but can take advantage of microgravity exploitation as an opportunity to carry out experimental activities with potential more significant outcome. The present paper initially approaches commercial access to space by evaluating different mission concepts, technologies and platforms such as suborbital spaceflight, , air launch and deployment of small . In order to select the most promising alternative, trade off methodologies, making use of safety, cost and complexity as figures of merit are suggested for the specific case of the suborbital flight. Moreover, the paper describes the outcome of simplified mission simulations, encompassing both suborbital vehicle as well as air launch trajectories predictions. The trajectories simulations can also provide useful inputs to the vehicle design and performance analysis and are instrumental to planning air space operations after lift off from the launch site, as well as to assess logistics and operational aspects. Thus, simulations of really operating environment provide the link to the selection process aiming at defining an adequate operating base and a set of proper ground infrastructures that efficiently support in integrated fashion the execution of the planned activities with the selected platforms. An integrated end to end approach is also described, that basing upon the specific users’ needs identifies the appropriate platform and delivers the associated service matching the relevant goals. The paper finally discusses some economic and organizational aspects for developing a sustainable commercial spaceflight initiative. Ideas for next activities are drawn too, mainly focusing on trajectory validation simulation with real data coming from the initial test campaigns.

Keywords: (commercial, space, microgravity, technologies, simulations, spaceport)

Transportation Office: FAA/AST Acronyms/Abbreviations Figure of Merit FoM Aeroporti di Puglia S.p.A. ADP High Altitide Lighter Than Air HALTA American Institure of Aeronautics and AIAA International Civil Aviation Organization ICAO Astronautics International Space Station ISS ASI International Traffic in Arms Regulations ITAR Air Traffic Control: ATC International Telecommunication Union´s ITU Air Traffic Management ATM Intermediate Experimental Vehicle IXV Defence Advanced Research Project DARPA Low Earth LEO Agency Liquid Oxygen LOX German Aerospace Center DLR Medium Earth Orbit MEO Distretto Tecnologico Aerospaziale DTA Military Operating Area MOA European Aviation Safety Agency EASA New Mexico Spaceport Authority NMSA Ente Nazionale per l’Aviazione Civile: ENAC National Transportation Safety Board NTSB Ente Nazionale Assistenza al Volo ENAV Operations Services O/S Emergency Response Plans: ERP Reusable Launch Vehicles RLV Federal Aviation Administration/Space Synergistic Air - Breathing Engine SABRE

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Safety Management Systems: SMS mathematical model approach to simulate trajectory [7] Short Takeoff and Landing SRL of a suborbital spaceflight system like the Virgin Sierra Nevada Corporation SLC Galactic and identifies two different kind of missions Suborbital Reusable Vehicle SRV related to both space tourism and microgravity Single Stage to Orbit SSTO experimentation. Section 5 decribes the main elements Technology Readiness Level TRL associated with the Ground Segment [8] to properly and Telecommand TT&C support the relevant mission and focuses on specific United Space Alliance ULA elements like Ground Stations that are flexible enough Visual Flight Rules VFR to support different kinds of commercial missions. The Vertical takeoff and landing VTOL can be an entry point to Countries that are willing to enter the space business and be part of both the main commercial and institutional programs. 1. Introduction Section 6 describes specific economic and In the recent years the commercial exploitation of space organizational aspects [21] associated to the commercial is significantly emerging through a breed of several viability of outfitting specific infrastructures and initiatives aimed at considering space as a significant services and can be used as an initial guideline to proving ground for a variety of applications, like testing develop most complex economical and commercial new technologies, carrying out microgravity approaches useful to achieve adequate fundings to experimentation, providing flight opportunities to space develop initial capabilities of space exploitation. tourists, and offering flexible access to space through different platforms [1]. Objective of the present paper is 2. Technologies for Commercial access to space to address the most important ways to allow commercial access to space, describe their main characteristics and 2.1 applications and match them to the relevant Spaceports The ultimate purpose of this vehicle is to carry space characteristics and associated Ground Infrastructures. tourist in a sub-orbital trajectory, in order to make them Specific examples will also be provided on initial appreciate some minutes in microgravity, floating in the business plan elements characterization to verify the cabin. Alternately another concept of operation is to commercial viability of specific ground infrastructures install a scientific , carrying a Payload Specialist in a new growing market. A very significant example is able to execute scheduled experiments. Figure 1 shows Spaceport America [2], the commercial operations base the typical Virgin Galactic Spaceflight system flight of Virgin Galactic, designed, built and operated by the profile [9], [10]. NMSA; Spaceport America is the world’s first purpose- built, commercial spaceport, intended to be the launch base of the global commercial spaceflight industry. Spaceport America is currently experiencing the relocation of specific Virgin Galactic workforce, flight and ground segment from the Mojave Spaceport [3] in preparation to start commercial operations.With retirement in 2011, worldwide aerospace industry focused on new technologies aimed at developing innovative reusable Space Vehicles with the purpose of reaching the Karman line of 100 Km altitude and eventually prepare for the future generation transportation between different points on the Earth [4]. Figure 1: The Virgin Galactic SpaceShipTwo flight Section 2 is a survey of different mission concepts, profile [Credits: Virgin Galactic] technologies and platforms for commercial access to space [5], such as suborbital spaceflight, orbital The current Virgin is expected to spaceflight; HAPS stratospheric platforms are also accomplish only suborbital flights (not reaching LEO), addressed, that provide a suite of integrated services for landing at departure spaceport. both commercial and scientific applications in the high Take off is carried out by a Carrier called atmosphere. Section 3 describes some highlights on the WhiteKnight to whom the SpaceShip is anchored on the methodology to perform tradeoff of different missions bottom side (air-launch captive on bottom). This carrier starting from a mission statement related to suborbital is a particular aircraft with 2 fuselages, powered by 4 flights, based of the evaluation of properly identified turbojets, able to carry the SpaceShip up to 15200 m. Figures of Merit such as Safety, Cost and Complexity Once arrived at this altitude the Ship is undocked [6]. Section 4 provides the basic assumptions of a from the Carrier and, after a certain delay, ignites its

