st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece
PAPERS, Saturday 24/10/2020, Room A
15 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece
16 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece
REFUGEE CAMP SHELTER AND NEIGHBORHOOD PLANNING METHODOLOGY BASED ON ENVIRONMENTAL CRITERIA E. Valli1, D. Zavraka1, N. Hatzidakis2 1School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece 2International Hellenic University, 57001, Thérmi, Thessaloniki, Greece ([email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT The purpose of this dissertation is the study of the refugee phenomenon and how it affects spatially each refugee settlement area, as well as the design proposal of a bioclimatic and low‐ energy consumption neighborhood typology and the individual shelters that make it up. It should be emphasized that, in fact, this research is not just a neighborhood typology that is proposed but the methodology based on which it could be adapted to any camp. The methodology followed is as follows: Initially, the refugee phenomenon was studied, existing camps in Greece and abroad and research was done on the characteristics that make a camp functional. In addition, various examples of refugee accommodation, the traditional architecture of refugee countries, as well as conventional bioclimatic buildings were studied. That way resulted the design proposal of the typical neighborhood‐community and the typologies of accommodation. At the same time, in terms of accommodation, two completely different materials are proposed, which serve different needs. As a result, the present research is a guide that can in the future contribute to the creation of camps that offer better living conditions to their residents while meeting the criteria of environmental planning, after analyzing one by one the parameters that will be addressed on a case by case basis, combining and utilizing information and knowledge from different fields.
KEYWORDS bioclimatic, sustainable architecture, refugee accommodation, emergency shelters, planning
settlements exist. 1. INTRODUCTION Although the design of a functional and good The purpose of this dissertation is the design refugee camp seems like a separate field of proposal of a basic bioclimatic and with knowledge, in fact it is a simple synthesis of reduced energy needs neighborhood typology knowledge that already exists architects. and the individual shelters that constitute it as More specifically, it is necessary to synthesize well. Furthermore it regards the study of the knowledge concerning: urban planning, the refugee and immigration phenomenon and design and implementation of emergency how it affects the space where refugee accommodation, the lifestyle characteristics of
17 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece the countries that refugees originate from, as and ventilation during the summer and well as the characteristics of their traditional adequate natural light during the whole year) architecture, the characteristics of bioclimatic Shelters with good construction materials architecture buildings and open spaces, the (adequate insulation of accommodation, existing required specifications of UNHCR etc. sufficient shell heat capacity, good exploitation That way, the research methodology was and adaptation to temperature changes of the developed, based on which the design of a external environment) typical neighborhood‐community and the individual shelters that make it up, occurred. Proper design of shelters (transitional The exact route that was followed is analysed shelters that offer a decent type of living during below. the stay and not just a survival, ensure the residents’ privacy, designed according to the
lifestyle of the countries of origin of the 2. METHODOLOGY inhabitants) Firstly, the refugee phenomenon was studied Urban planning (Urban planning as in any and the basic characteristics of the global city ‐ there is the concept of neighborhood that refugee crisis were clarified, how it is reflected favors the creation of communities between in Greece and the processes related to it, as people, spatial hierarchy: shelter well as numbers, origin, age, gender, length of 18 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece emergency shelter that can be used for a few At the same time, data from the study of days and provides a simple survival and standard bioclimatic housing complexes were protection from severe weather conditions. used for the design and selection of passive In addition to understanding the three systems, the relationship of building volumes categories of refugee accommodation, the between them, the orientation, location and study of examples of refugee housing revealed size of openings for natural ventilation and other individual characteristics and ideas that solar gain. were applied to the design proposal. It is worth Finally, the study of the traditional architecture noting the example of Super Adobe, a refugee and architectural typologies of Syria, which is shelter built from earth under the supervision the main country of origin of the refugees, of the UNHCR in Iraq. At the same time, soil is revealed something very important: the social the basic material in the traditional characteristics and the characteristics of the architecture of the Middle East. Through the culture and lifestyle that led to the formation study of many more types of accommodation of the basic housing typologies in Syria during of natural construction, the proposal of the 1st the 19th century. These characteristics are very version of materials of the proposed typology, common in most Middle Eastern countries and which almost entirely consists of natural are very important elements to consider when materials, arised. Other accommodations that designing accommodation and refugee have inspired the typology of the settlements. The correlation of the traditional accommodation and the neighborhood include architecture of the Middle East with the the Transitional Community, a Sri Lankan proposed accommodations will be presented in system of 17 houses for families affected by more detail below: the tsunami, and the Solar Cabin, a bioclimatic transitional accommodation for refugees in the Netherlands. In addition, the Hub, which is a prefabricated unit with bathroom, kitchen, heating and Internet, for fast conversion of empty non‐ residential buildings into habitable with the idea of “box in a box”, can be used in the proposal to standardize the construction of the bathroom and the kitchen and the simultaneous provision of additional facilities, such as heating, Internet, sockets, air conditioning, etc., to save time when assembling the construction. Finally, the influence of Y: Cube was remarkable with the logic of modular construction and height expansion according to the number of people who needed hosting. Table 1. Comparison of basic features of the traditional architecture of the countries of origin of Figure 1. The Hub refugees (Middle East) with the proposed Figure 2. Y: Cube accommodation 19 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece dimensions of the yard, were decided on the 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION basis that no shelter throws shadow on the others during the winter, in order to ensure the As referred above, the research is related to maximum solar gain while taking into account the study of a design methodology of a the ground’s inclination as well. neighborhood typology and the shelter typologies it consists of. This typology can be 4. The number of buildings that will exist in applied to any camp with modifications. In each neighborhood was decided based on the order to be accomplished, the research’s grid of 2.5 meters. Since there were two basic chosen case study is the space that houses the typologies of accommodation, (the ground existing refugee camp of Moria. As for the floor and the two‐storey),their width was made design methodology the following applies: to be a multiple of one number, in the current phase of 2.5m. So, the ground floor buildings Regarding the location and separation of the have an external dimension 3x2.5 = 7.5 meters residents of the camp according to their gender while the two‐storey 2X2.5 = 5 meters. and age, it is emphasized that each group lives in a building block fenced by the other residents, where each building block consists of at least one neighborhood. In the neighborhood people can develop their social life and have their own personal space, since in their countries of origin it is common for a large part of a family's activities to take place outdoors. Figure 4. Typical plan of the neighborhood– Shadow at 21/12 at 3pm 3.1. Typical neighborhood design methodology The design methodology is as follows: 1. The buildings are oriented to have a south orientation and to ensure solar gain during the winter months 2. The direction of the roads is based on the prevailing winds, in order to be parallel to them, so that there is good air circulation and adequate ventilation of all accommodation throughout the year, without facing the north sides of the accommodation during the winter months. Figure 5. Diagram of basic building block typologies Each neighborhood‐community consists of 15 shelters for six inhabitants (90 inhabitants). However, if there is a need to accommodate a larger population, there is the possibility of growth, which can lead to up to 24 accommodations (144 inhabitants) per neighborhood. The above typology is considered the best in terms of the combination of positive Figure 3. Ventilation diagram of a building block bioclimatic feature according to the weather 3. The distance of the buildings and conditions of Lesvos. However, with the same consequently the width of the streets and the criteria, more typologies can emerge. 20 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 3.2. Typical shelters design methodology As for accommodation (shelter) typologies, the two main ones are A, which is two‐storey and B, which is ground floor. What needs to be understood is that as in the case of the neighborhood, in the case of shelters, the suggested typologies can have variations. More specifically, two versions of different materials are proposed, each with different wall Figure 7. Type A‐ Ventilation diagram thicknesses. What matters is that regardless of • Solar greenhouse in the southern part, the thickness of the walls, the external which opens ‐ is removed in summer dimensions of the shelters must be in accordance with the grid that was decided, in • Large south opening / Small north this case 5 and 7.5 meters, and the change of • Shallow depth for natural light thickness must be done internally. • Shades for external shading of the openings Each accommodation can accommodate a • Solar water heaters on the roof for Hot family of six. The accommodation is either two‐ Water storey with a loft (types A, A1), which is used only for sleeping, or ground floor (types B, B1). • Walls, floor and ceiling with high thermal In this case the beds are bunk beds and are resistance and heat capacity materials. isolated from the rest of the space with • Cross ventilation using a ventilation tower and movable curtains. The same is true on the window to the north of the attic second floor, where the beds are also • Cover over the large south opening for sun separated by curtains so that the parents can protection in summer be separated from the children or the boys from the girls. Each accommodation has a • Planting with deciduous trees, about 7 kitchenette for preparing a small meal, a meters high, that provide shade during the bathroom, a living room and a desk that can be summer months while allowing the sun's rays used by family members. to reach the openings in winter. The proposed shelters have bioclimatic characteristics which are as follows: Figure 6. Type B‐ Solar diagram Figure 8. Type B‐ Bioclimatic characteristics Table 2. Shelter Typologies 21 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece of the mezzanine will be standardized and will be based on a frame that will be repeated . This version, although more time consuming, is more environmentally friendly, as mud which is the material with the least possible energy content and which leaves the smallest possible environmental footprint, will be used for the exterior walls of the accommodation. This is also the lowest cost option, which is especially important in the case of refugee accommodation, as it is often not possible to have the right resources. The downside is that due to the non‐standardization of the external load‐bearing walls, it is more time consuming to implement. It is reported that such trees will be planted throughout the yard, creating angles under The second version is more standard, less time which people can sit during the summer consuming but with more cost and energy months when the sun is not desirable. Due to content of materials, but at the same time, it the fact that they are deciduous they will not has the flexibility to be implemented in more block the sun in the yard during the winter types of soils and lead to a wider application of months when the sun is desirable in the open the above neighborhood typology around the spaces. world. In this version, the key is to choose materials that will ensure sufficient thermal Regarding the floor materials of the outdoor resistance in the building shell, while at the areas, it is stated that most of the common same time they will have a high heat capacity, yard will be covered with compacted soil, while so that it can store energy in its mass and the private courtyards of the accommodations deliver it to the interior with a time delay. In and some traffic corridors are paved with order to increase the heat capacity of the light cobblestones, which have soil underneath. construction, water containers will be placed, These are water‐permeable materials that can which will have the ability to empty and refill absorb large amounts of water, preventing every few months through a notch accessible floods during periods of heavy rainfall. At the from the outside so that bacteria will not be same time, thanks to the evaporation of water, collected in the water. It is emphasized that the it helps to drop the temperature during the floor of the house will not be in contact with summer months during a period of rainfall. The the ground to avoid moisture and will be a few existence of two fountains, which release jets centimeters away, based on four above‐ground of water through a floor grate, contributes to bedrocks. This allows the shelters to be set up this as well. anywhere without the need of large 3.3. Material selection methodology excavations as in the first version of materials. Regarding the materials, two different materials are proposed, which serve completely different needs, but in both cases the buildings will be bioclimatic and will have low energy needs. The first version will be made with natural construction. More specifically, the walls will be made of unbaked mud with the appropriate clay content while the windows, doors, bathroom, roof and floor 22 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Table 3. Shelter construction materials factor, construction materials will be decided Shelter construction materials (external walls) on a case by case basis. 1st version 2nd version It is worth noting that this guide can in the future contribute to the creation of refugee 1.Lime‐cement mortar 1.Cement board (1.2 cm) (1 cm.) 2. Extruded polystyrene camps that offer better living conditions to 2. Unbaced clay mud (6 cm) their residents while meeting the criteria of (48 cm) 3. Polycarbonate with environmental planning. The parameters are 3. Lime mortar (1 cm) water (25.8 cm) analysed one by one in the order that will be 4.Cement board (1.2 cm) addressed in each case, combining utilizing Wall 50 cm (up to Wall 34 cm. information and knowledge from different thickne 2 floors) thick fields, such as the refugee issue, how to ness ss 75 cm (3 organize a refugee camp, the necessary floors) specifications, environmental planning U U 0.446 W / 0.081 W / principles, types of shelters and more. value (m ∙ K) value (m ∙ K) (wall 50 cm thickness) REFERENCES [1] Douglas Farr, 2008, Sustainable Urbanism: Urban Design with Nature, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New Jersey [2] Edwards Brian, 1998, Green Buildings Pay, E & FN Spon, London [3] Haas T., Sustainable Urbanism and Beyond, 2012, Rizzoli International Publications [4] Hastings Robert & Wall Maria, 2007, Figure 9. Typical neighborhood with minimum Sustainable Solar Housing 2: Exemplary Buildings height and Technologies, Earthscan Publications Ltd. [5] Pronkhorst A., Provost M. & Vastinphout W., 2019, City of Comings and Goings, Crimson/nai019 publishers, Rotterdam [6] Thames and Hudson, 2006, Design like you give a damn: Architectural responses to Humanitarian crises, Metropolis Books [7] Woolley Tom, 2006, Natural Building: A guide to Materials and Techniques, The Crowood Press Ltd, Ramsbury, Marlborough Figure 10. Moria refugee camp ‐ Indicative Proposal [8] Minke Gernot, 2006, Building with Earth: Design and Technology of a Sustainable Architecture, Birkhauser, Berlin 4. CONCLUSIONS [9] Minke Gernot, 2000, Earth Construction In conclusion, from the above it becomes clear Handbook: The Building Material Earth in Modern that thanks to the detailed presentation of the Architecture, WITTress, Southampton, Boston methodology, the proposed typologies can [10] Badawy, Salha, Jawabrah, Jarada & Hawajri, have variations per case in order to better Urban planning analyses of refugee camps, Jabalia adapt to environmental conditions. Also, as case study‐Gaza strip, Palestine, 2015, depending on whether in each case, the time, International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) construction cost, environmental footprint, or ISSN (Online): 2319‐7064, Online Available: other parameters are the most important https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Muai 23 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece n_Jawabrah2 for‐people‐in‐the‐mediterranean‐ sea/#about [11] Dalal Α., Darweesh Α., Misselwitz Ρ. & [14] Solaripedia, A Water Wall Solar Design Steigemann Α., Planning the Ideal Refugee Camp? A Manual, [Online] Available: Critical Interrogation of Recent Planning https://www.solaripedia.com/files/472.pdf Innovations in Jordan and Germany, 2018, Volume [15] [UNHCR],The UN Refugee Agency, RHU 1.2, 3, Issue 4, Pages 64–78, Online Available: [Online] Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/up.v3i4.1726 https://www.unhcr.org/5c1127d24 [12] RehabiMed, European Comission (MEDA‐ EUROMED HERITAGE) & Corpus Levant, Traditional Syrian Architecture, [Online] Available: http://www.rehabimed.net/ [13] Moha Research Center, Exhibition: Sheltering Humanity, [Online] Available: https://www.moha.center/portfolio/exhibiti on‐ sheltering‐humanity‐emergency‐hosting‐ proposals‐ 24 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece SENSE OF PLACE: FOREST, SOCIAL IDENTITIES AND ECOTOURISM ON THE PARNITHA MOUNTAIN D. Koumparou and E. Zervas School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT This study is concerned with the sense of place – the special connection that people of Acharnes city had with place, the forest and the mountain of Parnitha. It outlines how people perceived, understood and related to this mountain and forest, which they were visiting for their leisure activities for almost a century, every summer. It reveals how the sense of place encompass the sense of belonging to a community, analyzing collective representations that structure the “imaginary” of mountain Pranitha and its forest. The place‐based values and locality having contributed to the emerge of a different peculiar type of ecotourism in the beginning of 20th century in a suburb of Attiki, in Greece, until the first decade of 21st century. “The big fire of Parnitha” destroyed not only the mountain and the forest, but also demolish the sense of place and this form of ecotourism. KEYWORDS Sense of place; Ecotourism; Forest Imaginary; Social Identities; Commons; Emotional geography citizens of Acharnes city. Place and its 1. INTRODUCTION connotations are continually intertwined into the fabric of social life, anchoring it to services Place is more than location, including the of the landscape [2]. This socio‐ ecological natural, built, and social environments, system specifies the patterns of emotions, values norms, behaviors. Sense of interrelationship and co‐evolution [3‐5] of place denotes the sense of belonging, socially community and nature This socio‐ ecological and emotionally through attachment and system that established on Parnitha mountain [1] collective identity to a certain place . Sense of has a “permanent” seasonal performance for place encompasses natural, social and cultural almost a century. landscapes, community organization and place identity and is constructed on emotional and cognitive dimensions of place. The vacationer 2. METHODOLOGY “tourists” of Parnitha construct a socio‐ This work based on oral history, formal and ecological system and the resource and services informal archives and interviews, explores the (mountain, forest and tourism) are deeply unique configurations of historically layered connected to the cultural and emotional social relations which intersect within and variables of the space. Ecosystems carry a between the mountain and its forest. The strong emotional weight, rooted in the cultural writers focus on individual’s emotional motivations historically constructed by offered intimacy, practice and experience, memories services of the mountain and its forest to the and reminiscenceswho were spending their 25 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece summers on the mountain and forest of inescapably, has an impact on environmental Parnitha. Except for phenomenological governance, resource use, attitudes or approach the writers pay attention to the behaviors towards a resource. Our case study social networks that constructed a sui generis reveals that the eco‐tourism of Parnitha is a community. The social and cultural experiences part of the social process and reflects the value that are gained on Parnitha mountain and moral systems of the society. Ecotourism constitute the collective sense of place. on the Parnitha mountain as a social practice Qualitative research contributes to the that ended abruptly by the forest fire in 2007‐ accretion of social experiences of a defined is much different in his organization from the place constructing the sense of place. The data contemporary concept of ecotourism. Visitors were collected through in‐depth interviews and and guests are simultaneously the same. On personal notes conducted with interlocutors the mountain, every summer a community is who have spent their summers at least for 15 emerged. This community organize the social years on the Parnitha mountain. The ages of life of vacationer “tourists” and at the same interlocutors ranged from 40 to 85 years old. time organize the functions and the services of Archives, written evidence and visual the mountain and its forest. A social ecological documents were examined and analyzed. system is evolved intensively every summer and a commons function in a stable seasonal time. This commons is organize in a protected area and the principle of lex loci is applied exclusively. By studying the ‘representation’ of the forest in practices of ecotourism, the social construction of the forest is studying and a comprehensive narrative of the sense of place and a commons is attempted. This work focuses on the perspective of nature in the community, on the perception and operation of the concept of ‘collective ownership’ under Source: Commemorative Book of Camps in Parnitha the power of different institutional contexts Athens, 1940 and economic settings. It reconstructs the ‘image’ that the community develops about the place ‐ in time ‐ under different economic, 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION social and political realities. The Forest is not This study reveals that that a differentiated only a natural resource for the citizens of practice of modern ecotourism was exercised Acharnes, but also a cultural and social from the beginning of the 20th century in resource, offering a form of recreational Acharnes city in Attiki region. Although, ecotourism, based on historic bonds. historically, the term ‘ecotourism’ introduced in 80s describe the nature‐tourism nexus. The writers argue that there is a nexus between ecotourism and the sense of place and the Pranitha’s summer camp of the dwellers of Acharnes city prove this rigorously. On the other hand the sense of place is a key‐ concept as it identifies how people perceive a place, how they value it, whether they protect or disregard, improve or deteriorate it, and whether they choose to abuse it for their low‐ term interest. Therefore, the sense of place, 26 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece belongings to the mountain construct the ‘sense’ of place. This destroyed nexus is what the Acharnes dwellers have missed and crave. Parnitha mountain and its forest are cultural resources, function as a matrix of hospitality for the local population, in which principles, norms, values, behaviors and actions are moved from the city to the mountain every summer. The property status and the organization regime does not affect the place 'distribution'. The sense of place, the citizens attachment to Parnitha mountain relates to the “everydayness” and feelings of continuousness and familiarity. Source: Historical and Folklore Society of Acharnes, 5. REFERENCES Parnitha 1931 [1] Wise, N., 2015, Placing Sense of Community. Journal of Community Psychology 43 (7), 920–929. 4. CONCLUSIONS [2] Feld, S., Bass, K., (eds) 1996, Senses of Place. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, The connection between nature and society, 1996. p57. between the citizens of Acharnes city and the Parnitha mountain was strong for a long time, [3] Takacs, D., 1996, The Idea of Biodiversity. over a century. Throughout history the Philosophies of Paradise. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press. mountain and its forest supported the near forest community in many ways. When the [4] Van Koppen, A., 2009 Restoring Nature in a mountain and forest products were not Mobile Society in M. Drenthen, J. Keulartz, & J. economically effective the dwellers of the Proctor (eds.), New Visions of Nature: Complexity and Authenticity Acharnes city discover the leisure value of the . Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 229–236. mountain. Through this practice and [5] Koumparou, D., 2019, Commons as a socio‐ experience – the practice of ecotourism‐a new ecological system: The case of Ranti forest on Icaria meaning is given to the mountain. This appeal island. Geographies 34, 98‐113 (in Greek) to the citizens fosters a sense of belonging. Forest, mountain, the social and communal experiences through that differentiated ecotourism reveal that the connections and 27 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 28 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece ORAL HISTORY ‐ THE CITY OF KIFISSIA – ENVIROMENTAL ISSUES I. Maropaki, L. Vatikiotis Hellenic Open University ([email protected]) ABSTRACT Oral history is a little‐known practice in Greece. Moreover, the usefulness of this methodology in dealing with ecological and environmental disasters is completely unknown. The present work, which forms part of a network of related theses with innovative themes of the Hellenic Open University, attempts to create for the first time a primary historical source, based on the collective memory focused on a Greek city, in this case, Kifissia. Guided by the basic theoretic literature and having as an asset only the adoration for her city and some rudimentary equipment, a civil engineer receives, transcripts, presents, and as far as possible, interprets eleven interviews with ordinary people that the official history would have probably ignored. Starting from the limited local literature, the researcher seeks out unknown information about the natural environment, the local infrastructure and the human factor, attempting to illuminate unknown aspects of the most famous, oldest and most beautiful suburb of the city of Athens. The vision is not only to preserve the memory of these people but also to highlight the possibility, or rather the necessity, of the scientific processing of this memory and the integration of its results into the current decision‐making structures for the development of cities, the protection of their comparative advantages and the elimination of the risk of their downfall. The younger generation who respects their city are due to learn and embrace the idealized memory of the oldest. The necessary tools are there. KEYWORDS Oral History, Kifissia, Local Environmental Policy locally on the Municipality of Kifissia, Attica and 1. INTRODUCTION thematically on the environment, the infrastructure and the people. Its purpose is to The value of oral history lies in the fact that it demonstrate the potential of oral history as a leads historians to realize that their activity methodology for preserving and interpreting takes place in a context, more "social" in the collective memory of the people of a city, nature, than that of "political", traditional incorporating this knowledge into current history. Furthermore, the literature decision‐making structures, in order to protect demonstrates many cases of using collective it. Kifissia is a typical example of a city with a memory to repair an ecological disaster in a history and comparative advantages that are particular area. worth protecting. The aim of the dissertation is to offer a methodological collection, procedure and synthesis of oral history data, which focus 29 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 2. METHODOLOGY and his own constructions with its social history. The methodology of the work was based on the teachings of Paul Thompson (2008) and Lynn Abrams (2014) as well as a series of 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION selected articles. Conducting the interviews 3.1. Kifissia through the official data required a preliminary preparation with an overview of the limited literature on the city This chapter examines the history of Kifissia as and the drafting of an initial questionnaire. The it emerges from official data. It also presents its narrators were sought through the close family history from antiquity and then to the Roman and friendly environment and through contact and the Byzantine era, the Venetian and the with a Municipal Councillor who suggested Turkish occupations and finally, the modern suitable interviewees. era, after liberation, with their individual stages, each of which contributes to its Making the interviews was a difficult process. character as a luxury resort. The adaptation of the questionnaire to each different narrator, the understanding of its It is not insignificant that Kifissia was the place peculiar characteristics and limits, its of recreation of emperors, conquerors of all treatment, the creation of trust, the kinds and kings but also the place of presentation and explanation of the purpose of establishment of aristocrats and, later, well‐to‐ the work, the polite keeping of the narrator's do representatives of the bourgeoisie, thought in the context of interest (but without especially expatriates, followed by the recommending his oppression), the equal necessary followers, craftsmen and service conversation, the indication of appreciation to personnel. them, they each needed special attention. The modern urban history of Kifissia begins in Recording and archiving the audiovisual 1882 when it is connected by rail to Athens and material was the most painful stage. Especially continues, initially, with continuous inclusion of the transcription of the recordings was the surrounding areas in the city plan, which will be most time‐consuming work as every ten presented in detail. The current enlargement of minutes record required about an hour of Kifissia is a result of the last quarter of the 20th trascription. The time pressure made it century. The “fully detached” buildings necessary to simultaneously mix up interviews, development system is a savior for the recordings, trascriptions and syntax, instead of environmental character of Kifissia the more logical completion of each stage 3.2 Kifissia through the interviews‐Natural before the following one. Environment Presenting the interviews follows the model of This chapter of the paper is devoted to the "reminiscence" ‐according to Abrams‐, leaving informative details deriving from the the narrators to speak for themselves, and to a interviews regarding the natural environment. lesser extent, the model of "interpretation". In The words of the narrators are redistributed both cases, the goal remains the emergence of and mixed up to present the geology, the raw material that can serve to redesign the climate, the water (perhaps the most environmental, urban and man‐made elements important element of Kifissia), the seasons, the of the city, in the direction of sustainable trees, the flowers and the gardens, with all the development, using, in a creative way, relevant culture created by the gardeners of elements of its past. the famous mansions of Kifissia. There are also The elements that make up the historical details on crops of trees, vegetables, fruits and timeless concept of Kifissia are neither simple flowers, quite unknown to newer residents. nor unambiguous. Its environmental The unknown fauna (wild and domestic) wealth characteristics are intertwined through man, of the area is also described. The chapter 30 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece concludes with a reference to the natural the areas of Politia, Nea Kifissia, Asty of Egypt disasters that marked the city, earthquakes, and the Workers' Buildings. The narrators floods and regional fires. typically divide the recent history of Kifissia 3.3 Kifissia through the interviews‐ into three periods. A first period, the Infrastructure aristocracy, until 1930. A second period until 1950, that of the wealthy bourgeois. And a In this chapter the work focuses on third, simpler one, which continues even today, infrastructure, private or public. The in which romance has been lost. The younger recollection of the narrators about the ones do not know the past reminiscent of the evolution of the small village of Kifissia into a older ones. modern economic center, mainly commercial, but also industrial (Kifissia has an industrial 4. CONCLUSIONS park) is graphic. The city’s expansion brings along craftsmen, mainly quarriers employed in The chapter of conclusions is evolving on two neighboring Penteli mountain, and then levels. The first, relatively smaller, refers to the employees. Horse trolleys and mansions working procedure experience itself and oral characterize the city, which generously offers history as a practice, trying to document the entertainment to tourists, visitors and value of illuminating the dark spots of official residents. Antiquities, exhibitions, mainly the history through modern and valuable means of well‐known Greek Floriculture, cinemas, well‐ developing and protecting a city. It turns out known patisseries and, from luxury hotels ‐ that oral history works in combination with many of which still exist ‐ to cheaper formal history, but it cannot exist campsites, are available to the public, whose independently, it has limitations (obsessions, access to the city is easy. Since 1882, when the ambiguities, vagueness, distortions) but also railway commenced operating, as well as the important possibilities. Oral history is a new, Kifissias’ Avenue of 1950 and later the Athens‐ extremely important, and more personal, more Lamia National Road, all facilitated the social, and more democratic primary source of transportation by buses, taxis and private cars, history, confirms Thompson. proving the value of sufficient transport axes The second and largest part of the last chapter for the development of a city. Equally expresses the model of interpreting oral important for each city, however, are the history. It composes the previous narratives issues of water supply, sewerage and waste and comes to some more general conclusions. collection, as well as electricity, telephony and Here reference is made to the course of Kifissia gas networks, for which two separate in connection with the parallel course of the subchapters of this chapter are dedicated, nearby capital, as well as the choice of the concluding with the narrators' reports on royal family to install in the area its summer educational issues (public and private), sports, palaces and the corresponding attraction of the music education and health‐care. bourgeoisie, as confirmed by the narratives. 3.4 Kifissia through the interviews ‐ Man Residential pressure creates settlements where The last chapter of the main, narrative part of there was arable land. The natural the work refers to man. This is the chapter with environment, fortunately without being the most impressive sociological revelations, destroyed, mutates. The people who flock are without ommiting urban develpoment data. mixed under a cloak of noble rivalry and The narrators talk about the mansions and the admiration for the most worthy and beautiful. listed buildings, they complain about the A new bourgeoisie is slowly being created, plethora of catering facilities (cafes, perhaps less romantic but definitely creative restaurants etc) an the luck of sidewalks and and conscious. In a more modern phase, there parking lots. They outline the expansion of the are even more people who are attracted by urban plan of the city, with special emphasis on Kifissia’s fame, but are unconsciously not 31 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece interested in the city itself, because they take it REFERENCES for granted, and do not know its history, its [1] Abrams L. (2014). Θεωρία προφορικής evolution, its true beauty. There is an obvious ιστορίας. Αθήνα: Πλέθρον. generation gap, but it is not competitive. It is more a gap of negligence, which oral history [2] Thompson, P. (2008) Φωνές από το Παρελθόν ‐ Προφορική Ιστορία. Αθήνα: Πλέθρον could bridge. 32 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece TECHNOECONOMIC ASSESSMENT OF A PROCESS FOR BIODIESEL PRODUCTION FROM RENEWABLE RESOURCES A. Tatsiopoulou, E. Moutousidi, C. Patilas, C. Tatsiopoulos, I.K. Kookos* Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, 26504, Patras, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT The development of environmentally friendly or “green” processes to produce chemicals and fuels, that can substitute the ones currently produced from fossil resources, is of paramount importance for our civilization. The motivation is self‐evident, and the need is pressing as alarming changes in the earth’s climate have already affected our life and technological development. The present work evaluates the economic potential of a process that utilizes waste lignocellulosic biomass to produce single cell or microbial oil and then biodiesel through well‐established transesterification technology. Our results show that the renewable biodiesel will be 2 to 3 times more expensive than the petrochemical diesel. Significant coordinated research effort is thus necessary to deliver the necessary step changes in the production technology to make the sustainably produced diesel directly competitive to petro‐diesel. KEYWORDS Biodiesel; Sustainable production; Single cell oil; Technoeconomic analysis can then be converted to value added products 1. INTRODUCTION such as chemicals and fuels. The main concept is analogous to today’s petroleum, wheat or The impact of human activity on the corn refineries which produce multiple environment and the intensive consumption products from a common raw material and and potential depletion of fossil resources have achieve significant economies of scale and resulted in a global effort to introduce "green" environmental benefits by the complete or sustainable, environmentally friendly material utilization and process integration[1]. processes. One of these efforts is the transition As the interest in the production of chemicals toward a biobased economy, where the and fuels through microbial bioconversion innovative and combined use of primary and technologies using renewable resources is residual biomass to produce chemicals, fuels constantly increasing, innovative technologies and bioenergy will be driven by well‐developed are developed and many reach industrial biorefining systems. Biorefining can be defined implementation. as the sustainable processing of biomass into a spectrum of products and energy. The Oils and fats have been identified as important biorefinery concept encompasses a range of raw materials in these ‘green’ technologies. technologies able to “fractionate” biomass Many research groups have developed resources into their building blocks significant scientific results on technologies (carbohydrates, proteins, triglycerides) which relative to the production of Microbial Oils 33 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece (MO) or Single Cell Oils (SCO), which can be and holding tube (HT‐101). The sterilized produced through fermentation by many stream is fed to the bioreactor where it is different olea‐ginous microorganisms, using a mixed with the microorganism After the variety of renewable sources[2]. A new, completion of the fermentation the broth is promising, way to produce microbial lipids with heated (heat exchanger E‐103) to deactivate the lowest cost is the use of waste materials of the enzymes. The microbial mass is recovered agro‐industrial processes. These fats can be in a rotary vacuum filter (VE‐101) and then the converted to a great variety of high added remaining moisture is removed in a fluidized value products, such as lubricants, surfactants, bed drier (DE‐101). The dried microbial mass is pharmaceuticals and cosme‐tics, and a polymer first mixed with the solvent (hexane) (mixing additive, but also as a raw material for the tank V‐201) and then fed to a homogenizer emerging biofuels industry. Biodiesel is a (HG‐201). The microbial mass is removed in a biofuel that is currently under use of our centrifugal separator (DS‐201) and the process society and can be produced from a variety of is completed by using a phase separation tank SCOs in a two‐step process where the SCO is (V‐202) where the volatile solvent is recovered. first produced by the utilization of oleaginous 2.2 Biodiesel Production process microorganisms followed by its transfo‐rmation to biodiesel through trans‐esterication. The aim The process flow diagram for the biodiesel of this study is to present a complete techno‐ production from SCO process is shown in economic analysis (TEA) of the SCO and Figures 3 and 4. Biodiesel production (Figure 3) subsequent biodiesel production using is achieved with the extracted SCO using oleaginous yeasts in order to investigate the alkaline catalyst. The extracted oil (represented economies of scale that can be achieved. as triolein) is trans‐esterified to methyl oleate and glycerol using methanol and NaOH as catalyst. 100 % excess methanol is used. SCO 2. METHODOLOGY together with excess methanol and catalyst are 2.1 SCO production process description fed to the first of two well mixed reactors (R‐ 301). 90% conversion of the SCO to biodiesel at The design of the process for the SCO atmospheric pressure and 60 °C is assumed to production is based on the open literature and be achieved with residence time of 1 h. The are mainly based on experimental work reactor effluent is fed to a decanter (D‐301) reported by Li et al.,[3]. The microorganism where the remaining oil and the biodiesel are used is Rhodosporidium toruloides Y4 grown separated from glycerol. The oil rich stream is on glucose as a carbon source to SCO. For the fed to the second well mixed reactor (R‐302) fermentation process a fermentation time of together with additional methanol and catalyst 134 h is reported with a final concentration where the conversion of the remaining oil is (titer) of 71.9 g SCO/L and 106.5 g/L of achieved at atmospheric pressure, 60 °C and a microbial cells (67.5 % wt in SCO) residence of 1 hour. The reactor effluent is fed corresponding to a SCO volumetric productivity to a second decanter (D‐302) where the oil and of 0.54 g/(L h). The designed plant is assumed the biodiesel are separated from the methanol to operate for approximately 95% of the year and the glycerol. The biodiesel rich stream is (8,300 h). The typical process flow diagram for fed to a mixing tank together with process the biotechnological process for SCO water and HCl to neutralize the catalyst and production is shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. convert any soaps to free fatty acids (FFA). The The process is divided into two areas. Area 100 final purification of the biodiesel is achieved in (shown in Figure 1) is the bioreaction area and a flash distillation unit that operates under Area 200 (shown in Figure 2) is the SCO vacuum. Purified biodiesel is then stored (this recovery and purification area. The C‐source part of process consists AREA 400 and the and the nutrients are mixed in vessel V‐101 and process flow diagram is not shown to save then sterilized in heat exchangers E‐101, E‐102 34 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece space). bioethanol production report. The process is All streams containing glycerol and methanol simulated in the commercial simulation are fed to the mixing tank V‐502 (Figure 4). The software UniSim supplied by Honeywell. All combined stream is first treated with acid to calculations were perfo‐rmed according to convert any soaps to FFA and then is fed to a classical chemical process plant economic [5]. centrifuge (CF‐501) to remove the FFA (and any evaluation procedures remaining soap/salt). The glycerol and methanol rich stream is fed to the glycerol 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION recovery distillation column (T‐501). All glycerol is removed as the bottom product (80% w/w in The results of our analysis are summarized in glycerol). The top product consists of water and Figure 5. Figure 5 shows the variation of the methanol and is fed to a second distillation net present value (NPV) of the investment as a column (T‐502). 99.9 mol% methanol is function of the biodiesel selling price. It is obtained as top product while the bottom important to note that the current price of product is almost pure water. Further details biodiesel is around 1 $/kg and depends on the considering the process as well as details about raw material used, the cost of electricity and its simulation can be found in Apostolakou et the raw material logistics complexity and al.[4]. cost[6]. In the case of the biodiesel produced through the biotechnological production of 2.3 Technoeconomic Analysis (TEA) SCO the minimum selling price (MSP, i.e. selling Based on the process flow diagrams presented price that corresponds to zero NPV) ranges the equipment type is selected and the between 2.5 and 4 $/kg. This result clearly characteristics are determined based on shows that even in the unlikely case of raw standard engineering procedures described in materials cost around 100 $/t of equivalent the literature[5]. The purchase cost (FOB cost) sugars the price of the renewable diesel will be of the equipment is then determined and the much higher than the price of the petro‐diesel. fixed capital investment (FCI) is then estimated In Figure 5 four different cases are presented using a Lang factor of 3. In addition, the utilities by varying the price of sugars used as raw consumption (electricity, stream and cooling materials. This price is varied between 100 $/kg water) is determined and the cost of utilities and 400 $/kg of sugars. The more reasonable (CUT) is calculated. To determine the operating price is arguably between 300 and 400 $/kg as labour cost (COL) we first determine the one must account for the cost of collecting and workers necessary for each equipment unit per preparing waste biomass which normally is shift and then determine the overall number of available over wide geographical areas. If the workers necessary for the operation of the by‐product stream is a stream produced by an plant. Finally, the cost of manufacture without existing industrial activity this cost might have depreciation is calculated based on a lower value (probably in the range of 200 to approximate equations proposed in the 300 $/kg). literature. To determine that conditions under which the proposed process for SCO production with subsequent transfo‐rmation to 4. CONCLUSIONS biodiesel is viable, a discounted cash flow (DCF) The impact of human activity on the analysis is performed. The aim is to determine environment and the intensive consumption the selling price if the main product (biodiesel) and potential depletion of fossil resources have expressed in $/kg that results in zero net resulted in a global effort to introduce "green" present value (NPV) of the project. This is or sustainable, environmentally friendly called the minimum selling price (MSP) of the processes. One of these efforts is concentrated product. The assumption for performing the around the use of primary and residual DCF analysis are based on the 2011 NREL biomass to produce chemicals, fuels and 35 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece bioenergy. In the present work a technology [3] Li, Y., Zhao, Z., Bai, F., 2007, High density that is based on the waste biomass valorisation cultivation of oleaginous yeast Rhodosporidium to first produce microbial oil and then toruloides Y4 in fed‐batch culture, Enzyme transform the oil to biodiesel is evaluated. A Microbial Technology, 41, 312–317. comprehensive technoeconomic analysis is [4] Apostolakou A.A., Kookos I.K., Marazioti C., performed and the results are presented in Angelopoulos, K.C., 2009, Techno‐economic terms of the net present value of the analysis of a biodiesel production process from investment as a function of biodiesel selling vegetable oils, Fuel Processing Technology, 90, price and raw materials cost (as these two 1023‐1031. parameters are found to be the most [5] I.K. Kookos, I.K., 2020, Chemical Process Design, significant ones). The results clearly 2ND Ed., Thessaloniki, Tziolas publishing, ISBN: 978‐ demonstrate that the cost of the renewable 960‐418‐696‐9. diesel will be at least 2 to 3 times the current [6] Gebremariam, S.N., Marchetti, J.M., 2018, cost of diesel produced through the Economics of biodiesel production: Review, Energy petrochemical route[4‐7]. It may thus concluded Conversion and Management, 168, 74‐84. that there is a pressing need to develop [7] Kookos, I.K., 2019, Technoeconomic and innovative production technologies and to environmental assessment of a process for decrease the cost of the biotechnological biodiesel production from spent coffee grounds production of chemicals and fuels in order for (SCGs), Resources Conservation and Recycling, 134, them to become competitive with the ones 156‐164. produced from fossil resources. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES This work was supported by the project [1] Cherubini, F., 2010, The biorefinery concept: “INVALOR: Research Infrastructure for Waste Using biomass instead of oil for producing energy Valorisation and Sustainable Management” and chemicals, Energy Conversion and (MIS 5002495) which is implemented under the Management, 51, 1412‐1421. Action “Reinforcement of the Research and [2] Koutinas, A.A., Vlysidis, A., Pleissner, D., Innovation Infrastructure”, funded by the Kopsahelis, N., Lopez Garcia, I., Kookos, I.K., Operational Programme “Competitiveness, Papanikolaou, S., Kwan, T.H., Lin, S.C., 2014, Entrepreneurship and Innovation” (NSRF 2014– Valorization of industrial waste and by‐product 2020) and co‐financed by Greece and the streams via fermentation for the production of European Union (European Regional Chemical Society chemicals and biopolymers, Development Fund). Reviews, 43, 2587‐2627. 36 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Agitator V‐102‐109 FERMENTATION Agitator A‐101 STERILIZATION 2 Water 30 οC Glucose Yeast extr. E‐101 E‐102 Air 1 Fermenter ο 130 C 140 οC Mixing tank ο V‐102‐109 V‐101 20 C Air Compressor P‐101 C‐101 140 οC Holding tube 4 Fluid bed Dryer lps (160 oC) DE‐101 Rotary filter 3 VE‐101 Air E‐103 5 E‐104 Micr. Biomass Air Blower C‐102 Figure 1. Process flow diagram of the SCO production process. Mixing tank V‐201 Evaporator Fresh hexane V‐202 Homogenizer S/L Separator Micr. biomass HG‐201 DS‐201 P‐202 P‐201 SCO to storage 3 RMM to treatment Figure 2. Process flow diagram of the oil extraction unit. 37 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece R‐301 R‐302 Α200 D‐302 Α400 NaOMe V‐302 Ε‐301 Ε‐302 Α500 MeOH Α500 V‐301 Figure 3. Process flow diagram of the biodiesel production, AREA 300: reactors and phase separation section. WWT HE‐504 Α300 HE‐502 Α300 13 T‐502 CF‐501 Α400 T‐501 Α200 V‐502 HE‐503 HE‐501 37 % ΗCl V‐501 Crude 23 Glycerol V‐503 Figure 4. Process flow diagram of the biodiesel production, AREA 500, methanol and glycerol recovery and purification section. 38 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 1500 1000 Waste biomass (raw materials) price in $/t of sugars 0 100 NPV (M$) 200 300 400 -1000 -2000 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 Biodiesel Selling Price ($/kg) Figure 5. Net present value of the investment for the process of biodiesel production from waste streams through the SCO production route 39 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 40 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SOLAR THERMAL TECHNOLOGIES THROUGH LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT M. Milousi1, M. Souliotis2, S. Papaefthimiou1 1School of Production Engineering and Management, Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece 2Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Western Macedonia, Kozani, Greece *email: [email protected] ABSTRACT The objective of this study is the holistic evaluation of the energy, environmental and economic performance of the most commercially available types of solar thermal collectors: flat plate and vacuum tube systems. These collectors are both broadly used in the market and can considerably cover significant domestic thermal needs. Their economic and environmental implications were assessed through techno‐economic analysis, conducted via RETScreen and detailed cradle to grave Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), executed from the production and acquisition of raw materials to the final disposal of the selected energy systems, carried out through SimaPro [1,2]. The results for both selected collectors reveal that the production stage is responsible for the majority of the total environmental impacts but over their operation they succeed to diminish significant amounts of emitted greenhouse gases due to the avoidance of fossil fuels. The obtained outcomes of the combined evaluation not only identify the products’ hot‐spots but also give useful insights for the selection of the most appropriate system when installing such solar energy harvesting technologies. KEYWORDS Life Cycle Assessment; Solar thermal collectors; Solar water heating; Techno‐economic assessment requirement and environmental impacts are 1. INTRODUCTION the important factors for the development of solar energy systems. Although solar energy is Solar thermal technologies are becoming considered a "clean" energy form, both widespread and contribute significantly to the manufacture and final disposal of Domestic decrease of the residential energy requirement Solar Hot Water Systems (DSHWS) are as they practically deal with domestic hot associated with environmental transactions. water production and can cover significant This is due to the energy required for the raw thermal needs. Domestic solar water heating is material extraction and the final product an effective method of utilizing available assembly as well as due to the final disposal energy sources to perform useful work. The and/or recycle of the system at the end of its energy from th sun can provide hot water for life. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate solar many domestic and industrial applications, technology accounting for the indirect displacing the need to burn fossil fuels. Cheap environmental impacts caused by these and abundant energy with minimum area systems over their whole life cycle. In order to 41 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece validate the environmental hot spots a cradle delivery with a van and montage on the roof. to grave LCA was implemented from raw The main parts of the studied systems are the material extraction through manufacture, use, solar collectors – absorbers with aperture area and end of life of the two studied energy 12.3 m2 and 10.5 m2 for the flat plate and the systems. In addition, a comparative techno‐ vacuum tube collectors respectively, the 200l economic assessment for the quantification of heat storage tank, and the roof mounting the energy output and the economic income structure. associated with each of the selected collector Both systems are aimed for installation on was carried out. The goal of the combined existing buildings (slanted roof installation) and analysis of the two types of solar collectors is their operational lifetime has been assumed to to evaluate over their lifecycle, the be 20 years. environmental and economic impacts of the thermal energy converted to hot water needs 2.1.2 Life‐cycle inventory and consequently to the equivalent avoided The complete set of LCI data was compiled electricity. The two step evaluation confirmed according to the data format and quality that DSHWS are proven technologies, with guidelines of ecoinvent. This database provided reduced maintenance costs and increased detailed and transparent background data for a [3‐5] energy savings with less payback periods . range of materials and services used in the production chain of the selected systems and is 2. METHODOLOGY already included in the software SimaPro 8.5 that has been employed for the realization of 2.1. LCA the LCA study [7]. LCA is an internationally recognized method for 2.1.3 Life‐cycle impact assessment quantifying the environmental impacts of a product, process, or a system. According to the In this research, the environmental impacts international standards ISO14040 series this were determined from a midpoint‐level study has been conducted by considering the approach. The LCIA method used for the following steps: (1) Goal and scope definition, characterization of solar collectors was ReCiPe (2) Life‐cycle inventory (LCI), (3) Life‐cycle Midpoint, as it provides the most extensive set impact assessment (LCIA), (4) Interpretation of of midpoint impact categories, aiming to the results [6]. highlight the global warming potential and GHG emissions, fossil fuels and climate change 2.1.1. Goal and scope definition impacts related to each technology [8]. The overall goal of the study is to estimate the 2.2. Techno‐economic analysis lifecycle impacts of the thermal energy converted to hot water needs and The comparative techno‐economic assessment consequently to the equivalent avoided of the installation of the two solar thermal electricity, thus the functional unit was the collectors has been carried out through saving of 1 kWh electricity for hot water RETScreen. The installation location site was production, for the two types of solar chosen to be the Acrotiri area of Chania in collectors for use in a typical single house Crete, while all meteorological data (annual family. time series of average climate conditions) have been extracted from the same software The system boundaries account for all the referring to a weather station in Chania. After impacts from materials extraction and selecting the location area, the complete processing, manufacture, transportation, use analysis for each solar collector has been and disposal for both solar systems (excluding conducted. This analysis comprised the auxiliary heating), including various technical following discrete steps: i. determination of the components, heat exchange fluid, installation annual hot water needs for the studied single of copper pipes, transportation of parts, 42 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece family house, ii. selection of the auxiliary hot and vacuum tube collectors. iii. water heating system, selection of the solar 3.1.1 Environmental impacts collector technology (i.e. flat plate and vacuum tube) and specification of the technical The results from the environmental evaluation parameters, iv. energy analysis (see aggregated for the flat plate system indicated that 57% and results in Table 1), v. financial analysis (see 27.1% of all total inflows and outflows were Figure 1 and Figure 2). due to the production of the collector and the tank respectively, while for the vacuum tube system the corresponding values were 45.3% and 34.8%. Thus, the production stage of the collector component contributed the most important part of the environmental impacts in the life cycle for both studied systems. 