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Hybrid rocket propeller. This is the climbing phase in demonstrations, and educational programs. Payloads which the Ship increases its pitch angle up to 90 adjacent to the largest windows in space or mounted on degrees, for an almost verticalascent. The ignition lasts the outside of the vehicle can perform Earth, approximately 60 seconds, followed by a coast phase, at atmospheric, and space science research. the end of which it has to reach 100 km of altitude, the The system is ideal to launch experiments multiple conventional boundary between atmosphere and space. times to iterate on findings, improve statistics, or rapidly After some minutes in microgravity the Ship collect data. As human flights begin, it will also be assumes a particular attitude configuration, called possible to fly payloads for hands-on experimentation. feathered, which consists in lifting aerodynamic tail Inside the cabin, the system can readily accommodate surfaces to create an increase in drag in order to let a experiments from small NanoLabs up to 100 kg (225 rapid descent. Once reached an altitude of 70000 ft the lb). These payloads are supported by unique avionics initial attitude is restored, letting the Spaceplane to glide system and software, including: to get to the spaceport on a usual landing on a runway. • Robust control systems • Scientific Cameras • Data storage • Electrical power • Vehicle telemetry • Integrated avionics and desktop software for programming in labs

Figure 2 Shows the WhiteKnight2 and SpaceShip2 captive configuration at takeoff and flight to release altitude.

Figure 3: Blue Origin System mission profile

2.3 Designed by the American private company Sierra Nevada Corporation, it's a vehicle capable of autonomous landing on runway by gliding. In this is similar to the SpaceShip (even if the last one has two pilots on board); but actually it presents some differences: first of all, it's designed to reach the low Figure 2: SpaceShip with its Carrier WhiteKnight, take Earth orbit (LEO), in particular docking at the ISS. off configuration [Credits: Virgin Galactic] Therefore a greater amount of thrust at launch is required, and the innovative air-launch is replaced by a 2.2 Blue Origin (reference to website) more regular ground launch, placing the ship in the Blue Origin is the only Virgin Galactic competitor fairing of the rocket (see Figure 4). in suborbital flight market with a mission profile reaching the maximum altitude slightly above the 100 Km Karman Line as shown in Figure 3. It is based on the Blue Shepard [11], a new suborbital rocket system. The system offers accommodations for payloads both inside the cabin or with direct exposure to the . With about 3 minutes of high-quality microgravity, the cabin is ideal for microgravity physics, gravitational biology, technology

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Figure 4: Sierra Nevada Dream Chaser in launch configuration Figure 6: The ESA IXV [Credits: ESA]

The Dream Chaser is composed of two modules: the IXV was launched in February 2015 by a Rocket ship itself, the only part that is supposed to re-entry, and and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean after a mission a cargo module, anchored to the back of the ship, duration of a bit more than 100 minutes. IXV can be equipped with solar panels in order to provide current to considered the first case of suborbital vehicle. the payload. Once undocked from the ISS (Figure 5), Since it was a technological demonstrator, it didn't carry the ship can perform an automatic re-entry in any scientific payload. Nevertheless it open up the path atmosphere and land without engine. The main goal of to future development: in fact its follow on development this vehicle is to carry supplies to the ISS, in an is the Space Rider System which will be launched by a unmanned configuration. Also, SNC selected United Vega Rocket and will perform various activities ULA as the provider for the Dream depending on the mission: carrying scientific payload to Chaser ’s six NASA missions to the conduct experiments in microgravity, robotic International Space Station. The Dream Chaser will demonstrator, Earth observation, telecommunication. launch aboard ULA’s for its cargo resupply and return services to the space station, 2.5 Space Rider starting in 2021 [12], . Space Rider (Figure 7) [13] aims to provide Europe with an affordable, independent, reusable end-to-end integrated space transportation system for routine access and return from low orbit. It will transport payloads for an array of applications, orbit altitudes and inclinations. Space Rider is fully integrated with Vega-C to provide a space laboratory for payloads to operate in orbit for a variety of applications in missions lasting about two months. Space Rider will have the potential to allow:

§ free-flying applications such as experiments in microgravity; § in-orbit technology demonstration and validation for applications such as exploration, Earth observation, Earth science,

Figure 5: Dream Chaser undocks from ISS telecommunication, surveillance applications such as Earth disaster monitoring. 2.4 IXV IXV was a reentry demonstrator technology vehicle Space Rider will be launched on Vega-C from funded by ESA; its mission consisted in verifying the Europe’s Spaceport in Kourou, French Guiana, remain capability of performing an automatic controlled in space in a low-drag altitude orbit for about two atmospheric re-entry from a suborbital equatorial months, return to land on Earth with its payload, and trajectory up to 400 Km altitude (Figure 6). It was then be prepared for the next mission. Space Rider is equipped with a guidance, navigation and control designed to operate at different orbital inclinations, from system, and a thermal shield made of ceramic material equatorial to high-latitude. The Azores archipelago is to protect the bottom side and the nose during re-entry. therefore a suitable European landing location for

D6,3,4, x 49579 Page 4 of 15 70th International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Washington D.C., United States, 21-25 October 2019. Copyright ©2019 by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). All rights reserved. missions that require high-latitude inclinations because km of altitude, where conventional turbofans are re- it allows Space Rider to return at the same latitude as its activated to allow a regular landing like an airline operational orbit, requiring fewer deorbiting aircraft. manoeuvres. 2.7 Skylon is a vehicle designed by UK based on reaction engines in partnership with UK Space Agency. It's a SSTO, able to reach LEO. It's equipped with an innovative engine, called SABRE, which works with LOX and liquid hydrogen. The engine is characterized by two operative modes: • Airbreathing mode: the engine takes air from the outside atmosphere and then strongly compressed, while fuel for combustion (hydrogen) is contained in tanks; • Rocket mode: once reached an altitude of 26

Figure 7: The ESA Space Rider [Credits: ESA] Km, at Mach 5, this mode is activated; oxygen is no longer taken from the atmosphere but from on board tanks, in order to reach the orbit. 2.6 Airbus Defence and Space Spaceplane Both take off and landing are horizontal on runway. It is a concept of Spacplane developed in the last Currently it's only aimed at payload transportation, but decade, similar for some aspects to the Virgin Galactic future development expects also to carry up to 40 SpaceShipTwo, in fact it was intended for tourist sub passengers [14]. Figure 9 shows the Skylon taking off orbital flight, with the possibility of carrying up to 4 horizontally. tourists with a pilot.The peculiarity of this vehicle is that it's supposed to perform every phase of the mission independently, in fact it's a concept of SSTO, single stage to orbit (Figure 8). It's equipped with 4 turbofan engines per atmospheric propulsion, which let the vehicle to get to 12 km of altitude. At this point we have the ignition of a liquid with LOX and Methane, which is the start of a steep ascending phase, exceeding Mach 3, reaching, at the end of a 90 seconds burning, an altitude of 60 km. Afterwards, the vehicle keeps climbing till reaching 100 km, letting to be experienced. Figure 9: Skylon taking off [Credits: UK BRE and UK Space Agency]

2.8 Space Liner Space Liner a DLR project, currently stopped for lack of funds. It's a concept of a point-to-point tourists transport, alternatively a cargo transport vehicle for LEO. In both cases, it's reusable. It consists in two stages, with a vertical take off and horizontal landing, with the presence of a booster for launch phase connected to the actual spaceplane, able to accommodate up to 50 passengers, with two pilots.Propulsion system consists in 11 liquid rocket engines (9 for the booster while 2 for the ship), which use LOX and liquid hydrogen. After an initial ascending Figure 8: Airbus SpacePlane taking off [Credits: phase and booster separation, spaceplane engines Airbus] shutdown occurs, at an altitude of 80 Km. At this point the ship can glide over very long distances, reaching a The Re-entry phase is conducted at high angle of speed of many Mach numbers. Maximum loads of attack in order for the SpacePlane to dissipate as much acceleration occur during the propulsive phase, without velocity as possibile in the atmosphere till getting to 15

D6,3,4, x 49579 Page 5 of 15 70th International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Washington D.C., United States, 21-25 October 2019. Copyright ©2019 by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). All rights reserved. exceeding 2,5 g. Figure 10 shows the Spaceliner object at an altitude of 20 to 50 km and at a specified, separating from boosters. nominal, fixed point relative to the Earth". Usualy, HAPS feature the following characteristics: • Permanent coverage in a stationary area; • Operations in full autonomy because powered by solar energy; • Offer simultaneous combinations of different services; • Network with other platforms including satellites or drones;