3.1.2 Comparison of the LCA results The objective of conducting the LCA study is to make a comparative environmental analysis of different solar systems with a focus on comparing flat plate and vacuum tube collectors. The results are used to validate the environmental impacts of each solar system. In Table 1 and Figure 3 the aggregated LCA inventory results for the studied solar thermal Figure 1. Financial analysis results of the studied flat systems are depicted. These are harmonized plate solar collector. data representing the LCA results (for each impact category) per total energy produced per aperture area (in kWh/m2) by each solar collector, thus providing a holistic evaluation indicator (i.e. environmental burden per total energy produced). It is important to stress the fact that the electricity mentioned above in kWh corresponds to the necessary energy for heating water, which is substituted by the operation of the solar collectors which convert solar radiation to heat transferred to stored hot water in their tank. As depicted in Table 1 the cumulative CO2eq emissions over the whole life cycle of the solar systems were quite close, varying between 2.22×10‐2 and 2.38×10‐2 kg CO2eq/kWh∙m2, and the lowest value Figure 2. Financial analysis results of the studied corresponded to the vacuum tube collector. vacuum tube solar collector. 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 LCA In order to validate the environmental impacts a cradle to grave LCA has been implemented for flat plate collectors with copper absorber Figure 3. LCA results for the studied solar thermal 43 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Human systems: relative contributions to the impact kg 1,4‐DB carcinogenic 6.56×10‐3 6.53×10‐3 categories. eq/kWh toxicity These outcomes are helpful in distinguishing the Human kg 1,4‐DB impacts of each solar system and can be used non‐ 2.24×10‐1 2.44×10‐1 eq/kWh during the combined environmental and technical carcinogeni assessment of installing such solar energy c harvesting technologies. toxicity m2a crop Land use 1.25×10‐3 1.52×10‐3 3.2 Techno‐economic analysis eq/kWh Mineral kg Cu For the financial analysis we considered that resour 1.02×10‐3 1.03×10‐3 eq/kWh the electricity price has been set to 0.15€/kWh ce and the installation was funded by own means. scarcit The hot water needs for a typical family house y Fossil resource kg oil with 4 occupants have been estimated to 5.45×10‐3 5.38×10‐3 2817kWh per year. A typical auxiliary hot water scarcity eq/kWh Water m3/kWh 2.39×10‐4 2.33×10‐4 heating system burning oil has been considered consumption for backup. Table 1. Aggregated LCA inventory results for the studied solar thermal systems. Table 2. Results of the techno‐economic assessment for the studied solar thermal collectors. Flat Vacuum Impact Unit (per plate tube category m2) Solar collector type Flat Vacuum collector collector kg CO2 plate tube Global 2.38×10‐2 2.22×10‐2 eq/kWh warming Aperture area [m2] Stratospheric kg CFC‐11 ozone 1.29×10‐8 1.36×10‐8 eq/kWh 2.32 2.61 depletio 2 n FrUL [(W/m )/°C] 4.6 1.7 Ionizing kBq Co‐60 1.61×10‐3 1.88×10‐3 Cost [€] 900 1300 radiation eq/kWh Ozone kg NOx Total energy saved 27260 29980 formation, 6.50×10‐5 6.89×10‐5 eq/kWh Human [kWh] health Fine Total energy saved kg PM2.5 particulate 8.78×10‐5 8.61×10‐5 per aperture area eq/kWh 11750 11487 matter [kWh/m2] formation Ozone Solar fraction [%] 55.3 62.7 formation, kg NOx 6.66×10‐5 7.07×10‐5 Terrestrial eq/kWh Annual savings 352 341 ecosystems [€/yr] Terrestrial kg SO2 2.07×10‐4 2.01×10‐4 acidification eq/kWh Payback time [yr] 2.6 3.8 Freshwater kg P 3.89×10‐5 4.16×10‐5 eutrophication eq/kWh Terrestrial kg 1 4‐DB 8.55×10‐1 9.31×10‐1 ecotoxicity eq/kWh In Table 2 the main results of the RETScreen Freshwater kg 1,4‐DB analysis for the studied solar thermal collectors 6.42×10‐3 6.94×10‐3 ecotoxicity eq/kWh have been gathered. Both selected systems can Marine kg 1,4‐DB 9.27×10‐3 1.00×10‐2 be considered as top‐class products, while the ecotoxicity eq/kWh purchase cost of the vacuum tube collector is significantly higher, i.e. 1300€ versus 900€. The 44 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece thermal losses coefficient, FrUL, was increased were satisfactory. Additionally, the vacuum for the flat plate collector compared to the tube collector was practically unaffected by the vacuum tube system, i.e. 4.6 vs 1.7 (W/m2)/°C variations in ambient temperature due to its respectively. This is due to the completely significantly lower thermal losses coefficient, different thermal losses suppression design but this technical advantage was not reflected followed in each system, which practically in its final energy outcome mainly due to the makes vacuum tube collector unaffected by favorable weather conditions in the selected variations in ambient temperature. In addition, installation location which made the flat plate the solar fraction value for the vacuum tube collector equally efficient and to the increased system was higher than the flat plate collector electricity consumption of its pump. Moreover, (i.e. 62.7% vs. 55.3% respectively). On the the purchase cost of the vacuum collector is other hand, it is evident that overall this almost 45% higher, thus stressing the fact that parameter does not play an important role in for typical installations in Crete the flat plate the energy outcome of the systems, as finally system should be the principal option. the flat plate collector provided slightly more Nevertheless, the economic viability of both energy per aperture area throughout the year. systems was proved as the simple payback This is mainly due to two reasons: i. the period estimated to be 2.6 and 3.8 years for weather conditions in Crete (high intensity the flat plate and the vacuum tube system solar radiation for extended time periods and respectively. with increased ambient temperatures throughout the year) are favorable for solar ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS systems and thus the advantageous thermal insulation and the ability to reach high Research co‐financed by the European Union temperatures of the vacuum system was not and Greek national funds through the necessary, ii. the pump in the vacuum system Operational Program Competitiveness, requires more electricity due to increased Entrepreneurship and Innovation, under the friction in the collector (more complex call RESEARCH – CREATE – INNOVATE circulation system). (project name ASVaCS, code: T1EDK‐ 01740). 4 CONCLUSIONS The comparison of flat plate and vacuum tube REFERENCES solar thermal collectors aimed at stressing the [1] "SimaPro, The World’s Leading LCA Software". advantages and disadvantages of both Available online: www.simapro.com. technologies. For the environmental profile of [2] "RETScreen Expert", 2020. Available online at: the studied systems the production stage of www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/software‐ tools/7465. the collector component contributed the most important part of the environmental impacts in [3] M. Milousi, M. Souliotis, G. Arampatzis, S. Papaefthimiou, "Evaluating the Environmental the life cycle for both studied systems followed Performance of Solar Energy Systems Through a by the production of the tank. The two Combined Life Cycle Assessment and Cost technologies exhibited similar environmental Analysis", Sustainability, vol. 11, no. 9, p. 2539, May impacts in most categories, but the vacuum 2019. tube collector had highest values in most cases. [4] N. Arnaoutakis, M. Milousi, S. Papaefthimiou, P. Regarding the techno economic assessment A. Fokaides, Y. G. Caouris, and M. Souliotis, "Life both collectors could cover more than half of cycle assessment as a methodological tool for the the annual hot water needs for a family house optimum design of integrated collector storage with 4 occupants, as the solar fraction values ‐ solar water heaters", Energy, vol. 182, 2019. practically denoting the percentage of hot [5] Project ASVaCS (Advanced Solar Vacuum water needs covered by the system annually ‐ Collectors & Systems), asvacs.tuc.gr 45 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece [6] ISO, "ISO 14001, Environmental management online at: www.ecoinvent.org/ systems ‐ Requirements with guidance for use", [8] "ReCiPe 2016", Dutch National Institute for 2015. Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 2020. [7] "ecoinvent, The world's most consistent & transparent life cycle inventory database" Available 46 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE TRANSITION TO THE POST‐LIGNITE ERA, THE CASE OF SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES IN THE REGION OF WESTERN MACEDONIA L. Vatikiotis Small Enterprises’ Institute, Hellenic Confederation of Professionals, Craftsmen and Merchants ([email protected]) ABSTRACT The research entitled “The consequences of the transition to the post‐lignite era, the case of small and medium enterprises in the Region of Western Macedonia” addresses the European Green Deal and its previsions for the establishment of the Just Transition Fund aiming to mitigate the effects of the shutdown of thermal power plants. Moreover, the criticism received is also addressed. The research emphasis is at the Region of Western Macedonia where most of Greece’s lignite mines are located. The age and educational profile of the region are studied, as well as the contribution of energy to the Gross Added Value of the Region, investments, employment and high unemployment rates. Finally, the number of self‐employed and the situation of enterprises in the Region are investigated. The method implemented included on‐site interviews and study of the findings of the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT) and Eurostat. The key conclusion of the research concerns the straitened social and economic current situation of the Region of Western Macedonia, due to its overdependence on energy, during the past 50 years. Therefore, it is proposed the adoption of a model of smooth transition in order to avoid the social shocks by the abrupt transition to green energy. KEYWORDS Clean energy, Post‐lignite era, Coal regions, Transition, Just Transition Fund, Just Transition Mechanism transforming Europe into a climate neutral 1. INTRODUCTION continent until 2050. In the Green Deal, it is imperatively addressed the issue of “Just European Commission president, Ursula von Transition”, as a set of measures that will limit der Leyen, announced in December 2019 the or even eliminate the negative consequences European Green Deal (European Commission) of the termination of energy production by [1] . The Green Deal aspires to be an overall text‐ power plants, targeting the affected areas. guide. Its provisions concern and extend over every sector of economic activity: from energy The Green Deal and the Just Transition Fund and industry, to constructions, transportation, have been strongly criticized in variable agricultural production and nutrition. Aim of dimensions; namely, the small amount of the Green Deal, in accordance with the 2030 funds, the inadequate involvement of social [2] UN Agenda for Sustainable Development, is partners etc. (ETUC, 2020) . 47 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece In Greece, on the revised National Energy and Secondly, overview of Greek and international Climate Plan of 2019, the target that has been literature and scientific articles. set until 2023 is the removal of the total of Thirdly, study and processing of time series of thermal powerplants using lignite as fuel that the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT) and are today in operation and the complete Eurostat, aiming the concentration of the most disengagement of the domestic power reliable and recent data on the composition generation system from lignite by the year and education of the labor force, the analysis 2028. The precipitate de‐lignitization, which of the GDP and added value etc. disrupted the predictions of the former National Energy and Climate Plan has been strongly and detailed criticized both inside and 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION outside Greece. At a European Union level, it has been criticized for the use of natural gas as The Region of Western Macedonia, composed a transition fuel (Sandbag, 2019) [3]. Contrary to of four prefectures (Kozani, Florina, Kastoria the international guidelines, the withdrawal and Grevena ordered by economic from lignite in Greece will not occur to the significance), according to ELSTAT, produces benefit of solar, wind or other renewable 2.20% of Greece’s GDP (3.96 billion euros in a sources of energy. total amount of 180.22 in 2017) and is inhabited by 2.53% of the population (270.163 Reactions on expanding the use of natural gas out of 10.673.442 in total). The Region of derive from the impacts of methane (CH₄), Western Macedonia lacks significantly behind which constitutes 90% of the natural gas, on in terms of social (and not strictly economic) the increase of global temperature. Methane is development in comparison to the national also included in the gases that cause the average, even to date; although it comprised greenhouse effect. The environmental the “energy lung” of Greece for decades, had footprint of natural gas is even higher, taking relatively stable sources of income and into consideration the extremely harmful for employment. There are numerous indexes that the environment mining conditions used for verify it. the shale gas which is imported in Greece and Europe from the US increasingly. The Region of Western Macedonia is one of the Regions with the most aging population in De‐lignitization in Greece occurs in the above‐ Greece. The proportion of teenagers is lower mentioned international, European context of than the national average (13.74%, to the accelerating the measures for the reduction of national 14.37%). On the other hand, in greenhouse gas emissions. This research aims Western Macedonia, the proportion of those to frame the potential impacts in order to over the age of 45 reaches 52.68% while in the formulate objectives that shall mitigate the rest of Greece it reaches 49.50%. consequences, in consideration of the social cost. The educational level of the population of Western Macedonia lacks significantly below national average. A percentage double of the 2. METHODOLOGY national average has never attended school or has attended only a few classes of primary Three methods have been implemented for the school (0.65% in Western Macedonia contrary research. to 0.31% in Greece). On the other hand, a lot Firstly, on‐site visits to the Region of Western less in comparison to the national rates have Macedonia which is in transition and interviews post‐secondary vocational training, have with workers, entrepreneurs and professionals studied in Higher Education and have a of almost all sectors that are directly or University or TEI (Technological Educational indirectly affected by energy. Institute) degree or acquire a post‐graduate degree: 65.14% in W. Macedonia to 83.1% in 48 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Greece. number of enterprises, an increase of turnover and a decrease on the number of employees. The contribution of the energy sector (especially of sector D35 electricity, gas and However, it is of particular interest the steam supply) to the Gross Added Value (GAV) comparative examination of the total of of W. Macedonia in 2017‐ last year for which enterprises of W. Macedonia in comparison to data are available‐ amounted to 23.48%. The the enterprises of Greece. It appears that a contribution of this sector to the region’s decrease on the number of legal units and the economy reached its peak in 2014, at 33.78%. turnover has been noticed nationwide. in W. Thereon, it is steadily decreasing. Macedonia, however, it was significantly higher. As a result, in 2016 the average The serious structural problems that W. enterprise of W. Macedonia has a smaller Macedonia is already facing are captured in the turnover comparing to 2011, while nationwide, devastatingly high rate of unemployment. In the average enterprise has a larger turnover. 2018, unemployment was by almost 50% We can therefore support that during these six higher than the national average (27% to years under examination, while the average 19.3%). enterprise that survived in Greece, debouched The heavy dependence of W. Macedonia on stronger, in W. Macedonia it became smaller in lignite activities and the impacts of de‐ size, financially weaker and more vulnerable to lignitization are depicted on the labor map, the turns of the economic cycle. setting as reference period the third quarter of 2019. 4. CONCLUSIONS Based on a general assessment, the de‐ lignitization will directly affect 9,469 employees To conclude, Western Macedonia is at risk of or 10.81% of the employees of the region. turning into a ghost‐region. The consequences Indirectly, 5,667 employees or 6.47% of the of violent de‐lignitization will be devastating, employees will be affected. On a second cycle since it is already considered a region of lower of impact are 35,388 or 40.38% of the speed as reflected on the aging population, the employees. Hence, 50,524 employees on a low educational level and the high rate of total of 87,631 employees or 57.66% of the unemployment. employees will be affected in any way. De‐lignitization without the adoption of Relatively unaffected will remain 37,106 or adequate measures or with the 42.34% of the region’s employees. Apropos the implementation of a poorly designed methodology of distinction of the sectors of transition program that will not consider the economic activity, using the two‐digit sectoral region’s conditions imperils leading to classification code, in the first category, four unemployment, directly, 9,469 people (10.81% activities that are directly affected although to of the employees) and 5,667 (6.47%) more that a different extent from the de‐lignitization are occupied on the value chains around lignite have been included. Τhe second category production. Furthermore, the impacts will includes five activities that are engaged in the affect 35,388 employees (40.38%) occupied on value chains around lignite production. The activities that are dependent on the income third category comprises 28 activities that are generated by lignite mining. affected by the income generated by the lignite production and other activities. De‐lignitization might also turn into a deathblow for the thousands of self‐employed According to the structural statistics of the without staff as well as for the region’s Hellenic Statistical Agency for W. Macedonia, enterprises which during the period 2011‐2016 from 2011 to 2016, on the single‐digit sectors were shrunk in number and had their turnover related with lignite production, the following further declined, resulting into their being developments occur: a decrease on the more vulnerable. 49 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece [2] ETUC (2020) Just Transition Mechanism: ETUC comment, 14 January. REFERENCES [3] Sandbag (2019) Solving the coal puzzle, lessons [1] European Commission (2019), The European from four years of coal phase‐out policy in Green Deal, COM (2019) 640 final, 11/12 Europe, December Brussels. 50 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece ASPECTS OF ENERGY POVERTY IN EU28 COUNTRIES E. Merkouri, L. Vatikiotis, A. Kantzioura School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece ([email protected], [email protected], [email protected]) ABSTRACT Energy poverty is affecting an increasing number of households across the EU, a fact reflected in recent European and national legislation. The EU has not developed a common definition of energy poverty yet, while policies among member states vary considerably. This study examines the factors that are related to energy poverty across the EU countries, based on EUROSTAT data for the year 2018, in order to provide an in‐depth understanding of the phenomenon, as well as to look for the common denominator for member states that have the biggest problem. In addition, the paper aims to critically examine the definition of energy poverty as well as possible indicators that determine the vulnerability of EU households in the future. According to this study, energy poverty is positively related to risk of poverty, unemployment rates and the Gini coefficient, while it is negatively related to per capita GDP. Moreover, it is positively related to high rates of household occupancy and poor housing conditions, but not to the housing cost itself. Furthermore, it is positively related to gas and electricity prices, as well as to the dependency on energy imports. Overall, the member states of Northern, Western and Central Europe appear to be less affected by energy poverty, compared to the member states of South and South‐eastern Europe. The existing discrepancies are not necessarily reflected in the above factors, indicating that energy poverty is also affected by complicated geospatial conditions. KEYWORDS energy policy, energy poverty, energy vulnerability This study attempts to fill this gap by 1. INTRODUCTION approaching energy poverty at EU level Energy poverty is a global social and economic through a comparative analysis of the issue, as about 1.2 billion people have no indicators linked to this phenomenon. access to electricity and 2.8 billion do not have access to clean cooking facilities, and affects an 2. METHODOLOGY increasing number of households across the For the research, initially, a literature review world, both in the developed countries and in was conducted. Eurostat data for the year 2018 developing regions. [21] During the recent years, this fact has been gradually recognized and on various sectors linked to energy poverty reflected in the European and national across the EU such as revenue, building stock legislation. However, EU has not developed a quality, energy prices, etc. were then retrieved. common definition of energy poverty yet, The data were entered into Microsoft Excel in while the way each country attempts to deal conjunction with statistics on the energy‐ poor population and exported in the form of charts with it varies considerably. [3] 51 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece to identify the positive or negative correlation. atmosphere because of heating). The inevitable Especially for this study, energy poverty is deterioration of human conditions had defined as the inability to keep the home psychological effects as well. adequately warm and this is the main indicator In financial level, the increasing morbidity leads of comparison with other indicators. Τhe Y‐ axis to the increase of operational expenses of the of each chart refers to the energy‐ poor national health care system[13,15] as well as the population while the X‐axis refers to each inability of households to cover financial issues. sector linked to energy poverty. As far as the environment is concerned, the tendency to cheaper forms of energy such as 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION biomass, means the emission of particles which 3.1 Energy Poverty contribute to climate change. Moreover, the use of biomass contributes to deforestation 3.1.1 The phenomenon of energy poverty and soil degradation. Energy poverty is widely defined as the 3.1.4 Energy vulnerability insufficient access to basic energy services.[2‐7‐ 12] It is the outcome of the combination of Energy vulnerability describes a sum of factors social, economic and local factors and it is that are able to lead to energy poverty,[1,8] like closely related to income poverty. The limited access to energy, limited access to estimation of energy poverty is a complicated affordable energy, limited flexibility in terms of procedure concerning directly measurable choice of energy supplier, energy inefficient factors, approximate numbers and subjective homes, special needs of each household, etc. factors, while it is differentiated depending on 3.1.5 Energy justice‐Energy democracy the region and the field of study. The difficulty of measurement in European level is intensified Enery justice comes to terms with three partial by the absence of an admittedly common forms of inequality which contribute to energy definition. On a EU level, attempts to deal with poverty: unequal distribution of energy access energy poverty began in 2009 with the Clean among social groups, inequality of legislation Energy Package and it has been reflected on regarding the energy distribution and various legislations and policies developed inequality of identification of different needs of afterwards, combined with the issue of climate different social groups. change. Energy democracy comes to terms with a social 3.1.2 Basic causes of energy poverty movement which aims at a drift of international energy policy towards the exploitation of The phenomenon of energy poverty is mostly renewable energy sources in combination with attributed to the combination of three basic policies that enhance social justice. factors: the low household income, the energy 3.2 Approach of energy poverty in European inefficient housing and the increasing cost of countries energy.[10,15,18] Additional factors that contribute to this phenomenon are the 3.2.1 Definitions of energy poverty increasing energy needs of specific households The initial step to address energy poverty is the (extended families, handicapped people.), definition of the term in national level, partial social‐demographic characteristics and nevertheless, only specific countries‐members [5] characteristics of residential surroundings. have given their own definitions. Moreover, 3.1.3 Consequences of energy poverty the already existing definitions vary. In social level, energy poverty complicates 3.2.2 Definitions of vulnerable consumer greatly the living conditions, influences public The definitions of vulnerable consumer can be put health (thermal drift, poor ventilation etc) in four categories[16,19] according to the provision of directly or indirectly (harmful particles in the social welfare assistance, the financial energy 52 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece access, the existence of health issues or special needs and according to social and financial criteria. This is a results and discussion paragraph. By and large, there are two categories of policies for handling this phenomenon. The first one focuses on the social policy, accepting the low income and poverty as the main causes of energy vulnerability. The second one, considers energy poverty as a separate issue of energy policy addressing the ministry of energy. 3.2.3 Indicators of measurement of energy poverty The approach of the phenomenon of energy poverty is tried through three basic methods of Figure 1. Share of population at risk of poverty or measurement of this phenomenon: social exclusion ‐ Share of population in energy expenditure approach, consensual/subjective poverty. Source: Eurostat (online data codes: approach and direct measurement through the ilc_peps01, ilc_mdes01) comparison of levels of energy sources that a Energy poverty is positively related to risk of household is able to consume with a pre‐ poverty and Gini coefficient. Gini coefficient defined level.[19] This is a results and discussion represents the income inequality or wealth paragraph. inequality within the inhabitants of a country, 3.2.4 Policies & Measures to address energy indicating that those two contributes to the poverty deterioration of the problem. Nationally, the fundamental measures can be categorized in three groups: the interventions in the existing building stock, the informative and advisable interventions and the interventions of financial and legislative support. 3.3 Comparative analysis of individual factors of the energy poverty in EU28 3.3.1 Energy poverty, risk of poverty, Gini coefficient Figure 2. GINI coefficient ‐ Share of population in energy poverty. Source: Eurostat (online data codes: ilc_di12, ilc_mdes01) 3.3.2 Energy poverty and GDP per capita 53 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Figure 3. GDP per capita ‐ Share of population in Figure 5. Arrears on utility bills ‐ Share of population energy poverty. Source: Eurostat (online data codes: in energy poverty. Source: Eurostat (online data nama_10_pc, ilc_mdes01) codes: ilc_mdes07, ilc_mdes01) Energy poverty is negatively related to GDP per In EU countries high rates of unemployment capita. This is especially true for member states are related to high rates of energy poverty. This of Southern and Southeastern Europe, as a is particularly evident in southern and result of lower housing quality, tenure status, southeastern member states. Arrears on utility access to infrastructure and energy bills is a key indicator of energy poverty. privatization. No country with a high GDP per Furthermore energy poverty is positively capita has energy poverty rates above the related to mean equivalised net income. European average. 3.3.4 Energy poverty, health and nutritional 3.3.3 Energy poverty, unemployment, poverty arrears on utility bills Figure 6. Share of population having unmet medical needs ‐ Share of population in energy poverty. Figure 4. Unemployment rate ‐ Share of population Source: Eurostat (online data codes: hlth_silc_08, in energy poverty. Source: Eurostat (online data ilc_mdes01) codes: TPS00203, ilc_mdes01) 54 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Figure 7. Share of population in food poverty ‐ Share of population in energy poverty. Source: Eurostat Figure 8. Total population living in a dwelling with (online data codes: ilc_mdes03, ilc_mdes01) damp walls, etc ‐ Share of population in energy poverty. Source: Eurostat (online data codes: Energy poverty often coincides with food ilc_mdho06a, ilc_mdes01) poverty, which occurs when households are forced to sacrifice one essential good to 3.3.6 Energy poverty, energy production and purchase another. Southeast European imports, energy prices countries have high rates of food and energy poverty. However, there are discrepancies which are probably related to the high productivity of these countries and the predominance of the Mediterranean diet. Energy poverty is also positive related to unmet medical needs due to cost. 3.3.5 Energy poverty, severe housing deprivation and housing costs The existing building stock is insufficient, based on current requirements, and as a result vulnerable people are living in poor quality housing. Energy poverty is positively related to the existence of housing deprivation. In addition, high levels of the phenomenon are also Figure 9. Energy import ‐ Share of population in energy poverty. Source: Eurostat (online data codes: observed in member states with poor housing nrg_ind_id, ilc_mdes01) conditions. European Union (EU) depends on oil and Furthermore energy poverty is positively natural gas imports, which has a direct impact related to the share of housing costs in on energy tariffs. Energy price increases since disposable household income, although there the mid‐1990s are closely linked to the general are significant discrepancies in this condition. prevalence of neoliberal policies and the trend towards privatization of public utilities,[9] although the goal was to make energy cost‐ competitive and to reduce cost. Furthermore increasing carbon prices caused by the European Union Emissions Trading System 55 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece burdening the final consumers. is also observed that in the countries with the In 2018, energy imports increased, as wells as highest rates of energy poverty, taxes occupy a the energy dependency rate reaching large part of the total price of electricity. approximately 55.7%. Concerning gas prices, most southern and Energy poverty is positively related to energy eastern European member states have high imports in half of the EU member states. rates of energy poverty and high gas prices compared to the European price. 3.3.7 Energy poverty, electricity and gas prices for household consumers Finally, either electricity or gas prices, or both have risen above the European average in most periphery countries. 3.3.8 Energy poverty and general government expenditure by function Figure 10. Electricity prices for household consumers ‐ Share of population in energy poverty. Source: Eurostat (online data codes: ilc_mdes07, ilc_mdes01) Figure 12. General government expenditure on social protection ‐ Share of population in energy poverty. Source: Eurostat (online data codes: gov_10a_exp, ilc_mdes01) An immediate action for many governments is to provide benefits to vulnerable consumers. However, this is a short‐term policy and does not encourage the development of energy efficiency policies, which are a more effective long‐ term solution. The vast majority of countries, which have allocated a percentage of their total GDP below the EU average for Figure 11. Gas prices for household consumers ‐ total general government expenditure, have Share of population in energy poverty. Source: high rates of energy poverty. It is also observed Eurostat (online data codes: nrg_pc_202, ilc_mdes01) that in southern member states with high rates of energy poverty, a lower percentage than the Energy poverty is positively related to EU average of their GDP was spent on social electricity prices, although there are some protection and housing subsidies. discrepancies. Member states with the largest decrease in electricity prices, have a simultaneous reduction of the phenomenon. It 56 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 4. CONCLUSIONS Constructing energy poverty profiles for an effective energy policy, Energy Policy, 2019, 128, Member states of South East Europe report 727‐734 very low incomes, energy prices close to the European average and very high energy [6] Thomson H., Bouzarovski S., Snell C., Rethinking poverty rates. the measurement of energy poverty in Europe: A critical analysis of indicators and data, Indoor and In addition, member states of Southern Europe Built Environment, 2017, 26(7), 879 901 also face a significant problem. [7] Wang B., Li H. N., Yuan X. C., Sun Z. M., Energy Northern European member states have the poverty in China: a dynamic analysis based on a lowest levels of energy poverty and the highest hybrid panel data decision model. Energies, 2019, incomes, while energy prices are lower than 10(12), 1942. the European average. Book Significant discrepancies are observed in [8] Bouzarovski S., The European Energy Divide, In Central Europe. Energy poverty rates remain Energy Poverty, Palgrave Macmillan, Cham 2018, below the European average, but the countries 75‐107 with the highest per capita GDP have [9] Florio M., Network Industries and Social significantly lower energy poverty rates. Welfare: The Experiment that Reshuffled European Utilities, Oxford University Press, 2013 Overall, the member states of Northern, Western and Central Europe appear to be less [10] Simcock N., Thomson H., Petrova S., affected by energy poverty, compared to the Bouzarovski S., Energy poverty and vulnerability: a member states of South and South‐eastern global perspective, Routledge, 2018 Europe. The existing discrepancies are not Publication necessarily reflected in the above factors, [11] Council of European Energy Regulators indicating that energy poverty is also affected (CEER), Report on Energy Communities, 2019 by complicated geospatial conditions. [12] Korovesi A., Mpoemi S., Tsoutsos Th., Arymplia M., Touloupaki E.,Energy Poverty in REFERENCES Greece ‐ Political developments and proposals for social innovation to address Energy Poverty International Magazine (E.Merkouri, Trans.) [Ενεργειακή φτώχεια στην [1] Bouzarovski S., Petrova S., A global perspective Ελλάδα ‐ Πολιτικές εξελίξεις και προτάσεις on domestic energy deprivation: Overcoming the κοινωνικής καινοτομίας για την αντιμετώπισή της], energy poverty‐fuel poverty binary, Energy 2019 Research & Social Science, 2015, 10, 31‐40 [13] Korovesi A., Metaxa K., Touloupaki E., [2] Bouzarovski S., Petrova S., Sarlamanov R., Xrysogelos N., Energy Poverty in Greece ‐ Proposals Energy poverty policies in the EU: A critical on social innovation to tackle the phenomenon perspective, Energy Policy, 2012, 49, 76‐ 82 (E.Merkouri, Trans.) [Ενεργειακή φτώχεια στην [3] Kyprianou I., Serghides D.K., Varo A., Gouveia Ελλάδα Προτάσεις κοινωνικής καινοτομίας για την J.P., Kopeva D., Murauskaite L., Energy poverty αντιμετώπιση του φαινομένου], 2017 policies and measures in 5 EU countries: A [14] Dobbins A., Pye S., Member state level comparative study, Energy & Buildings, 2019, 196, regulation related to energy poverty and vulnerable 46‐60 consumers, In Energy Poverty Handbook, European [4] Lowitzsch J., Hoicka C. E., Van Tulder F. J., Union, 2016, 119‐150. Renewable energy communities under the 2019 [15] Jones S., Social Causes and Consequences of European Clean Energy Package ‐ Governance Energy Poverty, In Energy Poverty Handbook, model for the energy clusters of the future?, European Union, 2016, 21‐37 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2020, [16] Pye S., Dobbins A., Baffert C., Brajković J., 122, 109489 Grgurev I., De Miglio R., Deane P., Energy poverty [5] Primc K., Slabe Erker R., Majcen B., and vulnerable consumers in the energy sector 57 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece across the EU: analysis of policies and measures, Energy Poverty in the European Union: State of Play European Commission Policy Report, 2015 and Action, EU Energy Poverty Observatory, 2019 [17] Roberts J., Frieden D., d’Herbemont S., Energy Online source Community Definitions, Deliverable Developed [20] Eurostat Under the Scope of the COMPILE Project: ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database Integrating Community Power in Energy Islands, 2019, H2020 824424 [21] https://www.iea.org/reports/energy‐ access‐ outlook‐2017 [18] Stoerring, D., Energy Poverty. Workshop proceedings, European Union, 2019 [19] Thomson H., Bouzarovski S., Addressing 58 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece PUBLIC OPINION ABOUT THE IMPACT OF RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES ON THE ENVIRONMENT Z. Gareiou, E. Drimili, E. Zervas* School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT Religious activities, such as candles, bells, cemeteries etc, have an impact on health and the environment. This study investigates the opinion of the inhabitants of Athens, the capital of Greece, on the impact of the orthodox religious activities on the environment in terms of indoor air quality, noise pollution from bells and environmental impacts of cemeteries, as the majority of Greeks are Orthodox Christians and Orthodox Christianity is the official religion of Greece. A survey was conducted using a structured questionnaire. 550 questionnaires were considered valid and analyzed. Results indicate that τhe majority of respondents do not bothered by the bells and they do not believe that the bells should be eliminated but they believe that the external loudspeakers of churches should be eliminated. In addition, the respondents consider that health and the environment are not burdened by the atmosphere inside church due to candles and they are not bothered by them. However, they agree with the solutions of churches, as the lighting of candles either outdoors or internally under a fume hood. In the case of cemeteries, the respondents believe that cemeteries burden the environment but they do not select the cremation as alternative solution. From the results it seems that the respondents have a tolerant attitude towards certain religious activities, although they may be aware of their negative impact on the environment and health. KEYWORDS Environment; Indoor air quality; Noise pollution; Religious activities; CO2 is the human metabolism [6]. This may 1. INTRODUCTION pose significant risks in terms of respiratory health effects on humans [7], while may result Many studies show that religious activities, in material deformation and microbial growth, such as candles, bells, cemeteries etc, have an threatening pieces of art, into church [8]. impact on the environment [1‐3]. Furthermore, the management of the dead is Churches are used to perform sacred rituals also an important religious activity with the and that is why several hundred people can be burial of the dead being found in the depths of [4] present there . Burning incense and candles the centuries. The burial of the dead in is an indispensable part of many rituals in cemeteries is today the most common choice [5,6] churches industry . The indoor burning of of religions, while the cremation is the second candles is by far the major source of air choice. Contamination of underground soils pollutant indoors, followed by the burning of and aquifers is possible impacts caused by incense, while a considerable indoor source of cemeteries [9]. In addition, there are secondary 59 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece physical impacts, which occur when there is The questionnaire consists of three sections. presence of bad smell in their internal areas, The first section includes introductory coming from the gases of the decomposition of questions regarding respondent’s general the corpses [9]. Cremation, an alternative which views on Orthodox religion and on Orthodox has evolved in recent decades, also causes a religious activities. The second section series of environmental problems because of examines the opinion about the impact of their toxic effects and health implications [9]. religious activities on the environment, while Finally, another religious activity is the ringing the third one records the socio‐demographic of bells, both to show the time and to invite data of the respondents. the faithful to religious ceremonies. Church bell The survey questionnaire consists of closed‐ ringing events increase the probability of ended questions and the majority of the additional awakening reactions that would not responses are measured using a five‐point take place if the ringing were suspended during Likert scale, ranging from 1 to 5: 1: ‘not at all’, nighttime [10]. The most important predictor for 2: ‘little’, 3: ‘moderately’, 4: ‘much’, 5: ‘very awakening appears to be the maximum sound much’. Participants’ responses were analyzed pressure level of a ringing event. However, the using descriptive statistics: the mean value and sound of the bells can be seen as marks of its standard deviation of the answers and the sound and does not seem to be significantly frequency distribution of each answer is related to the general annoyance [3]. calculated. Although there are a number of studies concerning the impacts of religious activities on 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the environment, the opinion of citizens on these impacts is missing from the international 3.1 Socio‐demographic characteristics of the literature. In this study we investigate the sample opinion of the inhabitants of Athens, the The sample consists of 47.9% males and 52.1% capital of Greece, on the impact of the religious females, the average age of both genders are activities on the environment. The majority of 43.8 years. Also, more than half (54%) of the Greeks are Orthodox Christians and Orthodox respondents are married, while the 62.7% have Christianity is, from article 3 of the Greek children. The majority (58%) of the Constitution, the official religion of Greece. In respondents have university education, while Greece there is an interrelationship of Church the 24% have a primary/secondary school and State. On contrary of other countries, in education level. Regarding occupation, almost Greece there is no separation of activities of the half of the sample consists from private the “cosmic” state from the church of Greece. employees (42.2%) and 25.8% are self‐ This work is focused on the main impacts of employed. The 28.7% of respondents are full‐ orthodox religious activities in Greece, such as time employees, while the majority of them indoor air quality, noise pollution from bells are part‐time employees and employees with a and environmental impacts of cemeteries. service block (24.2% and 29.4% respectively). Finally, the annual total family income corresponds to 10.001‐20.000€ to 56.0% of 2. METHODOLOGY respondents. The survey was conducted from March to April 3.2 General for Orthodox religion 2019 in Athens. The data were collected using Questions related on citizens’ opinion on a structured questionnaire, addressed to the religion present that, the majority of inhabitants of Athens area (aged >18 years respondents (55.4%) have a “great” and “very old). 550 questionnaires were considered valid great” degree of faith in God. Almost all of the and analyzed. respondents don’t have visual contact with any 60 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece church (93.8%) in their area of residence, while external loudspeakers of churches should be the 52.2% of respondents attend “moderately” eliminated (59.1%, 41.3% and 17.8% on church ceremonies (52.2%) and are aware respectively). “moderately” the “beliefs” of the Orthodox 3.4 Atmosphere inside church religion (53.5%). The 88.2% of respondents know “little” and In addition, almost all of the respondents (94%) “moderately” (43.8% and 44.4% respectively) do not believe that religion was created to about what candle lighting means and consider subjugate the human spirit. Although the it “little” (27.1%) and “moderately” (46.2%) majority of the respondents appear to regard necessary to light a candle in the interior of Orthodox religion as important, they are church. The majority of responders are unaware of the laws and regulations that bothered “not at all” and “little” by the govern it (94.9%, 48.0% “not at all” and 46.9% atmosphere inside church because of candles “little”) and they consider that the Orthodox (88.5%, 52.9% and 35.6% respectively). Church respects “moderately” (94.2%) the Furthermore, the respondents are state’s current laws on religious activities. “moderately” (41.1%) and “little” (34.7%) Furthermore, almost all of the respondents aware of the effects caused by the inhalation of (98.5%) agree that church should not be the candles fumes on health, while they excluded from environmental regulations. consider that the environment and the health Finally, the majority of the respondents (87.8%) are burdened “not at all’ and “little” by the consider that Orthodox Church should not be atmosphere inside church because of candles separated from the state and Orthodox Church (93.2%, 36.0% and 57.2% respectively). should not own any immovable (96.7%, “not at However, they agree with the alternative all” and “little”) or movable (79.8%, “not at all” solutions of churches, as the lighting of candles and “little”) property, while the majority of either outdoors or internally under a fume respondents (99.6%) believe that church’s hood: 41.1% “moderately” and 38.0% “much”. management to be “moderately” correct. 3.5 Management of the dead 3.3 Bells and external loudspeakers Almost all of the respondents don’t have visual Regarding the bells and the external contact with any cemetery (97.3%) in their area loudspeakers of the churches, the majority of of residence. However, they consider that respondents (71.8%) do not consider that there cemeteries burden “much” and “too much” is a noise pollution problem in Greece and they (52.5%, 26.5% and 26% respectively) the are not bothered by the bells daily (92.2%) or environment and health. occasionally eg. Holiday season, in terms of frequency (55.6%) and intensity (55.9%). The majority of respondents are aware “much” Furthermore, they consider that the that there are environmental regulations for environment and the health are burdened cemeteries (64.9%) and the effects of “little” (51.9%) and “moderately” (38.0%) by cemeteries on environment and health from the sound of the bell and the external non‐compliance with environmental loudspeakers. regulations (57.8%), while 62.8% of them consider that cemeteries do not comply with In addition, although the respondents are the environmental requirements of the “moderately” (37.5%) and “much” (34.8%) legislation (22.2% “not at all” and 40.7% aware of the health impacts of noise pollution, “little”). they believe “little” that the bells should be eliminated (46.2%), while one in five Finally, although the majority of the respondents considers “much” and “very respondents believe that cemeteries can much” (20.4%) that the bells should be burden the environment, they agree “not at eliminated. On contrary, the respondents all” and “little” with the cremation (55.5%, believe “much” and “very much” that the 32.0% and 23.5% respectively) and it would be 61 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece “not at all” and “little” personal choice (55.6%, [2] Decker, C. J., Muniz, E. C. L., Cruz, N., 2018. 38.7% and 16.9% respectively). Environment Systems: A New Concept on Cremation. Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems, 6 4. CONCLUSIONS (2), 363‐380. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13044/j.sdewes.d5.0190. From the search it appears that a large number of respondents believe in God and declare that [3] Gozalo, G. R., Morillas, J. M. B., 2017. Perceptions and effects of the acoustic church should not be excluded from environment in quiet residential areas. The environmental regulations. Furthermore, they Journal of the Acoustical Society of America have a tolerant attitude towards certain 141, 2418‐2429. DOI: 10.1121/1.4979336. religious activities, although they may be aware of their negative impact on the environment [4] Śmiełowska, M., Marć, M. & Zabiegała, B. (2017). Indoor air quality in public utility and health. In case of bells, the respondents environments—a review. Environ Sci Pollut Res, believe that there is not a noise pollution 24, 11166–11176. problem in Greece, they are not bothered by the bells daily and they declare that the bells [5] Wang, B., Lee, S.C., Ho, K.F. & Kang, Y.M. should not be eliminated, while they declare (2007). Characteristics of emissions of air pollutants from burning of incense in temples, that the external loudspeakers should be Hong Kong. Science of the Total Environment, eliminated. 377, 52–60. In addition, the respondents are not bothered [6] Loupa, G. & Rapsomanikis, S. (2008). Air by candles and fumes inside the church and do pollutant emission rates and concentrations in not consider that health and the environment medieval churches. J Atmos Chem, 60, 169–187. are burdened because of them. Finally, the [7] Chuang, H. C., Jones, T. & BéruBé, K. (2012). respondents believe that cemeteries can Combustion particles emitted during church burden the environment and health but they services Implications for human respiratory do not select the cremation as an alternative health. Environment International, 40, 137–142. choice. [8] Hayati, A., Mattsson, M. & Sandberg, M. (2017). This tolerant attitude may be due to the fact Single‐sided ventilation through external doors: that the respondents have linked many Measurements and model evaluation in five religious activities such as lighting the candle historical churches. Energy and Buildings. and ringing the bell with the history of the [9] Decker, C. J., Muniz, E. C. L. & Cruz, N. (2018). Orthodox religion and do not accept changes in Environment Systems: A New Concept on the implementation of these activities. Cremation. Journal of Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems, 6 (2), 363‐380. REFERENCES [10] Brink, M., Omlin, S., Müller, C., Pieren, R. & [1] Wysocka, M., 2018, Analysis of indoor air Basner, M. (2011). An event‐related analysis of quality in a naturally ventilated church. E3S awakening reactions due to nocturnal church Web of Conferences, 49 (11):(00134), 1‐9. bell noise. Science of the Total Environment, DOI:10.1051/e3sconf/20184900134. 409, 5210–5220. 62 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece ACCEPTANCE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES Z. Gareiou, E. Drimili, L. Vatikiotis, E. Zervas,* School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT Social acceptance of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) has been identified as a crucial factor to the development of RES projects to the direction of the further penetration of RES in the energy mix. The aim of the present work is the investigation of respondents’ attitude towards RES, exploring their beliefs and perceptions, while highlighting the main parameters that affect their social acceptance. For this purpose a properly designed questionnaire was used which was addressed to the residents of Athens. The statistical analysis was based on 536 valid and representative questionnaires. The results of the research revealed that the majority of the participants are in favor of the development of RES and declare themselves supporters to corresponding investments, however they do not want RES projects to be located near their residences and they do not seem particularly willing to contribute financially for the development of RES. KEYWORDS Athens; environment; Renewable Energy Sources; social acceptance social acceptance [5]. The indicators that play an 1. INTRODUCTION important role in shaping public behavior are: the knowledge and information about the The concept of social acceptance of Renewable various aspects of new technology, the fear Energy Sources (RES) refers to the level of and concern about risks directly related to new support or rejection of RES technologies, as a technology and the perception and the way result of the interaction between different people think and interpret RES applications [6]. beliefs, opinions, knowledge, ideologies, values and motivations of individuals or social Social acceptance is affected both by groups[1]. awareness of climate change and its effects, and by knowledge of renewable technologies. Citizens play one of the most important roles in There is an obvious positive relationship transforming the energy model into RES, as no between citizens' awareness and awareness of new technology related to them can be climate change and their readiness to act [7, 8]. implemented effectively without social The lack of information and meaningful [2,3] acceptance . New energy technologies dialogue with the local community is one of the require active and increased support from main reasons for the reaction to the society in order to compete with conventional development of RES. The dialogue must take [4] energy sources . It has been shown that it is place in a timely manner with the full important to know the attitude of consumers, involvement of the state, stakeholders and since their behaviors are the foundations of 63 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece local government [9]. The acceptance rate of 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION new energy projects shows an increasing trend 3.1 Environmental sensitivity over time in case of proper and timely public information at the local level. In many cases, a The 73% of the respondents supported that specific type of social behavior is recorded as environmental problems greatly affect their described by the international term NIMBY and daily lives. They have strongly expressed their attributed to the phrase "Not In My Backyard". concern on a number of environmental issues The typical behavior of citizens acting under and prioritize "air pollution" as the most the influence of this syndrome, includes the important environmental problem. They acceptance of the need to create a public expressed strong concern about "water facility, but still there is a complete reaction to pollution", "climate change" and "ecosystem the location of the facility, near to their disruption" too. residencies [10]. 