• Can be moved where services are requested; Figure 10: Spaceliner detachment from booster [Credits: • Can be reconfigured to accommodate different German Space Agency] kind of payloads;

2.9 Boeing X-37 The main services provided by HAPS include It's an unmanned vehicle initially developed by Surveillance, Environmental Monitoring, Navigation, NASA. Then the project moved to the Defence Telecommunication. Some defense services may also be Department and the vehicle now operated by USAF in provided. HAPS can be considered a complement or partnership with NASA. extention of satellites capabilities, ground infrastructures and opportunity to develop new services. is developing the Stratobus platform (Figure 12), an autonomous, multi-mission stratospheric airship, midway between a drone and a satellite. Stratobus is considered part of the HAPS [High Altitude Pseudo Satellite] family. Stratobus operates at an altitude of 20 kilometers and is designed for a wide range of civil or military regional applications: telecommunications, navigation, observation (especially surveillance).

Figure 11: Boeing X-37 during descending [Credits: Boeing]

The vehicle has already performed five long- duration missions in LEO, being used as a technological demonstrator. For the ascending phase, it utilises a Figure 12: Pictorial sketch of Stratobus (credits Thales launch vehicle (Atlas V, ), of which it Alenia Space) constitutes the payload. It can re-enter independently landing on a runway. Figure 11 shows the X37 during Table 1 is a comparison of the different approaches descending phase. for commercial access to space described above.

2.10 HAPS Table 1: Summary of main technologies for access to High-altitude platforms or High-Altitude Pseudo- space Satellites (HAPS) are, according to Article 1.66A of the InternationalTelecommunication Union´s (ITU) ITU Radio Regulations (RR), defined as "a station on an

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It can be observed that different takeoff approaches are being considered, in particular the air launched spaceflight system from Virgin Galactic and the vertical launch from Blue Origin. These technologies consider at least two stages, while the promising SSTO Skylon is currently under test.

• Figure 13: Figures of Merit used in the mission concepts tradeoff 3. Mission tradeoff elements: the case of suborbital flight Takeoff strategy, captive on top/bottom strategies, This section provides some guidelines that can be propulsion strategy and used propellants have been used to make an informed decision on which mission taken into consideration. The tradeoff has determined approach is the most suitable to reach a defined that air launch is the most suitable strategy to fulfill the objective. The starting point is a comprehensive above defined mission statement. For example, Figure definition of the misson statement that in case of 14 shows the main advantages and drawbacks suborbital flight and based on proper market analysis associated with the selected option with reference to can be written as: Take untrained people (tourists) into takeoff strategy. suborbital flight to let them experience and enjoy few minutes in microgravity. Alternatively provide opportunities for microgravity experimentation. This shall be accomplished by a spaceplane, with one or more stages, able to land safely on a runway. Assuming horizontal landing as per mission statement, the takeoff options to be traded off include: • SSTO with only one stage which is the spaceplane itself; • Vertical Launcher; • Air launch featuring the spaceplane air lifted and released by a carrier aircraft; The tradeoff process is based on the definition of Figure 14: Air Launch Advantages and Drawbacks suitable Figures of Merit (FoM), that are specific parameters to be quantified and to be used as reference The evaluation of the figures of merit was conducted for comparing the different alternatives to be traded off by using a mathematical model based on specific [6]. Typical FoM are Safety, Cost and Complexity, as weighting factors that show the impact of the propulsive indicated in Figure 13. system and propellant system on Safety, Complexity and Cost, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Weighting factors for each FoM

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methodology is based on implementation of the fourth order Runge-Kutta method (RK4) to integrate the physical equations. The Runge-Kutta methods are a family of explicit or implicit iterative methods used in temporal discretization for approximating solutions of ordinary differential equations. The outcome of the simulation both for a tourist and scientific suborbital flights has been achieved assuming appropriate values for performance and geometry parameters: trajectory obtained is a good approximation of real models. For a tourist mission the following

values are assumed (Table 4) and the resulting trajectory Bottomline of the process is the calculation of the is shown in Figure 15: tradeoff indexes for every configuration and the result is shown in Table 3. Table 4: Suborbital tourist mission data

Table 3: Tradeoff indexes for different cases

It is possible to see that the best configuration is the Air Launch with Carrier and Spaceplane, which is the one selected by Virgin Galactic. Primary importance is given to Safety, while complexity is less concerning since in the carrier configuration a relatively simple propulsion and propellant systems are used. If primary emphasys is on the cost, then the vertical launch solution is a better fit, due to already existing and consolidated technologies available.

4. Trajectories Simulations Considering the findings of the previous section where an Air Launched Spaceflight System has been identified as the preferred option for fulfilling a suborbital flight mission statement, a proper trajectory modeling has been performed considering as a reference the Virgin Galactic SpaceShipTwo and WhiteKnightTwo. In particular, two different missions have been considered, one aimed at space tourism and the second aimed at microgravity experimentation [15]. The main difference is that the touristic mission will achieve minor altitude such to be less stressfull for passengers in terms of flight loads. The scientific mission will achieve a higher altitude and a longer microgravity period to allow more time for Figure 15: Suborbital tourist mission profile experimentation and testing. The approach to the trajectory simulation mathematical model is based on For a scientific mission the only difference is the the rigid body model and point like mass model [7] that percentage of maximum thrust used during the burning takes into account aerodynamic forces, in terms of drag phase, in order to get to an higher altitude and take and lift, gravity force, considering a flat-Earth reference advantage of a longer time in microgravity; the relevant frame, thrust force, given by the propulsion system, data table and trajectory profile are shown in Table 5 mass loss, due to the aircraft fuel consumption. Special and Figure 16 respectively. care was also given to properly modeling the thrust, the aerodynamic forces and the air density. The numerical Table 5: Suborbital scientific mission data

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Figure 17: End to end operating cycle

A description of the main phases is herein provided:

The Mission Preparation phase can be considered as the first part of the mission and includes:

• Postflight inspection and checkout (from previous flight) • Vehicle configuration preparation, either tourist or scientific; • Payload preparation and integration; • Ground segment configuration preparation; • Crew and ground personnel training (including nominal and contingency missions simulation) as well as passengers; Figure 16: Suborbital scientific mission profile • Completion of process verification and certification for flight readiness; • Execution of Functional tests 5. Spaceport and Infrastructures The Pre Launch phase includes: 5.1 Operating Cycle • All the activities required to prepare the vehicle and The designated Spaceport for the specific suborbital the ground segment for flight; spaceflight system has to make available the appropriate • A preflight checkout to verify the correct behaviour of capabilities and infrastructures to properly support the all the subsystems and equipment (for flight and for entire operating cycle, in particular considering the ground as well); reusability of the system to match the expected market • Preflight runway operations; demand. The end-to-end operating cycle of a suborbital • Vehicle fuelling; spaceflight system [15] is described in Figure 17. • Depending on the mission, either scientific or tourist, experiments have to be installed or passengers boarded, as well as crew members. Launch-Ascent operations consists of: • Acquisition and assessment of external condition and weather condition to allow go for launch within the system performances and safety constraints; • Continuous monitoring of the vehicle telemetry before and during launch, as well as during ascent, in order to assess performances and safety conditions; • Continuous tracking of the vehicle; • Monitoring crew/flight participants conditions and continuous voice coordination with the crew;

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Flight Operations phase follows the shutdown of the • Climate and weather conditions (clouds, wind, rockets with subsequent start of the ballistic part of rain); the flight; it includes: • Socio demographics: these are qualitative variables in nature but can be significant to achieve final • Continuous monitoring of the telemetry to assess the determinations. For instance the presence of aerospace status of the vehicle; districts, the subsidiary activities, network of suppliers, • Continuous tracking and monitoring of the trajectory transport and communication, international airports and its propagationfor re-entry assessment; vicinity/accessibility and tourist attraction availability. • For a scientific mission: experiment execution and relative telemetry acquisition, monitoring and control; • Passengers microgravity experience, monitoring of passengers and crew conditions.

Reentry operations includes: • Continuous monitoring of the telemetry to assess the status of the vehicle; • Continuous assessment and forecast of the vehicle trajectory, also in case of planned controlled re-entry abort; • After landing, perform vehicle inspections and safing; • Continuous support to the crew and passengers during disembarking.

Post Mission Operations include: • Transportation of the vehicle in the turn-around area; • Storage and consolidation of the collected data; • For scientific flight: experiment removal from the vehicle; • Download crew and passengers items; Figure 18: Spaceport Requirements Categories • Mission performance assessment. Territorial requirements The turnaround phase consists of: • Spaceport has to be located in a low aerial • Vehicle physical inspection; traffic site in the area that also includes the • Maintenance activities execution; spaceplane release from the carrier. • Vehicle specific checkout; • Spaceport has to be located in a low residential • Replacement and retest of critical components (as site in the area between the spaceplane release landing pad and propulsion system) from the Carrier and the runaway. • Final preparation for next flight. • Spaceport area has to undergo an environmental impact assessment coordinated 5.2 Spaceport with local authorities. The methodology to assess a suitable airport is based on a specific set of requirements [16] and then to evaluate how the airport meets those requirements, as well as what may need to be improved. The initial Configuration and area requirements evaluation is based on a horizontal take off and landing • Runway minimum length (3000 meters) and suborbital space flight system, but it is expected that the altitude above sea level; Spaceport shall have to adapt to support different • Availability of He and N2O refuelling system applications such as allow landing of orbital platforms, at the Spaceport premises; satellite air launch or act as a Stratoport for HALTA • N2O refuelling and depot area safe distance; platforms. The main requirements fall in the following • Hangar dimensions; categories (Figure 18): • Runway availability for suborbital operations; • Airport area and surroundings (territory and • Spaceport has to feature facilities for crew, population density); passengers and ground support equipment; • Airport Configuration (runway length and altitude); • Spaceport shall accommodate suborbital spaceflight simulators;

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• Communication frequencies assigment has to spacecraft on orbit. For a suborbital flight we expect be agreed with the Air Traffic Control low altitudes, while for elevation angle it could range Authority; between low and high values depending on the position • Proper security procedures have to be put in of the spaceplane during the various phases of the place to fulfil ITAR requirements; mission with respect to the ground station.