3.2 Cognitive level – sources information The aim of the present work is the The concept of Renewable Energy seemed to investigation of respondents’ attitude towards be not widespread but when deconstructing RES, exploring their beliefs and perceptions, the concept through the questions, the while highlighting the main parameters that participants acknowledge specific forms of RES affect their social acceptance without knowing the meaning of the term. However, men are more informed than women, with younger ages (up to 39 years old) 2. METHODOLOGY showing greater familiarity with the concept of To achieve the purpose of the survey, a RES. Those with a high level of education have questionnaire was used as a research tool for the lead in knowledge regarding RES, the collection of the empirical primary data. compared to the lower levels of education. The construction of the questionnaire was Solar energy appeared to be the most widely based on an extensive literature review known form of RES with 77.6% (Fig. 1) of the intended to identify similar surveys. The survey citizens answering that they have "Enough" to was conducted in Athens, the capital of Greece, "Excellent" knowledge with wind energy between January and April 2018, through face following with a corresponding percentage of to face interviews. The collection of the knowledge 66.2%. questionnaires took place in ten different places of the Athens Region at different times of the day and on different days of the week. After the data collection was completed, the statistical processing followed (using the statistical package IBM SPSS Statistics) based on 536 valid questionnaires The participants’ responses were analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequency analysis, percentages, Figure 1. Information about solar energy mean and standard deviation). Chi‐square test The 45.4% of the participants stated that they for independence was used to determine have "Not at all" knowledge about biomass whether the variables concerning the while even greater is the percentage (48.2%) participants’ views related to RES were who answered that they do not know "Not at statistically related to personal socio‐ all" about geothermal energy (Fig. 2). In demographic characteristics. addition, the cognitive level for specific forms of RES is mainly related to the gender, age and educational level of the respondents. Regarding the investigation of the sources of 64 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece information on RES, the respondents derive information and knowledge primarily from the internet. The family and wider social environment as well as television are important sources of information mainly for the elderly, who however do not have sufficient knowledge about RES. On the contrary, younger respondents and people of high educational level who considered that they have significant knowledge about RES, showed incomplete Figure 3. Support of RES for electricity production in knowledge about both biomass and our country geothermal energy. The lack of information on renewable energy sources through the The majority of the sample (46%) answered education system is remarkable and is evident that they would not be bothered "at all" by the in all age groups. location of a photovoltaic park or system near his home. The "Moderate" annoyance expressed against the possible installation of a biomass project near their home The 41.3% stated the full acceptance of a geothermal project in the area of their residence with only 5.0% expressing to the maximum extent their reaction to the above proposal. 3.4 Management Body Preference Figure 2. Information on geothermal energy For the management of both the design and 3.3 Impact and benefits the construction of RES projects it seemed that A minor proportion (1.1%) reported that a RES they prefer mainly private bodies while on the project could cause environmental contrary for the determination of the energy degradation. The largest percentage of the prices the preference in the public body is sample 37.3% appeared to disagree with the obvious. It is noteworthy, however, the previous view while the remaining 28.9% percentage (39.2%) of preference of the equal disagree "A little". One in four respondents distribution of the bodies in the pricing policy believes that the implementation of a facility of RES (Table 1). For their exploitation, both related to RES can degrade an area public and private bodies prefer to participate "Moderately". The 68.5% of the respondents with the same percentage. believe that the implementation of a RES Table 1. Preference of Public and Private body for project creates new jobs while at the same the design, construction, exploitation and pricing of time 39.3% believe that the contribution of RES such a project to the local economy of the region will be significant. It is also recognized by the majority of the participants that the implementation of a RES project significantly enhances the economic development of an area. Very crucial for the evaluation of the results was the position of the respondents on whether they are in favor of the development 3.5 Willingness to pay of RES. Most said they were in favor of A very small percentage of 1.3% of the sample developing RES for electricity generation with stated that they were willing to contribute just 1.3% against (Fig. 3). financially for the benefit of RES, while the 65 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece largest percentage of 36.2% of them refused to Concerning the possibility of RES installation in pay any amount for this purpose. Additionally a region, the respondents believe that it would one in five respondents stated that they intend create new job positions and would help the to pay "Moderately" (Fig. 4). economic development of the region, while it would reduce the dependence of the region on fossil fuels. On contrary, they believe that large lands areas are reserved for the installation of RES and a high initial investment cost is required, but they do not consider that the installation of a RES project could cause environmental degradation. In addition, regarding the management of RES, the respondents prefer the private bodies in terms of design and construction, while they prefer a Figure 4. Willingness to pay for the benefit of RES public body in terms of exploitation. This public Although some of the respondents, initially, body should also fix the price of the electricity stated that they would be willing to pay in produced. Furthermore, the respondents favor of RES, when they were asked about the believe that the installation of RES in a short amount of money they were intended to offer, distance from their residence would not be a their willingness turned into a denial. nuisance for their region. However, the respondents, although they support the development of energy projects near their 4. CONCLUSIONS residence, set, in average, a minimal distance at 10Km. Respondents are also not willing to The results showed that, although the pay for the installation of RES. Mostly men are environmental problems affect the daily lives the ones who are less willing to pay for RES, of the respondents, the concept of RES is not while younger people are less negative and are widespread. Men and younger respondents more willing to pay for RES. seemed to be more familiar with RES. As the main source of information about RES, the respondents mentioned the internet, while REFERENCES there is an important absence of information [11] Stephenson, J., Ioannou, M., 2010, Social from the education system. Of the main forms acceptance of renewable electricity of RES, the respondents know more about solar developments in New Zealand. A Report for the energy, with wind energy coming next, while Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority, they ignored geothermal energy. The majority Centre for the Study of Agriculture, Food and of the participants do not consider that Environment, University of Otago, pp. 1‐106. biomass is very environmental friendly. Most of [12] Bang, H.‐K., Ellinger, A.E., Hadjimarcou, J., the respondents also believe that the Traichal, P.A., 2000, Consumer concern, production of electricity from RES is cheaper knowledge, belief, and attitude toward than conventional sources and they are very renewable energy: an application of the positive with the development of RES for reasoned action theory. Psychol Mark 17, 449‐ electricity production. Women in particular 468. consider that electricity production from RES is [13] Upreti, B.R., Van der Horst, D., 2004, National cheaper than from conventional sources, while renewable energy policy and local opposition in younger people have a higher acceptance of the UK: the failed development of a biomass RES for electricity production. The majority of electricity plant. Biomass and Bioenergy 26, respondents believe that priority should be 161‐69. given to solar energy. This may be due to the [14] ECN, 2008, Factors influencing the societal fact that Greece is a sunny country. acceptance of new energy technologies: Meta‐ 66 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece analysis of recent European projects. Energy acceptability of wind energy projects: A latent research center of the Netherlands class approach. Energy Policy 48, 334‐347. [15] Ek K., 2005, Public and private attitudes [18] Thogersen, J., Noblet, C., 2012, Does green towards “green” electricity: the case of Swedish consumerism increase the acceptance of wind wind power. Energy Policy 33, 1677‐1689. power?. Energy Policy 51, 854‐862. [16] Assefa, G., Frostell, B., 2007, Social [19] Van der Host, 2007, NIMBY or not? Exploring sustainability and social acceptance in the relevance of location and the points of technology assessment: A case study of energy voiced opinions in renewable energy siting technologies. Technology in society 29, 63‐78. controversies. Energy Policy 35, 2705‐2714. [17] Strazzera, E., Mura, M., Contu, D., 2012, [20] Kaldellis, J.K., 2005, Social attitude towards Combining choice experiments with wind energy applications in Greece. Energy psychometric scales to assess the social Policy 33, 595‐602. 67 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 68 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF LARGE ORGANIZED GREEN AREAS ON THE QUALITY OF LIFE. A QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY REGARDING THE ‘ANTONIS TRITSIS’ PARK IN ATHENS, GREECE S. Lecati, A. Tasopoulou*, D. Kaika School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University,26335, Patras, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to explore the impact of large urban green areas on the quality of life. The research was based on data collection via structured questionnaires, distributed to the residents of the greater area of ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park in Athens, in order to identify the factors influencing the quality of life, as well as its overall contribution on environmental, economic, social and individual level.The results of the survey were statistically processed. It was confirmed that urban green areas in Greece are inadequate and that there is particularly low satisfaction of residents for such sites in Athens. Access to the ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park is mainly achieved with private vehicles and secondarily by public transport, thus demonstrating the satisfactory infrastructure offered by the road network to reach the park. Regarding the environmental benefits of the Park, the participants in the survey reported that it improves the microclimate and reduces air pollution. The economic benefits concern mainly the increase in the value of nearby properties and health improvement through reducing health costs. The social benefits relate to the recreational opportunities and the feeling of ‘tranquility’, while on an individual level the park offers contact with nature, mental well‐being and opportunities for physical activity. The overall impact of urban green on both the urban environment and the quality of life was indicated as high. Altogether, the research highlighted the significant contribution of ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park to the improvement of the residents’ quality of life. The physical and mental health, the balance between work and personal life as well as the family context and relations were found to be the most crucial factors affecting the quality of life. KEYWORDS Quality of Life; Urban green areas; Questionnaire survey; Athens; ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park of urban green spaces combined with the 1. INTRODUCTION inability to meet their conservation requirements, lead to negative effects on the Unplanned urban development and quality of life. construction activity in contemporary cities have greatly reduced and altered the character The ‘quality of life’ (QoL) is a multi‐faceted of open spaces and green areas, resulting in notion that incorporates various dimensions: lack of opportunities for recreation, relaxation, social, economic, political, health‐related, and physical exercise for the inhabitants. In environmental, and psychological. It has been Greek large cities, in particular, the limited studied either as a set of ‘objective’ social life quantity ‐in relation to the population needs‐ conditions conceived by individuals or entire 69 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece societies [1, 2], or as a set of ‘subjective’ the ‘Antonis Tritsis’ metropolitan park in cognitive traits of individuals regarding their Athens (i.e. municipalities of Ilion and Agioi life satisfaction[3]. Although easily understood, Anargyroi & Kamatero), regarding its impact on the concept ‘quality of life’ remains essentially their quality of life. theoretical, as it contains a high degree of The respondents were randomly selected and subjectivity, leading to difficulties in its [4] were aged 18 and older. The sample mirrors measurement . the gender and educational level of the QoL is associated with nature, which in turn is permanent population of the respective one of its fundamental determinants. The municipalities, as recorded in the last national breakdown of the relationship between human census in 2011. The distribution and and nature has implications for the quality of completion of the questionnaires took place in the environment, the quality of work life and various parts of the study area, at different consequently the QoL [5]. hours of the day and on different days of the week, during the period March ‐ April 2019. In latest years, QoL’s relation with the urban 274 valid questionnaires were used for the environment has been increasingly brought statistical analysis performed using SPSS 21 and into discussion. The study of QoL in cities is a Excel 12 software.The sample size field of interest for researchers in various (n=274)corresponds to a standard error of 6% scientific disciplines, while it is gradually and is in the confidence interval 95% and transformed into an essential tool for the significance level 5%. evaluation of urban planning policy and practices. There is also a growing The analysis of the research data was done at interest within decision makers and policy two levels: developers in considering geographical factors 1. Descriptive statistics. Central trend and [6]. In this that affect the individual happiness variability measures (frequency distribution context, urban parks are considered to play a tables, averages, standard deviations of positive role in increasing the happiness of the observations) were used for query and variable locals[7]. analysis. Frequency and percentage analysis The aim of this paper is to delve into the field were also used in the demographic analysis of green areas in cities especially in relation to (individual profile). the quality of life and to explore the views of 2. Inferential statistics. Statistical tests were the inhabitants of the greater area of ‘Antonis used. The spearman rank‐order correlation Tritsis’ Park in Athens, one of the largest parks coefficient (correlation / correlation test) and in Greece, in order to identify the factors the Pearson chi‐squared test were used to test influencing the quality of life, as well as its for the effect on demographic characteristics. overall contribution on environmental, All tests were performed at a level of statistical economic, social and individual level. The significance (s) of at least 0.05. research results could assist the local and regional authorities in setting certain Finally, in each composite variable (see Table objectives, formulating strategies, and 1) the total score [1] is calculated empirically promoting actions within the urban planning (synthetic average) [2]. processes to meet the goal of improving the [1] Composite Variables where they include inhabitants’ quality of life. more than one question / statement in the Research Questionnaire, which can be summarized conceptually (synthetic average). 2. METHODOLOGY [2] Use of total sum, resulting from the sum of Based on data collection via structured all the answers to the questions and divided by questionnaires, the empirical research explores the total number of questions that make up the views of residents of the greater area of 70 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece the complex variable. ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park was found to be Table 1. Research Factors influenced by demographic factors such as political preference (the further left in political Factor Symbol Formula preference, the higher the accessibility rating) Accessibility ΠΡΟΤΡΣΜΟ [∑item1..item3]/3 and educational level (the lower the educational level, the higher the accessibility rating). Also, based on the existing literature Environment ΠΕΡΤΡΣΜΟ [∑item1..item5]/5 (see for example [9]), traffic problems are a barrier, but in the present study it appears that the road network is satisfactory since, for the Economy ΟΙΚΤΡΣΜΟ [∑item1..item5]/5 respondents, accessibility and parking need the least improvement compared to other factors Society ΚΟΙΤΡΣΜΟ [∑item1..item5]/5 (e.g. security and safety). Regarding the environmental / ecological Individual ΑΤΟΤΡΣΜΟ [∑item1..item8]/8 benefits of the ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park, the level respondents’ views are in accordance with the existing literature (see for example [10]): improvement of the microclimate (regulation of temperature and humidity) (63.8% of the 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION respondents ‐ sum of ‘rather much’ and ‘very According to the research results, the vast much’) and air pollution reduction (62% of the majority (2 in 3 people) of the respondents participants), followed by the aesthetic value stated that there are not enough urban green (59.9% of the respondents) (see Figure 1). The spaces in Greece. In addition, 2 in 3 people perceptions on environmental benefit are declared their dissatisfaction with the urban affected by employment status (housewives green spaces in Athens, compared to other and retirees have rated the park's major European cities (small percentage of environmental offer higher) and income forest coverage, few green spaces and parks, (people who have high incomes have rated the etc.). park's environmental offer higher). The participants in the survey do not visit the ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park often. This is mainly attributed to different choices of spending their free time as well as to the Park’s inefficient equipment and facilities. Vilanou [8] argues that two of the main reasons for the degradation of urban green spaces are the lack of funding and the poor maintenance, which partly agrees with the previous findings. 1 Improvement of the microclimate Access to the park is mainly achieved via 2 Air pollution reduction private vehicles and secondarily via public 3 Reduction of noise pollution transport, highlighting the satisfactory 4 Dust reduction infrastructure offered through the road 5 Aesthetic value network to approach the park. It is for this Figure 1. Environmental offer of the ‘Antonis Tritsis’ reason that private vehicles and two‐wheelers Park. are considered by the respondents the two most satisfactory modes to reach the park The economic benefits of the park concern (aver. 3,56/max=5.0). The evaluation of mainly the increase in the value of nearby accessibility (car, bicycle, bus, on foot) of properties (41.9% of the respondents), as other 71 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece relevant studies have found [11]. Health (the lower the educational level, the higher the improvement through reducing health costs is park's social offer rating) and professional considered the second most important factor status (housewives and public servants have in the park's economic contribution (24.8% of rated the park's social offer higher). Contrary to the respondents). The World Health this result, other empirical research has shown Organization (WHO) considers physical that age and gender are factors influencing inactivity the cause of many diseases (heart leisure preferences [14]. disease, stroke, cancer, etc.) and points out that parks in cities can help reduce this inactivity [12]. The increase in employment positions is the least important factor of the park's economic offer (12.1% of the respondents) (see Figure 2). The economic benefits of the park are affected by several socio‐demographic characteristics of the sample, such as income (people who have medium incomes have rated the park's 1 Feeling of ‘tranquility’ economic offer higher) and political preference 2 Recreational opportunities (people who have extreme political 3 Strengthening of social relations preferences have rated the park's economical 4 Environmental education offer higher). 5 Citizens protection in cases of emergencies or natural disasters Figure 3. Social offer of the ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park. On an individual level, the respondents marked the physical exercise (71.9% of the respondents), the mental well‐being (71.9% of the respondents) and the closer contact with nature (71.5% of the respondents) as the most significant benefits of the park (Figure 4). Similar findings have been found in other 1 Increase in employment positions empirical research on the impact of urban 2 Local entrepreneurship parks on both physical health [15] and mental 3 Health improvement health [16]. These researches reported the 4 Tourists attraction 5 Increase in the value of nearby properties contribution of urban parks to psychological upgrade, social relationships, environmental Figure 2. Economic offer of the ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park. education, and health improvement through According to the participants in the survey, the physical exercise [8]. Gender (males have rated social benefits of ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park relate the park's individual level offer higher), mainly to the recreational opportunities (55.1% education (the lower the educational level, the of the respondents) and the feeling of higher the park's individual level offer rating), ‘tranquility’ (53.3% of the respondents), income (people who have medium incomes followed by social relations (50.8% of the have rated the park's individual level offer respondents) (see Figure 3). Other relevant higher), and political preference (people who studies have also shown that residents of cities have extreme political preferences have rated with urban parks acknowledge their the park's individual level offer higher) contribution to social interaction [13]. This influence the respondents’ views on the park’s component (i.e. the social benefits offered by influence on an individual level, based on the the park) is correlated only with two results of our survey. demographic characteristics: educational level 72 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece degradation in Greece. Overall, the offer of the park on an individual level (ΑΤΟΤΡΣΜΟ) is of most importance (aver. 3.67/max=5.0), while the offer on an economic level in the wider area (ΟΙΚΤΡΣΜΟ) is of less importance (aver. 2.55/max=5.0). This can be explained by the fact that the economy is still underdeveloped and the effects of the 1 Physical exercise recession have not yet been overcome, while 2 Contact with nature contact with nature, mental well‐being and 3 Strengthening of social relations physical exercise constitute key elements for 4 Satisfaction of the need for human encounter upgrading urban residents’ lives [15]. 5 Mental well‐being Regarding QoL, based on the results of this Figure 4. Offer of the ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park on an research, the factors that significantly affect it individual level. are the physical and mental health, the balance When asked about the impact of the ‘Antonis between work and personal life as well as the Tritsis’ Park on the QoL of the inhabitants, family context and relations. In terms of the more than 1 in 2 respondents said that impacts impact of the urban green on cities and on QoL, are significantly positive (sum of ‘rather much’ the research highlighted the mental well‐being, and ‘very much’=56.7%). However, about 1 in 3 the upgrading of the environment of the wider people reported that the improvement in their area and the improvement of individual health quality of life is moderate, while a smaller as the most important factors (Figure 6). In percentage experience no improvement (4.1%) particular, mental well‐being and individual’s or little improvement (10.4%) (Figure 5). health conditions are linked to other relevant research showing that increased physical activity improves health and reduces the effects of psychological problems or medical disorders (e.g. depression) [17]. Figure 5. Improvement of the QoL by the presence of ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park. The most important factors, according to the respondents, that need to be improved in relation to ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park are the maintenance of the park, the management of greenery and the security and safety. Accordingly, the Hellenic Society for the Protection of the Environment and the Cultural Heritage considers the poor maintenance, the lack of lighting and the lack of a comprehensive green area management plan as the main Figure 6. Impacts of the urban green on cities and causes, among others [8], of urban green areas’ 73 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece on QoL. Respectively, the QoL is significantly restrained due to the degradation of the Quality of the Environment and therefore the upgrading of the natural environment is one of the main factors that affect the urban green in the cities and the QoL of their inhabitants [18]. In the same context, the answers provided by the respondents suggest that the improvement of the quality of urban green areas in their neighborhood or the closer proximity to such a site could be achieved through the voting and Figure 8. High Positive Correlations between support of a local government which would research variables. orientate its actions towards this direction. In this survey, 4 in 10 respondents are willing to pay a small amount (<1% of monthly income) for being closer to an urban green area, while 3 in 10 agree to pay a larger amount (2‐3% of monthly income). Demographic characteristics do not affect the respondents' answers. All in all, the results of the survey show ‘moderate’ degree of satisfaction with the quality of life (1 in 2 people said ‘to some extent’), while almost 1 in 11 people declared Figure 9. Medium Positive Correlations between ‘dissatisfied’ (Figure 7). Demographics do not research variables. affect the respondents' answers. 4. CONCLUSIONS Overall, the research highlighted the significant contribution of ‘Antonis Tritsis’ Park to the improvement of the residents’ QoL. Its impact is reflected mainly in the mental well‐being, the upgrade of the environment of the wider area and the improvement of the health condition of the individuals. The impact of the Park on both the local and the wider community concerns specific Figure 7.Satisfaction of residents by their QoL. benefits on environmental, economic, social, The next two figures show the correlations and individual level. The social impact is between the main research factors. significantly correlated with the economic and environmental impact (benefits) as well as the impact on an individual level. The benefits on an individual level are also significantly (but to a lesser degree) correlated with the social and economic offer of the park. The environmental impact is moderately related to the economic 74 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece impact. The improvement of the individual QoL [8] Vilanou, Ch., 2014,The urban green and is affected by all factors used in this research sufficiency assessment in European cities: The case (ΠΡΟΤΡΣΜΟ, ΠΕΡΤΡΣΜΟ, ΟΙΚΤΡΣΜΟ, ΚΟΙΤΡΣΜΟ, of the city of Kavala. MSc Thesis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece (in ΑΤΟΤΡΣΜΟ), reflecting the various benefits of the Park. Lastly, for the participants in the Greek). Available at: http://ikee.lib.auth.gr/record/135868?ln=el. research there is a moderate interaction between satisfaction with the urban green [9] Scott, D., Munson, W., 2000, Perceived spaces in Athens and the adequacy of the Constraints to Park Usage Among Individuals with urban green spaces in Greece in general. Low Incomes. Managing Leisure, 5, 79–95. [10] Tsintzoura, O., 2017, The influence of urban green on the values of real estate. The case of the REFERENCES Pangrati grove. MSc Thesis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece (in Greek). [1] Diener, E., Suh, E., 1997, Measuring quality of Available at: life: Economic, social, and subjective indicators. http://ikee.lib.auth.gr/record/295399?ln=el. Social Indicators Research, 40, 189– 216.https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006859511756 [11] Williams, W., 2009, The Economic Values of Green Infrastructure. Northwest Regional [2] Lee, H. S., 2003,The Quality of Korean Life in Development Agency, England. Comparative Perspective: Objective Quality of Life in Korea and the OECD Countries. 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Psychological Science, 19(12), 1207– 75 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 1212.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467‐ Ecology, New York: The Guilford press.ISBN978‐ 9280.2008.02225.x. 0898625943. [18] O’Connor, M., 1994, Is the Capitalism Sustainable? Political Economy and the Politics of 76 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece WHY DO CITIZENS VISIT URBAN PARKS? THE CASE OF TRITSI IN GREECE G. Halkos1, A. Leonti2*, E. Sardianou2 1Laboratory of Operations Research, Department of Economics, University of Thessaly, 28hs Octovriou 78, 38333 Volos, Greece 2Graduate Program of Sustainable Development, Department of Home Economics and Ecology, School of Environment, Geography and Applied Economics, Harokopio University, El. Venizelou 70, 17671 Athens, Greece ([email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]) ABSTRACT The benefits of parks are widely recognized and the number of visitors to them has increased in the past years. The services provided by the parks make their presence in the urban environment of major importance. The purpose of this study is to identify the motivations of visitors to the Antonis Tritsis urban park in Greece, which is the largest metropolitan park in the Attica basin. The survey was conducted from August 2018 to March 2019 and the responses of 377 visitors were collected. A principal component factor analysis was used to determine the motives of visitors to the Tritsi Park. The analysis of the results revealed the presence of three components explaining 61.19% of the total variance in the motives. These factors are termed “Relaxation and nature experience”, “Educational and cultural activities” and “Activities for children”. Recognizing the motivations of visitors, policy makers will be able to configure the park infrastructure according to the stated preferences. The services provided by the Tritsi Park when they are based on the preferences of its visitors will maximize their satisfaction and consequently improve the quality of life and contribute to sustainable development. KEYWORDS Factor analysis; Motives; Recreation; Tritsi Park; Urban Park break [5]. Attending cultural activities [6] and 1. INTRODUCTION reading in the park [5] are other motivations for visiting urban parks. Parks offer a variety of activities and purposes for visitors. Some citizens visit urban parks to As has been proven, the preferences and spend time with their family and have fun [1‐4], motivations of visitors differ, even if the [7] while others engage in sport activities [4], such product is the same . In the case of Greece, as cycling [1,2,5] and walking [1,5,6]. literature so far has focused on the motivations for visiting national parks, while the same Many people visit the parks to enjoy the nature research for urban parks is limited and [1,4] [4‐6] , to breathe fresh air , to enjoy the concerns mainly public spaces in general. quietness [4,5] as well as the view of the flora and fauna [2,3,5]. As a result and given the importance of parks in the urban realm, we focus our research on the Visitors seek to reduce their stress [2,4] or take a 77 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece activities of the visitors in the Antonis Tritsis Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the Park. respondents. The Tritsi Park was chosen because it is the Demographic characteristics % of largest metropolitan park in Attica and its history dates back to 1833 [8]. In this park, sample water bodies like lakes and streams, as well as Gender Men 39.5 flora and fauna are present. Cultural events Women 60.5 and educational activities take place in the park, while there is also activity from volunteer Age 18‐25 12.2 organizations such as “the friends of the park”. 26‐35 26.5 36‐45 29.7 2. METHODOLOGY >46 32 The survey was conducted between August Education Primary/Secondary 36.9 2018 and March 2019 and the final sample was 377 visitors. University degree 43.2 Descriptive statistic was used for the profile of Master/PhD 19.9 the respondents and the visit characteristics. A Marital Single 39.3 comparison is made between the results of our status Married 54.1 study and previous ones regarding the motivation of visit. Divorced/Widow 6.7 Principal component factor analysis was used Children Yes 33.7 for motivation to visit Tritsi Park and the No 66.3 orthogonal rotation of maximum variation was selected. Employ Unemployed 9.3 Students 8.2 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION State employees 22.5 3.1 Demographic characteristics of park visitors Private employees 41.4 The demographic characteristics of the sample Freelancers/Entrepre 13 are presented in Table 1. Women constitute neurs 60.5% of the participants. 12.2% of respondents were 18‐25 years old and 32% Retired 5.6 over 46 years old. The majority of park visitors Income 0‐400 23 at 43.2% have a university degree. Regarding marital status, 54.1% were married and 33.7% 401‐800 21.5 had children. Most of the interviewees (41.4%) 801‐1.200 30.2 stated to be private employees, followed by >1.201 25.2 state employees with 22.5%. Finally, 30.2% of the sample stated that they are paid 801‐1.200 Euros per month, while 23% reported 0‐400 3.2 Visit characteristics Euros as individual monthly earnings. The majority of interviewees (63.4%) said that they visited the park by car. 18.8% used public transportation and 12.5% went on foot. Only 5.3% stated that their transition to Tritsi Park was done by bicycle. 36.9% said that it took them 15‐30 minutes to 78 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece get to the park. 37.4% of the sample visited experience” includes the following variables: Tritsi Park for the first time. In terms of traffic, “Meeting room‐Fun with family/friends‐coffee‐ the results are as follows: 34.2% visit Tritsi Park relaxation”, “Walk/exercise”, “To breathe fresh less than once a month, 12.7% monthly, 9.8% air”, “To enjoy the cool environment”, “Enjoy on a weekly basis, 4.5% 2‐6 times a week and the peace”, “Enjoy green/lake/canal”, “Reduce 1.3% at least once a day. stress” and “To get close to nature”. This factor explains 37.26% of the total variance. The duration of the visit ranges from 2 to 3 hours for 49.9% of the interviewees. The vast The second factor termed “Educational and majority of the sample at 89.7% prefers to visit cultural activities” includes four variables the park on weekends. Participants were asked related to motivation for park visit: “Attending if they prefer to visit the park in the cultural activities”, “Reading”, “Break‐Located morning/afternoon, evening or both. It is near my home/office” and “School trip”. interesting that 92.6% prefer to visit the park 12.61% of the total variance is explained by this usually in the morning or in the afternoon, factor. while 34.5% in the evening. Finally, the third factor “Activities for children” Regarding the motivations of the visit, the most explains 11.31% of the total variance. It important are contact with nature, the includes the following motives: “Activities for enjoyment of a cool environment and fresh air children (e.g. playground)” and “Cycling”. offered in the park. 65.8% of the sample stated Policy makers will be able to configure the park that they visit the park “much” or “very much” infrastructure according to the preferences of in order to enjoy the cool environment, while visitors as researched here. It seems that the the same answers gave 64.4% for contact with environmental benefits of the park are of nature and 63.9% for the fresh air and the particular importance to visitors. stress reduction. Consequently, emphasis could be given to the The importance of fresh air and the reduction preservation of the natural and man‐made of stress levels through visiting parks were environment of the park. The preservation of identified by the Sreetheran [4]. Specifically, in the artificial lakes and the canal, but also the this case study, 74.7% of the respondents that care of the flora and fauna seem to be visit the five urban parks which were examined considered fundamental based on the in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, stated they did so preferences of the visitors. to breath fresh air and 69.7% claimed to visit Table 2. Factor loads and communalities for the the parks to reduce stress and relax. motives of visiting Tritsi Park. The second most important motive for visiting Variables Main Components Hawassa was found to be contact with nature F1 F2 F3 Comm and specifically the fresh air and appreciation [6] unaliti of beautiful scenery . es [9] On the other hand, Chiesura and Gashu et al. Attending 0.612 0.403 [6] stressed the importance of relaxation cultural thought visiting the parks. This factor proved to activities be the most important in these studies. Activities 0.904 0.828 3.3 Factor analysis for children As shown in Table 2, Principal Component (e.g. Analysis revealed the presence of three playgroun components explaining 61.19% of the total d) variance. Cycling 0.779 0.640 The first factor termed “Relaxation and nature 79 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Meeting 0.595 0.393 room‐Fun REFERENCES with [1] Kemperman, A.D.A.M., Timmermans, H.J.P., family/frie 2006, Heterogeneity in Urban Park use of aging nds‐ Leisure Sciences, 28 coffee/rela visitors: A latent class analysis. xation (1), 57‐71. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400500332 710. Walk/exer 0.709 0.542 [2] Pazhouhanfar, M., 2016, Preference study for cise Urban parks activities using multiple method group. To breathe 0.855 0.737 A case of Gorgan city. International Journal of fresh air Architectural Engineering & Urban Planning, 26 (1), 33‐ 40. To enjoy 0.894 0.804 the cool [3] Shariff, N.S., Yusof, Y., Hussin, N.Z.I., 2020, environme Tourist perception towards recreation centre in nt Malaysia. Universiti Malaysia Terengganu Journal of Undergraduate Research, 2 (3), 103‐114. Enjoy the 0.856 0.734 peace [4] Sreetheran, M., 2017, Exploring the urban park use, preference and behaviours among the Enjoy 0.819 0.671 residents of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Urban green/lake Forestry & Urban Greening, 25, 85‐93. /canal http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.05. 003. Reduce 0.809 0.666 [5] Irvine, K.N., Warber, S.L., Devine‐Wright, P., stress Gaston, K.J., 2013, Understanding urban green Reading 0.651 0.490 space as a health resource: A qualitative comparison of visit motivation and derived effects Break‐ 0.688 0.504 among park users in Sheffield UK. International Located Journal of Environmental Research and Public near my Health, 10, 417‐442. home/offic https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph10010417. e [6] Gashu, K., Gebre‐Egziabher, T., Wubneh, M., School trip 0.638 0.495 2020, Local communities’ perceptions and use of To get 0.811 0.660 urban green infrastructure in two Ethiopian cities: close to Bahir Dar and Hawassa. Journal of Environmental nature Planning and Management, 63 (2), 287‐ 316. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2019.1 578643. Cronbach’s 0.918 0.565 0.669 a [7] Kruger, M., Saayman, M., 2010, Travel motivation of tourists to Kruger and Tsitsikamma National Parks: a comparative study. African 4. CONCLUSIONS Journal of Wildlife Research, 40 (1), 93‐102. https://doi.org/10.3957/056.040.0106. The benefits of parks are in line with the principles of sustainability. Citizens seek [8] Metropolitan Park Antonis Tritsis, contact with nature, attending cultural and Available at: https://parkotritsis.gr/ educational activities and the provision play [9] Chiesura, A., 2004, The role of urban parks for areas for their children. Special mention is the sustainability of cities. Landscape and Urban made of environmental benefits. When the Planning, 68 (1), 129‐138. services provided by the Tritsi Park are based https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2003.08.003. on the preferences of its visitors it will * The research work was supported by the Hellenic maximize their satisfaction and consequently Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI) and improve the quality of life. the General Secretariat for Research and 80 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Technology (GSRT), under the HFRI PhD Fellowship grant (GA. no. 1640). 81 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 82 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece COVID‐19 AND URBAN SPACE IN GREECE. ACTIVE POPULATION’ REFLECTIONS ΟΝ IMPACTS ON EVERYDAY LIFE F.Vatavali1, F. Kehagia2*, Z. Gareiou1, E. Zervas1 1School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece 2School of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece; ([email protected]) ABSTRACT The spread of the COVID‐19 pandemic has resulted in unprecedented measures affecting the everyday life, the practices and the perceptions of the global population significantly. The aim of this paper is to investigate the perceptions, experiences and practices of active population regarding everyday life in the context of the first wave of the pandemic, by focusing on people that live and work in Greek cities. The presented analysis was based on the data collected using a structured questionnaire, addressed to the active population. The paper intends to identify impacts on everyday activities, working conditions, mobility, as well as on perceptions about urban space and urban policies and correlates the findings with the profile of the respondents. The results of the analysis can provide useful information to policy‐makers and show that there is a necessity to radically rethink on aspects of urban space and urban mobility, in relation with the multiple problems and dynamics of the active population. KEYWORDS cities; COVID‐19; experience; mobility; perception; practice cities and everyday life [4], especially for 1. INTRODUCTION employees. Working conditions have changed significantly for a large part of the population, The COVID‐19 pandemic that erupted in end mainly by expanding and deepening trends 2019 has significantly and in multiple ways that preexisted the COVID‐19 crisis [5]. Strict affected the everyday life, the practices and sanitary measures have been applied in [1,2] the perceptions of the global population . In workplaces, teleworking and the use of order to limit the spread of the virus, national technology have been boosted, many workers governments have adopted emergency lost their jobs or found themselves measures to protect citizens and public health; unemployed, flexibility and insecurity has measures that vary from country to country increased and employees in occupations critical [3] and from city to city . These measures focus for securing public health and suppling on social distancing, suspension of economic, essentials for living have been overloaded with educational and cultural activities, as well as on work. These changes in working conditions, in restrictions on citizens’ mobility for as long as combination with changes in family routines necessary. [6], urban mobility [7,8] and social activity [9] Lockdown has created new conditions for the form a new condition in the cities [10]. 83 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Obviously, changes in working conditions do and on the inequalities that emerged in not affect everyone in the same way. As the relation to this[16]. Along with the impacts in COVID‐19 crisis expands and deepens, the the private space, the role, the function and dominant discourse about the effects on labor the surveillance of the public space has been seems to consolidate which focuses almost seriously transformed. Pubic space is a field of exclusively on macro‐economic arguments and special interest, which in the context of the concerns, that put special emphasis on pandemic became, not only an area of financial recession, rise of unemployment and restrictions and exclusions, but also a place of adoption of flexible forms of labor [11‐13]. relaxation and experimentation[17]. The curfew However, gender, age, marital status, as well as has created new conditions for mobility in the the type and the status of work are ‐ among city and has affected the modal split of the others ‐ factors associated with differentiated Greek cities. Moreover, institutional perceptions, experiences and practices of arrangements for emergency traffic measures employees during the lockdown [14‐15]; a fact and relatively ad hoc traffic interventions have that is ignored or underestimated in the opened the debate on how to take decisions, dominant academic discourse. enhance citizens’ participation and activate The aim of this paper is to investigate the urban regeneration processes. Finally, impacts perceptions, experiences and practices of on urban economy and local labor markets is a employees regarding everyday life in the topic that has attracted much interest and context of the first wave of the COVID‐19 raised questions about developing policies for pandemic, by focusing on people that live and mitigating financial recession and [18‐20]. work in Greek cities. The paper intends to unemployment identify impacts on everyday activities, working The paper argues that, apart from obtaining a conditions, mobility, as well as on perceptions big picture about the multiple impacts of about urban space and urban policies and COVID‐19 on urban life, emphasis on individual correlates the findings with the social profile of perceptions, experiences and practices reveals the respondents. areas of knowledge that would otherwise remain in the dark and enriches our The first case of COVID‐19 in Greece was understandings with more complex and more detected in 28 February 2020 and the first flexible variables. The ultimate purpose of this restrictive measures were taken in the article is to provide useful information to policy beginning of March 2020. Gradually, during makers to design more effective urban policies March 2020 and as the cases increased, the in Greek cities, but also elsewhere. measures for the protection of public health were escalated. Schools and universities closed, commercial, leisure, entertainment and 2. METHODOLOGY cultural activities were suspended, teleworking The survey was conducted, just after the was imposed in public and private sectors and lockdown, from 6 to 27 May 2020 in Greek access to public parks and beaches was cities, using an electronic distribution. The banned. Strict traffic restrictions have been put questionnaire was part of a work of the in force since 23 March 2020, with few students of the MSc Program “Environmental exceptions. The first wave of the COVID‐19 Design” of Hellenic Open University. Each one pandemic in Greece was over in the beginning of the students had to collect a certain number of May 2020. of questionnaires, respecting the quotation of The public discourse about the impact of gender, age and educational distribution, COVID‐19 and the measures to deal with it in according to the data retrieved from 2011 the Greek cities is particularly intense. Census of the Hellenic Statistical Authority. Emphasis has been placed on the effects of Only actived respondents aged over 18 years shrinking everyday life within domestic sphere old living in urban areas of continental Greece 84 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece participated. Students distributed the respondents (51.5%) declared that there is a questionnaire electronically through their ‘moderately’ to ‘very much’ impact on their personal networks and in a few cases through physical health, while the other half (48.5%) snowballing. declared ‘not at all’ or ‘slightly’. Similar are the The investigation of the perceptions, findings regarding mental health: slightly more experiences and practices of employees that than the half of the respondents (57.1%) live and work in Greek cities, regarding declared a ‘moderately’ to ‘very much’ impact everyday life, in the context of the first wave of for mental health. As far as everyday activities, the COVID‐19 pandemic, were evaluated the impact of measures on mobility and statistically. Quantitative variables were recreation are very intense, as 61.9% stated indicated as mean ±standard deviation. It is high or very high changes in mobility and calculated frequency analysis, percentages, recreation activities. A chi‐ squared test for cross tabulation and chi‐squared tests of independence indicates a strong association independence for categorical variables. The between gender and impacts on mobility frequencies of observed and expected values practices, as women have been more affected were analyzed by means of crosstabulations. by lockdown than men (sum of ‘moderately’ to These revealed the relationships between ‘very much’= 65.8% in the first category, than cross‐tabulated variables. The chi‐square test 57.5% in the second one, (p‐ for independence was used to determine value=0.021<0.05). whether the variables corresponding to the 3.2. Impacts on working conditions questions of the first two sections of the The pandemic and the lockdown measures had questionnaire were statistically related to the severe impacts on employment and working socio‐demographic characteristics of the conditions and have pushed more and more respondents. A chi‐square test is considered employees to working from home. The survey unreliable if more than 20% of the expected revealed that 72.6% of the respondents did not values are less than five. A 2‐ sided p‐value less have any change in their working position due than 0.05 is significant. to the pandemic, while 8.9% of the respondents have lost their job and 18.6% of 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the respondents have been suspended. Totally, 3.1. Impacts on everyday activities the 27.5% of the respondents are severely affected from the pandemic, while 34.4% of In the survey, the respondents were asked to the respondents have experienced evaluate the impact of the lockdown and the teleworking. Chi‐square test reveals again a restrictions against the spread of COVID‐19 on statistically significant difference with gender their everyday life. In specific, the 70.1% and (p‐ value=0.010<0.05), as women experienced 63.0% of the respondents declared that their teleworking more than men did. The pandemic personal life and family life, respectively, were had an impact on working hours and affected from ‘moderately’ to ‘very much’. productivity. Specifically, during the lockdown Similarly, the 75.3% of the respondents stated period, the 42.1% of respondents work less that the life of their children has been affected hours per day than before. There is a significant significantly. However, impacts on professional percentage of respondents (19.2%) that they life seem to be more intense, especially for work more hours than before. Women, also, freelancers and unemployed (p‐ work more hours than men (p‐ value=0.01<0.05), as 77.0% of the participants value=0.041<0.05). Almost half of respondents declared that it was affected ‘moderately’ to declared that their productivity is the same as ‘very much’. This is also related to the answers before the pandemic, 35.5% of the we received regarding financial activities, as respondents declared that their productivity is 73.3% of the research sample claimed that they lower and only a small percentage (13.6%) experienced serious impacts. The half of the 85 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece declared that they are more productive. The pandemic was ranged from 30min (50%), 30‐60 evaluation of location and time‐ schedule min (32.7%), 60‐90 min (10.5%) to more than flexibility of teleworking was examined in the 90 min (6.9%). During the lockdown, only survey. Only the 13.1% of respondents 31.4% of respondents have kept the same expressed that they warmly accept travel behavior for work. Most of the teleworking, 17.5% of the respondents respondents (66.1%) have reduced the travel expressed “moderately”, while almost seven frequency and only a small part of the out of ten (66.0%) denied teleworking as an respondents (2.5%) increased the frequency of alternative form of work. Women had more commuting. The high reduction of mobility to extreme reflections to teleworking than men. and from workplaces is also reflected on Moreover, married respondents prefer available data in national level (‐38%), as well teleworking more than singles (p‐ as in the metropolitan area of Athens (‐42%) value=0.003<0.05). The pandemic has affected [21]. Moreover, 90.3% of our respondents use also educational systems worldwide, the same mode of transport as before the developing effective strategies for online enforcement of the curfew. However, it is courses and remote teaching. From the survey remarked that there is a small increase in arises that only 13.3% of respondents declared cycling and walking. As far as intentions for the that they warmly want to attend online future, 92.4% of the respondents declared that courses, 20.8% of the respondents declared they do not intent to change their modal “moderately”, while a large percentage (66.0%) choice for work after the rise of mobility denied remote teaching and online courses. A restrictions, while the rest intend to use public chi‐ squared test for independence indicates transportation more. This opposes the findings some association between the level of of a survey conducted in the city of education and the acceptance of online Thessaloniki, which presents a reduction by courses (p‐value=0.035<0.05). Higher level of 25% of the use of public transport after the education is more likely to deny online courses. lockdown [22]. 3.3. Impacts on mobility 3.4. Impacts on the relations with urban space The outbreak of pandemic has had a profound Although imposed restrictions affected deeply impact on transport and mobility in the Greek everyday life and activities, the responses cities. In the survey, respondents were asked indicate that perceptions about their city and about the modes of transport they used for their neighborhood, as well as practices in commuting before the lockdown and how urban space remain mainly the same as before frequently they did so. About 60% (57.4%) of the COVID‐19 crisis. However, another, also the respondents used car for commuting, while significant part of the sample declares that the share of public transport for commuting is they have a more positive view of their quite low (19.7%). The share of other modes of neighborhood. In particular, the 45.8% and the transport in modal split during the lockdown is 40.1% (sum of ‘moderately’ to ‘much more’) of 6.2% for motorcycles, 2.2% for car‐sharing, the respondents declared that they expanded 0.7% for taxi, 1.3% for bicycle and 12.4% for their knowledge and experience regarding their walking. Almost six out of ten respondents neighborhood and their city, respectively, (57.9%) declared that they commute 5 times during the lockdown. The participants – mainly per week, 9.4% of respondents declared that older people (p‐ value=0.003<0.05) ‐ claimed they commute 1‐4 times per week, 15.1% 6 that they discovered new aspects of their times per week, while 17.6% of participants neighborhood and their city, respectively. declared that they commute more than 6 times Similarly, most of the respondents stated that, per week. The frequency of commuting during the lockdown, they have kept on having depends on the type of job and the location of the same habits in their neighborhood: they residence. Travel time to work before the move around in their neighborhood the same 86 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece as before the COVID‐19 crisis (42.4%), they use discourse about urban life [23]. local shops as much as in the past (57.4%) and they did not change their perception about 4. CONCLUSIONS their neighborhood (72.2%). However, we found that women move around in their During the first wave of the COVID‐19 neighborhood and like their neighborhood pandemic major changes took place concerning more than men (p‐ value=0.04<0.05 and p‐ the perceptions, experiences and practices of value=0.002<0.05 respectively), a fact that employees in the Greek cities. Lockdown reveals gendered aspects of the COVID‐19 crisis destabilized employees’ life and affected their in urban space. everyday activities, working conditions, mobility, as well as perceptions about urban 3.5. Concerns about urban policies space and urban policies in various ways [26,27]. The lockdown and the measures against the Most of the respondents declared that their spread of COVID‐19 affected deeply everyday personal and family life has been affected by life in the city and thus raised serious concerns the lockdown, while effects on professional life about urban space. This is directly reflected on and economic activities seem to be deeper. the responses we received regarding adequacy Social activity has been affected in two main of urban infrastructures and urban policies. The ways; activities within family have increased need for interventions in urban space has been and activities with friends have been reduced. reported as a serious issue by the 86.4% of the The impacts of the pandemic on working respondents. Interventions in urban mobility conditions present multiple features: most and public space have been recorded as an respondents are still working, while few of important issue for urban space for about 9 out them lost their job and many are in a of ten of the respondents: the 87.6% of the ‘suspension’ status, some respondents have respondents prioritize interventions in public shifted to teleworking and others not, some transport, the 89.2% prioritize interventions for work less and others work more, some are improving walking conditions, the 91.4% more productive and others are less. Urban prioritize infrastructure for facilitating cycling mobility is a sector that has been deeply and the 91.9% prioritize interventions for affected by the COVID‐19 crisis and our improving public space. Concerns about the respondents state major changes in their quality of public space and walking conditions mobility practices, especially in commuting. In are slightly higher among older respondents (p‐ particular, most of the respondents reduced value=0.008<0.05 and p‐ value=0.048<0.05 the frequency of commuting per week. Also, respectively) and women (p‐value=0.019<0.05 although most of the respondents use the regarding public space), while interest in same means of transport as before the cycling facilities are slightly higher among pandemic, there is a slight increase in cycling younger respondents (p‐value=0.016<0.05). and walking. Finally, the relation with the city Issues related to the density of commercial and the neighborhood remains mainly the uses and the quality of telecommunication same as before the COVID‐19 pandemic for infrastructure seem to be less important, but most respondents. However, concerns about still considered as important from the seven urban space have increased, especially as far as out of ten of the respondents. The 68.7% of the the quality of public space, walking conditions respondents claimed that the density of and cycling facilities. commercial shops, restaurants, cafes, hotels etc. is a major issue in the context of COVID‐19 Although most of our findings present a crisis, and the 73.2% of the responses stressed homogenous distribution in our sample, some the significance of improving changes on perceptions, experiences and telecommunication services; in line with the practices are slightly or strongly correlated with importance both fields acquire in the public the social profile of the respondents. For example, in many cases gender is a crucial 87 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece factor and women seem to be more vulnerable [2] UN‐HABITAT, 2020, Impact of COVID‐19 on to the new conditions; a finding that is in line livelihoods, food security and nutrition in East with the outcomes of other research projects, Africa. Urban focus, Nairobi: UN‐ HABITAT & World surveys and policy reports [24,25]. In particular, Food Programme. women work more, have been affected by https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2020/08/w fp‐0000118161_compressed.pdf teleworking more, have changed mobility practices more, and have stronger concern [3] UN‐HABITAT, 2020, UN‐Habitat COVID‐19 about their neighborhood, walking facilities response plan, Nairobi: UN‐HABITAT and the quality of urban space than men. https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2020/04/fi Moreover, age is another crucial factor that nal_un‐habitat_covid‐ 19_response_plan.pdf differentiates impacts on perceptions, [4] OECD, 2020, Cities policy responses. Tackling experiences and practices, as it is also found by coronavirus (COVID‐19): Contributing to a global other surveys [26]. Younger respondents effort. https://read.oecd‐ experience a shrinking in their recreational ilibrary.org/view/?ref=126_126769‐ activities, meet their friends more often and yen45847kf&title=Coronavirus‐COVID‐19‐Cities‐ Policy‐Responses express their concern about cycling facilities, while older respondents are more active within [5] Afouxenidis A., Chtouris S., 2020, Foreword: family circle and are more interested in the Talking about the pandemic, The Greek Review of improvement of public space and walking Social Research, 154, 1‐10. conditions. Finally, family status seems to https://doi.org/10.12681/grsr.23233 differentiate experiences of the COVID‐19 [6] Chtouris, S., Zissi A., 2020, Our social selves, crisis. Most married respondents declared that family and social attitudes during the COVID‐19 they came closer to their family and do more pandemic constraints in 2020, The Greek Review of activities with other family members. ‐ Social Research 154, 41‐64. https://doi.org/10.12681/grsr.23228 The research approach of the paper gives us [7] POLIS, 2020, Useful resources on Covid‐19 and the chance to rethink on aspects of urban Mobility, https://www.polisnetwork.eu/document/r space and mobility in the city, in relation with esources‐covid‐19‐mobility/ the multiple needs, problems and dynamics of employees. The lessons learnt from the first [8] Iacus, S., Santamaria, S., Sermi, F., Spyratos, S., Tarchi, D., Vespe, M., 2020, Mapping Mobility wave of COVID‐19 pandemic are very useful for Functional Areas (MFA) using mobile positioning coping with the impacts of the coming waves, data to inform COVID‐19 policies, JRC Technical as well as with the impacts of future pandemics Reports. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the or crises on Greek cities. In this context, what is European Union https://doi:10.2760/076318. critical for the improvement of the resilience of [9] Parady, C., Tanigchi, A., Takami, K. 2020, Travel the Greek cities is to develop policies about behavior change during the COVID‐19 pandemic in urban mobility, public space and urban Japan: Analyzing the effects of risk perception and infrastructure that take into account the social influence on going‐out self‐restriction. different needs, problems and dynamics of Transportation Research Interdisciplinary employees – and the population in general ‐ Perspectives 7, and prevent the expansion of existing and the https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100181 rise of new inequalities within urban space. 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Results from a preliminary study using content/uploads/2020/06/%CE%88%CE%BA%CF%8 social media and an online survey with Spanish 4%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B7‐ consumers, Food %CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1 Quality and Preference 2020, ‐%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%B1‐covid19‐ 86, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodqual.2020.1 %CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BF 04028 %CF%82‐2020.pdf 89 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 90 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece ANALYSIS OF FRENCH CIGARETTES MARKET: NOTIFICATIONS, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CIGARETTES AND CO, NICOTINE AND TAR EMISSIONS N. Matsouki, P. Rodopoulou, E. Bekou, E. Drimili, E. Konstantinidis, E. Zervas* School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT Up until now some authors have examined the physical characteristics of cigarettes and the possible correlations between tar, nicotine and CO emissions, by taking a sample of a market. No complete analysis of the cigarettes of a market and their characteristics has been performed so far. This work analyzes the physical characteristics of cigarettes, tar, nicotine and CO emissions, and their probable correlations. More specifically, all types of cigarettes notified to the French market during the period 2016‐2019 are analyzed. Their physical characteristics regarding pack type, number of cigarettes per pack, dimension (cigarette length, filter length and diameter and their ratios), weight (tobacco and cigarette weight) and the ratios weight/dimensions are analyzed and the average values of each parameter, as well as the standard deviation of these values and the evolution in time is presented. The emissions of tar, nicotine and CO are also analyzed, and the probable correlations between them and the physical characteristics of cigarettes are examined. This analysis shows that there is a limited number of distinct values for length, diameter, weigh and emissions. The evolution in time is quite limited. Some dimensions and weights are related to each other. Emissions are related to each other, but not to the physical characteristics of cigarettes. KEYWORDS Advertising and Promotion, Carcinogens, Economics, Nicotine, Tobacco Industry should declare the physical characteristics 1. INTRODUCTION (length, diameter, weight etc.) and the chemical composition of the notified products In 2019, tobacco sales reached 808,438 million or their emissions (tar, nicotine, CO etc.) in USD worldwide. The largest markets were order to be controlled better by the European those of China (234,604 million USD), USA Union. (115,155 million USD) and Germany (31,702 million USD). Also, the French tobacco market Previous works shown that the smoke (22,383 million USD) is among the biggest in emissions (tar, nicotine, CO) are influenced by [8,11] the world[9]. In tobacco market, there are many the ventilation , or by the tobacco weight [2,7,8,11,12] firms and products. The main product is and tobacco circumference . Other cigarette, which occupies more than 90% of the authors report that products with different total market[10]. According to the European characteristics (length, diameter, color or Tobacco Products Directive (2014/40/EU)[3], design) may have different perception to the [4] every tobacco manufacturer or importer users . Few works analyzed the physical 91 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece characteristics of different brands in different filter or not product, number per box, box type, markets. Some researchers in China compared number of product, date of notification, last the tobacco market between 2009 and 2012[8], updated, product launch date, product length, while others compared the cigarette product diameter, product weight, tobacco characteristics as a function of income of weight, filter length, filter ventilation, pressure different countries [13]. Nevertheless, the drop with closed vents, pressure drop with results of these may not be representative of open vents, tar emission, nicotine emission, CO the entire market, due to the fact that these emission. The data contained in these files works are focused on a small part of the were used without any involvement of ANSES market. Taking into account the previous in this work. It should be noticed that the files literature search, there is no complete analysis published by ANSES show only the notifications of all cigarette brands and cigarette type of a without the sales of each product. Thus, the market. A complete analysis of the products of current work is based only on notifications a market and their characteristics may clear without taking into consideration the sales of better the market trends. Specifically, each product. producers‐competitors can better position This work analyzes initially the total number of their products, the authorities can set and notifications per year, the pack type and the apply regulations and consumers can compare number of cigarettes per pack. Then, the the available products. Analyses like this are following dimensions of the notified cigarettes performed in other cases, such as in European are analyzed: cigarette length, filter length, automotive market [13‐15], or in Chinese wine [5] cigarette diameter and the ratios cigarette industry . diameter/cigarette length and filter In this work, we perform a complete analysis of length/cigarette length. Next, the all cigarettes notified in French market from characteristics concerning weight are 2016 to 2019 using the data extracted from EU‐ presented: cigarette weight, tobacco weight CEG. Firstly, it is focused on the analysis of the and the ratios tobacco weight/cigarette weight, physical characteristics of cigarettes and the cigarette weight/cigarette length and tobacco correlations between them. Secondly, on the weight/cigarette diameter. At the end, tar, emissions (tar, nicotine, CO) and the nicotine and CO emissions and their probable correlations between them and, finally, the correlations with the previous characteristics correlations between the physical are analyzed. characteristics of cigarette and their emissions. Another important factor in cigarette design is the filter and paper ventilation[8,11]. This 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION parameter has an impact on cigarette The file, published from ANSESL, contains 425 emissions and will be analyzed in an upcoming cigarettes notifications in 2016, 856 in 2017, work. 530 in 2018 and 589 in2019. Totally 2,400 cigarettes were notified during 2016‐ 2019. 2. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Pack type and number of cigarettes The files published from the French Agency for Eleven different pack types are found in French Food, Environmental and Occupational Health cigarette market. 88.29% of the cigarettes is & Safety (ANSES) on its internet site [1] was one type (flip top box, square corner), 3.34% used for this work. These files contain the concern flip top pack and 2.34% soft pack. Also, public data of the cigarettes notified from a small number of these cigarettes are 08/11/2016 to 27/08/2019. The cigarettes files commercialized in another pack type, but other contain the following data: country (FR in this two do not have any declaration of pack type. case), product category, product type, About the number of cigarettes per pack, there reference code, firm name, product name, are packs included 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40. Most 92 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece of them have 20 cigarettes per pack, however, 3.2.3 Cigarette diameter there was a decrease from 86.1% (2016) to Sixteen distinct cigarette diameters are found 66.4% (2019). The packets of 25, 30, 35 and 40 in notified cigarettes. 51% of the cigarette cigarettes represent a small percentage, but notifications have diameter 7.8mm, which is the number of 30 cigarettes packs increased the most common. 85.7% have diameter from from 7.6% (2016) to 22.1% (2019). All the 7.79mm to 7.83mm. 9.8% have from 5.40mm above data show that there is a shift of the to 6.10mm (called ‘slim’ cigarettes). Although, market to packs containing more cigarettes the other diameters correspond to a very low than 20. percentage and other two have no diameter 3.2 Dimension number reported. The average diameter of all notifications is 7.56mm (±0.99mm SD, 13.05% 3.2.1 Cigarette length RSD). The mean diameter remains quite Fourteen different distinct cigarette lengths are constant during the 4 years studied, as the recorded. 68.0% of the cigarettes notifications mean average of each year differs less than have length, 83mm, 10.2% have 99mm and ±3.1% of the all years mean value. An average 9.17% 84mm. Although, there is a small diameter of 7.64mm for the high income number of notifications with different cigarette countries has been reported by previous length and other two do not have any studies, using only some products[7] declaration of cigarette length. The average 3.2.3 Ratios Cigarette diameter/ cigarette cigarette length of all notification in French length‐ Filter length/ cigarette length market is 86.03mm (±7.16mm SD, 8.33% RSD). The mean cigarette length remains quite For each cigarette, the ratios cigarette constant from 2016 to 2019, as the mean diameter/ cigarette length and filter length/ average of each year differs less than ±1.53% of cigarette length are calculated. The average the 4 years mean value. Previous studies (using value of the first ratio is 0.089 (±0.017 SD, only some cigarette products) reported that 18.98% RSD) and of the second ratio is 0.282 the average length for the high income (±0.032 SD, 11.40% RSD). The mean values of countries is 84.53mm[7]. those ratios remain quite constant from 2016 3.2.2 Filter length to 2019, as the mean value of each year differs less than ±4.1% and ±3.0% respectively of the 4 Nine distinct filter lengths are detected. The years mean value. most common filter lengths are 27mm and 21mm. 45.89% of the cigarette notifications have 27mm, while 35.16% have 21mm. Also, 7.77% and 7.43% have filter length 22mm and 30mm respectively. However, there is a small percentage of the notifications (0.92%) with no filter and other five notifications have no declaration of filter length. The average filter length of all notifications is 24.32mm (±3.53mm SD, 14.52% RSD). The mean filter length remains quite constant during the 4 years studied, as the mean average of each year differs less than ±5.3% of the all years mean value. An average length of 22.61mm for the high income countries has been reported Figure 1. Cigarette diameter (in red) and filter length (in blue) versus cigarette length. by previous studies, using only some products[7]. Figure 1 shows that three groups of cigarettes can be formed in each case. On the lower area 93 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece of the diagram, the first group (Group 1) 950 to 1131mg (‘heavier’ cigarettes) contains cigarettes of a constant diameter of corresponding to 10.09%. The average tobacco about 7.8mm, but the other two groups (Group weight remains quite constant during the 4 2, Group 3) show a decreased trend, as the years studied, as the mean average of each length increases. On the upper area of the year differs less than ±2.0% of the all years diagram, the first group (Group 1) includes mean value. cigarettes that filter length is constantly 24mm as the cigarette length increases, but the other two groups (Group 2, Group 3) have constant cigarette lengths of about 85mm and 100mm respectively, independently of the filter length. Also, there are two points, one of a very low cigarette and filter lengths (69mm‐15mm) and one of very high cigarette and filter lengths (110mm‐32mm). All the cigarettes without filter have the same length 69mm. 3.3 Weight 3.3.1 Tobacco weight Figure 2. Number of notifications per cigarette The average tobacco weight of all notified weight and tobacco weight. cigarettes is 582.51mg (±111.32mg SD, 19.11% RSD). As it is shown in Figure 2, tobacco weight 3.3.3 Ratio Tobacco weight/ Cigarette weight presents a quite broad scattering, as 227 different weight are notified. 3.2% of all notifications have As expected, there is a linear correlation tobacco weight 605mg, while other 27 weight between tobacco weight and cigarette weight. values have more than 1%. However, two main The equation y=0.78x‐56.32 (r2=0.80) indicates areas can be retrieved. One at 500‐800mg (‘normal’ that the average filter and paper weight is cigarettes), which is divided in two sub‐areas: i) around 56mg. 510‐610mg (58.8% of all) and ii) 613‐ 936mg (32.3% of all) and one around 340‐ 495mg (‘light’ 3.3.4 Cigarette weight versus Cigarette length cigarettes, 8.9% of all). The mean tobacco weight and Tobacco weight versus Net cigarette length remains quite constant during the 4 years studied, The correlation between cigarette weight and as the mean average of each year differs less than cigarette length is searched in two cases: the ±2.05% of the all years mean value. An average first one is the correlation between total tobacco weight of 650mg for the high income cigarette weight and total cigarette length and countries has been reported by previous studies, using only some products[7] . the second is the correlation between tobacco weight and net cigarette length (without filter) 3.3.2 Cigarette weight (Figure3). Figure 3 shows that there is a general The average cigarette weight of all notified increased trend weight with length, in both cigarettes is 825.46mg (±120.84mg SD, 14.64% cases. Although, a closer analysis indicates that RSD). Cigarette weight presents a quite broad there are several distinct lengths with broad scattering, as 314 different weight are notified range of weight values. Some of these cases (Figure 2). 8.17% of all notifications have are shown in Figure 3 with vertical lines. The cigarette weight 809mg, while other 16 weight ‘light’ cigarettes form a separate cluster of values correspond more than 1% of the points at the bottom of each figure. notifications each. However, three main areas can be retrieved. One at 500‐666mg (‘light’ cigarettes) containing the 10.26% of the total notifications, one from 714 to 950mg corresponding to 70.65% of all and one from 94 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Directive 2014/40/EU sets a limit of 10mg for tar and CO 1mg for nicotine. For each one of these emissions, there are some values exceeding the legislative limits. Tar: 10.1mg (2 notifications), 10.2 (2), 10.4 (6), 10.6 (2), 10.6 (37), 11.1 (4); Nicotine: 5 (2), 6 (3), 7 (3) and CO: 10.2 (2), 10.4 (2), 10.7 (4), 11 (4). All these values are excluded, due to the fact that these may be not real or error in notification. 3.4.1 Tar, nicotine and CO emissions Tar, nicotine and CO emissions are notified in a quite low number of distinct values: 25 in the Figure 3 Cigarette weight versus cigarette length case of tar, 26 in the case of nicotine and 24 in and tobacco weight versus net cigarette length. the case of CO. Six, three and four of these 3.3.4 Cigarette and Tobacco weight versus values respectively are excluded from the Cigarette diameter following figures as being higher than the respective legislative limits. For all the The correlation between cigarette and tobacco pollutants, only three values occupy the 75‐ weight and cigarette diameter is also searched 80% of all notifications, while one occupying (Figure 4). the 35‐50% of them (Figure 5). About tar, these three values are: 10mg (50.1%), 7mg (15.8%) and 8mg (12.8%). In the case of nicotine: 0.8mg (35.6%), 0.6mg (21%) and 0.7mg (18.6%). About CO: 10mg (47.33%), 9mg (19.77%) and 8mg (42%). It is clear that the majority of the notified cigarettes are near the upper legislative limit of the three pollutants or close to that. The average tar emission value is 8.43mg (±2.30mg SD, 27.30% RSD), while the average nicotine emissions is 0.70mg (±0.52mg SD, 74.9% RSD) and the average CO emissions value is 8.63mg (±2.38mg SD, 27.59% RSD). %. The values of tar and CO emissions are quite Figure 4. Cigarette and tobacco weight per concentrated near the average value, but those cigarette diameter. of nicotine are more dispersed. For all three pollutants, the mean values remain quite According to the Figure 4, there is a general constant during the 4 years studied here, as increased trend of both cigarette and tobacco the mean value of each year differs less than weight with diameter. Also, several fixed 6.5%, 3.6% and 7.2% for tar, nicotine and CO diameters have a very large range of weight, emissions values respectively of the all years despite the fact that cigarette diameter has mean value. only a small number of distinctive values. The “light” cigarettes form a separate cluster of points at the left bottom of each group of points. 3.4 Emissions The analysis of cigarettes regulated emissions: tar, nicotine and CO (pollutants) is recorded. 95 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece tobacco or cigarette weight exist and tobacco companies adjust these emissions by adjusting multiple parameters each time. Previous authors indicate the existence of some correlations, but these works are based only in some products and not on an entire market. 4. CONCLUSIONS A complete analysis of the 2,400 cigarettes notified in the French market during 2016‐ Figure 5. Nicotine, CO and tar emissions per number 2019, concerning the physical characteristics of of notifications and correlations of CO versus tar and nicotine and tar versus nicotine emissions. the cigarettes, tar, nicotine and CO emissions and their correlations is performed. From the 3.4.2 Correlations between tar, nicotine and CO eleven different pack types found, only one emissions concerns the 90% of the notifications. The According to Figure 5, there is a general linear majority of the notifications concerns packs relationship for the three combinations (CO vs with 20 cigarettes; however with a constant tar‐ CO, tar vs nicotine), indicating that each decrease, while the percentage of 30 cigarettes cigarette has high or low emissions for the packs increases. three pollutants. Low (9‐16) distinct values for cigarette and 3.4.3 Correlations between emissions, and filter lengths and diameters were notified. Very physical characteristics of cigarettes few (3‐4) values of these parameters correspond to the 90% of the notifications, Previous search indicates that tobacco weight giving a low dispersion of these parameters. or other physical characteristics have an impact One tenth of the notifications corresponds to [2,6,8,11,12] on the three pollutants . To confirm the so‐called “slim” cigarettes. The average these, the three pollutants are correlated with cigarette length of all notifications is 86.03mm, cigarette and filter length, tobacco and that of the filter 24.32mm and the average cigarette weight and cigarette diameter in diameter 7.56mm. All cigarettes without filter three steps. have the same length of 69mm. The mean In the first step, all points are used. No values of these three parameters remain quite correlation between the above parameters is constant during the 4 years studied here. shown. In the second step, three different The relation between cigarette diameter and ventilation values are used: 26% (low filter length versus cigarette length show a ventilation), 58% (medium ventilation) and general linear relationship between the filter 73% (high ventilation). Filter ventilation, as length and cigarette length. However, a group main parameter, influences these of cigarettes with a constant diameter and [8,11] emissions . The corresponding numbers of filter length, independently of the cigarette points are 170, 33 and 38 respectively. No length can be found. Other two groups show a correlation is found. In the third step, for each decreased trend of diameter with cigarette one of the above ventilation values, all length or constant cigarette lengths parameters are kept constant, except of one independently of the filter length. each time, for example only filter length varies with constant diameter, weight, etc. In this Tobacco and cigarette weight values show a case, there are always very few points. Again, quite broad scattering, as 227 and 314 no correlation is found. The above results show different weights are notified respectively. The that no correlation between tar, nicotine and average tobacco and cigarette weight is 582.51 CO emissions with cigarette or filter length, and 825.46mg respectively, with a quite low 96 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece dispersion. No distinct value occupies a [4] Ford A, Moodie C., Mackintosh AM., Hastings significant part of the values notified and the G., 2014, Adolescent perceptions of cigarette ‘light’ cigarettes correspond to about 10% of appearance. Eur J Public Health 24(3), 464‐468. the notifications. The mean tobacco and [5] Li Y, Bardají I, 2017 A new wine superpower: An cigarette weight remain quite constant during analysis of the Chinese wine industry. Cahiers the 4 years studied here. There is a quite good Agricultures, 26 (6). linear correlation between tobacco weight and [6] O'Connor RJ, Hurley PJ, 2008, Existing cigarette weight. There is a general increased technologies to reduce specific toxicant emissions trend of weight with length and diameter, but in cigarette smoke. Tob Control, 17(SUPPL. 1), i39‐ with several distinct lengths or diameters with i48. broad range of weight values. [7] O'Connor RJ, Wilkins KJ, Caruso RV, Cummings tar, nicotine and CO emissions are notified in KM, Kozlowski LT, 2010, Cigarette characteristic and about 25 distinct values. For all three emission variations across high‐, middle‐ and low‐ pollutants, only three values occupy the 75‐ income countries. Public Health 124(12), 667‐674. 80% of the total notifications. The majority of [8] Schneller LM, Zwierzchowski BA, Caruso RV, Li products are notified near the upper legislative Q, Yuan J, Fong GT, 2015, Changes in tar yields and limit. The average tar, nicotine and CO cigarette design in samples of Chinese cigarettes, emission value is 8.43, 6.99 and 8.63mg. The 2009 and 2012. Tob Control,24, iv60‐iv63. values of tar and CO emissions are quite [9] Statista a. https://www.statista.com/ concentrated near the average value, but those outlook/50000000/100/tobacco‐products of nicotine are more dispersed. For all three /worldwide retrieved 25/03/2020 pollutants, the mean values remain quite [10] Statista b. https://www.statista.com/ constant during the 4 years studied here. Each outlook/50000000/136/tobacco‐products cigarette has high or low emissions for the /France#market‐revenue retrieved 25/03/2020 three pollutants. [11] Stephens WE., 2007, Dependence of tar, Some works, studying a limited number of nicotine and carbon monoxide yields on physical products, indicate that tobacco weight or other parameters: Implications for exposure, emissions physical characteristics have an impact on tar, control and monitoring. Tob Control, 16(3):170‐6. nicotine or CO emission. However, taking into [12] Yamamoto T, Anzai U, Okada T, 1984, Effect consideration the entire market, no correlation of Cigarette Circumference on Weight Loss during between tar, nicotine and CO emissions with Puffs and Total Delivery of Tar and Nicotine. cigarette or filter length, tobacco or cigarette Beitrage zur Tabakforschung. International weight can be found. Contributions to Tobacco Research. 12(5), 259‐269. [13] Zervas E., 2010, Analysis of the CO emissions and of the other characteristics of the European REFERENCES market of new passenger cars. 1. Analysis of Energy [1] ANSES 2020, Data of tobacco products, general data and analysis per country. Policy, https://www.anses.fr/en/content/ tobacco‐and‐ 38(10), 5413‐5425 (a.) related‐products, retrieved 25/03/2020. [14] Zervas E., 2010, Analysis of CO emissions and [2] Dittrich DJ, Fieblekorn RT, Bevan MJ, Rushforth of the other characteristics of the European market Energy D, Murphy JJ, Ashley M., 2014, Approaches for the of new passenger cars. 3. Brands analysis. Policy design of reduced toxicant emission cigarettes. , 38(10), 5442‐5456 (b). Springer Plus 3(1), 1‐23. [15] Zervas E, 2010, Analysis of the CO emissions [3] European Union. Tobacco Products Directive and of the other characteristics of the European (2014/40/EU, https://eur‐lex.europa.eu/legal‐ market of new passenger cars. 2. Segment analysis. Energy, content/EN/TXT/?uri= OJ% 38 (10), 5426‐5441 (c). 3AJOL_2014_127_R_0001) 97 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 98 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece ASSOCIATION OF RESIDENTIAL GREENNESS WITH OBESITY MEASURES: A LITERATURE REVIEW D. Poulimeneas, E. Mamalaki, M. Yannakoulia* Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, School of Health Sciences and Education, Harokopio University, GR 17676, Athens, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT Exposure to residential greenness has previously been associated with health and body weight outcomes, although inconclusively. We aimed to review available studies on the association of residential proximity to greenness and adiposity measures. We searched PubMed for studies published in English, without restriction referent to study design or sample’s age, examining the relationship between exposure to greenness and obesity measures (either as primary or secondary outcomes). Residential greenness was assessed through the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Combinations of the following keywords were used: NDVI and obesity, or overweight, or Body Mass Index (BMI). A total of 23 studies were retrieved. After elimination of duplicates, and scanning of the abstracts for relevancy with the subject, a sum of 12 studies were included in the present review. Ten studies had a cross‐sectional design, and the remaining two were prospective. Sample sizes ranged from 102 to 387,195 participants, whereas the buffer zones for NDVI were within a 100‐1000m radius from residence. Ten of the studies revealed an inverse relationship between proximity to greenness and adiposity measures (expressed as raw BMI values, presence of overweight and/or obesity, presence of abdominal obesity), and the remaining two showed no significant results. A sex‐dependent relationship may also exist, with greenness inversely associating with obesity measures only in women. More prominent anti‐ obesity greenness influences were apparent, when smaller NDVI buffer zones (<400m) were employed. Closer proximity to greenness is beneficially associated with healthier body weight and adiposity indices. This review highlights the relationship of urban planning with population health, at the obesity epidemic level. Future studies on the area should also investigate the influence of accessibility, safety and aesthetics of the green areas. KEYWORDS Green space; Normalized Difference Vegetation Index; Overweight; Weight status influences could fully explain the dramatic rise 1. INTRODUCTION of obesity at the global level, suggesting that environmental aspects may be of importance. The number of people with obesity has quadrupled from 1975 to 2014 [1], with over Towards this end, the influence of the built 600 million people worldwide now environment in adiposity measures has been characterized as obese. Many personal factors, examined. Exposure to green spaces, i.e. access genetic and behavioral ones, contribute to the and/ or availability of areas with vegetation longitudinal accumulation of excess weight [2,3]. (parks, gardens, forests etc.), has been Nevertheless, it seems unlikely that these investigated as a potential factor that may 99 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece affect obesity indices [4]. The results of relevant measure in paediatric populations, with sample studies have been inconsistent though. For sizes ranging from 102 to 79,992 participants. instance, while most studies support the One study had a longitudinal design, and the benefits of exposure to greenness for many rest were cross‐sectional. health outcomes, in relation to obesity, A large Spanish longitudinal study, that systematic reviews indicate a weak positive [5], followed up around 80,000 children from birth or no association between greenness and to 5 years, concluded that children living closer excess body weight [6]. to green spaces, or children having greater The inconsistency in the available information greenness exposure (measured by NDVI), calls for further investigation in order to reach exhibited attenuated BMI trajectories [7]. These more robust conclusions. Our aim was to associations were strongest in the first two review available studies on the association months of life, indicating the influence of green between residential proximity to greenness spaces in body weight even in early life. and adiposity measures. Two cross‐sectional studies on pre‐school, and school‐aged children also reported similar 2. METHODOLOGY findings. Petraviciene et al., found that lower NDVI within 100m from residence associates We searched PubMed for studies published in with increased odds of overweight/ obesity in English, without restriction referent to study children aged 4‐ 6 years old [8]. In the study by design, publication date or sample’s age. We Dadvand and associates, an interquartile range searched for studies examining the relationship increase in NDVI, when measured 100‐ 1000m between exposure to greenness and obesity from residence, was associated with 11‐19% measures, with excess weight being either the lower prevalence of overweight/ obesity in primary or listed among the secondary 3,178 children aged 9‐12 years old [9]. Of note, outcomes. Residential greenness was assessed this beneficial association was greater when through the Normalized Difference Vegetation smaller buffer NDVI zones were employed. Index (NDVI). Combinations of the following keywords were used: NDVI and obesity, or On the other hand, a small Mexican study overweight, or Body Mass Index (BMI). The reports no association between NDVI and BMI reference lists of the retrieved studies were z‐scores of pre‐school children, whereas also scanned for relevant research. greater exposure to greenness, and more time spent in green spaces was associated with A total of 23 studies were retrieved. After increased moderate‐to‐ vigorous activity levels elimination of duplicates, and scanning of the [10]. abstracts for relevancy with the subject, 12 studies were included in the present review. 3.2. Studies in adults The descriptive characteristics of the studies A sum of 8 studies in adults were reviewed, are presented in Table 1. with sample sizes ranging from 529 to 387,195 participants. One study had a prospective 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION design, and the rest of them were cross‐ sectional. Ten studies had a cross‐sectional design, and the remaining two were prospective. Sample A large prospective Swedish study, with over sizes ranged from 102 to 387,195 participants, 5,000 adult participants suggested that higher whereas the buffer zones for NDVI were within NDVI levels (within a 500m radius from a 100‐1000m radius from residence. residence) associated with reduced increments 3.1 Studies in children and adolescents in waist circumference, and consequent decreased risk for the development of central Four of the retrieved studies examined the obesity over the course of 9 years. However, association of greenness with adiposity these findings were significant only in women 100 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece [11]. Of note, similar sex‐dependent results were body weight status [4]. provided by the study of Nichani and associates [12] . In this cross‐sectional study of 14,550 4. CONCLUSIONS mostly middle‐aged adults, higher NDVI within 400m from residence negatively associated Closer proximity to greenness is beneficially with the prevalence of overweight, obesity and associated with healthier body weight and excess waist circumference, yet only in women. adiposity indices. This review highlights importance of urban planning on population A Spanish study in 2,345 adults, measuring health in general, and on obesity in specific. NDVI within 300m from residence indicates Future studies on the area should employ that the association of surrounding greenness standardized approaches that would take also and excess body weight is either weak, or non‐ into account the potential role of accessibility, existent, given that the odds ratios for pooled safety and aesthetics of the green areas. overweight and abdominal obesity did not pass the significance threshold [excess weight: OR=0.99 (95% CI: 0.88, 1.11); abdominal REFERENCES [13] obesity: OR=0.91 (95% CI: 0.79, 1.05)] . [16] NCD‐RisC,2017,Worldwide trends in body‐ mass Despite the mixed findings in the index, underweight, overweight, and obesity aforementioned studies, the remaining 5 from 1975 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 2416 population‐based measurement studies in studies pointed towards the same direction, 128.9 million children, adolescents, and adults. that is a beneficial relationship of greater Lancet, 390, 2627‐42. exposure to greenness with attenuated obesity indices [14‐18]. [17] Williamson DA,2017,Fifty Years of Behavioral/Lifestyle Interventions for 3.3. Summary of findings Overweight and Obesity: Where Have We Been Obesity (Silver In sum, the majority of the reviewed studies and Where Are We Going? Spring), 25, 1867‐75. suggest a positive association between exposure to greenness and healthier body [18] Brandkvist M, Bjørngaard JH, Ødegård RA et weight status. This is in line with a systematic al.,2019,Quantifying the impact of genes on review and meta‐ analysis of 57 observational body mass index during the obesity epidemic: studies that supports that in 55% of the longitudinal findings from the HUNT Study. BMJ, 366, l4067. reviewed studies, a beneficial association was present [4]. A sex‐dependent relationship may [19] Luo YN, Huang WZ, Liu XX et also exist, with greenness inversely associating al.,2020,Greenspace with overweight and with obesity measures only in women. More obesity: A systematic review and meta‐ analysis Obes prominent anti‐obesity greenness influences of epidemiological studies up to 2020. Rev. were apparent when smaller NDVI buffer zones (<400m) were examined. [20] Lachowycz K, Jones AP,2011,Greenspace and obesity: a systematic review of the evidence. The mechanisms driving the observed Obes Rev, 12, e183‐9. relationships are largely unknown; this is due [21] Schulz M, Romppel M, Grande G,2018,Built to the mostly observational design of relevant environment and health: a systematic review of studies, and the inability to draw causal studies in Germany. J Public Health (Oxf), 40, 8‐ relationships. However, one may speculate 15. that living close to green spaces may contribute to increased opportunities for physical activity. [22]de Bont J, Hughes R, Tilling K et al.,2020,Early life exposure to air pollution, green spaces and In addition, green spaces are known to be built environment, and body mass index growth assistive in reducing stress, and exposure to trajectories during the first 5 years of life: A pollution and noise. All the above‐mentioned large longitudinal study. Environ Pollut, 266, have been known to associate with healthier 115266. 101 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece [23] Petraviciene I, Grazuleviciene R, Andrusaityte S [28] O'Callaghan‐Gordo C, Espinosa A, Valentin A et et al.,2018,Impact of the Social and Natural al.,2020,Green spaces, excess weight and Environment on Preschool‐Age Children obesity in Spain. Int J Hyg Environ Health, 223, Weight. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 15, 449. 45‐55. [24] Dadvand P, Villanueva CM, Font‐Ribera L et [29] Huang WZ, Yang BY, Yu HY et al.,2014,Risks and benefits of green spaces for al.,2020,Association between community children: a cross‐sectional study of associations greenness and obesity in urban‐dwelling with sedentary behavior, obesity, asthma, and Chinese adults. Sci Total Environ, 702, 135040. allergy. Environ Health Perspect, 122, 1329‐35. [30] Klompmaker JO, Hoek G, Bloemsma LD et [25] Benjamin‐Neelon SE, Platt A, Bacardi‐ Gascon al.,2018,Green space definition affects M et al.,2019,Greenspace, physical activity, and associations of green space with overweight BMI in children from two cities in northern and physical activity. Environ Res, 160, 531‐ 40. Mexico. Preventive medicine reports, 14, [31] Sarkar C,2017,Residential greenness and 100870‐70. adiposity: Findings from the UK Biobank. [26] Persson Å, Pyko A, Lind T et al.,2018,Urban Environ Int, 106, 1‐10. residential greenness and adiposity: A cohort [32] Pereira G, Christian H, Foster S et al.,2013,The study in Stockholm County. Environ Int, 121, association between neighborhood greenness 832‐41. and weight status: an observational study in [27] Nichani V, Turley L, Vena JE et Perth Western Australia. Environ Health, 12, 49. al.,2020,Associations betweenthe [33] Tilt JH, Unfried TM, Roca B,2007,Using neighbourhood characteristics and body mass objective and subjective measures of index, waist circumference, and waist‐to‐hip neighborhood greenness and accessible ratio: Findings from Alberta's Tomorrow destinations for understanding walking trips Project. Health Place, 64, 102357. and BMI in Seattle, Washington. Am J Health Promot, 21, 371 102 Table 1. Overview of the reviewed studies Study, Setting Sample Design Methods Outcome(s) Conclusion Studies in children and adolescents de Bont et al., 2020 79,992 children, Longitudinal NDVI BMI trajectories Closer exposure to greenness and green Spain followed up from 0‐5 spaces associates with less longitudinal BMI increase Benjamin‐Neelon et 102 children, 3‐5 Cross‐sectional NDVI Physical activity Greater time in al., 2019 years old BMI z‐score greenspace Mexico associated with physical activity, but not BMI Petraviciene et al., 1489 mother‐child Cross‐sectional NDVI within 100m of Excess body weight Children from 2018 pairs residence families living in areas Lithuania Children aged 4‐6‐ with less greenness exposure, had higher years old odds ratios of being overweight/obese Dadvand et al., 2014 3,178 children 9‐12 Cross‐sectional NDVI within 100, 250, Excess body weight An interquartile Spain years old 500 and 1000m from range increase in residence residential surrounding greenness associated with 11‐19% lower prevalence of overweight/obesity 103 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Study, Setting Sample Design Methods Outcome(s) Conclusion Studies in adults Persson et al., 2018 5,126 adults Prospective, with a NDVI 100, 250 and Markers of adiposity Higher levels of 500m from residence Sweden follow‐up of 9 years residential greenness were associated with a reduced increase in waist circumference during follow‐up and decreased risk for central obesity in the 500m buffer, only in women Huang et al., 2020 24,845 adults Cross‐sectional NDVI within 500m BMI NDVI associated with China from residence Obesity Central lower odds of peripheral and Obesity central obesity Higher NDVI values were associated with lower BMI. O’Callaghan‐Gordo et 2,354 adults, 20‐85 Cross‐sectional NDVI within 300m Excess body weight Associations between al., 2020 years old from residence Abdominal obesity surrounding Spain greenness and excess weight/obesity were null or modest based on a 1 IQR increase in NDVI [excess weight: 0.99 (0.88, 1.11); abdominal obesity: 104 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Study, Setting Sample Design Methods Outcome(s) Conclusion 0.91 (0.79, 1.05) Nichani et al., 2020 14,550 adults, 55±9 Cross‐sectional NDVI within 400m Overweight NDVI was negatively years old, 61% USA from residence Obesity associated with women overweight, obesity WC and excess WC, only WHR in women Klompmaker et al., 387,195 adults Cross‐sectional NDVI within 300m Overweight Decreased odds of 2018 from residence being overweight in The Netherlands the highest NDVI quintile were observed. Associations were stronger for subjects living in less urban areas, and for the smaller buffers. Sarkar C, 2017 333,183 adults, Cross‐sectional NDVI within 500m BMI An interquartile from residence increment in NDVI United Kingdom 38‐73 years old WC greenness was Whole Body Fat associated with lower Obesity BMI, WC, as well as a reduced relative risk of obesity. Pereira et al., 2013 10, 208 individuals, Cross‐sectional NDVI Overweight Being in the highest Australia aged over 16 years old Obesity tertile of mean greenness was associated with lower 105 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Study, Setting Sample Design Methods Outcome(s) Conclusion obesity [0.78 (0.69‐ 0.89)], and pooled overweight rates [0.84 (0.76‐0.92)]. Tilt et al., 2007 529 adults Cross‐sectional NDVI within 0.4 miles BMI In areas with high USA from residence accessibility, BMI was lower in areas that had high NDVI, or more greenness NDVI, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index; BMI, Body Mass Index; WC, Waist Circumference; WHR, Waist to Hip Ratio 106 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece CORRELATION BETWEEN DEATHS IN GREECE AND EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS P. Kantartzopoulou1, T. Kalyvas1, E. Zervas1,* 1School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece ([email protected], [email protected], [email protected]) ABSTRACT The objective of this study is to investigate the correlations between the frequency of deaths and the ambient temperature. For this purpose, the data of ambient temperature and deaths in Greece were analyzed for the period 2014 – 2016. The data regarding the number and cause of deaths were obtained from the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT). The deaths were classified according to gender and age groups (every five years). Two main categories of diseases were considered as causes of death in this work: heart diseases and respiratory diseases. The temperature data were obtained from the Hellenic National Meteorological Service (HNMS), for the stations Florina, Mikra, Alexandroupoli, Ioannina, Larissa, Mytilini, Araxos, Tripoli and Tatoi, covering the entire Greece. An average daily temperature of these stations were used. The deaths were subsequently correlated with temperature data. For both genders and for all age groups, the total number of deaths in 2014 and 2015 show a U form, with a minimum at about 20‐21oC. The same trend is observed in the case of deaths from cardiac of respiratory causes for both men and women. KEYWORDS extreme weather events; heart diseases; human health; mortality; respiratory diseases; temperature analyzed, can serve as a database for future 1. INTRODUCTION research. Climate change may well constitute the biggest global health threat of the 21st century [1]. The 2. METHODOLOGY weather variability is a risk factor for mortality Data regarding the number of deaths in Greece and many studies have been carried out in in years 2014, 2015 and 2016, were obtained order to reveal the relationship between from the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT). mortality and environmental variables, The deaths were classified according to gender especially air temperature [2]. In this context, the present study investigates the relationship and 5 year age groups: 0‐4, 5‐9, 10‐14, 15‐19, between the number of deaths in Greece and 20‐24, 25‐29, 30‐34, 35‐39, 40‐44, 45‐49, 50‐ the air temperature, for a given time period. 54, 55‐59, 60‐64, 65‐69, 70‐74, 75‐79, 80‐84, The findings of this study can be useful for 85+. In particular, 2 main categories of diseases implementing strategies which protect the were considered as causes of death, so the public health. The data that were collected and deaths were also classified according to them: Heart diseases (heart attacks, diseases of the 107 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece circulatory system, ischemic heart diseases and most deaths took place when temperature was hypertensive diseases) and respiratory diseases lower than 12 °C. These deaths were happened (diseases of the respiratory system, diseases of more often when temperature was higher than the upper respiratory track and diseases of the 18 °C (Fig. 2). A U–shaped relationship between pulmonary circulation). The temperature data number of deaths and temperature was also for the period 2014‐2016 were obtained from ascertained. the Hellenic National Meteorological Service (HNMS), for the meteorological stations Florina (16613), Mikra (16622), Alexandroupoli (16627), Ioannina (16642), Larissa (16648), Mytilini (16667), Araxos (16687), Tripoli (16710) and Tatoi (16715). Based on temperature data, an average daily temperature of 16 °C was determined. In order to find out whether temperature extremes affect human health, the deaths were subsequently correlated with temperature data. Figure 2. Number of cardiac deaths vs. average daily temperature The number of deaths related to respiratory 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION diseases, increased when temperature was The main results concerning the correlation lower than 15 °C or higher than 25 °C (Fig. 3). A between deaths caused by heart and U–shaped relationship was also found in this respiratory diseases and temperature, are case. presented below. 3.1 Number of deaths and average daily temperature The total number of deaths in the period 2014 – 2016, increased when temperature was lower than 12 °C or higher than 20 °C (Fig. 1) . A U–shaped relationship between deaths and temperature is observed, indicating that the number of deaths increases when temperatures are extremely high or low. Figure 3. Number of respiratory deaths vs. average daily temperature Regarding deaths caused by heart diseases, there are more men’s deaths than women’s. The opposite is true, concerning deaths caused by respiratory diseases. Overall, men’s deaths are more than women’s. It is noteworthy that while the ischemic heart disease is the leading cause of death in Greece, the deaths from respiratory diseases exceed those from heart Figure 1. Total number of deaths vs. average daily diseases, when temperature is taken into temperature account (Fig. 4). Regarding the deaths related to heart diseases, 108 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Figure 4. Number of Total deaths, Cardiac deaths Figure 6. Number of male and female cardiac and Respiratory deaths, in relation with the average deaths, in relation with average daily temperature daily temperature for the period 2014 ‐ 2016 for the period 2014 ‐ 2016 3.2 Male ‐ female deaths and average daily The deaths caused by respiratory diseases are temperature shown in Figure 7. Women’s deaths are The total number of deaths by gender, is evidently more than men’s. Most respiratory shown in Figure 5. It appears that temperature deaths occurred in 2015, when the winter affects both genders, though men’s deaths are temperatures were the lowest compared to more than women’s. the other years. September is the month with the fewer cardiac and respiratory deaths, for all years. Figure 5. Total number of male and female deaths, in relation with average daily temperature for the period 2014 ‐ 2016 Figure 7. Number of male and female respiratory deaths, in relation with average daily temperature The deaths caused by heart diseases are shown for the period 2014 ‐ 2016 in Figure 6. Men’s deaths are more than 3.3. Daily deaths and average daily women’s during the whole period. The number temperature, in the 0‐29 age group of deaths increases in summer and winter. Especially in winter of 2015, the number of The number of daily deaths in the 0 – 29 age deaths increases significantly. A rapid increase group is shown in Figure 8. The deaths in this in number of deaths also occurred in June and age group account for only 1% of the total July of 2016. number of deaths. 109 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 8 30 Cardiac deaths 7 2014-2016 25 age:30-59 6 20 C) 5 o 15 hs ure ( t 4 t era Dea 10 3 p 5 Tem 2 1 0 0 -5 1/1/14 4/1/14 7/1/14 1/1/15 4/1/15 7/1/15 1/1/16 4/1/16 7/1/16 10/1/15 10 /1/16 10/1/14 Date Figure 8. Number of total daily deaths in the 0‐29 Figure 10. Number of total daily cardiac deaths in age group, in relation with the average daily the 30‐59 age group, in relation with the average temperature for the period 2014 – 2016 daily temperature for the period 2014 – 2016 3.4. Daily deaths and average daily The number of respiratory deaths in the 30 – temperature, in the 30‐59 age group 59 age group, is shown In Figure 11. The deaths The number of daily deaths increases in the 30 in the 50 – 59 age group are many more than in – 59 age group (Fig. 9). Mortality increases with the younger age groups. 6 30 Respir age. deaths 2014-2016 25 30 30 5 age:30-59 Total deaths 20 ) 25 C 25 2014-2016 4 o age:30-59 ( 15 ) 20 hs ure t C 20 3 t o ( era Dea 10 15 p hs ure t 15 t 2 5 Tem era Dea 10 p 10 1 0 5 Tem 5 0 0 -5 1/1/14 4/1/14 7/1/14 1/1/15 4/1/15 7/1/15 1/1/16 4/1/16 7/1/16 10/1/15 10 /1/16 0 -5 10/1/14 Date 7/1/15 1/1/16 4/1/16 7/1/16 1/1/14 4/1/14 7/1/14 1/1/15 4/1/15 10/1/15 10/1/16 10/1/14 Date Figure 11. Number of total daily respiratory deaths in the 30‐59 age group, in relation with the average Figure 9. Number of total daily deaths in the 30‐59 daily temperature for the period 2014 – 2016 age group, in relation with the average daily temperature for the period 2014 – 2016 3.5. Daily deaths and average daily temperature, in the 60‐85+ age group As in the case of total deaths, cardiac deaths in the 30 – 59 age group increase with age (Fig. The total daily deaths in the 60‐85+ age group 10). In the 50 ‐ 59 age group, cardiac deaths are are shown in Figure 12. The number of deaths double that of the 40 – 44 age group and 7 is significantly increased, compared to the times more than the 30 – 34 age group. Male younger age groups. Total male deaths are cardiac deaths are 6 times more than female, double that of female, until the age of 79 years. in each age group. In the 80 ‐ 84 age group the number of female deaths is slightly more than the number of male deaths, while in ages of 85 years and over, the female deaths are many more than male. It was found that both genders are affected by lower than 12°C and higher than 110 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 90 30 25°C temperatures. Respir 80 deaths 2014-2016 25 220 30 Total age:60-85+ 70 200 deaths 2014-2016 20 ) 25 C age:60-85+ 60 180 o ( 15 160 20 50 C) 140 o 40 erature Deaths 10 15 p hs 120 ure ( t t 30 100 5 Tem Dea 10 20 80 0 60 5 Tempera 10 40 0 -5 0 20 7/1/15 1/1/16 4/1/16 7/1/16 1/1/14 4/1/14 7/1/14 1/1/15 4/1/15 10/1/15 10/1/16 0 -5 10/1/14 Date 7/1/15 1/1/16 4/1/16 7/1/16 1/1/14 4/1/14 7/1/14 1/1/15 4/1/15 10/1/15 10/1/16 10/1/14 Date Figure 14. Number of total daily respiratory deaths Figure 12. Number of total daily deaths in the 60 – in the 60‐85+ age group, in relation with the 85+ age group, in relation with the average daily average daily temperature for the period 2014 – temperature for the period 2014 – 2016 2016 Cardiac deaths are increased significantly over the age of 75 years for both genders (Fig. 13). 4. CONCLUSIONS As in the case of the total deaths, in ages of 85 years and over, the female cardiac deaths are It emerged that low and high temperatures many more than male. affect human health regardless of gender, 40 30 because of an important increase of number of Cardiac deaths 35 2014-2016 deaths. This trend was mainly noticed when age:60-85+ 25 30 there were extended warm or cold periods, or 20 ) C o 25 ( when a rapid change of temperature had 15 20 occurred. The relationship between number of erature Deaths 10 p deaths and temperature is a U‐shaped curve, 15 5 Tem showing that extreme temperatures justify the 10 increase of mortality. The elderly people (70– 5 0 85+) are the most vulnerable. A significant 0 -5 increase of deaths was noticed in late 7/1/15 1/1/16 4/1/16 7/1/16 1/1/14 4/1/14 7/1/14 1/1/15 4/1/15 10/1/15 10/1/16 10/1/14 Date December and in early January. Despite the prevailing low temperatures, this trend could be mostly attributed to the Christmas period, Figure 13. Number of total daily cardiac deaths in when some people tend to overindulge the 60‐85+ age group, in relation with the average daily temperature for the period 2014 – 2016 REFERENCES The number of respiratory deaths is shown in Figure 14. There is a significant increase in the [1] Paravantis J., Santamouris M., Cartalis C., number of deaths, in the older age groups. In Efthymiou C. and Kontoulis N., 2017, Mortality the 60 – 75 age group, the number of men’s associated with high ambient temperatures, respiratory deaths is double that of women’s. heatwaves, and the urban heat island in Sustainability Over the age of 75, women’s deaths increase Athens, Greece, , 9 (4), 606. DOI: 10.3390/su9040606 and exceed men’s, as in the case of total and cardiac deaths. [2] Nastos P. T., Matzarakis A., 2012, The effect of air temperature and human thermal indices on mortality in Athens, Greece, Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 108 (3‐4), 591–599. DOI: 10.1007/s00704‐011‐0555‐0 111 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 112 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece PAPERS, Saturday 24/10/2020, Room B 113 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 114 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece FORGING A “GREEN” IDENTITY: ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY AS BALANCED KEY FACTORS IN CITIES’ FUTURES D. Triantafyllou1*, K. Sakantamis 1,2 1School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece 2School of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24, Thessaloniki, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT Urban areas, under the influence of social mobility and technological changes of the 20th century, are currently in a process of re‐urbanization that takes place in parallel to other on‐ going internal transformations. The effective management of urban (re)developments, has become the primary objective for achieving sustainability and tackling urban degradation. The current state of affairs makes the study of –the often contradictory‐ interrelations and inherent links between Environmental Design and City Branding particularly interesting. The former comprises of strategies aiming to secure environmental sustainability while the latter consists of strategies that forge the unique identity of a city, aiming to attract target audiences ‐residents, workers, visitors, businesses and overseas markets, mainly aiming towards economic viability. FLIMethodologically, this is evidenced by a bibliographic review of the two fields, and by examining case studies of cities within the EU. New challenges for cities, environmental and competitiveness requirements, call for new strategies, vision and planning tools. Initiatives within the EU that enhance cities’ sustainability by encouraging good practices according to specific indicators have proved that cities can forge a “green identity”, through the adoption of environmental strategies, achieving “quality of life”, and a strong “green image”, which is ultimately economically competitive when properly communicated to a wider target audience. Showcase projects demonstrate that building and promoting a sustainable yet competitive city will soon be based on recognizing its particular context/identity, and on a deep understanding of its ecological reality that allows city experts a clear perspective. Viable/sustainable/resilient and ultimately “smart” cities will need to be considered as integrated targets, subject to programming through specific set of environmental indicators. KEYWORDS Sustainable urban design; City branding; Green cities; Smart cities currently lives in cities, a percentage that is 1. INTRODUCTION projected to increase to 68% over the next 30 years [2]. Yet, urban concentrations account for [1] According to Braun , urban areas are a percentage ranging between 0.57% and 3% of currently undergoing re‐urbanization; as UN the world's land surface [3]. In addition, cities statistics suggest, 55% of the world population are responsible for the production of 80% of 115 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece the world GDP, the consumption of 2/3 of the world's energy, and for over 70% of emitted 2. BRAND, PLACE BRAND, BRANDING & greenhouse gases [4]. The above imply the vital MARKETING role of urban development management for The terminology and concepts of Place achieving sustainability and highlight the role Branding derive from the evolution of the that cities can play in tackling climate change. theory of Product Marketing, a fact that Cities are melting pots that exemplify the justifies the frequent confusion of terms and importance of a holistic approach for their derivatives used in the field. Despite the fact sustainable development, whereby that cities meet functional, symbolic and Environment, Economy, Society and Cultural emotional needs, they have recently been Heritage play equally important roles [5]. While viewed as "products" or as "businesses" with working towards their sustainable futures, supplied goods; their quality of living, the cities are also competing in the context of a tourism they receive, or their external globalized economy. The choices of their target investment quota being indicators for their audiences pose challenges in the contemporary success [9]. practice of City Branding/Marketing, that are According to the theory of Place Branding, the countered by procedures that identify and then “identity” of a city is composed of its unique shape their “unique identity” with the aim of characteristics; what it "offers": history, further promoting it. culture, natural and man‐made environment, The paper examines the often contradictory quality of life, etc. Unique but also flexible, the interrelations and inherent links between identity of a place can be shaped to become an Environmental Design and City important "asset". As a reflection of its identity, Branding/Marketing; the latter recently the “Image” of a place is formed through a set receiving increased attention from both the of cognitive associations; different and often scientific community and local actors and conflicting messages that are perceived by evolving into an interdisciplinary research field each recipient. The latter refers to the [6, 7, 8]. "external city", (buildings, properties, colors, Methodologically, this is evidenced by a food, etc.), and to the "inner city", a reflection bibliographic review of the two fields, and by of feelings and desires of its target audience [10]. examining case studies of cities within the EU, namely winners of the Green Capital and Green Place Branding processes the "Identity" of a Leaf awards, which sought to enhance their place and is guided by what is offered: the sustainability by encouraging good practices urban environment shapes a large part of this according to specific indicators, essentially identity and develops a primary forging a “green identity”, achieving “quality of communication of its "image". Place Marketing life”, and a strong “green image”, which is (advertising, PR, graphic design, logos) ultimately economically competitive when manages the "image" of a place and is driven properly communicated to a wider target by "demand", aiming to develop secondary audience. The results of the above analysis communication. Along with the two were ultimately used in order to study the aforementioned strategies, the city's image is Municipality of Paleo Faliro (Attica, Greece), as also communicated by word of mouth, in a a field of application for a holistic strategy of largely unmanageable way [11] (Figure 1). “green” city branding and marketing. 116 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece respective scientific/professional fields. More recently, programs such as Urban Audit [14] and URGE [15], relate the quality of environmental parameters, such as urban green, to the identity and quality of life in cities. 4. BRANDING THE CITY “GREEN” The “practices” of city branding do not necessarily include environmental planning as a whole, despite the fact that environmental and urban management strategies achieve Figure 1. Identity and Image of a city as developed “sustainability”, while at the same time through the disciplines of Place Branding and strengthening the “green” identity of a place, Marketing and therefore its competitive image [16, 17]. This is evidenced by examples of cities that 3. THE IMPACT OF A CITY’S BRAND mobilized towards a green branding strategy either by simply participating in or by receiving The existence of models for measuring the the title of "Green Capital of Europe" or the degree of success of city branding and "European Green Leaf Award". marketing strategies is of particular interest to the current study. They emphasize the Vitoria‐Gasteiz and Mollet Del Vallès, cities of a identification of the positive, tangible and medium and small size, respectively, have been intangible characteristics of the city: the history exemplified, though the two aforementioned of the place, its general appearance, the competitions, as good practice models for architecture, the sights, the demographics, the cities that currently house nearly 80% of economic possibilities, the governance, the Europe's inhabitants. The examination of these feeling of the inhabitants, the degree of two case studies allowed the mapping of common perceptions and general "philosophy" sustainability measures and solutions that were of its core values and identity are some of put in place in order for them to achieve them. environmental goals with common characteristics, according to measurable The City Brand’s Index was developed by indicators. The two cities organized their Anholt and gauges a city’s brand according to strategic planning to tackle global climate six categories; “presence”, “place”, “people”, change, undertaking actions to reduce “prerequisites”, “pulse” and “potential” form greenhouse gas emissions, and promote RES. [12] the sides of the city brand Hexagon . The They promoted sustainable mobility and City Brand Barometer, developed by Hildreth, environmentally friendly modes of transport, follows the approach of an XY diagram managing to reverse the upward trend in the whereby the city asset strength, consisting of use of private cars (Figure 2). In order to factors pertaining to culture and comfort (X conserve and protect biodiversity, they axis), is combined with the city brand strength developed new green zones, with an emphasis (Y axis) composed of the iconographic on sustainable land use (Figure 3). recognizability, the quantity and power of attractive images, and the value and recognition by the media [13]. The position of cities in either of the two previous rankings can play an important role in the flow of cultural and tourism capital, allowing feedback to the dynamics of the 117 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece daily experience of the inhabitants. The strategic vision of the "green city", which is needed to shape a successful branding strategy, acquires measurable figures ‐ environmental indicators‐ that enable both the visibility of the environmental planning strategy and also feedback, to better prioritize actions. In addition, the benefits gained by cities are Figure 2. Mollet del Vallès: Sustainable and Safety also marked by a strong "momentum" for the mobility European Week 2012, Pilot program, continuation of improvements. These have pedestrian ‐bicycle coexistence [18] been found to positively impact on social and cultural sustainability by creating new jobs, by stimulating local pride and sense of belonging, by fostering partnerships and encouraging the community for joint initiatives, as well as by supporting the arts and the culture through the networking of green capitals/cities. The enhancement of cities’ economic viability is also reflected in their positive coverage by the media, at national and international level, in increasing traffic and tourism, in networking and building new alliances of "green" cities, in Figure 3. Vitoria‐Gasteiz: The “green Belt" around attracting funding and financial support from the city [19] institutions, public funding bodies, and in their The two cities installed systems for monitoring better access to European funding programs. the quality of the atmospheric and acoustic environment and also undertook strategies to 5. PALEO FALIRO’S GREEN IDENTITY, BRAND reduce municipal waste to a minimum, creating AND IMAGE an integrated, "green" urban metabolism. P. Faliro, Attica, was studied as a field of Furthermore, they reduced water consumption application for the research. The elements that and distribution losses and applied wastewater have shaped its identity ‐ image and value over management technologies. Finally, they time, those that create a core image, common implemented integrated environmental to all, were found to be i) its geographical management systems and applied good location, ii) its natural environment and practice dissemination programs. climatic conditions, iii) the built/unbuilt The participation of cities in the two environment (including uses, infrastructure), iv) aforementioned competitions presupposes the its history, v) demographic characteristics, and existence of measurable and presentable data vi) its economy and employment data. The to support their application. The installation of above compiled the list of themes for a SWOT control and environmental monitoring systems analysis. (prior to the implementation of any actions) During its recent history, the public works and the creation of a specialized monitoring undertaken for the 2004 Olympic Games body is a necessity. At the same time, these (Tram, Faliro Pole, Esplanade, Marina Floisvou, create the prerequisite conditions for closure of Elliniko airport), were the changes significant improvement of the image of cities, that shaped the modern identity of the created through a "communication" system Municipality. Today, the city is being redefined, with measurable and tangible results in the with the operation of the "Stavros Niarchos 118 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Foundation Cultural Center" and the Faliro Metropolitan Park, currently under construction. The utilization of the City Brand's Index and the City Brand Barometer methodologies indicated that the identity of P. Faliro is composed of tangible and intangible properties with substantial asset strength which allow the potential for a highly recognizable City Brand Name. With regard to the environmental profile of the Municipality, this was gauged according to the indicators used for judging the nomination of Figure 4. The interrelated relationships between the cities for the European Green Leaf Award, examined concepts, towards cities’ sustainability which is suitable because of P. Faliro’s relative size. The analysis found a lack of specific ‐ 6. CONCLUSIONS realistic goals that would be the result of an overarching strategy, with emphasis put on Environmental planning and design achieve the demonstration projects which are mostly improvement of infrastructure, urban undertaken in the perimeter of the functions, and other environmental, social, Municipality, mostly in an unimaginative way economic and cultural aspects, which relate to that does not foster creative ideas in finding the vision for the holistic sustainable solutions that could be funded through EU development of the city. Enhancing the overall programs. A major hindrance in establishing quality of life leads to the creation ‐ forging of a the above is the lack of any measurable strong, "green" identity, capable of addressing indicators in place (unconfirmed problems, a wider audience of people, ie the promotion difficulty in targeting, non‐activation of the of the city, thus being a key element in local community). It appears that to date the promoting its competitiveness, with an existing opportunity for the Municipality to emphasis on benefits to its inhabitants. At the utilize the "measurable" side of its image has same time, at least in academia, the been neglected. This, on one hand, could be methodology proposed for the success of a city activated at a marketing level but could be branding strategy focuses mainly on the more beneficial if used to excite, sensitize and satisfaction and role of inhabitants. This hints engage the residents. As the city is called to to the common end‐recipient of the two maintain and strengthen its identity and the strategies, with a prerequisite for cultivating quality of life, in order to maintain its human collective consciousness and active resources, the interest of investors and participation. entrepreneurs and its tourism traffic, the need Clear, concise and measurable environmental for a parallel course of city branding and indicators and the formulation of a city’s environmental planning strategies is critical strategy in order to influence them for the (Figure 4). better have proven to highlight the potential of viewing "the city as a product of environmental planning and design”. Utilising them means that the concept of "improving the quality of life in the city" can have specific content which can influence the image of a city, built on solid foundations, and through actions of the competent bodies which can be effectively 119 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece better organized, targeted and coordinated. development & globalisation: Best practices", 26‐29 August2014, St. Petersburg, Russia, European Cities that have reduced their environmental Regional Science Association (ERSA), Louvain‐la‐ problems have drastically improved their image Neuve. Available at: http://hdl.handle.net/ and reaped significant benefits. The conscious 10419/124349 adoption of environmental design practices, in [9] Hankinson, G., 2015, Rethinking the Place parallel with the methods of city branding, is Branding Construct. Chap. 2 in Rethinking Place necessary in order for city officials to embark Branding. Comprehensive Brand Development for on such strategic schemes and also in order to Cities and Regions, edited by Kavaratzis, M., maintain their momentum. Hence, the Warnaby, G. & Ashworth, G. Springer International "traditional" methodology of urban planning Publishing. ISBN 978‐3‐319‐12424‐7 gives way to strategic planning, which draws [10] Kavaratzis, M., 2004, From city marketing to feedback from a comprehensive management city branding: Towards a theoretical framework for and monitoring program. developing city brands. Place Branding, Henry Stewart Publications 1744–070X (2004), Vol.1,1, 58–73 REFERENCES [11] Kavaratzis, M., 2008, From City Marketing to [1] Braun, E. 2008, City Marketing: Towards an city Branding: An interdisciplinary analysis with Integrated Approach. ERIM (Erasmus Research reference to Amsterdam, Budapest and Athens. Institute of Management) PhD Series in Research Doctor of Philosophy, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, in Management, 142, ISBN 978‐90‐5892‐180‐2 University of Groningen, Groningen. ISBN: 978‐90‐ [2] Population Division of the UN Department of 367‐3552‐0 Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA). 2018 [12] Anholt, S., (2010), Places: identity, image and Revision of World Urbanization Prospects reputation. Palgrave Macmillan, New York: eBook [3] Schneider, A., Friedl, M. & Potere, D., 2009, A ISBN: 978‐0‐230‐25128‐1, DOI: 10.1007/978‐0‐230‐ new map of global urban extent from MODIS 25128‐1 satellite data. Environmental Research Letters, 4. [13] Hildreth, J., (2008), The Saffron European City 44003‐11. 10.1088/ 1748‐9326/4/4/044003 Brand Barometer. Revealing which cities get the [4] The World Bank, 2018, Understanding Poverty – brands they deserve. Found at: Topics ‐ Urban Development. Found at: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/ 310614 61.pdf http://www.worldbank.org/ en/topic/urban [14] Morais, P. & Camanho, A.S., 2011, Evaluation of development/overview#1 performance of European cities with the aim to [5] United Cities and Local Governments ‐ promote quality of life improvements. Omega, Committee on culture (UCLG’s Committee on Elsevier, vol. 39(4). Pages 398‐409 Culture), 2008, Agenda 21 for culture. [15] Coles, R., & Grayson, N., 2015, Improving the http://www.agenda21culture.net Quality of Life in Urban Regions Through Urban [6] Vuignier, R., 2016, Place marketing and place Greening Initiatives – EU URGE‐Project branding: A systematic (and tentatively exhaustive) [16] Braiterman, J., 2011, City Branding through literature review HAL Id: hal‐01340352, https://hal. New Green Spaces. In Dinnie, K., City Branding – archives‐ouvertes.fr/hal01340352Renaud Theory and Cases. PALGRAVE MACMILLAN. ISBN [7] Acharya, A., & Rahman, Z., 2016, Place 978‐1‐349‐ 31758‐5. DOI 10.1057/9780230294790. branding research: a thematic review and future Pages 70‐81 research agenda. International Review on Public [17] Fok, KWK, Law WWY., 2018, City re‐ imagined: and Nonprofit Marketing, 2016, vol. 13, issue 3, No Multi‐stakeholder study on branding Hong Kong as 5, 289‐317 a city of greenery. Journal of Environmental [8] Oguztimur, S., & Akturan, U., 2014, Τhe Management. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.11.045 development and change in city branding: a content PMID: 30029338 analysis of the literature. 54th Congress of the [18] EUROPEAN COMISSION. ENVIRONMENT. European Regional Science Association: "Regional European Green Capital. Mollet del Valles 120 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece https://ec.europa.eu/environment/europ https://ec.europa.eu/environment/europ eangreencapital/europeangreenleaf/egl‐ winning‐ eangreencapital/winning‐cities/2012‐ vitoria‐ cities/mollet‐del‐valles/ gasteiz/ [19] EUROPEAN COMISSION. ENVIRONMENT. European Green Capital. Vitoria‐Gasteiz. 121 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 122 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24-25 October 2020, Athens, Greece ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN OF COASTAL CITIES. COASTAL ENGINEERING, NATURAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND HYBRID APPROACHES FOR THE WATERFRONT D. Ιoannidi1*, G. Palantzas2, D. Nalmpantis2 1School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece 2Department of Civil Engineering, AUTH, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT This research aims at discussing the role of environmental planning, its progress to date and the challenges that arise, all while focusing on coastal cities. In the context of the integrated environmental planning on the coastal front of the cities, it is considered necessary to adopt the protect - accommodate - retreat target. For this purpose, various alternative protective methods and projects are examined, as well as their applicability and degree of acceptance today. The exploitation of natural infrastructure is presented as a relevant alternative to the traditional methods of engineered solutions and mechanical shielding of the coastal front, as protective measures. Currently, there is scientific consensus on the use of natural infrastructure for coastal protection as an innovative and flexible method, easily adaptable to the local conditions, securing additional environmental benefits for the city. In coastal cities, these methods are also employed to tackle challenges and weaknesses resulting from their nature, as ecosystems face additional pressures due to their location within an urban environment. Most coastal cities using natural infrastructure are in the regions of Southeast Asia and the USA. Regarding hybrid approaches of coastal protection, New York appears to be the first city to have developed and implemented such hybrid methods. The research concludes that although natural infrastructure appears to be the desired and more sustainable solution for the protection of cities’ coastal front, the implementation of hybrid systems, i.e. the combination of engineered projects and natural infrastructure, is considered more feasible. When choosing hybrid systems, already constructed engineered projects are utilized, benefits of both methods are exploited, while the existence of a “double line” of defense increases the levels of protection of the coastal front and integrates smoothly the water element within the city. KEYWORDS Coastal cities; Coastal engineering, Environmental design; Natural infrastructure; Resilience an attractive field for scientific research. 1. INTRODUCTION Especially when studying coastal cities, the interest is growing due to the complexity of Humanity’s inextricable connection with interactions, as well as the challenges that coasts throughout history, has always been arise. When it comes to pressures that affect 123 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24-25 October 2020, Athens, Greece the coastal waterfront of a city, geological, 2. METHODOLOGY geomorphological, climate and The methodology of this work is based on the anthropogenic impacts are the most review and comparative analysis of observed. However, no matter the origin of bibliographic data and on the assessment these pressures, natural and anthropogenic and drawing of relevant conclusions through factors should be examined comprehensively the study of current applications and case and not in isolation. studies, as mentioned in the next chapter. Environmental planning, especially when a holistic approach is adopted, offers the 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION appropriate directions and tools. Focusing on the coastal waterfront and on account of its 3.1 Grey infrastructure dynamic shape and the constant changes When pinpointing the engineered methods that occur, this system needs to be planned which are more often used to shield the city’s [1] sustainably . Integrated coastal coastal front, seawalls, breakwaters, groins, management is the means of organizing dikes, and floodgates are mostly preferred [5- urban systems, which generate pressures but 6]. Land reclamation, though a soft type of are at the same time on the receiving end. infrastructure, nevertheless it is considered The process of environmental planning is as a mechanical work causing similar impact continual, and the policies adopted should be to the neighboring physical and examined in terms of their success and their anthropogenic environment. Barrier islands [2] ability to meet the challenges . can be constructed by using the technique of The coastal waterfront needs to be resilient land reclamation for the purposes of and this can be achieved through the protection. However international practice strategies: protect – accommodate – retreat proves that most of the times land [3-4]. Protection is accomplished by the reclamation technique is used to create traditional method of grey infrastructure and added space in favor of the city. mechanical works, or alternatively by Grey infrastructure remains the most popular innovative methods such as natural and commonly used method for the infrastructure and hybrid systems. protection of the urban coastal waterfront Accommodate refers to the strategy of due to the credibility and effectiveness of adaptation. Regarding to the relationship engineered methods [7]. This method is also between water and the city, adaptation advantageous in terms of limited space measures must not necessarily call for demand, quick construction and application alienating it from the inner city. On the and immediate operation. Additionally, contrary the strategy of accommodation having expertise in the construction of grey works towards smoothly integrating water infrastructure proven by the multiple within the city. Natural infrastructure as well successful applications internationally, makes as hybrid approaches give solutions in this them a preferable choice for the coastal direction. In many cases, the structure of the waterfront. city and the level of vulnerability do not allow At the same time, the weaknesses of grey for adaptation measures. infrastructure are increasingly observed. The strategy of retreat entails the relocation Limited flexibility, maladjustment and high of built environment and infrastructure to constructive and maintenance costs are most safer places. Accepting and implementing frequently highlighted. From an this strategy may be controversial, but where environmental perspective, engineered deemed appropriate, it must be adopted. works cause serious disturbances to the coastal ecosystems and limit the levels of biodiversity. In addition, in some cases this 124 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24-25 October 2020, Athens, Greece type of shielding initiates hydrologic changes Regarding the evaluation of natural which lead to events of erosion. infrastructure, scientific studies increasingly Moreover, engineered solutions frequently prove that ecosystems can work to meet the cause degradation of the water quality and objective of protection, even if it is not pollution, when they facilitate the always possible to accurately quantify the entrapment of waste. In recent years, the contribution. It is a fact that the wider the ever changing conditions as well as extreme area they occupy, the more effective they events can lead to exceeding the carrying are. Simultaneously they do not stand as a capacity of engineered infrastructure [8-9]. As barrier to the natural process of sediment a result, designers turn to alternative transportation; on the contrary they work on methods for the protection of the urban the enrichment of the coast, giving a solution [13-14]. The coastal waterfront. to erosion phenomena ecosystems’ ability of self-preservation reflects their adaptability and flexibility which 3.2 Natural infrastructure is contrasted to the grey infrastructure’s inflexibility. Natural environments and ecosystems such as mangrove forests, wetlands, salt marshes, The cost of restoration or creation of natural seagrass, coral and oyster reefs contribute to infrastructure is by far lower than the cost of [8, 15-16] the protection of coasts [8]. The importance engineered shielding . Moreover, self- of these ecosystems as habitats, for providing sufficient ecosystems demand the least of resources and maintaining high air and water human intervention. Except for the ability to quality, has already been established. protect, natural infrastructure provides multiple environmental benefits to the city; Lately, researchers study another aspect of and ecosystems can also form a leisure space these ecosystems, as a means of protection. for the community to the extent possible. Their positioning at the waterfront of the city As an innovative and not well-established can act as a barrier, buffering and weakening method, there are also some weaknesses to wave energy and height, as well as absorb examine. The uncertainty of effectiveness as and store large amounts of water before it well as the lack of expertise are noted as the reaches the inner city [9-10]. main reasons why hesitation is observed and limited applications of natural infrastructure Concerning their installation, it is important as a means of protection have been tracked to note that in many coastal cities these to date. There is also great uncertainty about ecosystems preexisted the urban expansion their response to extreme weather events. At and were gradually degraded or converted to the same time, other barriers can be the built environment. In these cases, designers limitation of space as well as the time needed should primarily examine the possibility of for the ecosystem to reach mature period in restoring the ecosystem, as it happened in order to achieve its utmost contribution. Hong Kong and Shenzhen, where large areas of wetlands and mangrove forests were Except for the weaknesses resulting from successfully restored [11-12]. But, even if there their nature, ecosystems face additional is no ecosystem as a basis, or restoration is pressures due to their location within an impossible, it can be created from the urban environment, which alters the beginning. When cities are located in conditions and erodes their effectiveness. All estuaries, deltas or bays, installation of kinds of pollution, acidification, natural infrastructure is favored, but they can eutrophication and invasive species are only also survive at more exposed waterfronts. a few of these pressures. 125 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24-25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Additionally, grey infrastructure gives the time needed for the ecosystems to reach their maturity by bridging the gap of protection in the meantime. When designing a hybrid system, planners should take into consideration the interactions between different types of infrastructure, in order to avoid undermining one another. It has been noted that not all combinations are sustainable. Grey infrastructure, when installed as a first line of defense can help ecosystems grow, but on the other hand there is a possibility to stem the flow of sediments, which is essential for Figure 1. Coastal Cities using Natural the ecosystems. Scientific knowledge is Infrastructure lacking in this area and the applications are limited. New York is one of the first cities 3.3 Hybrid approaches worldwide to incorporate hybrid approaches to its plan [20]. Hybrid approaches constitute empirical combinations of grey and natural In recent literature, ecological design of grey infrastructure. Hybrid systems can be defined infrastructure is often described as a hybrid as a synergy of two or more types of approach [21-22]. Regarding this argument, it infrastructure, in order to obtain combined must be noted that this kind of interventions benefits and eliminate their respective should not be expected to provide the weaknesses [17]. In some cases, grey benefits of natural infrastructure. infrastructure works as the first line of Incorporating natural characteristics to grey defense, ensuring suitable conditions for the infrastructure is successful in eliminating natural infrastructure to grow. Lately, some of the weaknesses of engineered designers study the opposite form, where solutions, making them more natural infrastructure grows seawards [18]. environmentally friendly. Ecological designing Regarding the effectiveness of hybrid in terms of adjustments to already existing systems, it must be noted that establishing a infrastructure turns out as an easy to take double line of defense can contribute decision and many cities are taking this into importantly to achieving the aim of consideration. However, until today the protection. applications of ecological design are small At the same time and besides the defensive scale and mostly in the cities of Canada, orientation, hybrid approaches can offer the Australia, USA, in Scandinavian Countries and [23] environmental benefits of the natural the Netherlands . infrastructure, provided that they are not degraded due to the existence of grey infrastructure. The strategy of protection in 4. CONCLUSIONS this case can be seen as a cooperation with nature. Including grey infrastructure in these The research concludes that although natural innovative systems, provides a feeling of infrastructure looks initially like the desired security until natural infrastructure becomes and more sustainable solution for the recognized as an effective method of protection of the cities’ coastal front, the protecting the coastal waterfront [19]. adoption of hybrid systems, i.e. the combination of engineered methods and 126 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24-25 October 2020, Athens, Greece physical infrastructure, is considered more Hybrid approaches, i.e. the combination of feasible. engineered methods and natural infrastructure, seem to provide multiple Grey infrastructure has gained the approval benefits and eliminate the weaknesses of of the vast majority and remains the most both methods, if/when they are applied popular method of shielding the coastal independently. waterfront. The target of this method is exclusively the protection of the city. In cities When natural infrastructure in hybrid where engineered methods are applied for systems grows seawards, it offers a solution its protection, excessive feeling of safety is to the lack of space. This also provides the observed which is misinterpreted as an advantage of making use of grey opportunity for further urban expansion. The infrastructure that has been already placed in expansion in these cases may lead to most coastal cities. Moreover, hybrid increased vulnerability of the waterfront. approaches allow for innovative planning and Environmental planning should not be design, customized to the needs of coastal trapped in a vicious cycle of creating even cities. bigger and taller mechanical works. In conclusion, infrastructure at the coastal Natural infrastructure, as an alternative waterfront should form a barrier, but not method, can change the way the coastal necessarily with a defensive orientation, waterfront is designed, as it combines which often leads to dead ends. Progressively protection and adaptation. They work as a even more cities show an interest in natural barrier protecting the city, while gentrifying environmental planning towards enriching biodiversity, capturing carbon more sustainable and resilient paths. This dioxide and improving water quality. means that planning should re-evaluate the Regarding the natural infrastructure’s relationship between water and the city. weaknesses, the demand of space is a Natural infrastructure can accommodate this common difficulty in coastal cities and the change through the smooth integration of demand of time may cause insecurity in cities water within the city. that need urgent protection. Limited applications evidence the hesitation to Natural infrastructure remains the most accept alternative methods. To this desirable choice, however hybrid approaches contributes, inter alia, the difficulty to qualify as the most feasible method for quantify protection and environmental coastal cities. Hybrid systems are making use benefits. of already existing infrastructure and facilitate the incorporation of natural Most coastal cities using natural infrastructure. infrastructure are in northern America and southeast Asia. Developing countries and Small Island Developing States show an interest in natural infrastructure due to the REFERENCES low costs and the fact that in many cities’ [1] Bevacqua, A., Yu, D., Zhang, Y., 2018, Coastal ecosystems preexisted and restoration is a vulnerability: Evolving concepts in feasible target. Generally, in European cities, understanding vulnerable people and places, even though there is enough space for Environmental Science and Policy, vol. 82, pp. 19-29. natural infrastructures to grow, grey infrastructure is promoted for the protection [2] Araos, M., Ford, J., Berrang-Ford, L., Biesbroek, R., Moser, S., 2016, Climate of the waterfront. change adaptation planning for Global South megacities: the case of Dhaka, Journal of 127 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24-25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Environmental Policy and Planning, vol. 19, solution-to-urban-sustainability-in-asia/hong- pp. 682-696. kong-wetland-park/ [Accessed 04 October 2020]. [3] Torabi, E., Dedekorkut-Howes, A., Howes, M., 2018, Adapting or maladapting: Building [13] Hobbie, S.E. & Grimm, N.B., 2020, Nature- resilience to climate-related disasters in based approaches to managing climate coastal cities, Cities, vol. 72, pp. 295-309. change impacts in cities. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Biological [4] Bush, D.M., Pilkey, O.H., Neal, W.J., 2001, Science, vol. 375. Coastal Topography, Human Impact On, Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, vol. 1, pp. [14] Herrmann-Lunecke, M. G., Villagra, P., 2019, 480-489. Community resilience and urban planning in tsunami-prone settlements in Chile, [5] Depietri, Y. & McPhearson, T., 2017, Disasters, vol. 44, pp. 103-124. Integrating the grey, green, and blue in cities: Nature-based solutions for climate change [15] Herbeck, J., Flitner, M., 2019, adaptation and risk reduction, in Kabisch, N., Infrastructuring coastal futures: Key Korn, H., Stadler, J., Bonn, A. (eds), Nature- trajectories in Southeast Asian megacities, based Solutions to Climate Change in Urban Die Erde Journal of the Geographical Society Areas: Linkages Between Science, Policy, and of Berlin, vol. 150, no. 3, pp. 118-130. Practice, Springer, pp. 91-109. [16] O’Shaughnessy, K.A., Hawkins, S.J., Evans, [6] Gittman, R.K., Scyphers, S.B., Smith, C.S., A.J., Hanley, M.E., Lunt, P., Thompson, R.C., Neylan, I.P., Grabowski, J.H., 2016, Ecological Francis, R.A., Hoggart, S.P.G., Moore, P.J., Consequences of Shoreline Hardening: A Iglesias, G., Simmonds, D., Ducker, J., Firth, Meta-Analysis, Bioscience, vol. 66, pp. 763- L.B., 2019, Design catalogue for eco- 773. engineering of coastal artificial structures: a multifunctional approach for stakeholders [7] Schoonees, T., Gijón Mancheño, A., Scheres, and end-users, Urban Ecosystems, vol. 23, pp. B., Bouma, T.J., Silva, R., Schlurmann, T., 431-443. Schüttrumpf, H., 2019, Hard Structures for Coastal Protection, Towards Greener Designs, [17] Drosou, N., Soetanto, R., Hermawan, F., Estuaries and Coasts, vol. 42, pp. 1709-1729. Chmutina, K., Bosher, L., Hatmoko, J.U.D., 2019, Key Factors Influencing Wider Adoption [8] Powell, E.J., Tyrrell, M.C., Milliken, A., Tirpak, of Blue–Green Infrastructure in Developing J.M., Staudinger, M.D., 2018, A review of Cities, Water, vol. 11. coastal management approaches to support the integration of ecological and human [18] Du, S., Scussolini, P., Ward, P.J., Zhang, M., community planning for climate change, Wen, J., Wang, L., Koks, E., Diaz-Loaiza, A., Journal of Coastal Conservation, vol. 23, pp. Gao, J., Ke, Q., Aerts, J.C.J.H., 2020, Hard or 1-18. soft flood adaptation? Advantages of a hybrid strategy for Shanghai, Global Environmental [9] Van Coppenolle, R. & Temmerman, S., 2019, Change, vol. 61. A global exploration of tidal wetland creation for nature-based flood risk mitigation in [19] Sutton-Grier, A.E., Wowk, K., Bamford, H., coastal cities, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf 2015, Future of our coasts: The potential for Science, vol. 226. natural and hybrid infrastructure to enhance the resilience of our coastal communities, [10] Gray, J.D.E., O'neill, K., Qiu, Z., 2017, Coastal economies and ecosystems, Environmental residents' perceptions of the function of and Science and Policy, vol. 51, pp. 137-148. relationship between engineered and natural infrastructure for coastal hazard mitigation, [20] National Climate Assessment, 2014, Ocean and Coastal Management, vol. 146, Available at: pp. 144-156. https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report [Accessed 5 October 2020]. [11] Narayan, S., Beck, M.W., Reguero, B.G., Losada, I.J., Van Wesenbeeck, B., Pontee, N., [21] Sharifi, A., Yamagata, Y., 2018, Resilience- Sanchirico, J.N., Ingram, J.C., Lange, G.M. & Oriented Urban Planning in the Sharifi, A., Burks-Copes, K.A., 2016, The effectiveness, Yamagata, Y. (eds), Resilience-Oriented costs and coastal protection benefits of Urban Planning, Springer, pp. 3-27. natural and nature-based defences, PLOS [22] Obraczka, M., Beyeler, M., Magrini, A., ONE, vol. 11. Legey, L. F., 2017., Analysis of Coastal [12] Inhabitat, 2014, Available at: Environmental Management Practices in https://inhabitat.com/are-mangroves-the- 128 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24-25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Subregions of California and Brazil. Journal of Coastal Research, vol. 336, pp. 1315-1332. [23] Dyson, K. & Yocom, K., 2014, Ecological design for urban waterfronts, Urban Ecosystems, vol. 18, pp. 189-208. 129 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 130 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece WHAT IS PARTHENON’S HEIGHT? RESEARCH OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF TOWERS IN THE METROPOLITAN AREA OF ATHENS BASED ON THE RECENT CHANGE OF LONDON’S SKYLINE S. Devetzi1, K. Sakantamis1, 2 1School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece 2 School of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Main Campus, 541 24, Thessaloniki ([email protected], [email protected]) ABSTRACT The construction of tall buildings is in universal prosperity, due to continuous urbanisation and global competitiveness, and is already real in many European cities. The new generation of towers is designed with bioclimatic criteria, in line with sustainable design standards. However, the tall buildings affect the cities’ skyline and environment, creating environmental, social and cultural problems. The image of the city of London has changed radically during the last two decades due to the construction boom. The paper is the result of a literature review on the subject of tall buildings and their integration in the city that focuses equally on classic literature and on the current international discussion organised around the four pillars of sustainability, but also focuses on case studies of “green” tall buildings. It criticises the decision for the construction of towers in the new Metropolitan Pole of Hellinikon and Agios Kosmas, based on what we have been taught from the recent change of London’s traditional skyline. The research concludes with the opportunities and challenges of the project. KEYWORDS Environmental design; Landmarks; Skyscraper; Tall buildings; Traditional skyline. area of Athens based on London’s recent 1. INTRODUCTION experience. The evaluation focuses on the investigation of the environmental parameters The paper studies the subject of tall buildings of each city’s policy framework for the and their environmental integration in large construction of tall buildings and on the results cities, putting emphasis on the decision for the of their integration in the city of London, in development of towers in The Hellinikon (sic) regards to their environmental response and (Metropolitan Pole of Hellinikon and Agios the city’s urban evolution. It concentrates on Kosmas). This potential is gauged against the the natural and urban environment, bringing at international experience gained from the the centre of attention the dynamic of tall recent radical change in London’s traditional buildings and their relationship with unique skyline. landmarks and monuments that dominate the The research embarks with the evaluation of skyline of the cities for centuries. the planning policy framework for the The research presents the comparative study construction of towers within the metropolitan 131 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece of the two cities, which during the last years 2. TALL BUILDINGS develop planning policy frameworks that allow 2.1 Historic evolution the construction of tall buildings in their urban grid. In London’s case this imprints in the Height has always fascinated human beings, for radical and constant creation of new towers symbolic and practical reasons. Tall structures not only in the two big economic clusters (City, symbolised the power and prestige of a society, Canary Wharf), but also in other boroughs[1]. In initially having religious and sometimes Athens, the construction of towers was allowed defensive character. The first tall historic only recently in the redevelopment of the monuments of the recent past appear in the former political airport of Hellinikon[2]. The cities on the second half of the 19th century, a recent policies change the previously restrictive time at which the great technological progress frameworks for the construction of tall also permits the construction of private buildings in both cities, which aimed at the commercial tall buildings for the first time. In preservation of their traditional skyline and the the first decades of the 20th century architects protection of monuments such as the around the world study the relationship of the Parthenon and St Paul’s Cathedral. natural and built environment. The skyscraper becomes a building type that is seen to benefit The research investigates environmental, social cities in relation to freeing up valuable space. and cultural issues that emerge during the This brings forth suggestions for new spatial planning process and those that arise during layouts of tall buildings with commercial but and after the construction of the tall also residential use, flanked by vast green open [3]. It studies and denotes possible buildings spaces. Furthermore, in the course of early opportunities and challenges that arise from studies of the skyscraper’s typology, architects permissions for the construction of tall and engineers research its environmental buildings in the metropolitan area of Athens. response [4]. The research is based on a bibliographical Political instability of the next decades halts review of classic literature in regards to the the dynamic of tall buildings that had started to appearance and evolution of the skyscraper in develop. The new social conditions after WWII the cities, and is also informed by the current and a new wave of urbanization renew the international discussion on the sustainability of interest in this building type. The factors that tall buildings. It discusses design guidelines and trigger the construction of tall buildings are: trends and their adoption in different cities of the massive urbanization, the surplus value the world, followed by cases studies for the created on the land value, the globalization and design characteristics of towers that global competition, the symbolism and the incorporate environmental concerns/issues in human ambition and egoism [5]. their design process. Focusing on the two cities, initially through the historical recursion 2.2 Sustainable skyscrapers of the establishment and evolution of each one The energy crisis of 1970s leads to the as to their urban design, architecture and redefinition of the skyscraper, with the orists of urban environment, and further on to the the time questioning its impact on human social and planning policy frameworks that led psychology, in society, in the city and the to the construction of the first towers, the environment. paper ends with the evaluation of the recent decision for Athens’s towering Hellinikon. Opinions of the time stress the skyscraper’s adverse impact on: the human psychology due to homogenizing effects [6], the fact that they are non‐ ecological and show neglect for the symbolisms that their height carries with regard to monuments[7], the creation of urban pathogenesis due to the overloading they 132 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece create to urban nodes[8], the environmental 3. LONDON’S PARADIGM impact to the surrounding area, the aesthetic London expanded after the Great Fire in the pollution of the cities’ skylines, the annulment 17th century, when the city started forming its of social senses like the neighbourhood, and identity as the capital of a global empire. Its the danger from structural mistakes or physical symbols were developed during important [9]. destructions periods of its history and were preserved as The Brundtland Committee in 1987 defined such until the appearance of the new economic sustainability as the “development that meets centres, when skyscrapers were added to its the needs of the present without traditional skyline. compromising the ability of future generations The image of the city has changed greatly to meet their own needs”, and it is formed by during the last two decades. The strict planning four pillars: environment, society, economy policy framework was inverted by the decision and culture[10]. The skyscraper has an impact for the creation of the Canary Wharf business on all four. centre, in a former brownfield, outside the city The Malaysian architect Ken Yeang, having centre. This was followed by a series of introduced the term “eco‐ skyscraper” is a changes which reinstated bodies that were in pioneer in the theory and application of favour of tall buildings, triggering a sustainability in tall buildings. He states that construction boom of skyscrapers that is still the skyscraper will keep appearing in our cities on‐going. UNESCO’s concerns on the impact of due to the continuous urbanization and tall buildings in the city’s skyline and its suggests that architects have to find ways to consideration to include London’s World address the environmental impacts they Heritage Sites in the list of site “in danger” [12] create. His basic theory includes the “bio‐ did not actually manage to slow down the integration” and “eco‐mimesis”, i.e. the design construction boom, but managed to change process that imitates the ecosystems. The most the planning policy and the bodies that have to characteristic example of his theory is EDITT be consulted, focusing more on the image of Tower in Singapore, which is a “green the city by adding more protected views of St skyscraper” prototype, with integrated PV and Paul’s Cathedral, as well as adding specific grey water irrigated, vertical gardens formed environmental parameters for obtaining by local vegetation that protect the building planning permission. from the sun and contribute in its cooling. The planning authority in the UK lies with each While contributing to the formation of the Local Authority. There nevertheless exist place’s unique visual identity, the gardens also policies that have national application. The two extend street life in the upper parts of the London’s boroughs with the biggest number of building, further integrating it into the tall buildings currently have planning policies in [11]. collective urban space place that integrate the aforementioned Nowadays, many tall buildings are promoted as environmental parameters and structural sustainable examples, not all of which are changes to the application process. However, equally successful; they may nevertheless show there also exist policies of wider application the way that environmental design should permitting the construction of tall buildings move towards. London’s prestigious recent even in boroughs that do not currently have additions, the Gherkin, by Foster and Partners, relevant local policies in place, ending up in the Shard, by Renzo Piano, and the Walkie permitting the construction of tall buildings Talkie, by Rafael Vinoly Architects all profess to that do not meet all the criteria of be examples of sustainable skyscraper design. environmental design. Alas, even in the areas that the policies are present, there are examples of tall buildings that follow all the regulations but still do not contribute to the 133 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece city’s dynamic visual experience [1]. matter ‐ concerns and considerations. 4. ATHENS’S FUTURE 5. TRANSCRIBING THE PARADIGM Athens’s history has always been around the The international discussion and the case Acropolis. Since the city became the capital of studies show that it is possible to overturn the Greece in early 19th century, its spatial image of the “non‐ ecological” [11] skyscraper evolution has always preceded the formation into sustainable buildings. If they are designed of an adequate planning policy and Local Plans. in line with the bioclimatic design Today’s image has been greatly compromised principles/criteria and their setting in the city is by the excessive urbanisation over the years, chosen carefully, such buildings can be which has turned it to an unsustainable city. integrated in the urban environment and form The only elements that prevail from the new hubs of city life. The state and the planning continuous building mass are the physical policy framework of each country play an outbursts that have been saved from important role for the success or the failure of construction, and the few tall buildings these buildings. constructed during the 1970s. The planning The development of the Metropolitan Pole of reform of the 2010s reintroduces the issue of Hellinikon and Agios Kosmas is a project with the tall buildings in the city, with the decision certain characteristics and boundaries. The for the redevelopment of the former airport of design of the buildings and the open spaces Hellinikon. The initial plans included the should respond to the project as a whole, to construction of two towers, which would act as the surrounding area and to the city, as due to landmarks, without however defining what is its size it affects the whole metropolitan area. considered as a tall building and what the Regarding its integration in the city, the project [2]. maximum height would be falls within the category of the off‐ centre The addition of four more towers, based on the integration. For its implementation, a series of latest plans, the decision a maximum height of laws and decisions there has been published, 200m and the locations of the towers in the for the definition of the general requirements area, as well as the decision for the (land uses, volume and footprint of the construction of more tall buildings of maximum buildings, heights, general arrangement) and height of 50m came to fruition during the final the Complete Development Plan with more agreement stages for the particulars of the specific technical requirements and the development [13]. The reasons for these method of implementation of the changes and decisions were not specified and development. no studies, on the relationship of the new The project could be seen to respond to the vertical elements to the existing historic and environmental pillar of sustainability, as it natural landmarks of the city and to its natural promotes density with a mixture of uses, dense skyline, were put forward to their defence. In infrastructure and the reuse of a formerly relation to the towers themselves, the neglected space. From a social aspect, the new environmental parameters that have been set park aims to be inclusive, i.e. open to all, and are in line with general bioclimatic design and attract different social groups; on the other sustainability criteria; however, they don’t set hand, the “high‐end” character of the specific targets, leaving the environmental residential, touristic and business‐use towers design of the buildings in the hands of the are addressed to people and businesses of a developer rather than the architect. Thus far, high economic profile. This could lead to social the design of the first twin skyscrapers, which inequalities, isolation, and loss of basic social has been put forward by the developers, does sense. Furthermore there lurks the possible not fuel optimism as to the inclusion of such loss of local references which could have environmental ‐ or even aesthetic for the further social impacts. Ultimately, the position 134 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece of the metropolitan park, in heart of the plot, centre. Furthermore, the choice of its location reduces its visibility and emphasizes the new in a former brownfield led to no substantial towers, undermining the “openness” of the impact on the surrounding area, and the park and the historic value of the area. integration of some of the historic docks in the Economically, the development of the tall development was successful. However, the buildings makes the investment feasible, decision for the increase of building heights in however it is possible that the investment London did not stop to this development. could have been feasible with less building and Canary Wharf’s creation brought a series of more open space. Such developments always changes in the planning law, resulting in entail the risk of being vacant for a long time. permitting the construction of tall buildings in The towers with touristic and residential use do other areas of the city a few years later, this not contribute to the dense city standards, as time inside its traditional centre. And, as they are addressed only to a specific audience. opposed to the development of an area where it is intended from the beginning to build tall Finally, from a cultural standpoint, the distance buildings and there is the chance to design of the development area from the city centre, from scratch and factor in all parameters for the topography of the area and the difference the tall buildings to be successfully planned, in character between the city centre and the the construction of tall buildings inside the redeveloped area work towards the integration traditional urban grid is very problematic, as of the project in Athens without creating usually the space is not adequate for buildings competitiveness between the Parthenon and of this size not to impact on their surroundings, the skyscrapers. However, the visual power of and also for the people to have the space to the towers is likely to overshadow the historic look and recognise them. In addition, inside the character of the site. The original proposal for traditional centres there are landmarks and two towers instead of six could have worked monuments that will compete with tall better in terms of creating new landmarks and buildings or even get overshadowed due to refer to the site’s history. their proximity to them, creating phenomena In relation to London’s paradigm, the project like the loss of historic identity, placelessness can be compared to Canary Wharf economic and confusion of the people in relation to their centre, which was created in a former basic reference points. These characteristics “brownfield”, outside the traditional city are recognised on the redeveloped City of centre, and had specific development London. characteristics that were permitted for his In the case of the Metropolitan Pole of development only. The theme of the two Hellinikon, the large plot, the setting of the projects has some differences, as Canary Wharf towers (except for those that are proposed to was created as an international economic be along Vouliagmenis Avenue) and the centre and triggered the creation of a new distance of the plot from the city centre meet residential area, whereas the Metropolitan many requirements that alleviate substantial Pole of Hellinikon is a mix‐use development, impacts on the city. Nevertheless, there exist but it also aims to be an international concerns over the relationship between the tall economic and touristic pole. Based on buildings themselves from an environmental, London’s experience, the paradigm of the new aesthetical and social aspect, as well as to the off‐ centre cluster, which was backed by other loss of the historic character of the infrastructure (DLR, City airport), was redeveloped area due to the new land uses, successful and its integration to the city was the general design and the impact of the smooth, as the new place formed its identity “shorter” buildings of 50m on the boundary of quickly and there wasn’t an adverse the development, as the current policy interference with the city’s tradition skyline, framework does not set certain targets and due to the distance from the traditional city parameters on the above. 