Climatic Conditions requirements • Altitude of the lowest cloud system (Ceiling) during VFR approach and landing operations of the vehicle permitted by the Spaceport • Spaceport has to enable Instrumental Flight Rules with a Category 1 ILS • Allowed crosswind velocity at Spaceport premises • Maximum Wind Velocity at ground • Maximum Wind Velocity at the proper altitude • Maximum Wind Shear at the proper altitude • Spaceport location has to minimize fog conditions Figure 19: Coverage angle vs altitude and elevation angle Airspace • Flight operations have to take place at a proper For commercial applications, a Spaceport should distance f rom airways feature augmented Ground Station capabilities [17], • Spaceplane release from Carrier vehicle has to [18] with respect to only supporting suborbital flight take place in a segregated area without need to needs. A typical Ground Station should also include fly in IFR mode suitable capabilities of tracking and operating specific 5.3 The Ground Station flight segments and in particular (LEO) The Ground station provides space to ground small Satellites, cubesats and orbital reentry vehicles, communication with the spaceplane. The Ground acquiring the relevant telemetry and storing it for post Station selection process in terms of both technical mission processing. The Ground Station should operate specifications and positioning at the Spaceport largely in S (2-4 GHz), X (7-11GHz) bands. The possibility to depends on the suborbital flight trajectory with the goal extend download capability to KA (26.5-40 GHz) Band of providing trajectory tracking and receival of vehicle will also be evaluated. The Ground Station shall have telemetry during the entire mission. Usually only one downlink capability in all these bands and uplink Ground Station is sufficient to the purpose even if future capability on S band. This Ground Station is also technology evolutions like point to point, antipodal required to fit within the low cost nanosatellite commercial flight will certainly require a network of framework while providing support for multiple multiple Ground Stations. Further, an important aspect to be evaluated in the presence of physical obstacles that missions. In fact, to meet this requirements, the ground can be detrimental to the Ground Station performance, station is designed to be modular so that future upgrades in particular at low elevation angles. Generally studying would have minimal impact on the other subsystems. spacecraft trajectory it's possible to determine the The Ground station consists of a antenna dish, a set of required coverage angle which allows communication R/F sources, an XY positioner and equipment necessary between the vehicle and the ground station. For for receiving, transmitting and recording data (including example, for a satellite on orbit around the Earth, the a GPS receiver for location and time synchronization of scheme can be: In particular coverage angle depends on the station). The equipment will be integrated into racks spacecraft altitude and elevation angle, according to and is completely controllable via station-supervising Figure 19, in which different curves are obtained workstations. The Ground Station shall also feature an varying the altitude and the elevation angle (between 5 Operation Centre to properly perform the relevant and 30 degrees): In order to have elevated visibility time activities. The Operation Centre includes all the an high altitude is desirable; but this is applicable for a equipment needed to perform the required mission

D6,3,4, x 49579 Page 11 of 15 70th International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Washington D.C., United States, 21-25 October 2019. Copyright ©2019 by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). All rights reserved. operations for the designated vehicle or satellite. In particular, proper displays will be available for 5. Economic and organizational aspects performing the telemetry monitoring functions and The present section addresses general organizational manage the Ground Station operations. The Ground aspects in support to the development of sustainable Station shall feature proper supervision capability to commercial spaceflight initiatives evolving in the new provide controlling and monitoring of the entire station, space economy market; it is evident that growing communities of users have a need for microgravity including configuration of equipment, automatic testing access for multiple applications and this not only of system performance, event recording, antenna involves the commercial suborbital spaceflight [19], but positions and information related to tracking during a other platforms like nano satellites for different . This supervision ensures automatic recovery of applications, orbital services to payloads, or orbital information (e.g. from a server or from stratospheric platforms. It is now necessary to bring websites), controlling and organizing the timetable of these parties together through the setup of specific satellite passes (application of defined priorities, service and organizational model aimed at providing to calculating pointing data for the Program Track mode.) the users a turn-key service to offer access to a wide An example of Ground Station Architecture range of platforms and provide the best match end-to- including all subsystems and possible hardware end package of services for their Payloads & configuration is shown in Figure 20. experiments; such services cover each key step of the process, from initial interactions to evaluation of the user’s needs, selection of the most appropriate platform, ground and flight operations, retrieval operations, thus allowing faster and easier way to access and exploit microgravity. Further, the new space economy is strongly focused on the upstream and downstream segments [20]. The upstream segment includes all activities that focus on the design, manufacture, assembly, launch, functioning, maintenance, monitoring and repair of spacecraft to be sent out to space as well as the products and services related to them; the downstream segment refers to all activities that employ data and knowledge that are derived from the space for Earth-related objectives as well as the products and services that support them. The upstream segment can Figure 20: Example of Ground Station Architecture be seen as the provision of , whereas the downstream segment can be seen as the exploitation The high rate received data can be stored and of space technology. distributed through a dedicated recording system. The Typical users include scientific institutions, industry, station can be operated manually via a user-friendly public institutions and private people. In detail, the man-machine interface or in fully automated mode, with following services may be included: the possibility of remote monitoring and maintenance. • Assessment of experiment and client requirements to The main Ground Station subsystems including antenna determine the best match; are shown in Figure 21. • Logistics services to transport the experimental payload to/from the Spaceport; • Integration services to ensure the payload can operate as expected aboard the selected platform; • Contractual services to ensure all legal, regulatory are fully met: • Consultation services to tailor current and future client needs to specific flight services.