135 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece These concerns can be dealt with through for the control of possible future similar subsequent design phases and through the developments early on. The current Greek formation of an adequate overseeing body that policy framework for the environmental design will grant permission for construction. The of buildings should be updated with regards to biggest concern, however, is the possibility that the new typology as. Furthermore, the policy this project will trigger the construction of framework for monuments should be pre‐ other similar developments in Athens, which emptively updated for the protection of will not only bring up issues of internal design monuments, so as to include parameters for and impact on the city, but also threaten tall buildings. The above will be a first step for traditional views of the city, such as the view of future‐proofing the city’s environment and the Parthenon. This can harm the city’s historic heritage. The international experience has symbols and cause a radical change of its image proved that the creation of projects that and its identity. Moreover, the environmental contain tall buildings outside the city centres is impact of this scenario will be strong, as usually followed by new similar projects inside Athens’s urban grid comprises from narrow the city centres, having severe environmental streets and small plots, meaning that any new and social impact in already burdened building of such scale in the heart of the city environments. may not be able to be supported and could Athens is just another example of a historic city cause insurmountable problems in the in a race to keep up with the new economic surrounding area, which, combined with the world standards. Rebuilding cities with lack of green spaces, can deteriorate further skyscrapers is a modern phaenomenon. There the environmental state of the capital. are more cities around Europe that follow London’s construction boom and change of 6. CONCLUSIONS their images, where historic monuments are threatened, usually resulting in the loss of The skyscraper will continue to appear in our valuable historic fabric. cities. The experience from the built examples around the world show the way that these The cities are live organisms that keep evolving, “non‐ecological” [11] buildings can become along with everything else. Change is sustainable, following bioclimatic design something that comes naturally, however, if principles while combining thoughtful selection not properly planned, it can cause significant of their location inside the cities, buildings that harm to complex historic cities. The past has can be well integrated in the urban plently of examples where unplanned change environment and form new hubs of life. has compromised the natural and built environment of urban areas. The development of the Metropolitan Pole of Hellinikon and Agios Kosmas has the potential The research can confirm a knowledge gap in to be a sustainable project. the detailed examination of best cases amongst different cities on the integration of Its success depends on the clarification of all very high density in the form of towers. Such the parameters on the environmental response research and networking could allow and the aesthetics of the tall buildings in experience and ideas to be shared with regards relation to the project as a whole, the image of to the future of our cities and the best way of the city, its traditional symbols and the moving to the next phase, with full intention of Athenian landscape, as well as on the re‐ it being a sustainable one. evaluation of the some points on the location of the towers in the area. REFERENCES The project should trigger the formation of new mechanisms for checks and balances of [1] Brigden T. (2018). The Value in the View. building heights and monuments’ protection, London: RIBA Publishing. 136 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece [2] FEK Α 70/30.03.2012 [online]. [9] Blake P. (1978). Form Follows Fiasco: Why modern architecture hasn’t works. Little Brown [3] Al‐Kodmany, Kheir. (2018). The Sustainability of & Co, An Atlantic Monthly Press Book, Boston & Tall Building Developments: A Conceptual Toronto. Framework. Buildings. 8. 7. DOI: 10.3390/buildings8010007. [10] ICOMOS. (2011). The Paris Declaration on Heritage as a Driver of Development [4] Frampton, K. (1980). Modern Architecture: (Declaration). Paris, France: International History and Criticism. Athens: THEMELIO. Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS). [5] Johnson, T. (2019) Roadmap on the Future [online] Research Needs of Tall Buildings; Oldfield, P., [11] Yeang, K. (2008). Ecoskyscrapers and Trabucco, D., Wood, A., Eds.; Council on Tall ecomimesis: New tall building typologies. Buildings and Urban Habitat: Chicago, IL, USA, Conference proceeding in CTBUH 2008 8th 2014; pp. 1–103. [online] World Congress, Dubai. [online] [6] Gehl J. (1971). Life Between Buildings: using [12] Ijeh I. (2018). History lessens. Building public space; Island Press: Washington, USA. [online] [7] Krier L. (1998). Architecture: Choice or Fate. FEK AAP 35/01.03.2018 [online]. Andreas Papadakis Publisher, Windsor, England. [8] Kunstler J.H., Salingaros N.A. (2001). The End of Tall Buildings. First published at PLANetizen on 17 September 2001. [online] 137 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 138 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece THE SCALE IN URBAN REGENERATION, SUSTAINABILITY, AND THE URBAN CYCLICAL ECOSYSTEM X. Dereka1, A. Kantzioura, N. Kefalogiannis 1School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] ABSTRACT The topic of the research is “The Scale in Urban Regeneration, Sustainability, and the Urban cyclical ecosystem”. The main purpose of the research is to show the method to Sustainable cities and to prove that the ecosystem approach based to Urban ecology is the way. The research gives emphasis to Utopias, where the main characteristics are the big scale, the autonomy, having social perfection. The architects that tried to solve social and functional problems in that scale in the beginning of the 20th century were characterized as megalomaniacs. In the 70’s the scale began to downsize. The environmental issues, the definitions and acceptance universally of the sustainability became a political goal. The EEA (European Environmental Agency) reports that politicians misunderstood the way to sustainability. The methodology of the research is the use of an indicator framework DPSIR (Drivers, Pressure, State, Impact, Response) of EEA for the municipalities where indicators can be applied emphasizing the different problems and solutions for different areas. The traditional settlements of Greece in their common characteristics and the newly build Hammarby (Sweden) were used as prototypes for implementing the way to sustainability. Two case studies from Greek municipalities were selected, one with high quality of living and one with low. The results of the use of the framework DPSIR and the “A type, Descriptive Indicators” of EEA typology, using statistical indicators for comparison and the chosen prototypes can give the true picture of every municipality. The high‐quality living of an area when it is not functioning as an ecosystem has supra‐ local effects, but not internal, giving consumption inequality. The conclusions give the importance of the holistic ecosystem approach, the need of large‐scale regeneration and the connection of social, financial, and environmental characteristics as consequences of political targets. KEYWORDS DPSIR; Ecosystem; EEA; Regeneration; Sustainability; Utopias social problems with projects, named 1. INTRODUCTION utopias[2]. The contemporary goal of small‐scale The characteristics of utopias are the large‐ regenerations and actions from the local scale, autonomy, and social perfection. authorities is sustainability. The energy crisis and social reactions are the Large‐scale regenerations were being reasons the scale started to decrease. At the implemented in degraded areas and after the same time, the direction (top‐ down) of world wars in Europe[1]. decisions started including the citizens (bottom‐ up) [3]. Famous architects tried to solve functional and 139 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece After the 90’s the regenerations and the political actions aimed at the sustainable development[1]. But the EEA (European Environmental Agency) reports that the local authorities misunderstood the meaning of sustainability and their actions are fragmentary and Figure 1. Digest of EEA Indicators, (EEA, 2014) inadequate[4]. The research dissertation is making use of the The environmental crisis effects social groups 1 indicator framework DPSIR (Drivers, Pressure, asking an emerge solution. State, Impact, Response) of EEA for the The cyclical ecosystem could be the solution in municipalities where indicators can be applied the contemporary era or is it a new utopia[5]? emphasizing the different problems and The Research Goals are: solutions for different areas. The traditional settlements of Greece and the newly build To prove that the procedure and the Hammarby (Sweden) were used as prototypes targets for sustainability and regenerations for implementing the way to sustainability. from the local authorities are problematic and Two case studies from Greek municipalities incomplete. were selected, one with high quality of living The use of an ecosystem approach as a tool and one with low. The municipality of Filothei‐ to achieve sustainability. Psychiko in Attika and Pavlou Mela in Thessaloniki. To strengthen the urban tool of Large‐ scale regeneration. The five phases of the EEA framework are: To give prototype indicators from the o Drivers, Driving force indicators traditional settlements for comparison to They are the Forces that push or create the sustainability. occasion for the subsequent pressure. These And finally, to ascertained if the sustainable can be social, such as demographics community is the new utopia or feasible. (urbanization), economic development, change in lifestyles, consumption, and resource production. 2. METHODOLOGY o Pressures The cyclical ecosystem is based in Urban Ecology. The management and planning of the Indicators show growth in gaseous emissions, urban ecosystem is synonymous to the biological agents, consumption, and resource sustainable city [6]. The EEA through use. [4] environmental reports evaluates the o State indicators municipalities functions and targets in that base. They give a quantitative and qualitative description of natural phenomena, biological, The urban ecology uses prototypes, areas for and chemical of an area. They could describe comparisons and the EEA is suggesting the use the "wildlife" in an area but also the of prototype areas and indicator concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. comparisons[7,8] for the local authorities in their environmental reports. o Impact indicators It concerns the effects that came from the 1 The first framework of acceptors was the "Stress‐ Response framework", created by Antony Friend and D. Rapport in 1979, Statistics Canada scientists 140 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece State and concerns ecosystems, the economy, They can be placed as intermediate indicators from the health, and well‐being of people. It can be the Response indicators phase of the indicator the result of chain effects, locally to globally, frame, with Driving Forces, State, Pressure, or the water quality of an area, the noise, or the Impact. rise in temperature because of air pollution They are important for understanding affecting the balance of radiation. development processes, they relate the o Response diversification of environmental data to the effectiveness of policies implemented It concerns the efforts for prevention, 3 treatment, improvement, for changes in the o E type, Total Welfare state of the environment. The indicators provide overall sustainability Among the indicators the framework can be measurements, with overall views on the strengthened with more information on economy, the environment and society. procedures and indicators. The EEA does not have overall indicators of In the research statistical2 indicators of each well‐being (type E total welfare), as they are municipality are used based in the indicator considered very multifaceted to be defined typology of EEA, in DPSIR framework. (EEA, 2014). The EEA typology[8] categorizes five types of The research dissertation is making use of the indicators. A, D and E type indicators. o A type, Descriptive Indicators: The A type are used with comparisons for better understanding of the area’s situation in Type A indicators can be used in the DPSIR the phases D, P, S, I. framework in all phases. Indicators of this type describe the current situation. In an area The dissertation is proposing the common related to environmental issues such as climate characteristics of the traditional settlements as change, waste, acid pollution, toxic content, E type prototype indicators, along Hammarby’s etc. The use of descriptive indicators (A) only environmental management. with a certain value may make it difficult to assess its significance by someone who is not an expert, but the comparison with another descriptive indicator (A) will help to understand the situation it presents. o B type, Performance Indicators: Performance indicators can have the same variables as Descriptive indicators with the difference that they are related to target Figure 2. Traditional settlements in their common values, and "distance to target". characteristics as a prototype for the R (Response phase). Own process o C type, Efficiency Indicators: The traditional settlements in their common Type C indicators give the relationship between characteristics is chosen because had (the pre‐ impulses (D) and pressures (P) (intermediate industrial period) the ability to sustain! The indicators) Efficiency with a comparison social inequalities are not taken as a prototype method on resource consumption, waste, gas standard for comparisons. emissions o D type, Policy‐ Effectiveness Indicators: 2 The indicators According to EEA should be based in 3 The EEA is in search of the E type indicators (EEA, statistics. 2014). 141 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece (50% less) energy consumption than Stockholm. It is a very successful project in the environmental design and management for all the stages of the project in a large‐ scale (construction‐ function‐ suburb demolish) from “cradle to crave”! Hammarby acts in the boarders of its area‐ ecosystem for environmental management only (waste, energy, water). Although they offered mixed land use in the Figure 3. Hammarby as a prototype for the R tertiary sector (no rural zone) to obtain the less (Response phase). Own process possible energy consumption, the need to Hammarby is a large‐ scale urban regeneration transport gives gas emissions and energy based to the urban ecology theory and is consumption. recognized internationally as a successful Overall, the ecosystem area of Hammarby is project and a sustainable city. not sustainable. In the traditional settlements all the needs and procedures were covered in the borders of the area ecosystem. The case studies for each municipality Filothei‐ Psychiko and Pavlou Mela with the implementation in the framework (DPSIR) it seems that different forces drive to pressures, giving different state and impacts. The case studies show the need of control and Figure 4. EEA DPSIR framework in Filothei‐ Psychiko implementation of the ecosystem approach, municipality. Own process regardless of living standards. The high‐quality living of an area when it is not functioning as an ecosystem gives supra‐ local effects, but not internal. That fact attracts people with high income and education in an expensive green environment. On the other hand, a system with significant industrial production has local consequences and supra‐ local financial benefits. The quality of living is low, and the area attracts low income and Figure 5. EEA DPSIR framework in Pavlou Mela uneducated people. The residents of the municipality. Own process expensive green suburb produce more waste, After the (R) Response, the Effectiveness is an consume more water and resources having intermediate phase of the (DPSIR) framework. excellent health compared with the poor area. The D type Policy‐ Effectiveness Indicators The social characteristics of the inhabitants of concerns the new values in all phases. The last the two municipalities, the environment and stage is very important to check the their financial situation are completely effectiveness of proposals‐actions (Response). different and dependent. The low quality of environment attracts social and financial 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION issues. The Hammarby’s goal was “twice as good” Mechanisms for the revitalization of local 142 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece economies are the entry of the rural zone into In order to implement the sustainable the cities. community, or the circular ecosystem, the Table1. Comparative table of prototypes and case modern utopia, the knowledge and the choices studies. Own process of a municipality in overall approaches is necessary, with social priorities within the boundaries of the ecosystem area which must achieve the ability to sustain. REFERENCES [1] Oikonomou, D. (2004). Urban Renaissance and Urban Regeneration. Technika Hronika. (in Greek) [2] Bartolacci, J. Rewind: Modernist Dreams of Utopian Architecture. Architizer. [3] Couch, C. (2003). City of Change and Challenge, The main conclusion of the comparative table Liverpool. Urban Planning and Regeneration in (table 1) is that sustainability does not mean a Liverpool. Ashgate Publishing. high standard of living. [4] Mehra, M. (1997). Towards Sustainable Development for Local Authorities. European 4. CONCLUSIONS Environmental Agency. Part 1. IMSA Amsterdam. The Netherlands. The decisions and priorities of a municipality are crucial at local and supra‐ local level! [5] Portokalidis, Κ. & Lalenis, Κ. (2011). Integrated Ecosystem Cities in the Age of Climate Change. Overall is proved, the need to use the circular Utopia or feasible perspective. Science magazine ecosystem as a municipal goal and one way for Aeihoros, 16. (in Greek) the sustainability of the city. With the [6] Sukopp, H. (2002). On the Early History of implementation as a political response (R) of Urban Ecology in Europe. Preslia. Praha the ecosystem, regardless of the region, the response concerns large‐scale actions and [7] Bosch, P., Buchele, M. & Gee, D. (1999). planning. Environmental Indicators: Typology and Overview. EEA. The selection of prototypes and the use of an [8] Maguire, C. (2014). Digest of EEA indicators EEA, DPSIR Indicator Framework helps to select 2014. ΕΕΑ. Technical report, No 8/2014. appropriate indicators and identify important parameters. 143 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 144 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece POCKET PARKS. THE CONTRIBUTION OF SCATTERED GREEN SPACES TO THE IMPROVEMENT OF URBAN MICROCLIMATES A. Gkentsidis1, A. Chatzidimitriou1, A. Tellios2 1School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece 2School of Architecture, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece ([email protected], [email protected], [email protected]) ABSTRACT Global warming and the urban heat island (UHI) phenomenon threat to render open urban spaces hostile or even dangerous during summer days. The problem concerns a great part of the world population considering the ongoing assemblage of people in cities. Enriching the urban fabric with natural landscapes qualifies as the best solution. However, the redevelopment of the functional parts of the urban fabric is a particularly difficult task, especially in times of financial crisis. But small, unused pieces of land are often found in cities, which are more easily converted into green neighborhood parks (pocket parks). In order to investigate the impact of the dispersion of these spaces on the urban microclimate, the present dissertation analyzes a section of eleven building blocks in the center of the city of Serres. Concerning the hypothesis of the conversion of ten existing unused small spaces into parks, the result is the improvement of the climatic quantities and thermal comfort during the summer season. In conclusion, the dispersion of small neighborhood parks in the city is a useful tool to mitigate the UHI phenomenon and at the same time a method of upgrading the urban fabric and the quality of life of the residents. KEYWORDS Climate change; Pocket parks; Thermal comfort; Urban green; Urban reconstructions reaching 12°C [3]. The synergy of the 1 INTRODUCTION phenomenon with the rising heat waves due to climate change intensifies the concern of the During the last half century, the urbanization of scientific community [4]. the planet has been constantly intensifying. According to forecasts [1], in 2050, cities will The thermally inhospitable environment of host 70% of the world's population while the cities, whenever it occurs, traps people indoors corresponding figure was just 30% in 1950. As a with negative effects on their physical and result, maintaining and improving the quality of psychological condition, their socialization and [5] life of citizens is an intractable issue for the in general on their health and quality of life . science and practice of urban planning. Along with the review of the role of open urban spaces [6], there is a need for their holistic Among other things, the enlargement of cities redesign, including their microclimate redesign. is associated with the intensity of the Urban Heat Island phenomenon [2]. In large urban Greenery qualifies as the best solution to centres, differences in temperature are modern urban environmental problems. recorded compared to the suburban area, The enrichment of the urban fabric with 145 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece elements and spaces of the natural landscape analyses target the typically warmest time and benefits the local climate and restores the day of the summer season, as the worst‐case attractiveness of open spaces for the citizens [7]. scenario, the 15th hour of July 15th. In addition, it is proposed by the scientific As a working hypothesis, ten spaces were community as a key measure to mitigate the [8] located, one in each building polygon in the intensity of UHI . area, which are offered to be turned into parks. The necessary, for this purpose, regeneration Three of the above spaces were designed in a of the densely populated city centres greater level of detail to deepen the study of encounters several obstacles, mainly the the effect the parks have on the microclimate absence of unstructured areas and the inability of their neighborhood and the thermal comfort of converting structured areas due to the great of the locals. Methods should be described value of the land. Usually the free public spaces here. are limited to the sidewalks, often not large enough to be enriched with greenery. The 3 STUDY AREA AND UPGRADE SUGGESTIONS imperative need for cities to be green leads science and practice to seek other spaces and 3.1 Study Area Analysis methods, such as planting roofs and walls of The area of Serres chosen to be studied is [9] structures . enclosed by Kilkis St, Paleologou St, As an alternative, there is also the proposal of Kioutacheias St, 8th May 1821 St and the utilization of smaller spaces, usually of no Merarchias St. (Figure 1). It is part of the most use, which can be more easily located in city densely populated urban unit with 221 centres [10]. Their transformation into pocket inhabitants / ha. It covers an area of 9.2ha, parks benefits the microclimate of their with the 69% being urban blocks which have an neighborhood and attracts locals to develop elongated shape in a north‐ south direction. [11] mild activities within them . The buildings contain residences and a small The present dissertation focuses on the number of shops. Their height ranges from 4 to benefits of the above method, after the 27m. The area is divided into two urban sectors distribution of pocket parks in the urban fabric with different building conditions. Thus, its in a certain density (one in each building block). northern part is more densely built up with It examines the effects on the microclimate of taller buildings (Table 1). spaces that are converted into parks and their About 55% of building polygons remain neighborhoods and on the temperature of the unstructured but only 3% remain without wider area during the summer season. concrete coating or other waterproof material. The streets of the area have a similar width and 2 METHODOLOGY the ratio is H/W=1 in most cases. Planting is limited to sidewalks, where occasionally there The conclusions of this dissertation are drawn are rows of deciduous trees, 10m high. through the comparative analysis of a densely populated area of eleven building polygons in Communal free spaces are absent from the the centre of the city of Serres (41ο05'Β, specific study area. The spaces that are 23ο33'Α) and some proposed interventions, converted into parks, as a working hypothesis using the Envi‐met software [12]. The of the study, belong mainly to the courtyards of simulations utilized data from the mapping of the building blocks. Overall, the 3.4% of geometry and plantings, the identification of building blocks were recorded as potential thermophysical characteristics of structures pocket parks, but it was preferred to limit the and the meteorological records of a station percentage to 2.7% in order to maintain the operated by the Municipality of Serres in a character of a small park and to apply the nearby area with similar characteristics. The conclusions in those areas of cities where it is 146 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece more difficult to find similar spaces. Figure 1. Study area and the proposed pocket parks. Table 1. Analysis of building blocks. Building 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 block Area m2 5477 4542 5743 5058 6231 5719 6038 6157 8104 7144 3746 Uncovered % 59,3 60,5 53,8 51,4 60,6 53,1 55,2 55,9 50,7 49,7 57,0 Uncoated % 22,5 18,4 6,0 0,4 0,3 0,3 0,3 7,0 3,3 0,6 0,9 Max height m 20,0 24,0 18,0 27,0 19,0 24,0 18,0 27,0 24,0 24,0 18,0 Mean height m 11,8 17,2 12,8 17,4 12,7 19,6 15,0 17,9 18,9 18,6 11,5 Allowed. S.F. 1,40 2,40 1,40 2,40 1,40 2,40 1,40 2,40 2,40 2,40 1,40 Est. S.F. 1,28 1,94 1,79 2,36 1,36 2,63 1,86 2,2 2,63 2,53 1,34 3.2 Upgrade proposal • Planting areas with tall deciduous trees in The creation of pocket parks initially attracts appropriate locations and densities to achieve shading of most floors residents of the wider neighborhood [11]. Thus, they are designed to offer new opportunities • Planting with low shrubs and perennials to for recreation, socializing and mild activities beautify the area and enhance cooling through while improving the microclimate. The evapotranspiration. transformation of the selected areas into parks • The utilization of the liquid element for the follows the following basic characteristics: improvement of the microclimate with the • The replacement of the floors and their construction of fountains mainly in sunny parts underlays: the new floors are made of water‐ of the area. permeable natural materials in a suitable • The combination of fixed and mobile urban underlay to achieve the enrichment of the equipment (tables, seats, toys) to make each subsoil and the retention of moisture. The park attractive to locals and to be able to use it floors that are proposed to be of such kind are differently during all seasons and hours of the the stabilized soil, the vegetated soil and the day. natural rocks placed on the ground. 147 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece In order to indicate ways of combining the 35.50°C are recorded. The highest above basic principles for the production of an temperatures are recorded on the widest roads architectural proposal for the new parks, a around the area and at the roundabouts, draft study was prepared using three of them where asphalt paving and the absence of (Figure 2). The trees and pergolas were used in shading predominate. It is distinctive that the a variety of heights and relations among each same areas show the highest average radiant other to draw conclusions about their effect on temperatures reaching 78°C. As expected, the the microclimate of the park. thermal discomfort is reflected in the values of the PMV index above 3 (very hot) and up to 7. It should provide a concise and precise description of the experimental results and their interpretation. This section may be divided by subheadings. After the creation of the 10 parks, the air temperature decreases to 0.5°C (Figure 3). This reduction is concentrated in the new parks and spreads through the neighborhood decreasing according to the distance from them. The decrease in temperature seems to have a spatial effect on a larger scale in the northern part of the area which already has more shading. Also, we can observe the relation of the distribution to the direction of the winds. Figure 2. Park design proposals Figure 3. Comparative analysis of air temperature. In those parts of the area that were selected 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION based on the variety of their characteristics As mentioned, the simulations of the climatic (street orientation, distance from the park) the factors in the study area targeted the hottest values of climatic factors were recorded in an summer day. From the results of a 24 hours hourly pace. All parts show a drop in air cycle, the 3rd hour at noon was chosen as the temperature throughout the day, with the worst case. The measurements and diagrams largest being in the areas near the parks (Figure focused on the level of +1.40 from the ground, 4). to cover both the pedestrians and the seated Trees, in combination with flooring materials, users of the space. seem to significantly reduce the average During the analysis of the study area, as it is radiant temperature in the parks, as shown by today, air temperatures between 33.67°C and the study of Chatzidimitriou & Yannas [13]. In 148 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece the case of the area studied, this reduction is at least 7‐10°C in all parks while it can reach 30°C where it initially had remarkably high values. According to the simulations of the three selected parks we observe that the use of tall trees for this purpose is preferable to the use of pergolas. 34,00 33,50 33,00 32,50 32,00Air temperature (C) 31,50 31,00 30,50 30,00 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Time (h) before after Figure 4. Comparison of temperatures during the day at a point near a park. The improvement of the microclimate is also reflected in the thermal comfort index PMV. Its value was reduced up to 4 units in all parks. The Figure 5. Comparison of PMV values in selected new value, close to 3, is considered a parks. significant improvement for the given time of year and day, compared to the initial extreme 5 CONCLUSIONS conditions. The analysis of the three selected To regenerate the densely populated urban parks shows the influence of shading types centres, while enriching them with elements of (trees, pergolas) on the PMV index as well as the natural landscape, the transformation of the concentration of this reduction at a short small spaces of no use into neighborhood parks distance from the parks (Figure 5). can compensate for the lack of free space. Comparative analysis in the study area showed that despite their small size the interventions reduced the average air temperature of the total area. As expected, the areas inside and near the new parks showed the largest decrease (0.5°C). This effect on temperature spreads spatially in the neighborhood to a greater extent in this part of the area which already has more shading because of the taller buildings and trees. In addition, the improved microclimate of the parks, compared to their neighborhood, can attract the locals. This strengthens their social 149 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece interactions, level of activity and health. [6] Thompson, C. W. (2002). Urban open space in the 21st century. Landscape and Urban Planning, In conclusion, the distribution of small pocket 60(2), 59–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169‐ parks in the city is a useful tool to mitigate the 2046(02)00059‐2 UHI phenomenon and at the same time a method of upgrading the urban fabric and the [7] Yu, C., & Hien, W. N. (2006). Thermal benefits of city parks. Energy and Buildings, 38(2), 105–120. quality of life of the residents. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENBUILD.2005.0 4.003 [8] Gomez, F., Gaja, E., & Reig, A. (1998). REFERENCES Vegetation and climatic changes in a city. Ecological [1] United Nations, Department of Economic and Engineering, 10(4), 355–360. Social Affairs, P. D. (2019). World Urbanization https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925‐ 8574(98)00002‐0 Prospects: The 2018 Revision (ST/ESA/SER.A/420). [9] Perini, K., & Magliocco, A. (2014). Effects of https://population.un.org/wup/Publicatio vegetation, urban density, building height, and ns/Files/WUP2018‐Report.pdf atmospheric conditions on local temperatures and [2] Oke, T. R. (1973). City size and the urban heat thermal comfort. Urban Forestry & Urban island. Atmospheric Environment (1967), 7(8), 769– Greening, 13(3), 495– 506. 779. https://doi.org/10.1016/0004‐ 6981(73)90140‐ https://doi.org/10.1016/J.UFUG.2014.03.0 03 6 [10] Tzortzi‐J.Georgi, N., Ioannou, D., & [3] Santamouris, M. (2016). Innovating to zero the Oikonomaki, E. (2019). Green corridors and exterior building sector in Europe: Minimising the energy common areas, enhancing connectivity in Athens, consumption, eradication of the energy poverty and Greece. IOP Conference Series: Earth and mitigating the local climate change. Solar Energy, Environmental Science, 296, 012002. 128, 61–94. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755‐1315/296/1/012002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.01.021 [11] De Rosso, L. C., & Cadima, P. (2016). Pocket [4] Santamouris, M. (2019). Recent progress on Parks in Sao Paulo: The potential for the urban overheating and heat island research. implementation. PLEA2016 Los Angeles ‐ Cities, integrated assessment of the energy, Buildings, People: Towards Regenerative environmental, vulnerability and health impact Environments, 1044–1050. synergies with the global climate change. In Energy [12] ENVI‐met. (n.d.). Retrieved August 18, 2020, and Buildings. from https://www.envi‐met.com/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.10 9482 [13] Chatzidimitriou, A., & Yannas, S. (2016). [5] Cohen, D. A., Marsh, T., Williamson, S., Han, B., Microclimate design for open spaces: Ranking Derose, K. P., Golinelli, D., & McKenzie, T. L. (2014). urban design effects on pedestrian thermal comfort The potential for pocket parks to increase physical in summer. Sustainable Cities and Society, 26, 27– activity. American Journal of Health Promotion, 47. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SCS.2016.05.00 4 28(SUPPL 3). https://doi.org/10.4278/ajhp.130430‐ QUAN‐213 150 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece CULTURAL CENTER "STAVROS NIARCHOS FOUNDATION": A SOUND/SMELL‐SCAPE APPROACH TO THE CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF THE ENVIROMENTAL RESPONSE OF THE SNFCC OPEN SPACES M. Papastergiou1, K. Sakantamis 1,2* 1School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece 2School of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Main Campus, 541 24, Thessaloniki ([email protected]) ABSTRACT The paper analyses and evaluates the environmental response of the open space of the SNFCC, through a qualitative approach that involves the users of the park and the perceived quality of its acoustic and olfactory environment, in conjunction with the visual perception of the landscape. Starting from the identification and recording of environmental data for the open ‐ outdoor areas of the SNFCC, the research extended to the detection of auditory olfactory stimuli that users/visitors are exposed to. The above preliminary data allowed the development of a questionnaire ‐ based on the Swedish Soundscape Quality Protocol ‐ and an olfactory mapping/notation tool which was then disseminated at five “key” locations. For each, the research sought to capitalize on a multifaceted appraisal of the SNFCC Park that correlates the aforementioned parameters of sound sight and smell, allowing insight to its visitors’ experiences. The particularity of the open space of SNFCC lies in the rare variety of acoustic stimuli that it can offer. Along with natural sound/olfactory sources, the park hosts installations with the intention of producing audio stimuli that give rise to participation, sociality and play, making it an interactive space. The analysis reaffirms the correlation between the perception of auditory and visual experiences. Furthermore, there are strong indications for the dominance of visual stimuli in the visitors’ appraisals of the open space. Pleasantness is equated to sound environments made up of predominantly natural sounds and sounds from anthropogenic activity. Nevertheless, a "bipolarity" appears in the SNFCC open space: two of the busiest locations, the Lighthouse and the Agora, do not evoke strong emotions but remain popular because of the strong visual experience. The different locations studied present different levels of soundscape, smellscape and overall environmental quality, while users' perceptions vary significantly between different locations, over different time periods. KEYWORDS SNFCC; Soundscape; Smellscape; Sensescape; Environmental design of open spaces spaces to improve their physical and mental 1. INTRODUCTION health [1]. In addition, urban parks can help maintain and promote the health of citizens Urban parks are among the most important who are frequently exposed to noise pollution public spaces for a sustainable urban and the stress of everyday life [2]. These environment, providing city populations with benefits have spurred interest in the accurate 151 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece assessment and effective improvement of the the park were selected for study: the quality of the urban parks. In the course of Lighthouse (1), the Agora (2), the such research practices, the overall quality of Mediterranean Garden (3), the Music Garden an urban park is no longer dominated by vision; (4), and the Playground (5). the acoustic environment and its quality, within the overarching concept of "landscape quality" [3] is attracting increasing attention from various disciplines, including science, design, architecture and environmental management. The open space of the Cultural Center of the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (SNFCC), is located in the southern suburbs of Athens, in Kallithea, and covers an area of 210 acres, occupying 85% of the total area of the SNFCC [4]. At the southern end of the area, Syggrou Avenue and Poseidonos Avenue almost intersect. The design and construction of Map 1: The five (5) distribution points of the Stavros Niarchos Park, contributed to the questionnaires Background source: SNFCC, own remodeling of the area of Kallithea and the editing Faliraki front, giving life to an area that remained discredited for many years. It is now For each, the research sought to capitalize on a a reference point for Athens as it is one of the multifaceted appraisal of the SNFCC Park that very few organised green areas of the Greek correlates the aforementioned parameters of capital. sound sight and smell, allowing insight to its visitors’ experiences. The particularity of the What stands out in this environment is that the open space of SNFCC lies in the rare variety of design of both the building and the park is acoustic stimuli that it can offer. Along with based on the principles of sustainability and natural sound/olfactory sources, the park hosts bioclimatic design. After all, it is the trademark installations with the intention of producing and self‐ characterization of the SNFCC, and audio stimuli that give rise to participation, rightly so, as a Node of Sustainability. In fact, sociality and play, making it an interactive the design has already been recognized space. internationally, with the platinum LEED certification received by the SNFCC; the most prestigious international distinction that a 2. METHODOLOGY sustainable and environmentally friendly The methodology of the current work was [4] building can receive . Moreover, a variety of founded on the literature review of the native plant species, aromatic plants and trees, relevant bibliography and on the study of five are hosted, enhancing the biodiversity of the case studies/research papers [5‐9], which region and reviving the Mediterranean provided good practice guidelines for the [4] landscape . application of the SQM methodology but also The paper analyses and evaluates the allow the comparative analysis of the current environmental response of the open space of work to that of the aforementioned studies. the SNFCC, through a qualitative approach that A method of triangulation was used in the involves the users of the park and the current study [10]. The research included perceived quality of its acoustic and olfactory practices for observation (recordings environment, in conjunction with the visual audio/video), distribution of perception of the landscape. Five locations in questionnaires, as well as measurements (SPL), 152 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece utilizing the combination of quantitative and study of the Music Garden, the category of qualitative approaches in order to ensure the Musical instruments was added. The validity of the research "through the control of participants are asked to score their perception the results of the qualitative method with the of each type of sound on a five‐point scale: 1 ‐ results of the quantitative method" [11]. do not hear at all, 2 – a little, 3‐ moderately, 4‐ The research embarked with soundwalks, a lot, 5 ‐ dominant sound. Participants are also which have been widely accepted as valid invited to select their degree of agreement means for the assessment of the soundscape of (again on a 5‐point scale) regarding the urban environments [12]. During the walk, characterization of the sound environment as various data, photos, videos, and information pleasant, chaotic, exciting, uneventful, calm, were collected about the weather conditions of annoying, eventful, or monotonous,. Marks are the day and the intensity of the park’s use. The also provided for the audio, visual, olfactory walks also allowed a first‐hand approach of the environments on a 5‐ point scale, ranging from olfactory environment; the wind of that day 1 – very good, 2 ‐ good, 3 – neither good nor dispersed strong aromas from the aromatic bad, 4 – bad, and 5 – very bad). Finally the plants and trees of the park; at certain questionnaire also gauged the appropriateness locations one could also perceive the sea of sound and olfactory environments to the breeze. This influenced the aims of the specific context. The participants’ evaluations research and therefore the methodological are repeated for every location on a defined tools; it created a nuanced approach focusing route. on the use of "Sensewalks" as defined in the The distribution of the questionnaires took work of Southworth [12,13], for recording the place over a weekend (13, 14 April 2019), perception of sound and smell. where temperatures ranged between 15°‐22°, Field recordings were performed using widely with mild precipitation – drizzle ‐ on Saturday available media (LENOVO A2016a40 ‐ ANDROID morning. These weather conditions led to 6.0). The perception of smells and sounds in interesting observations; the presence of the urban environment was examined through people was increased in the Agora, although it a questionnaire according to the Swedish was not sheltered, and mainly in the Soundscape Quality Protocol, adapted to the lighthouse. When the drizzle stopped, people Greek language. Specifically, the questionnaire moved to the Playground, but not to the Music used in the research program: "Walking in the and the Mediterranean Gardens. In other city of Thessaloniki" was taken as a model [14]. words, most people preferred to be stationary during rainfall. An important factor in the The questionnaire is a combination of the composition of the sound environment during Swedish Soundscape Quality Protocol (SSQP) the weekend was the event "No Finish Line" [15] [16] and the DIY Manchester Smellwalk idea . which took place at the SNFCC, including the The SSQP has emerged from an addition of loud music, on both days, from interdisciplinary effort to develop a 12:00 to 13:30. methodology for assessing sound perception in the environment and has been developed to be The 273 responses were collected, distributed accessible to non‐ acousticians (architects ‐ to approximately 54 questionnaires at each town planners) and has already been applied location, with a male/female ratio of 49/51, internationally, validating its suitability as a and a mean age of 39yrs, ranging between 15 tool that could have a wide application [14] to 73yrs. The largest percentage of . participants, 60%, corresponds to residents of It examines the make‐up of the sound Athens, while the rest were visitors from the environment through specific sources: Traffic province, half of whom from Thessaloniki. This noise, Mechanical Noise, Other noise sources, large number of non‐Athenian visitors human activity, Natural sounds, while for the demonstrates the supra‐local character of the 153 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece SNFCC and the uniqueness of the place. of leaves and grasses and the sound of insects, and in the playground and the Music Garden 3. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION are mainly the water jets, in combination with the chirping of birds and the sounds of insects. 3.1. The typology of sound sources and the Only at the Agora, natural sounds are not perception of the sound environment perceived for the most part. Figure 1 presents a Starting from the less perceptible sounds, comparative analysis of perceived audio mechanical noises seem to be moderately sources at all locations. perceived by a relatively small percentage of the sample at the lighthouse, while in the other locations it is a little or not perceived at all by the larger percentage. Other sources of noise, such as loud music from the "No Finish Line" event and the construction activity in the Faliro Delta, are more perceptible in the Lighthouse and Agora, by a large percentage, but not as dominant sounds. Regarding the the individual comments about the music, those who were dissatisfied attributed their dislike to loudness or taste, something reaffirmed also elsewhere‐ case‐ study No3 – Seoul [7]. Traffic noise seems to be the predominant sound, perceived by the majority of the sample, at the Lighthouse and the Agora. However, it does not seem to have significantly affected the overall assessment of the lighthouse environment, as the predominant sensory experience concerned the visual environment. These findings confirm previous cases where the quality of the sound Figure 1. The comparative analysis of perceived environment does not directly influence a audio sources in all positions location’s holistic appreciation as the visual impact of a setting is of outmost importance The analysis of the questionnaires shows that [17,18]. respondents found soundscapes dominated by natural sounds and sounds from human activity Mainly human activity and also traffic noise more pleasant: that is to say the triptych dominate the sound environments at all "Mediterranean Garden ‐ Music Garden ‐ locations. Anthropogenic sounds are always Playground", which gathered with an average present with varied intensity but always ranking close to 4 for all the positive features forming a main component of the open space (pleasant, exciting, calm, eventful) and kept all of the SNFCC. It is important to note that the negatives (chaotic, uneventful, annoying, especially at locations where human activity monotonous) at very low rankings (Figure 2). dominates the scene the soundscape was rated as highly appropriate by respondents. A "bipolarity" appears in the open space of the SNFCC. Two of the busiest locations in the Similarly the natural sounds vary from place to whole outdoor area, the Lighthouse and the place: in the lighthouse are the gusts of wind, Agora, both significantly more “urban” in feel, in the Mediterranean Garden it is the rustling do not cause strong emotions but remain 154 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece popular, while the "triptych" as analyzed odors of garbage or fumes (human smell, above, causes strong positive emotions from coffee, food, etc). the participants. In the wider area of the Mediterranean Garden, the audio‐visual‐olfactory environment is characterized by the majority of respondents from good to very good, demonstrating a positive impact of the multi‐ sensory experience. On the other hand, at the Lighthouse and the Agora, the public rates the overall and visual experience highly while rating the olfactory and sound environments as indifferent or poor. 4. CONCLUSIONS The sensescape approach, involving Figure 2. The emotional perception of the soundscape in the 5 selected locations sound/smellwalks, recordings and measurement, allows a coordinated 3.2. Comparative analysis of Sound, Visual and methodology for the review of the multi‐ Olfactory Environments sensory experience of the urban realm. The The research found that the lowest quality methodology has proven to be effective in sound environment was found in the engaging the public but also in informing a Lighthouse and the Market, and the best in the comparative analysis of the nuances of the Music Garden. intangible qualities of public spaces that nevertheless constitute the overall experience In the visual environment there were smaller of a place and are intrinsically connected to its fluctuations, giving values of absolute design. satisfaction to the lighthouse with the view to the sea and the city, to the Mediterranean The current work informs the current research Garden ‐ a purely natural environment ‐ and to on the mapping of the environmental qualities the Music Garden, with the interesting musical and the potential of the sound/olfactory arrangements. The positive evaluation values environments of open spaces. In the case of for the sound environment in the lighthouse the SNFCC, this is influenced and shaped may be affected by the quality of the visual. mainly by human activity. There is great Viollon confirms that he found that "visual variation in the sound / olfactory / visual parameters have a more obvious influence on qualities of the outdoor spaces; different the evaluation of the sound environment of a locations have different levels of sound quality single audiovisual environment" [19]. and overall environment, and users' perceptions of each natural sound source are Strong variations appear in the overall significantly varied at each location. The appreciation of the olfactory environment, highest rated locations are those that propose with the highest value of satisfaction found in a “natural setting”, receiving high rating in the natural "triptych", with the aromas of visual olfactory and sound environment quality aromatic plants, trees and flowers. Satisfaction and appropriateness. is also noted at the lighthouse, where most participants stated that they felt the fresh air. The Agora seems to present an almost typical REFERENCES urban environment, as the perceived smells [1] Chiesura, A. (2004, May 15). The role of urban were no different from those of everyday life in parks for the sustainable city. Landscape and Urban the city, albeit the lack of any reference to the planning , 68 (1), σσ. 129‐138. 155 1st International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece [2] Mak, C., Leung, W., & Jiang, G. (2010). [11] Robson, C. (2007). How to Do a Research Measurement and prediction of road traffic noise Project: A Guide for Undergraduate Students. at different building floor levels in Hong Kong. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Building Services Engineering Research and [12] Southworth, M. (1967). The Sonic Technology (31), σσ. 131‐139. Environment of Cities, Doctoral dissertation. 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(2019). A laboratory study of construction of 'tranquil space'. Journal of the sound‐odour interaction in urban Environmental Psychology , 30 (4), σσ. 501‐509. environments. Building and Environment (147), σσ. [19] Viollon, S. (2003). Two examples of audio‐ 314‐326. visual interactions in an urban context. Acta [10] Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2000). Acustica (89). Research Methods in Education (5th Edition ed.). London: Routledge Falmer. 156 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece EARLY CONNECTIONS BETWEEN URBAN GREENING AND PLANNING. THE FIRST CITY PLANS OF ATHENS AND PATRAS. A. Rodi Department of Architecture, University of Patras, 26504, Patras, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT Greening cities is nowadays acknowledged to increase the quality of urban environments, promote sustainable lifestyles, enhance climate resilience and develop city branding within a globalized economy. Urban actors from city leaders and spatial designers to citizen‐based groups, adopt the goal of urban greening at all scales from living roofs/walls to entire Green Cities. This interest in flora within the public realm is relatively recent. It was municipal efforts mainly in 19th‐ century Europe and the USA that advanced tree streets, public gardens, and parks as important planning elements. Yet, there has been little scholarship on the history of greening during that period related to the cities of the newly‐established Greek state. This paper addresses this unexplored area focusing on (a) paradigm shifts and international precedents leading to the establishment of city greening as an urban strategy, and (b) green aspects of early urban planning in Modern Greece. It examines functions and meanings of greening in the pre‐industrial and the industrial city. Trends, shifts and agents are described and critiqued so as to determine the role of greening in urban settings. In this international context, the 1830s proposals for Athens and Patras new city plans are studied. Quantitative and qualitative green aspects of their urban forms are addressed and evaluated according to green values identified in the international discourse and practice as well as to their environmental performance. The paper draws on international precedents of urban greening and underdiscussed green data from the infancy of urban planning in Greece, to argue that green strategies and design initiatives were in concurrence to contemporary trends in theory and practice, and that lessons learnt from that period may contribute to redefining our future approaches for greening Greek urban space with an eye on identity, equity and climate change. KEYWORDS urban greening; Athens plan; Patras plan; town planning; royal garden; Stamatis Voulgaris and Green Cities, is seen as a relatively recent phenomenon. Back in late C18th and early 1. INTRODUCTION C19th, however, increasing concerns for city Adopting greening as an urban design and life quality cut off from nature led to greening planning strategy in forms ranging from green of urban streets and open spaces. Public access area ratios and major tree planting programs to to royal gardens was also allowed, as in living roofs or walls, ambitious canopy goals, London’s St. James’s Park (1828), and Berlin’s 157 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Tiergarten (1833). In these very years gardens provided precedents for urban design respectively, Patras and Athens city plans were also including the introduction of trees in drawn. New cities were an opportunity for public space. In the Renaissance garden, Greek architecture and planning to be classical geometries, axes and multi‐level presented alongside international models and parterres enrich visual experience, while standards. Yet, there has been little scholarship fountains and grottos add to the sensory on the green aspects of the new city plans and feeling. Although privately owned, some of the environmental concerns of their designers. them became publicly accessed, leading to the This paper aims to investigate the impact of establishment of regulations on visitors’ early notions on urban green and the related behaviour (Lawrence, 2006). As Mathis and international discourse of the time on the first Pepy (2016) argue, gardens open to a select city planning efforts in Greece. It addresses this public showed the owners’ generosity as well unexplored area focusing on (a) paradigm shifts as power to shape nature. An early notable and international precedents leading to the example is the Vatican Belvedere Courtyard by establishment of greening as an urban design Bramante (1507). In Baroque France, garden strategy, and (b) green and greening aspects of layouts extend towards the surroundings and early urban planning in Modern Greece. initiate the development of urban fabrics. The main axis of the Tuileries gardens – originally designed as a finite Italian Renaissance garden 2. METHODOLOGY (1570) by Bernard de Carnesse and redesigned Our research first examines functions and by Andre Le Notre (1664) – was extended in meanings of greening in the pre‐industrial and the form of a grande allee towards the rural the early industrial city. Planting in public open area beyond, so as to enhance the perspective spaces ‐squares, boulevards, parks, streets‐ are of the palace, thus establishing the Champs assessed. International trends, shifts and Elysees, a spatial ‘spine’ for organising the agents are identified, described and critiqued Paris’ fabric from the Louvre to today’s so as to determine the role of greening in Defense. The allee draws its origin from the urban settings. Within this context, the new Renaissance preoccupation with perspective. city plans for Athens and Patras are examined Lawrence (2006) remarks that Claude Mollet through historic maps, documents and and Jacques Boyceau, eminent C17th garden literature. Quantitative and qualitative green designers, explored the mathematics of the aspects of urban form (e.g. street‐, planting‐ harmonious allee dimensions. Boyceau and vegetation patterns, open space types) of cautioned that these long paths need to be the case studies are discussed following the sufficiently wide to avoid a visual tunnel effect. green values identified in the international The development of garden design into urban discourse and practice. design came along with lifestyle changes. Due to prosperity, recreation and promenading became eminent activities in cities. For 3. AN OVERVIEW OF URBAN GREENING example, the game of Pall‐Mall required a The concept of public parks and gardens dates course defined by a double allee. In the C17th back to classical Greece and Rome. Cimon when the game was not donates trees and plants for the Athenian in favour anymore, people used these long Agora and Gymnasium. Emperor Augustus allees for promenades, and, by the C18th, the builds Campo Marzio, a 2km2 public park in term ‘mall’ was increasingly used for Rome. During the Middle Ages, trees in public promenades (Lawrence, 1988). It would be spaces of compact cities were limited, mainly replicated throughout U.S. cities university to be found in walled private gardens. In the campuses in the C20th (Eisenman, 2015). The Renaissance, open spaces started being co‐existence of vehicular travel and trees along designed with the same skill as buildings, and 158 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece a promenade appeared in Cours‐la‐Reine, a broadened so as to include notions of mobility, 1km‐long fenced royal route with quadruple health and social concerns in the industrial city. row of elm trees, created in 1616 by Marie de Medicis. Aiming to avoid travelling through the crowded streets of Paris and homesick of 4. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ATHENS AND Italian gardens, Marie would transform the PATRAS FIRST CITY PLANS garden’s allee into a tree‐lined boulevard, a 4.1 The first Athens city plan (1832‐3) street type that would soon spread across Europe (e.g. Unter den Linden, Berlin). For Green spaces were dominant in the Athens Mumford (1961) the urban boulevard is “the plan designed by Stamatios Kleanthes and most important symbol and the main fact Eduard Schaubert. They introduced strong about Baroque city”, introducing the spatial and visual arrangements with the aim to monumental element in cities worldwide. Most enhance the landscape and ancient relics so as tree planting in this era took place along the to produce meaning. The report accompanying city edges due to land availability and the belief the plan prescribed a city of 40.000 inhabitants that trees belonged to nature (Lawrence, with 4.000, mostly freestanding, two‐storey 1988). In the second half of the C18th, the ideal houses with a front yard and/or a walled urban space of the Enlightenment is subject to garden in city blocks of 10‐15 lots four conceptual states: magnificence, hygiene, (Papageorgiou‐Venetas, 2001). However, clarity, emulation. City magnificence is neither landowners nor speculators cared for articulated through trees framing views along form or meaning. They opposed what they boulevards; hygiene through public gardens considered a wasteful and unprofitable design. and tree‐lined avenues enhancing air quality Leo von Klenze was brought in to revise the and fostering promenades and healthy plan responding to spatial and political criteria. activities; clarity through parks and allees that He proposed higher density, narrower streets, connect city and nature, creating distinct urban taller buildings, and continuous facades. Biris ‘character’ and clear architectural order; (1966) points out that “instead of a city open to emulation through the moral inspiration evolution, Klenze composed a small monolithic provided by public statuary and observation of settlement.” the upper‐class behaviour in public (Etlin, 1994; The following ‘Green’ aspects can be found in Lawrence, 2006). A naturalistic, romantic Kleanthes and Schaubert’s plan: design approach in urban greening in C18th i. A bipolar landscape design. Athens and England would overpower the formalistic Pireaus were both parts of Kleanthes’ and Baroque gardens and influence C19th urban Schaubert’s comprehensive spatial vision for parks in Europe and North America. As the new city and its port. The two plans were Lawrence (2006) observes, while the Baroque independent yet interdependent and their saw trees as elements of architectural layouts were in tandem with the natural composition, pruning and trimming them landscape and the historic heritage. Royal severely, the second half of the C18th gardens open to citizens in the two cities liberated, even venerated, trees. In the C19th, occupied 10% of their area. Located at both cities are greatly transformed due to ends of the notional axis of Piraeus Street, they industrialization and urbanisation. Mathis and would counterpoint Eleonas, the historic olive Pepy (2016) note that nature, essentially in the grove of Athens. The pattern and variety of form of parks and gardens, was considered an ornamental planting would contrast the antidote to the Industrial Era’s evil impacts by monotony of the olive grove. Thus, European the political and learned elite. Policies of landscape architecture principles would be transforming royal properties into parks introduced to Modern Greek cities. accessible to all emerged. Pre‐industrial perceptions and aesthetics on urban green, are 159 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Figure 2. The Athens complex of palatial and ministerial buildings and gardens, after Alex. Papageorgiou‐Venetas. alternative pathways, enhancing visitor’s experience. Papageorgiou‐Venetas (2016) estimates that crossing the 950m‐long garden would take 10‐ 15 minutes, while strolling could last up to 90 Figure 1. Athens basin map by J. A. Sommer (1840) minutes. Beyond recreational and social with royal gardens and Piraeus street highlighted, opportunities, the location of the royal garden after Alex. Papageorgiou‐Venetas. would contribute to the shielding of buildings and their ornamental gardens from north winds. As already customary in Europe, the ii. The Royal garden and People’s garden. royal garden would be open to the public. The palatial and ministerial complex of Athens, However, this would not be the only green at the site of today’s Omonoia Square, space of the complex available to Athenians. occupied an area of 500m x 300m. The On the southern side of the Palace towards the symmetrical layout of its gardens and the Acropolis, Kleanthes and Schaubert introduced ornamental planting was designed so as to People’s Garden, an open space framed by the highlight the buildings. Α 36m‐wide and 1km‐ city market’s arcades. We argue that, just like long tree‐lined boulevard defines both the Baroque gardens designed to be viewed from complex’s north edge and the isosceles royal interiors, People’s garden was also trapezoid that contains the royal garden. The conceived as part of the perspective enjoyed latter, following European precedents, is from the Palace and focusing directly on the divided in three parts. The main paths of the Acropolis. Its design, consisting of intersecting garden’s central part are straight. They geometric patterns, creates circular nodes incorporate the axiality and enhance the enhanced with fountains and statues. perspective of the complex’s layout. The other Kleanthes and Schaubert further designed a two parts are less formal with curvilinear paths. botanic garden at the foothill of Lycabettus, in In doing so, the monumental character of the conformity with the emerging European trend master plan permeates in the form of axes the of creating botanical gardens for the provision romantic and more naturalistic garden design. therapeutic plants and the in situ study of The paths, straight and curvilinear, subdivide indigenous species. the garden in 110 segments of a surface iii. A Museum: an archaeological park and ranging from 200 to 500m2. This segmented open‐air exhibition of antiquities. The two pattern provides a variety of architects pursued the creation of an archaeological park that would serve as a green space for people’s promenades, as well as an open‐air museum of ancient architecture. They envisioned the park as “unique in the whole world where clusters of trees and gardens with plants indigenous to the Attica’s climate would grow among the ancient ruins”. As Papageorgiou‐Venetas (2016) notes this is a seminal concept of an archaeological museum/park in situ where planting would 160 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece highlight the monuments and frame visitors’ De Architectura, dedicated to the very Caesar views. Augustus. De Architectura stresses that the primum electio for building cities is a very While Kleanthes and Schaubert were educated healthy site, where streets are oriented so as as architects, not urban planners or garden to optimise benefits from wind directions. It designers, they succeeded in providing a should be stressed that the Patras plan grid is functional and emblematic city plan that would oriented according to northeast and southwest comprehensively define green spaces, build blowing local winds. entities, city blocks and dwelling types, and would introduce openair space typologies, such ii. A sequential experience of green squares. as tree‐lined streets. However, opposition Central features of both Upper and Lower resulted to the architects’ resignation. The Patras plans are the number and distribution of whole scheme was reworked for its current city squares provided, as well as their relative location overlooking Syntagma Square. The position within the street grid. Streets do Royal Garden emerged as the joint work of transverse city squares in x and y‐direction Queen Amalia, architect Eduard Riedel, garden rather than osculate them, forming sequences designer Louis‐Francois Bareaud and gardener of openai public spaces. Dimacopoulos (1986) Julius Schmidt. finds direct connections between the Patras 4.2 The first Patras city plan (1828‐9) plan and the detailed recordings by the Greek historian Polybius (Book VI, Histories) of the As with Athens, what had remained in Patras simple gridded arrangement that Romans after the War of Independence were only a few applied ubiquitously to pitch their camps. sound structures. The new plan, was assigned During the Renaissance Polybius’ work was by Capodistria to Stamati Bulgari (Stamatis rediscovered and published in 1530. His Voulgaris), a Corfiot Lieutenant ingenieur of the descriptions of ancient camps were adopted French Army, educated in Paris and later and developed by the C16th acknowledged as the first Modern Greek town‐ planner. Within early C19th notions of city planning, Bulgari designed the orthogonal grid of the Upper Town (originally assigned to him by Capodistria) following the orientation of the street layout of the roman colony, Colonia Augusta Aroe Patrensis (CAAP) founded by Caesar Augustus in 14 BC. He carefully considered topography and other data and identified locations for future archaeological excavations. He further introduced the new Lower Town of Patras anticipating its future along the coastline as a port city. It can be argued that the plan of the Lower Town draws upon Bulgari’s military training and his knowledge of military planning. The following ‘Green’ aspects can be found in Bulgari’s plan: i. A ‘healthy’ street pattern. This follows the premises established by Roman town planning in relation to healthy cities, as known to us through Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, the Roman architect and military engineer and his treatise 161 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece series of rhythmically placed openings which give a wonderful sense of space in a solidly built townscape”. Savannah proves, as Spiro Kostof points out, that “grids can be much more than dull blueprints of land division”. Pondering the same precedents, we comparatively evaluate the potential environmental qualities of the 1828 Patras plan in comparison to that of Savannah. By 1820, most public squares in Savannah had been planted, transforming it into a green town. As the city expanded through the repetition of the modular unit, squares were multiplied. The city did preserve its unique character. In contrast, Patras altered or built up the squares that Bulgari designed, thus missing the rhythmical sequence of open spaces. ii. A green avenue. Having been a disciple of painter Jacques‐Louis David’s, Bulgari showed a keen interest in nature. In his Figure 3. From top to bottom: Upper and Lower Patras plan, squares, city blocks’ courtyards, non aedificandi seafront, archaeological and castle protection green zones. military as sources for warfare knowledge, as well as for ideal city plans. They influenced among others those by Giacomo Cataneo and Vincenzo Scamozzi. It should be noted that Roman camp and ideal city precedents were Figure 4. Plan of a fortified town by Vincenzo identified in Savannah, Georgia, plan, Scamozzi (L'Idea della Architettura, 1615) attributed to its founder, James Oglethorpe, and dating as early as 1733 (Bannister, 1961). Souvenirs, he confides that the happiest period Organised as a Scottish tartan rather than a of his life was that of his picturesque simple grid, the Savannah plan is developed promenades in the forest of Fontainebleau and through the repetition of a modular unit, the shows his admiration for the Alhambra gardens ward, with a square in its centre. This spatial and the botanical gardens of Cayenne, Lesser sequence of squares offers a unique Antilles. In his Patras plan, Bulgari envisions a experience, as pedestrian sidewalks align with green zone between the city and the coastline. paths crossing sequences of green spaces. Paul In his 26.01.1829 letter to Capodistria, he even Zucker (1959) remarks that “the square by offers his fees for planting an allee on the spot frequent repetition in Savannah becomes an to which Capodistria replied that he would integral part of the street pattern and creates a double the number of trees at his own 162 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece expense. Capodistria reckoned that the focused on the individual building lot ignoring residents of Patras would be obligated to the totality of the city block. They resulted in Bulgari for this green space. However, the random and irregular courtyards, as left‐over project was never carried out. Furthermore, spaces shaped by the agglomeration of the subsequent construction of a railroad buildings (Rodi, 2018). Another important finally cut off the city from the sea to date. element to be mentioned on the Patras fabric iv. Provision of non aedificandi areas for the is the presence of arcades alongside the block protection of ancient heritage. Bulgari, a facades, as introduced by Bulgari for the romantic, described himself as “a friend of protection from rain or hot sun. solitude and the charms of the past”. In a letter to local authorities he pointed out the need to 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION preserve ancient ruins and house excavated antiquities in a national museum. He planned a The research’s overview of the history of urban sizeable buffer zone between the Upper Town greening in Europe reveals that perceptual and its castle so as to protect the latter from approaches shifted from meaning and unanticipated development. Furthermore, he beautification to health and social concerns. By excluded from development the slope the mid‐C19th, gardens and parks in Europe separating Upper and Lower Patras, where the were attracting much attention and citizens Roman Hippodromus was later found. Bulgari’s were free to enjoy urban green as nobility approach on greening areas adjacent to previously did. It is important to point out, that monuments and sites of interest reveals his will it was in that period that our current to protect cultural heritage. understanding of public gardens as accessible to all emerges. In this context, building cities in the newlyindependent Modern Greece demanded both international imports and local inventions. Our examination of the green aspects of the early and unexecuted Neoclassical city plans of Athens and Patras reveals prevalence of pure international influences and imports, such as Baroque and naturalistic garden layouts, allees, archaeological parks, axial views, botanic gardens, and planting along the city edges. The European tradition of landscaping was critically adapted by designers to the Mediterranean context and the local constraints (topography, Figure 5. Savannah Plan, 1757 (W. G. de Brahm, climate, ancient relics, scarcity of land, water History of the Province of Georgia, 1849) and other resources, etc.) so as to enhance the v. City block courtyards and pedestrian living environment for uneducated arcades. Bulgari’s plan provides for communities, through reduced means (street rowbuildings arranged along the edge of arcades in the Patras plan by Bulgari, limited perimeter blocks with rectangular courtyards in water elements in gardens in the Athens plan their centre. This form allows ample sun by Kleanthes & Schaubert). Still, in both cases lighting and air circulation in the also in the design visions were finally defeated by land back quarters of houses optimizing living speculation and petty interests. The designers’ conditions. Furthermore, it creates a restricted eagerness succumbed to harsh reality, green and/or social open space for the sweeping along their own financial and residents. Regrettably, subsequent building professional status. regulations uniformly applied to Greek cities 163 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece [5] Mumford, L., 1961, The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects. 6. CONCLUSIONS New York: Harcourt, Brace and World. The research compared international [6] Papageorgiou‐ Venetas, A., 2001, Athens. A precedents of urban greening with Vision of Classicism [Αθήνα. Ένα Όραμα του underdiscussed green data from the infancy of Κλασικισμού], Athens: Kapon Publishers, 45– urban planning in Greece, to argue that green 52. strategies and design initiatives in Greece were [7] Biris, K.Η., 1966, Athens from the 19th to the in theoretical concurrence to contemporary 20th Century [Αι Αθήναι. Από του 19ου εις τον trends and practices, but failed to be applied. 20ον Αιώνα], Athens: K.H. Biris, 39. Learning from that period may contribute to [8] Papageorgiou‐Venetas, A., 2016, Three redefining our future approach to greening Gardens. Two Visions and one Presence on Greek urban space with an eye on identity, Attica Land [Τρεις κήποι. Δύο οράματα και μία acceptance, equity and climate change. παρουσία στην Αττική Γη], Athens: Menandros, 25–34 REFERENCES [9] Dimacopoulos, J., 1986, Roman Manifestations in Neo‐Classical Greece. Architectura, 16 (1), [1] Lawrence, H.W., 2006, City Trees: A Historical 22. Geography from the Renaissance Through the Nineteenth Century. Charlottesville: University [10]Bannister, T. C., 1961, Oglethorpe's Sources for Journal of the Society of of Virginia Press. the Savannah Plan. Architectural Historians, 20 (2), 47–62. [2] Mathis, Ch.‐Fr. and E.‐A. Pepy, 2016, Greenery doi:10.2307/988103 in European Cities, Encyclopedie pour une histoire nouvelle de l'Europe, ISSN 2677‐6588. [11]Zucker, P., 1959, Town and Square: From the Agora to the Village Green. New York: Columbia [3] Lawrence, H. W., 1988, Origins of the Tree‐ University Press, 242. Lined Boulevard. Geographical Review, 78 (4), 355–374. [12]Rodi, A.P., 2018, Mutually Generative: Athens and Polykatoikia. In Woditsch, R. (ed.) The [4] Eisenman, T. St., 2015, Making Meaning of public private house: Modern Athens and its Urban Greening in the Anthropocene. Ph.D. polykatoikia. Zurich: Park Books. Dissertation. Penn Dissertations. 1051. 164 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE AND ENHANCEMENT OF URBAN RESILIENCE. DELINEATION THROUGH INTERVIEWS WITH EXPERTS Α. Dalla, A. Tasopoulou*, E. Alexandri School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to investigate the contribution of green infrastructure (GI) to the enhancement of urban resilience in Greece. GI can be a valuable policy tool to promote sustainable urban development, as it has the potential to offer multiple benefits through the services and functions performed within ecosystems, and to enhance urban resilience, by creating more stable and dynamic environments. It is in place to improve health conditions and to positively affect the probability, intensity, and severity of the social, economic, and environmental impacts of disastrous events, such as natural disasters and extreme climate events, on local communities. Empirical research was carried out based on a semi‐structured questionnaire, setting the ground for discussion with experts, having as an end‐goal to acknowledge the existing deficiencies and to provide insight into the necessary actions towards improving the relevant policies and strategies in Greece. The research revealed deficiencies relating, among others, to the accessibility to GI, the incorporation of the ‘networking’ principle into urban policies and practice, the implementation of risk prevention planning and the cooperation among the responsible authorities. Nonetheless, it is widely accepted that ensuring the sustainability and resilience of cities is directly linked to the presence, quality, and function of GI. Training the involved stakeholders, strengthening the cooperation between them, formulating a comprehensive formal strategy, and establishing a monitoring and evaluation system of indicators, would contribute to the pursue of this objective. KEYWORDS Green Infrastructure; Sustainable urban development; Urban resilience; Urban policies; Greece are directly linked to climate change [2], which 1. INTRODUCTION affects contemporary societies on several levels: environmental, social, and economic. The high urbanization rates in recent decades, combined with the reckless use of natural Green Infrastructure (GI) is considered an resources, have led to increasingly severe effective mode to manage these contemporary [3] environmental problems worldwide [1]. Large challenges . GI, as originally defined by [4] urban centers are faced with the risk of Turner in 1995 , concerns infrastructure environmental degradation and the occurrence which extends on a larger scale, runs through of phenomena such as natural disasters and the city, and contains the whole system of extreme climate events. The intensity and pace green spaces within the city’s boundaries. Two of such events are constantly increasing and decades later, the European Commission 165 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece adopted the following definition: “a stresses or acute shocks it experiences [8]. strategically planned network of natural and Resilient public spaces can be defined as those semi‐natural areas with other environmental open spaces that contribute in enhancing the features designed and managed to deliver a overall resilience of the city, as urban wide range of ecosystem services. It ecosystems on various aspects; reduce the risk incorporates green spaces (or blue if aquatic and vulnerability in acute shocks (e.g. ecosystems are concerned) and other physical earthquakes, floods, terrorist attacks and more features in terrestrial (including coastal) and recently air‐born pandemics) and to face marine areas. On land, GI is present in rural efficiently chronic stresses (mitigate the effects and urban settings” [5]. All in all, to date, there of climate change, improve the urban is no widely acknowledged definition of GI in environment and enhance social cohesion). In the literature. However, according to the this context, green infrastructures, which European Environmental Agency [6], there are consist of natural and artificial structures, serve underlying features accepted by all disciplines specific goals of resilience, such as improving using the term. These include connectivity, health conditions, mitigating the effects of multifunctionality and smart conservation. The climate change and natural disasters, act as term is used for “a network of green features secure spaces in cases of acute shocks etc. The that are interconnected and therefore bring proper functioning of the ecosystems plays a added benefits and are more resilient. Another key role in mitigating the effects of disastrous common feature is the aim to either protect or events, while at the same time it contributes to develop such networks”. The importance of GI the reduction of social, economic and lies in the quality of ‘functional environmental impacts on the local interconnectivity’, which sees beyond the community. It is worth to note that resilience single function of a green asset and brings depends not only on how infrastructure is added benefits. designed and implemented, but also on how it GI has the potential to benefit human is co‐created, co‐managed and integrated into [9]. populations, contributing to more sustainable complex systems urban development. This is achieved when GI is This research explores the possible founded on healthy ecosystems, which offer contribution of GI to the enhancement of multiple benefits and functions. These urban resilience. The end‐goal is to functions may comprehend an environmental acknowledge the existing deficiencies in Greece dimension, such as the conservation of and to provide insight into the necessary biodiversity or adaptation to climate change or actions towards improving the relevant policies the drainage ‐ water reuse process; a social and strategies. dimension, such as the presence of green spaces and social interaction; and an economic dimension, such as the increase in property 2. METHODOLOGY values. It is this multi‐functional character of The empirical research was carried out based the GI that distinguishes it from the common on a semi‐structured questionnaire, setting the ‘grey infrastructures’, which usually satisfy a ground for discussion with experts (four single need, performing a single function, academics and one municipal official) with without contributing to the wider social, experience in the field of GI and/or urban [7] environmental, and economic context . resilience. GI is, to some extent, in place to strengthen The main issues for discussion were: i) the urban resilience. A city’s resilience is defined by design of GI in Greece in relation to the the ability of its individuals, institutions, citizens’ accessibility, ii) the degree to which businesses, and systems within the community the design of GI in the country corresponds to to survive, adapt and grow despite the chronic the principles of ‘functional connectivity’ and 166 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece networking, iii) the need for cooperation, little – or no – integration with other green awareness raising, skills development and areas or other functions. Additionally, a knowledge exchange between professionals significant part of green spaces does not meet operating at different levels and planning its role to ensure the conservation, protection, scales, iv) the degree to which the government and restoration of ecosystems, and and development organizations embrace a consequently to maximize the benefits that can preventive / precautionary planning approach potentially arise. in respect to the management of potential Nonetheless, in recent years, this approach has disaster risk and the contribution of such an started to be reversed, at least on a conceptual approach to sustainable urban development level. Perceptions of considering green spaces and urban resilience, v) the role of GI ‐as a as small ecosystems within a larger complex strategy tool‐ in avoiding or reducing the urban ecosystem have come to the fore, along effects of natural / man‐made disasters, vi) the with the recognition of the ‘multi‐functional’ existence (or not) of a strategic plan that value of each urban green space. Relevant integrates GI in a way that contributes to the policy documents do exist; however, there is conservation, protection and rehabilitation of still a gap between policy approaches and ecosystems, vii) the specific qualities of GI actual planning and/or implementation, and an design to enhance urban resilience, viii) the inadequacy to comprehend the issue of ‘scale’ appropriate strategies and the role of different into GI’s planning and design (i.e. each city or administrative levels, x) the existence (or not) urban area has different needs according to its of a monitoring and evaluation system, x) the size). Additionally, it seems that whether the role of the involved actors and citizens in the provisions regarding GI planning are a priority design, use and management of these spaces. or not depends on the political priorities of each government. It should be noted that this 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION is a common phenomenon in Greece: every change in the government leads to substantial This section summarizes the main views of changes in planning policy. experts and the results obtained through this empirical research. The experts were asked to take a stand on the contribution of proper management of The experts reported that there are potential disaster risk, through the preventive / deficiencies in the accessibility to GI in Greek precautionary planning approach, on achieving cities, mostly in large urban centers, which sustainable urban development and enhancing relates, on the one hand, to the low provision urban resilience. Furthermore, they were asked of green space per inhabitant and, on the to express their view on the extent to which other, to the way urban green spaces have governments and the various development been designed and distributed. This is even organizations are proactive in approaching more evident in cities with historic centers, urban planning and in managing projects. The whose urbanization took place in the 19th and starting point for this part of the discussion was in the early 20th century. Apart from the limited the acknowledgment that in recent decades, quantity ‐in relation to the population needs‐ the losses related to natural disasters have of urban green spaces, the existing green significantly increased worldwide. Natural and infrastructure usually does not meet man‐made disturbances can have a devastating satisfactory connectivity or accessibility, effect on a city's ability to meet even the most resulting in inadequate public access. As basic needs of its citizens as well as knock‐on experts highlighted “in some cases the effects. distribution of these spaces was random”, lacking a wider policy framework. They were The experts argue that at the level of designed individually, limited mostly by governments, either central or local, there is proprietary conditions on the urban land, with limited interest in precautionary planning, 167 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece which would aim at long‐term results. In this of property. In this context, the legal and sense, it is reported that there is lack of financial requirements for compensation after political will, but at the same time it is the expropriation or after the demolition of recognized that “society itself has a arbitrary buildings (e.g. buildings constructed responsibility to ensure continuity” by close to embankments) cannot always be met. searching for the appropriate mechanisms that Precautionary planning is more easily accepted would ensure continuity in public by citizens in cases where the risk of a natural administration and a stable policy in this field. disaster is systematically repeated over time. Initiatives such as the ‘100 resilient cities’ International literature and practice highlight Programme, 'pioneered' by the Rockefeller that the avoidance or reduction of the negative Foundation, can assist urban governments and effects of risks can occur through the stakeholders to become more resilient to systematic development and implementation physical, social and economic challenges and of relevant policies, strategies and practices [12, decrease vulnerabilities. Athens and 13]. In this context, experts agreed that the Thessaloniki, the two metropolitan centers of presence of GI in cities can work beneficially. Greece, had joined the ‘100 Resilient Cities’ Green spaces diversify the urban landscape, Programme, to develop and implement their offering a greater variety of functions / uses, resilience strategies. There are also significant which falls within the principles of available tools that fall within the sustainability and enhances urban resilience. precautionary approach or the encouragement They could also be used as gathering places or of the active participation of citizens, such as as providers of makeshift accommodation in the emergency notification application for case of acute shocks. Also, the benefit could be extreme temperatures, called EXTREMA, or the indirect: improving the quality of life of the protection of new planted urban trees by the inhabitants may increase the sense of citizens themselves, through the project responsibility for a place and activate the will / “Adopt a tree”. EXTREMA is an application that desire for restoration after a natural or offers real‐time surveillance and evaluation of anthropogenic disaster. health risks during heat events, by means of a Dashboard for Authorities and a mobile app for It is acknowledged that the role of GIs is crucial the general public. The Dashboard app can help for the creation of a balanced environment, municipal authorities manage heat waves while able to adapt / respond to the respective providing residents with personalized heat risk disturbances – natural disasters / extreme assessments on their phones [10]. “Adopt a phenomena – and for this reason they have tree” on the other hand, aims at the successful been brought in discussion in recent years. protection and maintenance of new‐planted Combined with other practices they can deal trees in the streets or parks of the Municipality with such situations and reduce their adverse of Athens, through the participation of citizens effects. The major challenge lies in ensuring in the preservation of their trees and also their proper incorporation into urban planning through their direct interaction with municipal policies and plans as well as in acquiring the officials via a mobile application, aiming at necessary financial resources. As for the first of safeguarding the resilience of urban green [11]. these challenges, it is recognized that GI should be incorporated both into urban planning and On the urban planning level, however, it environmental policy, it should include the appears that the implementation of risk notion of the ‘ecosystem’ and it should be prevention planning is not an easy task, due to designed and planned in an integrative way, in the particularities of the urban planning order to constitute a network running through legislation, and moreover the inability in some the city. This in turn, would help achieve better cases to comply with it, the planning tradition accessibility. As for the second challenge, it is allowing arbitrary development and the stated that during the forthcoming dominant characteristics of private ownership 168 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece programming period 2021‐2027 financial accordingly, specifying the goals and strategies resources will be directed to large urban into more concrete actions and projects. development actions and interventions, rather However, in many cases, although the local than piecemeal approaches, which will government has the competencies to make incorporate the rationale behind green decisions, these are not eventually approved infrastructure as brought out in this paper, i.e. by the local government. Adding to this, the in an integrative way. Emphasis is also given on local government may lack financial resources. the public sector’s efforts to involve the private These views raise discussions around “bottom‐ sector in the process of shaping green up” approaches to decision‐making against infrastructure. This is a concrete policy, which “top‐down”, which falls within the field of however is not easy to achieve. This can be vertical cooperation and governance, i.e. attributed to the lack of a cooperation culture between levels of government. in the country and more specifically of public‐ It is generally accepted by the experts private partnerships’ experience, along with interviewed that a monitoring and evaluation the lack of sufficient and straightforward indicators system is essential to monitor the legislation to establish and purse such impacts of GI on urban resilience and give partnerships [14]. Lastly, an incentive policy is feedback to the design of policies and actions. required to involve the citizens into the shaping This approach could be incorporated into a of GI and further into its maintenance and wider system of indicators monitoring the management. While urban planning legislation adaptation to climate change or the cities’ makes provisions for the potential involvement urban resilience in a broader sense of citizens in such a process, in practice there is (environmental, social and economic). limited or even no possibility of utilizing the incentives and tools provided, mainly due to The concept of GI has been only recently the peculiarities of private property of incorporated into the urban planning policy. ownership in Greece. The interpretation of policies into comprehensive and concrete practices requires In all, the presence of GI is believed to be in sufficient knowledge and leads to the need for place to enhance the resilience of a city, training of both the responsible public provided specific policies are adopted. The administration executives and urban planners. factors enhancing resilience include, inter alia, According to some views, this presupposes a the multi‐center and multi‐level governance, legal obligation for training (i.e. provision in the the creation of endogenous sources of new legal framework). At the same time, the role of knowledge and their connection to external the citizens can be significant in contributing to sources, the encouragement of diversity, the sustainable urban development and resilience. strengthening of networking and learning and It is reported that, even though citizens may the establishment of a climate of creativity and not understand urban resilience as a concept, innovation. Collective action and participatory they are able to experientially perceive it. planning fall within the above concepts and There are councils though which citizens can reinforce positive elements of a city’s have a voice and pressure local governments to resilience. take actions towards enhancing urban As for the role of each level of government in resilience. This process also helps build a relation to the strategies that need to be feeling of co‐decision and co‐creation in adopted, clear‐cut competencies can be achieving collective interest. identified. What is missing is the cooperation between them. The central government forms the framework, sets the broader objectives and 4. CONCLUSIONS strategies, while the local government, being Contemporary cities are sources of stress, closer to the society and its local needs, acts vulnerable to both expected stresses and 169 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece unexpected shocks (climate change effects, that directly relate GI with urban resilience, ii) pandemics, economic instability, disorder, the assurance of financial resources especially terrorism etc.) that can lead to social at the local level, iii) the design of appropriate breakdown, natural disaster or economic urban planning tools and iv) the citizens’ poverty. Cities need to ensure that their training and participation in the decision‐ development strategies and investment making processes and relevant actions. decisions enhance rather than undermine their Ensuring the sustainability and resilience of resilience. If governments, investors, cities is directly linked to the presence, quality policymakers and the private sector collectively and function of GI. Training the involved support and promote more resilient cities, stakeholders, strengthening the cooperation there must be a common understanding of between them, ensuring active citizen what constitutes a resilient city and how it can participation, formulating a comprehensive be achieved. In this context, green formal strategy, and establishing a monitoring infrastructure is considered a valuable urban and evaluation system of indicators, would asset and also a policy tool to promote contribute to the pursue of this objective. sustainable urban development and enhance urban resilience. This research explored the possible ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS contribution of GI to the enhancement of The authors of the paper would like to thank urban resilience in Greece. It initially revealed the experts hereafter mentioned who kindly the deficiencies in the accessibility to GI due to agreed to be interviewed, to discuss and to the senseless planning and distribution of share their views: Evangelos Asprogerakas, urban green spaces in most Greek cities as well Assistant Professor of Spatial Planning, as the lack of incorporating the principles of University of Thessaly; Christina Kakderi, ‘networking’ or ‘multi‐functionality’ into the Assistant Professor of Spatial Development and urban planning policy and practice. In addition, RTDI Policies in the EU, Aristotle University of it revealed that the way natural ecosystems Thessaloniki; Georgios Neofytou, former Head function is not properly understood by the of the Department of Resilience and stakeholders, to give the required importance Sustainability of the Division of Strategic to the GIs. Planning, Resilience, Innovation and It was also shown that, in contrary to other Documentation of the Municipality of Athens; countries worldwide, it is not easy to Thekla Tsitsoni, Professor, Faculty of implement risk prevention planning in Greece Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Environment, due to particularities of the urban planning Aristotle University of Thessaloniki; Olga legislation and the dominant characteristics of Christopoulou, Professor of Development and private ownership of property. The limited Protection of Rural and Mountain Areas, cooperation and sometimes the fear of University of Thessaly. interaction between the responsible authorities was also highlighted. REFERENCES Nevertheless, it is recognized that the presence [1] Brears, R., 2018, Blue and green cities: The role of GI works beneficially. It diversifies the urban of blue‐green infrastructure in managing urban landscape, offering a greater variety of water resources. Christchurch, New Zealand: functions / uses, which falls within the Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978‐1‐137‐59258‐3 principles of sustainability, while the variety of activities helps in the resilience of urban [2] Ministry of the Environment and Energy, 2016, National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, systems. Important issues to be considered Athens, Greece. 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Greek) [9] Staddon, C., Ward, S., De Vito, L., Zuniga‐Teran, A., Gerlak, A., Schoeman, Y. et al., 2018, Contributions of green infrastructure to enhancing 171 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 172 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) APPROACHES FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF BUILDING ELEMENTS THERMAL PERFORMANCE UNDER FIRE CONDITIONS I. Bakas*, K. Kontoleon Labotarory of Building Construction & Building Physics (LBCP), Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (A.U.Th.), Gr‐54124 Thessaloniki, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT Study of building configurations’ fire performance has traditionally relied on sample or full‐ scale destructive testing. Use of the powerful simulation tools currently available, in conjunction with Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms, is a promising approach that could reduce the need for such testing. This study examines the different types of AI, widely used in various engineering applications, and explores the potential of integrating those to the field of building materials and fire engineering. Use of physics simulation software and development of an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) provides a first insight to the prospect of such methodologies. Despite any limitations, making predictions without destructive testing is a possibility. Such an approach can stimulate new research interest in the field of fire testing of building materials and can potentially lead to the elucidation of the thermal response of building elements. The variety of Artificial Intelligence algorithms and their adaptability to suit the available data constitutes a research method worth exploring further. Applying knowledge from other civil engineering fields, can give a considerable advantage to the research of fire performance of conventional building elements. KEYWORDS Artificial Intelligence; Artificial Neural Networks; Building Element Assemblies; Fire Performance, Thermal Insulation technological advancement in the field of 1. INTRODUCTION computing, which provided with the necessary computational power and simulation software, This study is organised in two distinct parts; the that enhancement and even replacement to first one providing a brief introduction to some extent of the traditional approach was Artificial Intelligence and the second presenting made possible. At the time, the combination of a relevant case study. these methods was revolutionary and provided Traditionally, the research of fire performance new possibilities for research and great savings, of individual building materials or building time and cost wise, for the industry. Artificial element assemblies relied on full scale or Intelligence (AI) would not come to the model destructive testing. Despite any foreground for several years due to lack of disadvantages that these techniques have, they large amounts of data and adequate were the dominant scientific investigation computational power [1] and it would only start method for decades. It was only until the being integrated in the workspace in the 1990’s 173 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece [2]. the concepts and theoretical foundation is an approach worth exploring in the first was set a long time before that, with the first place. The established techniques of mention of AI being in 1956 [3]. destructive laboratory testing in combination These core principles of Artificial Intelligence with the computer simulation techniques have (AI) are explained in the following paragraphs. so far provided an adequate insight to the A distinction between the different types of AI performance of building material and is made and the main advantages they offer assemblies under fire loading. The big are compared against the methods followed contribution of Artificial Intelligence algorithms traditionally. Then, focus is given to those types is their ability to identify underlying patterns of of AI that can be utilised in the research of fire interconnectivity between parameters in large performance of building element assemblies. volume datasets. They can quantify the The powerful algorithms of Artificial Neural contribution of each one of those factors to the Networks, that can make predictions about fire development of the overall process under performance by identifying hidden patterns consideration. Knowing that the fire within the input data, are specifically explored. performance of building elements is generally a multiparametric phenomenon, constitutes AI Once the types of AI and their main features an ideal candidate; given that appropriate and advantages are clear, the study proceeds input datasets are available from previous to examine some of their most recent research laboratory testing or computer simulation. and industrial applications. Their use expands beyond the civil and structural engineering 2.1.1 Advantages of Artificial Intelligence field; thus it was considered appropriate for By assigning weights to each parameter, some applications in other areas to be briefly depending on their contribution, AI referenced. This is followed by a more significantly reduces the need for further extensive review of civil, structural and fire testing to explore the impact of minor engineering uses of Artificial Intelligence. variations. This subsequently mitigates the The introduction to AI and its use in costs and complexity associated to physically engineering fields, is followed by a relevant constructing appropriate testing facilities, “work in progress” case study. The steps of sacrificial test models and training specialised building an Artificial Neural Network technical personnel. It also allows obtaining architecture are reviewed and the initial new results rapidly since exploring a different observations and considerations of such an test arrangement only requires digitally approach are assessed. modifying parameters on the AI algorithm rather than conducting a new experiment. This aims to stimulate conversation about the Similarly, it overcomes the problem of applications of Artificial Intelligence, its reproducibility of complex experiments that advantages and drawbacks and explore how it need to be reviewed and slightly modified. The can further be used to enhance the scientific development of cloud based services, also community understanding about fire allows the use of remote hardware to greatly performance of building element assemblies. increase the speed of algorithm execution and remove the need for costly, powerful in‐house 2. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE computers. 2.1 Why is it worth studying fire behavior 2.1.2 Considerations when using Artificial through Artificial Intelligence Intelligence Before dedicating time and effort studying and Inevitably, there are matters that need to be understanding details about the different types taken into account before use of AI is and features of Artificial Intelligence considered for any application. Some coding algorithms, it is worth understanding why this skills are required, introducing the need for further personal development of the 174 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece researcher, or involving a data scientist to the of training data and make predictions based on team under the guidance of a leading civil those trends [2]. Finally, Artificial Neural engineer/building material scientist. The input Networks (ANNs), belong in the class of Deep data preparation process, called data Learning (DL), a branch of ML. “preprocessing”, can be quite time consuming 3.2 The principles of ANNs functionality and complicated. Any mistakes during that process can lead to completely meaningless ANNs incorporate multiple layers of results or dysfunctional algorithm. This interconnected neurons. Each neuron becomes even more difficult to control due to represents a feature of the input dataset and the very complex theoretical foundation of gets assigned with a weight depending on the Artificial Intelligence. To add to the complexity, contribution of that feature to the overall the underling patterns that AI is employed to dataset trends. The weights are initialized with identify are usually incomprehensible to naked random numbers but get updated to more human eye, making the whole process a “black accurate values through the iterative process box”. There is also very limited guidance and of “training”. Training involves passing part of regulation in terms of standardising the the data (training data sub‐ set) through the development of AI algorithms, the quality of algorithm several times; usually in the order of input data and required precision of output hundreds. The algorithm is then “tested” by figures, adding to the uncertainty around making predictions against the known values implementation of AI techniques. Finally, to (supervised learning) of the test data sub‐ set make this operation work effectively a large (also called the “ground truth”). Depending on amount of input data is necessary. This is not the rate of accurate predictions against known always available, making data production figures, the algorithm is further optimised to through physical testing or computer ensure either higher predicting accuracy or to simulation an integral part of the process; avoid becoming extremely attached to the which counteracts some of the main benefits given dataset constituting it unusable on new of using AI in the first place. input data (also called “overfitting”). In the case of making predictions for fire 3. PRINCIPLES AND MAIN TYPES OF performance of building element assemblies, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE APPROACHES the input data could be a combination of the results of traditional laboratory testing or 3.1 Placing Artificial Neural Networks in the simulation software output. By then amending globe of Artificial Intelligence the parameters of the algorithm and based on The term Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the the trends of the known data, predictions can science of developing appropriate algorithms be made regarding parameter values of which enable machines to deal with ill‐defined, unknown/untested configurations. multiparametric or inherently open end problems, by approximation, resembling the 4. RECENT APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIAL [4] human cognitive processes and thinking . INTELLIGENCE Other scientific fields such as neuroscience, computer science, mathematics and statistics 4.1 Various non‐engineering fields using AI overlap to provide the necessary structure and Acknowledging the benefits that use of [5] foundation for AI . In reality, it covers several Artificial Intelligence brings into research, subsections, which could be grouped under several scientific studies and industrial sectors four dominant areas; the Knowledge Based have utilised these tools. Systems, Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic and Genetic Algorithms [6]. Machine Learning (ML) These range from identification of is a sub‐class of AI which focuses on enabling abnormalities to scans and imagery of various machines to identify patterns in large volumes body parts in medical applications (use of 175 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Convolutional Neural Networks) [1], to handling structures can have significant technical and and analysing the poly‐ parametric problem of financial benefits and is a field that Artificial solid waste management (use of Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) can be utilised [16]. Neural Networks and Genetic Algorithms) [7]. In ANNs in combination with other evolutionary an effort to increase efficiency and automation algorithms, trained on a vast amount of in agriculture, AI is used for optimisation of previous failure and cracking observations, can irrigation and use of pesticides [8]. The help with the estimation of remaining service capabilities of Computer Vision and Deep life of concrete decks [17] and timber Learning are explored with the intention of superstructure of bridges [18] or detection of achieving more sustainable production in the structural damage on beam‐like structures [19]. food industry [9]. In the same direction, AI helps A challenging design field is the geometrical achieve a great degree of electrical automation optimisation of highly stressed components in and operations fault control [10] and pushes the structures; ANNs can provide with an efficient boundaries of technological advancement in solution in this case too, as seen in aircraft several manufacturing sectors by enhancing engineering [20]. Finally, with sustainability knowledge creation, distribution, absorption becoming a matter of increasing priority and and talent investment [11]. Other common urgency, AI can contribute in diverse ways such technological applications utilising some form as achieving optimal energy use while of AI include text analysis and translation, maintaining indoors thermal comfort [21], speech and face recognition, self driving cars [3] optimising the design and control of etc. Artificial Intelligence has also penetrated photovoltaic systems [22], handling the less technical sectors. An indicative sample of inherently uncertain and dynamic nature of such applications would include the pollution control and mitigation processes [23] minimisation of gender and racial bias during and overcome the unpredictability of the police interrogations [12], promotion of a less incoming quality and flow rate of waste water biased and rushed assessment of individuals’ in sewage treatment plant facilities [24]. potential in the context of social justice and fair 4.3 Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Fire [13] opportunities and efficient state Engineering administration and control of tax compliance and fraud [14]. At the moment, comparatively to other civil and structural engineering fields, there are 4.2 Using Artificial Intelligence in Civil & fewer, but equally important, applications of Structural engineering AI, in the context of fire loading impact and As described previously, AI is a promising performance of materials and building approach in cases where high levels of elements. uncertainty exist, parameter optimisation is To combat the lack of regulations’ symphony necessary, and laboratory testing is not always regarding the common building material feasible or practical [4]. Numerous structural properties to be used when considering fire and civil engineering challenges bear these load cases, ANNs and Genetic programming exact characteristics making use of AI can be used to derive mathematical equations particularly attractive. This is clearly that implicitly incorporate such characteristics demonstrated by the vast amount of recent AI and generate universally applicable formulas applications in the field of engineering. [25‐26]. Based on that and through the spectrum Destructive testing of historic building fabric is of Artificial Neural Networks, evaluation of the generally not an acceptable investigation bearing capacity of concrete under extreme technique. AI can be an ideal alternative for fire exposure has been possible [27] as well as investigating properties and moisture content prediction of its fire induced spalling [28]. of historic masonry walls [15]. Optimisation of Similarly, the serviceability performance of the reinforcement needed in concrete timber beams exposed to fire can be assessed 176 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece and predicted by developing ANNs [29]. Identical extracted from the simulation software and techniques have been used to identify and used as input for the training of the ANN. predict the properties of modern construction Table 1. Parameters and characteristic values used materials that have not yet widely been for the development of the different simulation conventionally tested and understood [30]. samples. Finally, aiding in the assessment of remaining structural capacity following exposure to fire, Parameter Values AI has been used to develop formulas Sample Ref S mpl0 | Smpl1 |…| predicting the impact of extreme loading (ie. Smpl16 fire) to building material properties [31]. Brick Density 2000 | 4000 5. CASE STUDY METHODOLOGY Thermal Cond. . 