In order to develop sustainable commercial spaceflight initiatives, once the Main Spaceport Tenant (which can be identified as the end–to-end service provider) identifies the suitable platform based upon the Figure 21: Ground Station Subsystems relevant user needs, it is necessary to determine the

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Operations/Services (O/S) and related delivering organizations (suppliers, contractors). In fact, in the new space economy the O/S market evolution is calling for a new articulation of delivering organizations ranging between hierarchy (O/S performed by the main spaceport tenant) and pure market (O/S delivered by a supplier/contractor). Operations/Services (O/S) are technically identified when needs and platform are known. Then, the nature of the O/S has an impact on how all the stakeholders involved at the spaceport level are organized. Further, the nature of the O/S has an impact in the organizational choice of all the stakeholders involved at the spaceport level. To analyse these aspects, the nature of the O/S has to be examined from the point of view of the involved transaction cost (economics), in order to evaluate the most appropriate organization and relationship between demanding and supplying organizations. The following considerations are based on the Theory of Transaction Costs [21] that provides the proper background in determining when activities would occur within the market and when they would Using this approach, O/S should be internalized occur within the enterprise. More specifically, (hierarchy) when low frequency, high uncertainty, and transaction cost theory predicts when the governance highly specific assets occur for the transaction. On the forms of hierarchies, markets, or hybrids (e.g., alliances) contrary, O/S that has to be externalized by the main will be used; in particular, when transaction governance spaceport tenant can be recognized, corresponding to costs are high, internalizing the transaction within a the market organization model. Types of transaction in hierarchy is the appropriate decision. Conversely, when between the two extreme cases (hierarchy or market) transaction governance costs are low, buying the good require hybrid organizational models where agreement or service on the market was the preferred option. with different level of partnership (i.e., alliance, Three dimensions were developed for characterizing consortium) has to be designed between main spaceport transactions: frequency, uncertainty (technological and tenant and the delivering organization. commercial) of the delivered operation/service, The approach also suggests who is better to take in specificity involved in the transaction. With reference to charge the investment as high asset specificity call for the operating cycle described in Subsection 5.1, if we public investments (and organization) in order to avoid restrict the evaluation to the suborbital flight, with opportunistic behavior and market failure. reference in particular to the Virgin Galactic suborbital spaceflight system operations, an initial assessment is 6. Future applications shown in Table 6, where the delivered A spaceport shall be regarded as an asset open to operations/services are associated with the future technology evolutions; in particular, future corresponding type of dimension and the key involved generation transportation system [22] able to transport stakeholders. cargo and passengers between different points on Earth at a much reduced transfer time is attracting more interest and is triggering several studies. The evolution of the suborbital flight to a point to point requires accurate studies focused of different aspects like Table 6: Example of transaction type and stakeholders aerothermodynamics, thermal protection and propulsion for suborbital spaceflight mission processing systems. Moreover in the future a single Spaceport may evolve into a network of Spaceports that act like airports. According to UBS estimations, the point-to- point market prediction is around $ 20 Bln by 2030 competing with long distance airline flight. For sure key success factor for the development of point-to-point suborbital transportation is the availability of a network of properly featured Spaceports to allow the operations preparation and execution, a proper harmonized

D6,3,4, x 49579 Page 13 of 15 70th International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Washington D.C., United States, 21-25 October 2019. Copyright ©2019 by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). All rights reserved. regulatory framework and of course cost competitiveness. Other future application regards the [7] Assem M. F. Sallam, Ah. El-S. Makled: Two-Stage satellites air launch, which consists of a carrier aircraft Launch Vehicle Trajectory Modeling for Low Earth that transports and releases at about 15.000 meters of Orbit Applications, (2017) altitude a totally expandable multi-stage small launcher featuring the satellite to be placed on orbit. Depending of the specific system, the launch can occurin the speed [8] F. Santoro, A. Bellomo, A. Del Bianco, N.Viola, R. range Mach 0.8-1.2. Even though the Spaceport Fusaro, F. De Vita, Approach to Development of requirements for suborbital flight still fit the satellite air Commercial Spaceport and associated Ground launch operations scenario, specific facilities have to be Segment driven by specific spaceplane vehicle and considered such as launcher and payload assembly and mission operation requirements, IAC-15, D6.3.1, integration and propellant loading provisions. The 66th International Astronautical Congress, Jerusalem, concept of a multi functional spaceport has to include Israel, October 12-16, 2015. such functionalities.

7. Conclusions [9] Final Environmental Assessment for the Launch and The main conclusions of the study may be presented Reentry of SpaceShipTwo Reusable Suborbital in a short Conclusions section, which may stand alone Rockets at the Mojave Air and Space Port May 2012 or form a subsection of a Discussion or Results and Discussion section. [10] Virgin Galactic. vehicles fact sheet. Technical report, Virgin Galactic, 2018. References [11]https://www.blueorigin.com/new-shepard/(accessed August 29th, 2019) [1] F.Santoro, A. Del Bianco, N.Viola, R.Fusaro, V.Albino, G.Ferrari, N. Romanelli, Spaceports selection and outfitting: a challenge for providing [12] Snc Selects Ula For Dream Chaser® Spacecraft wide range opportunities and operating services to Launches, August 14th, 2019 (accessed August 28th commercial space activities,IAC-18-D6.3,4,x42392- 2019); https://www.sncorp.com/press-releases/snc- 69th International Astronautical Congress, Bremen, ula-dream-chaser-launch-announcement/ Germany, 2018, 1-5 October. [13] ESA Space Transportation, Space Rider, 22 May [2] Spaceport America Business Plan 2016-2020, 2019,https://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Transp Bringing the future to present- ortation/Space_Rider (acccessed August 28 2019) www.spaceportamerica.com [14] M. Hempsell, R. Longstaff, Skylon User’s Manual, [3] R. Branson, Virgin Galactic is moving to New Rev1, September 2009, Mexico, May, 10 2019 https://web.archive.org/web/20100216183835/http:// https://www.virgin.com/richard-branson/virgin- www.reactionengines.co.uk/downloads/SKYLON_ galactic-moving-new-mexico User_%20Manual_rev1%5B3%5D.pdf (accessed August 29th 2019) [4] F. Santoro, A.Bellomo, A.Bolle, R.Vittori, The Italian Spacegate: study and innovative approaches [15] Santoro, F. Del Bianco A., Viola N., Fusaro R., to future generation transportation based on high Albino V., Binetti M., Marzioli P., Spaceport and altitude flight, Acta Astronautica Volume Ground Segment assessment for enabling 101, August–September 2014, Pages 98-110. Operations of suborbital transportation systems in the Italian territory, Acta Astronautica September [5] Federal Aviation Administration, The annual 1st 2018, 10.1016/j.actaastro.2018.08.014 Compendium of Commercial Space Transportation: 2018

[6] N.Viola, R. Fusaro, High level requirements impacts [16] Santoro, F. Del Bianco A., Viola N., Fusaro R., on configuration tradeoff analyses in a Albino V., Binetti M., Moretti F., Advances in multidisciplinary integrated conceptual design Italian Spaceports identification as Infrastructures methodology, AIAA-2018-4134, Aviation Forum, for suborbital flight activities and mission profiles, 25-29 June 2018, Atlanta, USA D6.2-D2.9 67th International Astronautical

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Congress, Guadalajara, Mexico, 2016, 26th -30th September

[17] F. Santoro, A. Bellomo, A. Del Bianco, N.Viola, R. Fusaro, F. De Vita, Approach to Development of Commercial Spaceport and associated Ground Segment driven by specific spaceplane vehicle and mission operation requirements, IAC-15, D6.3.1, 66th International Astronautical Congress, Jerusalem,

Israel, October 12-16, 2015.

[18] Santoro, F. Del Bianco A., Viola N., Fusaro R., Albino V., Binetti M., Marzioli P., Spaceport and Ground Segment assessment for enabling operations of suborbital transportation systems in the Italian territory, Acta Astronautica September 1st 2018, 10.1016/j.actaastro.2018.08.014.

[19] Dr. Olympia Natalia Kyriopoulos, A Competitive Way To Access Microgravity: Suborbital Space,

IAC-15-A2.5.8, 66th International Astronautical Congress, Jerusalem, Israel

[20] G.Strada: Growing the Space Economy: the Downstream segment as a driver, May 2018

[21] O. Williamson, The economic institutions of capitalism, the Free Press 1985

[22] F. Santoro, C. Romanelli, Infrastructures And Operations For A Commercially Sustainable Suborbital Spaceflight Initiative And Future Developments In th Italian Territory, Italian Association of Aeronautics and Astronautics, XXV International Congress, Rome Italy,

9-12 September 2019

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