0.4 | 0.8 Coef 5.1 Limitations and scope of work Thermal Emissivity 0.1 | 0.5 | 0.9 The following study is still “work in progress” and this summary only aims to demonstrate Insulation Thicknes s 0| 50 | 100 the applicability of AI in the prediction of Insulation Type RW | EPS | NoIns temperature development on the non exposed face of wall assemblies under fire load on one Insulation Position Int | Ext | AbsIns side. At this stage, all results are preliminary Time 30s | 60s |…| 21600s and indicative of the algorithm’s capabilities. A o second phase of algorithm optimisation, Temperature of‐ 20 C upwards as the further assessment of results, addition of more non exposed face fire case progresses load cases and interpretation of the model in The input data consisted of a 30 seconds step the form of mathematical formulas is time series of the temperature development necessary. on the non‐exposed face of the wall elements. The aim of the application is to predict the To ensure that interconnectivity with the rest temperature of the non exposed face of an of the parameters was possible, those were untested configuration at random time t. introduced as separate columns on the dataset. After merging the data extracted from the 5.2 Finite Element simulation and data different configurations, bringing the total to extraction 38934 observations, the pre‐ processing phase With Artificial Intelligence, and Artificial Neural commenced to achieve compatibility with the Networks in specific, being an effective tool for requirements of the ANN. poly parametric problem analysis, the 5.3 ANN architecture development technique was employed for the study of heat transfer through a masonry wall element, Following completion of the data exposed to fire on one side. preprocessing, the architecture of the ANN itself was developed. An input layer consisting Several wall configurations were modelled and of 7 neurons, number equal to that of the input analysed using the physics Finite Element (FE) parameters, preceded two hidden layers (deep software Comsol. Specifically, 16 different learning algorithm). Those incorporated 12 samples, based on alternate combinations of neurons each, before converging into the parameter values, were developed and output layer which only had a single neuron, executed, monitoring each time how the representing the temperature of the non temperature developed on the non exposed exposed face at time stamp t. This is face of the wall. The parameters and the values schematically summarised in Figure 1. used are summarised on Table 1. Consequently, a large amount of data was 177 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece robust and versatile Artificial Neural Network. 7. CONCLUSIONS The brief review of current applications of AI in the field of engineering shows how a set of powerful tools is developed with fast pace and is becoming available for analysis of complicated and poly‐ parametric challenges. The benefits AI offers in terms of analytical power, time and cost savings are great. Figure 1. Schematic representation of the Artificial Neural Network architecture. Nonetheless, there are certain issues that need to be addressed and taken into account when Since the predicted value was part of a such tools are considered for a specific continuous value range, the ANN was application. developed as a regression system and thus using the mean squared error loss function was The field of fire engineering appears to be considered most appropriate. The available adopting such methodologies more slowly dataset was divided on a 80% training and 20% compared to other scientific disciplines. Given test basis, before it was fed through the that the nature of fire and the situations algorithm for 100 times (epochs). deriving from it involve a great number of difficult to monitor and predict factors, AI can potentially offer an ideal approach to analyse 6. CASE STUDY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION and understand such cases. Although this is a work in progress application A case study using Artificial Neural Networks to with further optimisation of the algorithm and analyse fire and heat transfer was presented. output assessment being necessary, the first Despite any limitations and need for further results obtained were encouraging. development, the initial performance of the The algorithm made 7787 predictions (20% of model was satisfactory. In conjunction with FE the total dataset) and compared those to the analysis techniques, it inspires confidence that ground truth (actual figures obtained from the a versatile and powerful heat transfer simulation software). The average difference prediction methodology can be developed. between the two was below 0.5oC, with a Standardisation and regulatory guidance on the standard deviation of 0.711oC. methods, quality and deliverables of AI development would be a great aid in this With original temperatures ranging from 20oC effort. Data availability is another issue, which (ambient environment) to 267oC (non exposed could be resolved through cooperation of face temperature of non insulated wall), these relevant scientific teams, review and figures are indicative of the power of the ANN. processing of data already available from Steps need to be taken to ensure that laboratory testing and simulation studies and overfitting is avoided and to establish a real time input from the industry. The full sequence that can be used effectively to capability of applied AI in fire engineering predict the behaviour of samples completely remains to be seen and a cooperative approach separate from the existing dataset. and constructive dialogue between different scientific disciplines, regulatory bodies and In this direction, it is considered that further industrial entities is the initial step to be taken. trials with different hyper parameters, introduction of neuron dropout and optimisation techniques such as k‐fold validation would ensure the development of a 178 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece REFERENCES addressing the proposed effect AI has on racial and gender bias, cooperation, and false confessions,” [1] M. van Assen, S. J. Lee, and C. N. De Cecco, Futures, vol. 117, no. January, p. 102510, 2020. “Artificial intelligence from A to Z: From neural network to legal framework,” Eur. J. Radiol., vol. [13] T. 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Papaefthimiou3 1School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece 2Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54646, Thessaloniki, Greece ([email protected]) 3School of Production Engineering and Management, Technical University of Crete, 73100, Chania, Greece ABSTRACT The recorded increased emissions of Green House Gases (GHGs), with electricity production having a key role to this increase, are bound to impact the anthropogenic and natural environment as well as jeopardize the world’s sustainable development. The European Union’s response to climate resilience and mitigation promotes, among others, decarbonization actions, i.e. replacement of coal plant‐based units by greener technologies. This research paper explores the economic feasibility of modern technologies, such as i) improvements in the energy efficiency of fossil‐fueled plants ii) carbon capture and storage, and iii) the combined combustion of biomass with lignite, with the aim of reducing GHGs emissions in a thermal lignite‐based plant in Greece, planned to be decommissioned in the year 2028, and investigates its potentially prolonged operation until the year 2050. The evaluation of the proposed ameliorating technologies is conducted with the use of the Levelised Cost of Energy (LCOE) methodology. Hence, 15 scenarios related to advanced efficiency techniques, the gasification of lignite, carbon capture and storage, the replacement of lignite with natural gas and the combined combustion of biomass with lignite are examined. The results indicate that the Ultra Super Critical Pulverized Coal Combustion (USC‐ PCC) technology achieves the lowest LCOE since it coincides with an increased thermal efficiency of the power plant up to 49%. Despite their increased potential, the Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC), Biomass Combustion and CSS technologies still have significant implementation costs. On the other hand, due to the uncertainty in the future prices of the natural gas, CCS may outweigh technologies that promote the use of natural gas to fuel the plant. KEYWORDS Ameliorating technologies; Carbon emission reduction; Climate change, Levelized cost of Electricity, Ptolemais V lignite plant The temperature increase coincides with 1. INTRODUCTION several negative consequences, on people and the environment alike, thus directly It is beyond doubt that the planet's threatening its sustainability in the forthcoming temperature, mainly due to the surge of Green decades. Focusing on the Energy Sector, House Gas (GHG) emissions, is gradually rising. electricity production accounts for the 26.9% of 181 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 2018 GHG emissions, while approximately 63% replacement, i.e. from coal to natural gas[10], of the world’s electricity comes from the and iv) co‐firing biomass with coal[11]. burning of fossil fuels[1]. Even though Regarding CCT, the technologies that stand out exceedingly ambitious targets have been are those of Ultra‐Supercritical Combustion proposed on a global scale in order to reduce (USC), where efficiency rate is achieved by an the temperature rise below 1.5 oC, according increase in temperature and pressure to recent evidence the global GHG emissions conditions, and of Intergraded Gasification emanating from anthropogenic activities, e.g. Combined Cycle (IGCC), where the increase of burning of fossil fuels, show little reduction[2]. the net efficiency is achieved by the gasification of coal[12]. As for CCS technologies, Amongst the suggested approaches of the they are considered important assets for the European Union in response to climate change reduction of GHG emissions in the near and the mitigation of GHG emissions is future[9]. Finally, the co‐firing of biomass with decarbonization, i.e. the lignite, despite the technological barriers and abolishment/replacement of coal plant‐based the high cost, seems to be a promising and thermal units by different technologies, for greener solution. example renewables[3]. Greece, during the last few years and in accordance with the most The aim of the research is to assess specific recent national and European policies[4], has CCT, CCS, fuel replacement and the co‐firing of made a remarkable progress towards the biomass with lignite technologies in the reduction of fossil fuel dependency and the framework of investigating their economic integration of renewable energy sources. feasibility. The case study area is the lignite‐ Renewables may have reached technological firing power plant of Ptolemais V in Greece, maturity, but the involvement of back‐up which under the recent decarbonization generation, energy storage, expanded program of the National Plan for Energy and transmission infrastructure, demand‐side Climate, is scheduled to stop operating with management, and energy curtailment may be lignite as a base fuel in 2028. The second required[5,6], thus affecting the total costs for section presents the applied methodology for further integration. comparing the various technologies as well as the developed scenarios. The results and their Regarding decarbonization, coal‐fired power discussion are included in the third section, plants ensure the base load in various national which is followed by the conclusions of the grids, thus their abrupt withdrawal from the conducted research. energy grid could increase the risk of national energy autonomy. On the other hand, the coverage of energy demands by coal of very 2. METHODOLOGY low calorific value, i.e. the case of the Greek Ptolemais V is a power plant unit, still under lignite, signifies increased lignite combustion to construction and it is located 8 km outside the achieve the required efficiency; an issue which city of Ptolemais in the Region of Western coincides with the release of significant Macedonia in Greece. Its estimated power amount of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere capacity is 660MW. The station’s main fuel is per unit of energy generated[7]. Hence, the pulverized lignite, extracted from lignite mines need for investing on cleaner and ameliorating in the same area. The net‐efficiency of the solutions for lignite plants becomes apparent. thermal unit is approximately 41.5% and the The technologies for the improvement of emission rate of CO2 is 1.04 Kg/KWh. The energy efficiency of fossil‐fueled power plants super‐critical conditions of the unit are 250 can be divided in the following categories: i) bar/600°C/609°C. The unit’s design has also "Clean coal" technologies (CCT) that improve predicted areas of possible Carbon Capture the efficiency rate of the power plant[8], ii) installation. The project’s cost has reached €1.4 carbon capture and storage (CCS)[9], iii) fuel billion[13]. 182 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece For the evaluation of the proposed Case 4 USC‐PC‐CCS Construction of a new ameliorating technologies in the plant under power plant with Ultra‐super critical pulverized study, the Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) lignite as a fuel with CCS installation. has been implemented. LCOE is a lifecycle cost Case 5 (IGCC) Construction of a new power analysis of a power plant that uses assumptions plant with Integrated Gasification Combined about the future value of money to convert all Cycle. future costs and revenues into current prices[14]. This model is widely used in the Case 6. (IGCC‐CCS) Construction of a new power industry but has some significant power plant with Integrated Gasification failings, particularly in its ability to handle risk. Combined Cycle and CCS. LCOE is widely used for the comparison of Case 7 (CCGT) Construction of a new power different methods for energy generation on a plant with natural gas as fossil fuel in a [14] comparable basis , and calculates the Combined Cycle Gas Turbine. weighted cost (in €/MWh) of electricity Case 8 (A‐CCGT) generation during a production unit’s lifetime, Construction of a new power expressed in present values, according to the plant of Advanced‐Combined Cycle Gas Turbine following equation: Case 9 (A‐CCGT‐CCS) Construction of a new power plant of Advanced‐Combined Cycle Gas Turbine with CCS Capital O&M where t are the investment costs, t Case 10 (SCPC–ΒC10%) Construction of a new Fuel the operational and maintenance costs, t power plant of co‐firing lignite and biomass the costs of the fuels (lignite, gas and biomass), (90%‐10%) Carbont the emissions cost, Dt the decommissioning cost, expressed in time t; r is Case 11 (SCPC–ΒC30%) Construction of a new the rate of return (discount rate) and n is a power plant of co‐firing lignite and biomass project’s lifetime. (70%‐30%) To that end, fifteen (15) scenarios related to Case 12 (CT‐CCGT2028) Conversion of the advanced efficiency technologies, CCS, existing power plant to a natural gas‐firing gasification of lignite, replacement of lignite plant in the year 2028. with natural gas and combined combustion of Case 13 (CT‐SCPC‐CCS2028) Conversion of the biomass with lignite are examined. The first 11 existing power plant to a super‐critical proposed solutions assume that the unit is pulverized lignite with CCS in year 2028. constructed ab initio and will operate until Case 14 (CT‐SCPC ΒC 10% 2028) 2050. The four remaining cases presuppose Conversion of that during the de‐carbonization year (2028), the existing power plant to a co‐firing unit of the unit will either switch to natural gas or to lignite and biomass (90%‐10%) in the year co‐firing lignite with biomass or a CCS 2028. technology will be implemented. The proposed Case 15 (CT‐SCPC ΒC 30% 2028) Conversion of scenarios are the following: the existing power plant to a co‐firing unit of Case 1 (SP‐PC) Current condition‐ Super critical lignite and biomass (70%‐30%) in the year Pulverized lignite of 660MW. 2028. Case 2 SCPL‐CCS Construction of a new power plant with super critical pulverized lignite as a fuel and CCS installation. Case 3 USC‐PL Construction of a new power plant with Ultra‐super critical pulverized lignite as a fuel. 183 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece technology. This result highlights the 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION importance of a high efficiency rate, as a 7% increase of the net efficiency results to a 15% The LCOE factor was calculated, having reduction in emission cost. Unfortunately, the considered the correlation between the main capital cost of this technology remains high parameters of capital cost, fixed cost, variable since the demands of very high quality and rare cost, maintenance cost, decommissioning cost, alloys for the plant’s pipeline are still the projected evolution of natural gas prices prohibitive. and the projection of carbon emission prices, with the results to be demonstrated in Table 1. Another aspect of the biomass scenarios, even All of the above were calculated with 3 though they seem environmentally friendlier Table 1. Cumulative results of each suggested thermal unit including efficiency, emission rate, capital cost, emission cost, fuel cost and LCOE. Emission rate Capital cost Emission cost Power Plant Efficiency Fuel cost (€) LCOE(€/MWh) (KgCO2/MWh) (€/KW) (€) SCPC 41.5 1.05 2106 6,908,988,240 3,086,726,344 98.00 SPC‐CCS 32 0.1 3272 690,898,824 4,003,098,037 122.00 USC‐PC 49 0.7 3580 4,605,992,160 2,614,268,060 94.74 USC‐PC‐CCS 41 0.07 4023 460,599,216 3,202,478,306 113.92 IGCC 48 0.83 3593 5,474,550,682 2,668,732,050 110.00 IGCC‐CCS 40 0.08 5483 547,455,068 3,124,369,239 123.00 CT‐SPCCS (2028) 32 0.1 2857 1,563,729,552 3,781,904,870 106.36 CCGT 58 0.56 880 3,750,593,616 8,821,996,725 100.30 ACCG 60 0.33 993 4,605,992,160 10,378,819,676 101.32 ACCG‐CCS 51 0.03 1885 460,599,216 10,032,859,020 116.36 CT‐CCNG (2028) 58 0.56 2556 1,563,729,552 8,821,996,725 108.41 SCPC –ΒC 10% 29 0.945 3016 6,218,089,416 3,807,239,973 112.93 SCPC –ΒC 30% 29 0.735 3016 4,836,291,768 5,457,254,904 116.92 CT‐ SCPC ΒC 10% 29 0.98 3016 6,350,114,232 3,019,535,151 116.27 CT‐ SCPC ΒC 30% 29 0.7 3016 4,836,291,768 4,139,986,479 115.68 different discount rates (3%, 7% and 10%) and and come with a relatively lower overnight with two different possible future cost, is that they result in a disproportionate developments of CO2 emission allowance increase on the fuel price of biomass due to the prices on the basis of the projected scenarios large amounts of biomass that need to be provided in the National Plan of Energy and transferred or be cultivated. Climate[15]. Additionally, LCOE considers the expected compensation given by the state, known as Power Availability Certificate (PAC), when the plant manages to hold emissions under the threshold of 0.56 KgCO2/MWh. Finally, the capital cost for the current thermal plant was taken from the PCC techno‐economic Report. The capital costs for the rest of the cases were selected from bibliographical [16] references . Figure 1. Percentages of LCOE increase of different 3.1 Overview of LCOE cumulative results technologies in comparison with the current case. As illustrated in Figure 1, the biggest reduction Upon the scenarios where a conversion takes in the LCOE factor is accomplished by the USC places in 2028, Figure 2 demonstrates that CCS 184 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece technology has the lowest LCOE. From a financial point of view, the cost increase of CCS implementation will be slightly smaller than the cost of converting the plant to gas‐firing. Moreover, CCS implementation is preferable due to compatibility issues. A super‐critical boiler is already designed to burn the available type of lignite, so in the opposite case of switching from lignite to gas, an undetermined cost of malfunction should be expected. Figure 3. Development of LCOE according to three An additional reason that underpins the different discount rates. ambiguity of a natural gas‐firing power station, despite the low capital cost and the historical The modification of the LCOE factor, when low prices in the year 2020, is the inherent future emission prices are altered, is depicted uncertainty that imported fuel prices bear, in Figure 4. Adopting a moderate (88.0 €/tCO2) resulting to the uncertainty of electricity prices. and an extreme (380.0 €/tCO2) scenario of On the contrary, the lignite domestic market is [15] future CO2 emission prices for the year 2050 , practically independent on oil prices, which the results indicate that LCOE increase to the significantly annihilates the risk factor in point the thermal stations are no longer viable, relation to cost assessment. The variation in with the exception of those attributed with CCS the risk of gas price is clearly greater than the technology. The reason behind this is that CSS risk of CCS implementation. technology is designed to capture 90% of CO2, with this issue being an additional advantage of the specific technology. Figure 2 Percentage comparison of LCOE increase between the CCS installation and the conversion to gas‐firing in 2028. 3.1 Modification of parameters The correlation of LCOE when the discount rate is modified is illustrated in Figure 3 for the first developed scenario, i.e. Case 1. The three Figure 4. LCOE comparison of different technologies discount rates that were selected (0.03, 0.07, in accordance with two CO2 emissions development 0.1) indicated that LCOE is increasing in prices. proportion to the rise of the discount rate. It should also be stated that all the aforementioned calculations have been made under the assumption that energy demand remains the same over the years of utilization. Thus, the LCOE analysis is not capable of assessing accurately the economic viability of 185 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece thermal plants. A more thorough study, which restrictions, particularly for large thermal is planned for the further development of the power plants and concerns the proper mixture research, should take into consideration the co‐burning analogy greater than 20% biomass‐ evolution of the load curve of the thermal plant 80% Lignite[18]. that derived from the prediction of energy To sum up, the abrupt withdrawal of lignite demand. This process gives priority to the plant‐based thermal units from the national penetration percentage of renewables, which grid reduces national energy autonomy[19]. On further undervalues the contribution of the other hand, electricity production by [17] thermal plants. The research of WWF Hellas lignite‐based power plants is unsustainable. on that matter shows that as the energy Therefore, alternative ameliorating demand in power plants fades, the economic technological solutions, such as those capabilities of the unit are further confined. investigated in the research paper, could The LCOE equation also emphatically shows provide a smoother transition to a zero‐ that as the power demand is declining, the emission future. LCOE factor is rising. REFERENCES 4. CONCLUSIONS [1] Olivier, J., Schure, K., Peters, J. 2017, Trends in In the research, the Ultra Super Critical global co2 and total greenhouse gas emissions. Pulverized Coal Combustion (USC‐PCC) Hague: Netherlands Environmental Assessment technology presents the lower LCOE since it Agency. coincides with an increased thermal efficiency [2] IPCC, 2014, WG3 Climate Change 2014 of the power plant up to 49%. The results also Mitigation of Climate Change. Cambridge: IPCC. suggest that high efficiency power plants up to 48‐ 49% can ensure greener and economically [3] Vatikiotis L., 2020, The Impacts of Transition In expedient solutions. Other technologies such The Post‐Lignite Era, The Case of Small And Medium Sized Enterprises in The District of as IGCC and biomass co‐firing, despite their Western Macedonia, Document IME GSEVEE, potential benefits, are still significantly 11/2020, Athens: IME GSEVEE, (in Greek). expensive. However, due to uncertainties on the natural gas future prices and other [4] Kottari, M., Agut, C., Moya, J., Brett, L., Moles, C., Dolci, F., Tzimas, E., 2017, Decarbonizing the operational parameters, CCS may have benefits European energy system: The SET‐Plan actions in against technologies that promote conversion the industry and transport sectors. International of the plant to gas‐firing technologies. Issues & Slovak Foreign Policy Affairs, 26(1‐2), 15‐ Regarding the implementation of CCS in 34. Ptolemais V, a modern lignite power plant is [5] Ziegler, M.S., Mueller, J.M., Pereira, G.D., Song, expected to lose from 7.4% to 11.8% of its J., Ferrara, M., Chiang, Y.M., Trancik, J.E., 2019, efficiency while the price of electricity is Storage requirements and costs of shaping increasing by 47%‐65%. The Post‐Combustion renewable energy toward grid decarbonization. Capture has prospects of successful Joule, 3(9), 2134‐2153. implementation in Greek thermal plants. [6] Denholm, P., Kulcinski, G. L., Holloway, T., 2005, Finally, the total cost of the plant is expected to Emissions and energy efficiency assessment of be further decreased when the threshold of baseload wind energy systems. Environmental minimum emissions is achieved, i.e. the PAC science & technology, 39(6), 1903‐1911. compensations can contribute to the economic [7] Leonard, M.D., Michaelides, E.E., Michaelides, feasibility of the unit. 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Energy & Environmental https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/el_fin Science, 11(5), 1062‐1176. al_necp_main_en.pdf [10] Hayhoe, K., Kheshgi, H.S., Jain, A.K. et al. 2002, [16] Dong, N., Techno‐economics of Modern Pre‐ Substitution of Natural Gas for Coal: Climatic Effects drying technologies for lignite‐fired power stations, of Utility Sector Emissions. Climatic Change, 54, 2014 IEA. 107–139. [17] WWF Hellas, 2013, Ptolemais V and Meliti. [11] Hansson, J., Berndes, G., Johnsson, F., Kjärstad, Review of economic sustainability of the new J., 2009, Co‐firing biomass with coal for electricity power plants. Athens, WWF. Accessible on line generation—An assessment of the potential in through: https://www.wwf.de/fileadmin/fm‐ EU27. Energy Policy, 37(4), 1444‐1455. wwf/Publikationen‐PDF/Economic‐viability‐report‐ of‐the‐new‐lignite‐units.pdf [12] Oboirien, B.O., North, B.C., Obayopo, S.O., Odusote, J.K., Sadiku, E.R., 2018, Analysis of clean [18] Xu, Y., Yang, K., Zhou, J., Zhao, G., 2020, Coal‐ coal technology in Nigeria for energy generation. Biomass Co‐Firing Power Generation Technology: Energy strategy reviews, 20, 64‐70. Current Status, Challenges and Policy Implications. Taiyuan: School of management science and [13] PPC, 2011, Techno economic report for the engineering, Shanxi University of Finance and implementation of Carbon Capture and Storage for Economics. the new power plant of 660MW. Public Power Coorporation of Greece (in Greek). [19] Zervas E, 2020, Critical Review of The National Plan for Energy and Climate, Research Document [14] Agbor, E., Oyedun, A.O., Zhang, X., Kumar, A., IME GSEVEE, 12/2020, Athens: IME GSEVEE, pp. 36 2016, Integrated techno‐economic and (in Greek). environmental assessments of sixty scenarios for 187 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 188 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece COMBINED INVESTIGATION OF INDOOR CLIMATE PARAMETERS AND ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF AGRO‐INDUSTRIAL UNITS IN WESTERN MACEDONIA C. Evangelou1, P. Tzimas1, G. Papadopoulos1, E. I. Tolis11, M. Souliotis2, A. Afentoulidis3, G. Panaras1* 1School 1Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Western Macedonia, Bacola & Sialvera, 50100 Kozani, Greece. 2Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Western Macedonia, Bacola & Sialvera, 50100 Kozani, Greece. 3Hydronic P. Co., Kozani, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT Ιn the key challenges facing the agricultural sector nowadays, that is the economic and sustainable development, issues as the respect for the environment and the rational use of all forms of energy prove to be significant. It should be noted that high energy demand is not the case during cultivation, rather throughout transport, processing, packaging and especially conservation; the above processes take place in the so‐called agro‐industrial units. The proposed work deals with the presentation of a methodology for evaluating the potential of agro‐industrial units to achieve the aforementioned targets of improved indoor climate and energy performance. The effectiveness of the proposed methodology is validated upon the results and the experience gained upon three case studies in Western Macedonia, Greece; a warehouse, noting that warehouses are characterized by significant refrigeration loads, while thermal comfort issues are also of interest, given the low temperatures workers face, a winery, noting that wineries present significant interest on a research level, combining Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) issues related with substances emitted through the wine production, and the need for minimizing conventional energy consumption, as well as the case of an agricultural products drying unit, pointing out the dominant role of the drying process on energy quantities. KEYWORDS energy; IAQ; thermal comfort; warehouse; winery; agriculture evolve globally, with the ultimate goal of fully 1. INTRODUCTION meeting the alimentary needs of modern societies. The difficulty of achieving this goal is The discussion about the global warming and commensurate with the increase in the world the climate change is very intense lately. The population and rising standard of living, as Paris agreement aimed at limitating the global these situations automatically lead to an temperature increase, while adopted the so‐ increase in demand for food [3]. Compensation called 20/20/20 targets of the EU, as they are is seen as the development of technology, [1, 2] reflected in the relevant EU Directives . In which allows for increased production without addition, the oldest human‐developed sector, the parallel increase in arable land or the the agricultural sector, continues to grow and 189 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece demand for more labor force. In all this, the advantages of integrating energy storage in only variable that has not been taken into refrigerated warehouses. Ho et al. (2010) [15] account is the demand for any form of energy. numerically investigate air temperature and All activities in the food sector depend on some velocity distribution inside a refrigerated form of energy; as a result, demand for the warehouse, through different positions of agribusiness sector has grown exponentially cooling units. On a wider perspective, Hacket et over the years. Indicatively, it can be said that al. (2005)[16] present the results of plant‐wide direct energy consumption in agriculture was energy audits of seven fresh‐fruit and about 2% of total energy consumption in 2011‐ vegetable processing plants in California, 2013. Greece is above the average of OECD demonstrating significant opportunities of countries, with the agricultural sector energy efficiency for both small and large size consuming about 4% of total energy produced processing plants. [4]. In addition to the energy required to grow The proposed work, aims at presenting a the crops, even greater amounts are required methodology for evaluating the indoor for the processing, packaging, maintenance environmental conditions, as well as the energy and marketing (transportation and sale) of performance of agro‐industrial units. The food items [5]. The wine sector is highly methodology is evaluated and validated upon vulnerable to climate change, especially due to three case studies in Western Macedonia, the dependence of vine growing on climatic Greece, i.e. a warehouse, noting that and environmental conditions, while their warehouses are characterized by significant carbon footprint is significant, taking into refrigeration loads, while thermal comfort consideration aspects of energy use, waste issues are also of interest, given the low management, water use, soil management and temperatures workers face, a winery, noting transport of production [6]. The need for that wineries present significant interest on a increasing the sustainability of wineries, as well research level, combining Indoor Air Quality as the important role of research on achieving (IAQ) issues related with substances emitted this aim, is highlighted in the work of Santini et through the wine production, and the need for al. [7]. Regarding energy issues, Smyth and minimizing conventional energy consumption, Nesbitt [8] review energy usage in English as well as the case of an agricultural products wineries, indicating specific points of the drying unit, pointing out the dominant role of production process where energy efficiency the drying process on energy quantities. can be implemented. Malvoni et al. [9] concentrate on a specific winery in South Italy; cooling proves to be the most energy intensive 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS use, while RES solutions are also examined. The 2.1 Description of Units implementation of RES in Spanish wineries is investigated by Garcia‐ Casarejos et al. [10]. Da All units are located in Western Macedonia, Ros et al. [11], investigate the potential of Greece. The climate in this region is producing biogas from thermophilic anaerobic characterized as the coldest one, ranked on D digestion of winery residue, quantifying the climate zone according to the Greek version of [17] values of energy that can be produced on the the EPBD ; rainfall is generally moderate, level of the installed wineries in Italy. Filho et summers are mild and snowfall is frequent in al. [12] investigate biogas and methane the winter months. Average annual [18] production potential, on a winery in Brazil. temperature of 15.5 °C is reported , while in Carroquino et al. [13], evaluate the operation of the winter months, temperature may reach ‐ a standalone renewable energy system, 15°C or even lower; the relative humidity is installed in a winery in the North‐east of Spain. 72.2%, while 63.8% annually. It should be noted that the climatic conditions in the area [14] Regarding warehouse units, Li et al. , on the of the winery and the warehouse are slightly basis of simulation analysis, discuss the different compared to those presented, as they 190 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece are affected by the respective Lakes of and stored in the cooling chambers, where Polyphytos and Vegoritida respectively. they are maintained until sold. Products that The winery premises are comprised of three have been damaged during the maintaining floors, while a house is attached to the time must be re‐inspected in order to avoid the premises (figue 1); the screening of the grapes export products which do not meet the takes place on the upper floor, while the requirements for their sale. grapes fall on the stainless tank located on the Finally, the drying units installation are ground floor, with the help of gravity. This floor comprised of the quality analysis and offices is the main place of vinification, where most of zone, and the main area, hosting the dryers. the tanks lie; in this floor the only office room 2.2.Methodology of the premises is also located. On the, mostly, underground floor, the remaining vinification The proposed methodology is based on tanks lie (architecturally constituting a common experimental and theoretical analysis, including place with the ground floor), and two storage the exploitation of simulation means. rooms for the conservation of the champagnes, Experimental investigation includes extensive as well as a room where bottling process takes measurement campaign regarding indoor place. climate thermal parameters, considering also the concentration of substances affecting IAQ. The results of the parameters can be exploited for the assessment of indoor climate. Moreover, in the development of the energy model, data from indoor climate measurements regarding thermal parameters can be utilized, while values of specific Figure 1. Lay‐out of the examined winery parameters related to the efficiency of the individual devices of the plants can be The warehouse premises, covering an area of determined. Formulation of a reliable energy 2 4000 m , are used for collecting, processing model for the plants allows the evaluation, on and packaging of fresh fruit. Producers, after an economical and environmental basis, of collecting and packing the fruit at their place of proposals for improving indoor climate and/or cultivation, transport it and deliver it to the reducing energy consumption. cooperative's landing ramp. This is where the first quality control of products is done by Regarding the calculation of the energy specialized auditors. Subsequently, depending consumption of the respective devices, it has on the results of the inspection, the quality and been preferred to adopt simple approaches, size of the products, these are either directed taking into consideration the limitations with to the sorting line for further processing, or to the availability of input data for the cases of the workplace where they are rechecked, more sophisticated models. processed and packaged, or directly to the Focusing on the case of the winery, the energy labeling line (most quality products), where consumption related to the covering of they receive the corresponding sticker, are heating/cooling loads (Eth) of the offices is palletized and marketed immediately. At the based on EN ISO13790 [19] monthly method, sorting line, fresh fruits are washed, re‐ anticipating the calculation of heat losses and checked, calibrated and driven to the heat gains, internal and solar, while taking into workplace where, they are subjected to more consideration the performance of the heat stringent quality control, processed and pumps (eq. 1a): packaged according to commercial requirements. Processed fruit packs pass (1a) through the labeling section, then palletized where: 191 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece ‐ Edth, the thermal energy load concentration) are presented for the main area (demand) of the storage spaces of the winery. As one may see, indoor ‐ SCOP (SEER), the seasonal efficiency of the conditions are rather warmer than ambient heat pump for heating or cooling respectively ones, nevertheless, especially after fermentation period, which is by winter time, The SCOP of the heat pump (air‐to‐air one) the non‐conditioning of the vinification area is refers to seasonal performance; given that the responsible for the temperature lying below value of this index depends on ambient thermal comfort level. Relative humidity is temperature (heat source temperature) and high, on the edge of the thermal comfort limits; room temperature (heat sink temperature), as this can be potentially attributed to the rather well as to the working load imposed, the low temperatures of the specific space. determination of this index is too demanding, Inadequate ventilation, combined with the requiring measurements over a sufficient time‐ fermentation or the presence of people leads period. In the proposed approach, it has been to values of the CO2 concentration exceeding preferred to use a representative value, based acceptable limits. on the treatment of similar devices according Table 1. Meteorological and environmental to the Greek version for the adoption of parameters at the installation site and at the office European Performance Buildings Directive throughout fermentation period and after [17, 20] (EPBD) . fermentation The energy consumption related to the During After fermentation fermentation covering of cooling loads (Edth) of the cooling Parameter Indoor Ambient Indoor Ambient [19] chambers was also based on EN ISO13790 , Mean Mean Mean Mean monthly method, while taking into Τ (oC) 21.4 17.8 19.5 8.2 RH (%) 59.5 65.2 60.7 74.3 consideration the performance of the cooling CO2 (ppm) 1414.8 ‐ 1040.9 ‐ units (eq. 1b): (1b) Regarding the main area of the winery, in In terms of the SEER for the cooling chambers, figure 2, the CO2 concentration during the respective Directive for Greek version of fermentation period is presented. Again, one the EPBD (TEE, 2017; EU, 2010) [20] has been may see the effect of night ventilation on used as reference guide. decreasing CO2 concentration, while the values of the various sensors are quite close, Electrical consumption of the appliances (on demonstrating rather homogeneous site processes, lighting, other) was calculated environment in terms of (unfortunately not on the basis of a simple equation, where P acceptable) air quality. indicates the appliances power and t time: (2) The estimation of the time the respective appliances operate is a rather complicated task, presenting significant uncertainty. For that reason, it has been preferred to suppose a value characterizing the complete category of appliances (on‐site processes and other equipment). 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In table 1, the values of measured thermal comfort and IAQ parameters (namely CO2 192 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece the total energy consumption is presented for All sensors the case of the winery, according to the 3500 MX developed energy model. It is evident that the 3000 C D cooling and refrigeration processes, together 2500 B with heating, constitute the most important 2000 1500 share, in agreement with the findings of [8‐9] 1000 existing literature . 500 The replacement of the winery chillers with 0 256 256.5 257 257.5 258 258.5 259 more efficient ones, leading to energy days consumption reduction of 38.5 %, and the Figure 2. CO concentration in vinification area over 2 installation of PV panels of an area of 250 m2 a specific period of measurements covering 70% of the energy needs of the plant, In table 2, the values of thermal comfort and demonstrate a pay back period of 3.6 years; IAQ parameters (namely CO2 concentration) evaluation has been based on the formulated are presented for the main area As one may energy model. see, during fermentation indoor conditions lie close to thermal comfort ones on a temperature level; nevertheless, after storage rooms heating Juice/must fermentation period, which is by winter time, 12% Cooling fridge 34% the non‐ conditioning of the vinification area is 29% responsible for the temperature decreasing and lying below thermal comfort level. Relative auxilliary devices labelling device humidity is high, on the edge of the thermal 19% 6% comfort limits; this can be potentially attributed to the rather low temperatures of the specific space. Table 2. Environmental parameters at the main Figure 3. Calculated energy consumption share of vinification area main processes for the winery During Fermentation After Fermentation Mean Min‐max Mean Min‐max Figure 4 provides some insight on the Τ (oC) 18.3 14.6‐22.0 14.5 11.4‐16.1 operation of the refrigeration chambers of the RH (%) 70.8 40.6‐100 71.0 54.2‐99.4 warehouse. One may see the temperature CO2 (ppm) 1966.9 239‐5000 562.7 325.0‐1155.0 fluctuation inside the storage chambers; Regarding VOCs, which were also detected and temperature ranges between 0.8oC and 2.2oC quantified, the effect of night (and partially o daily) ventilation resulted to the detection of with an average value of 1.3 C, that is, the higher VOCs concentrations for the non‐ fruit preservation temperature, in other words winemaking period, taking place by winter the set‐point of the cooling units, are observed. time. The predominant VOCs for the storage A time‐ step of 2 mins has been selected, in room are a‐pinene and 3‐carene, i.e. terpenes, order to accurately record the temperature naturally emitted from the cork and wood fluctuation. (pine) made barrels of the wine storage tanks. In terms of energy analysis, simulated results present a deviation of 16.1%, which is quite satisfactory given the related uncertainties (devices operation times, heat pumps/chillers performance, etc.). in figure 3, the share of the main processes to 193 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece context, employees are dissatisfied with the thermal comfort conditions in the business premises and this is something that directly affects their work efficiency. Regarding the drying unit, the analysis demonstrated that the most important consumption is that of the drying process. Within this context, it has been decided to put more emphasis on the operation of the respective systems, Figure 4. Cooling chambers temperature attempting to optimize their energy throughout a typical operation period performance. In order to assess the satisfaction of workers regarding their working environment, mainly 4. CONCLUSIONS on thermal level, but regarding IAQ issues also, The elaborated indoor climate measurements and how this could potentially affect their have allowed the evaluation of the working efficiency, a questionnaire has been environmental conditions the workers are developed and shared to 15 people of the subject to. Moreover, the indicated parameters warehouse. This action has been considered proved to be helpful for the energy analysis. necessary, due to the fact that the priority of For all cases, main difficulties were related to the premises is sheltered, but not closed on all the requirements of the measuring procedure, sides with regard to the ambient environment; regarding time, equipment and minimization of consequently the workers are exposed on low the interaction with the workers, as well as to temperatures by winter time, and potentially the high uncertainty accompanying the high by summer time. The respondents of the parameters entering the energy model, questionnaires hold different positions in the including agricultural products quantities and company, working either in the workplace devices operation time. Validation results area, or frequently entering the storage demonstrated that the proper design of the chambers or mainly staying in the office. Figure analysis may lead to the development of safe 5 demonstrates the above in terms of conclusions, regarding indoor climate and sensation. energy consumption. The proposed methodology may be exploited towards the environmental and energy upgrade of units with special and diverse characteristics, as the agro‐industrial ones. AKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors of this work would like to thank the owners of the respective agro‐ industrial units, Karanikas winery, ASEPOP Velvento Cooperative, and 4G Foods for allowing their Figure 5. Questionnaires’ analysis access and work on the premises, as well as for It is evident that workers consider their the provision of all necessary data for the workplace cold (72%) or slightly cool (14%). analysis. With the evaluation of the questionnaires, it is also understood that the employees would REFERENCES work in a warmer workplace, while the lighting [1] EU, 2018a. Directive (EU) 2018/2002 of the of the facilities is incomplete. 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Biomass and Bioenergy 91, 150‐159 195 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 196 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINT ASSESSMENT OF INNOVATIVE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS C. Bochlou, C. Baxevanou* School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT Conventional construction materials have been implicated, on a global level, in the excessive consumption of natural resources; what is more, the building industry comes second in consuming the biggest amount of raw materials after the industry of food production. Furthermore, based on the Life cycle Analysis of both construction materials and buildings in general, it was found that the use of conventional materials increases the environmental and energy footprint and, as a result, it is necessary to seek innovative solutions. These solutions consist in making the most of existing materials though the circular economy and sustainability. The construction and demolition waste can act as a resource which gets recycled and reused instead of contaminating and polluting the environment. The reduction, reuse and recycling of construction waste can be the input for producing innovative materials. In the present paper three types of innovative construction materials (ecological, reused and recycled) are compared with the convectional construction materials in terms of Life cycle Analysis (LCA) of a rock building subject of renovation and repair interventions. The operational energy of the building is calculated using the quasi‐steady‐state monthly method described in ISO13790, the embodied energy is calculated using the data base of Inventory of Carbon&Energy (ICE), of the University of Bath UK while for the LCA the Athena Impact Estimator. For each examined case the following impact indicators are calculated: Global warming potential, fossil fuel consumption, acidification potential, HH particulate, ozone depleting potential, smog potential, total eutrophication potential primary energy and non‐ renewable energy. The LCA showed the benefits that the reuse and recycling of materials has for the environment and the society. By using a combination of ecological, recyclable and reusable materials, the desired results can be achieved so that the environmental footprint decreases with the minimum cost possible. KEYWORDS Carbonate emissions, Construction waste, Environmentally friendly materials, Life Cycle Analysis greenhouse effect [1]. These data indicate the 1. INTRODUCTION depletion of energy resources, the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the need The construction sector, in global level, to control the environmental impact of depletes the 40% of natural resources, construction in conjunction with their social consumes the 40% of total primary energy and and economic impact. the 15% of fresh water resources and produces the 25% of total waste while emitting 40‐50% During last years a great research effort has of gaseous pollutants that cause the been devoted in finding new environmentally 197 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece friendly building materials but also the designers‐engineers in a more accurate initial environmental upgrade of the existing ones, in design by exploring the environmental order to prevent the above mentioned footprint of different material for the shell reverberations. To achieve this goal, the building construction. Through the inventory of principles of circular economy and the life cycle from the foundation to the sustainability are applied, emphasizing ‘reduce, demolition of the building, the flows of energy reuse, recycle’ and waste elimination, imitating and raw materials from and to nature, the the strategies and patterns of nature. emissions in the air, the water and the earth are recorded. The software has been This paper whether the use of environmentally developed for Canadian energy mix of friendly ecological materials as well as the electricity generation. For the needs of the recovery of waste and construction waste present research the energy mix of through reuse, processing and recycling, Municipality of Halifax is used since it coincides instead of conventional building materials can with the Greek Energy mix of electricity lead to lower energy consumption and lower generation and of energy resources environmental ‐ energy footprint. The present consumption. Finally, it is designed for the research focus on rock wall buildings that calculation of buildings of rectangular cross‐ represent the 7% of existing building stock in section Greece [2]. Those building also present historical, cultural, architectural, aesthetic and The Athena Impact Estimator software requires tourist value in the context of the preservation data regarding the operational energy of the of cultural heritage, awareness raising as well building and the embodied energy of materials as the economic and social benefits of cultural The operational energy was calculated with the tourism. quasi‐steady‐state method described in For this reason a typical stone house was ISO:13790 [4] with the monthly step using the examined with the Life Cycle Analysis software TEE‐KENAK Greek calculation tool with the Athena Impact Estimator. Conclusions are following assumptions: a) use as family house, drawn regarding the environmental ‐ energy b) design temperature during heating period 20 footprint of the building after the use of oC and during cooling period 26 oC, c) environmentally friendly materials for invasive calculation of energy needs for heating, cooling reinforcement and repair work. and domestic hot water. The used results are the primary energy consumption as well as the 2. METHODOLOGY production of CO2. 2.1 Models used The embodied energy of materials was calculated using the data base of Inventory of For the life cycle analysis the software Athena Carbon&Energy (ICE), of the University of Bath Impact Estimator for Buildings software UK, v.2 January of 2011 [5]. This European data inversion 5.4.01 (version 5.43 Build 0101) [3] is base is close to Greek materials, the followed used for the calculation of the following impact methodology is considered valid and indicators: Global warming potential, fossil fuel transparent while it contains a big number of consumption, acidification potential, HH materials. The used results are the embodied particulate, ozone depleting potential, smog energy and the greenhouse gases emission for potential, total eutrophication potential each material. primary energy and non‐ renewable energy. 2.2 Study case The above indices concerns five phase of the building/materials combinations: a) Production The present research concerns the invasive of materials, b) construction phase, c) use of actions of strengthening and repairing the 1st building, d) End of life, e) Beyond building life. floor of a stone‐built typical historical house The Athena software is developed to guide sited in Central Mountain Peloponnese. The 198 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece floor plan of which is shown in figure 1. It is a pump with annual EER = 1.7 is used, without 8.3 m x 12 m building, with height 4 m and distribution network which covers 50% of the pitched roof. All the masonry is made of stone cooling loads. An electric water heater with 0.70 m thick, while the floor and the roof are boiler is used to produce domestic hot water. wooden. The roof is covered with tiles. The 2.3 Parametric study openings’ frames are metallic without thermal break with single glazing and have wooden Four renovation scenarios was examined. The shutters. scenario 0 corresponds to the usage of convectional construction materials and solutions. The scenario 1 is based in the usage of ecological construction materials [6]. The scenario 2 focuses in the reuse of materials and the use of materials from small‐scale processing of construction or municipal waste such as glass and plastic. And finally the scenario 3 is based on recycling while retaining materials where it is preferred and a more Figure 1. Floor plan of examined building. realistic choice. The four examined scenarios are summarized in the following table 1. For heating, a 6 kW oil boiler with an efficiency of 80% is used, with an insufficiently insulated distribution system and radiators on the external walls. For cooling, a split type heat Table 1. Examined cases Intervention Type Intervention materials Scenario 0 Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Floor replacement Concrete slab three‐ply timber reuse of timber of Recycled timber of local origin local origin demolition and addition of new addition of new reusable stone reusable stone and local restoration of stone walls and local stone and and inert glass cement mortar with the north side due cement mortar mortar from mud mortar recycled glass to an extensive and sawdust replacement rate crack in the load‐ bearing masonry Roof replacement conventional logs of the area logs of the area recycled wood and wood (pine wood) (spruce timber), (spruce timber), recycled tiles and clay tiles stone for coating stone for coating and insulation and insulation from mineral wool from mineral wool grout injections in cement mortar ecological mud cement mortar cement mortar with local cracks and sawdust with a percentage a percentage of mortar of aggregates cement from lightly replacement from processed recycled glass recycled glass 199 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece mass cement mortar ecological mud cement mortar cement mortar with homogenization and sawdust with a percentage a percentage of on the east side of mortar of aggregates cement the building from lightly replacement from processed recycled glass recycled glass Replacement of aluminum frame Frame of new Frame of reusable Frame of recycled windows and double glazing local timber spruce timber and timber and double (spruce timber) double glazing glazing and double glazing Energy internal thermal Internal insulation Internal insulation Internal insulation performance insulation from of exterior of exterior of exterior masonry upgrade expanded graphite masonry and roof masonry and roof from 8 cm mineral polystyrene 8 cm from 8 cm mineral from 8 cm mineral wool of exterior wool wool masonry phase. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In Figures 2‐10 the impact indicators are presented comparatively for the 5 examined phases of building life. In Figure 2 the Global Warming potential is presented in Kg of equivalent CO2. The energy consumed during the use of the building seems to have the bigger contribution in warming potential. The second important contributor is the materials’ production phase followed by the building construction phase. From the examined Figure 3. Acidification Potential scenarios the best behavior is achieved with In figure 4 particulates matter of various sizes the scenario 2 which corresponds to the reuse (PM10 and PM2.5) that have a considerable of construction materials and the worst impact on human health are presented in kg of scenario is the one concerning the equivalent PM2.5. Except from the phase of conventional construction materials. building operation important are the HH particulate that appears in the phase of production of the construction materials. Again the lower amounts of PMs are emitted in the case of reused materials in the materials production phase and during the building operation. The smallest amount of particles is emitted by reusable materials followed by recyclable and environmentally friendly materials. Conventional construction materials are responsible for the largest particle Figure 2. Global Warming Potential emissions In figure 3 the acidification potential is given in Kg of equivalent CO2. The comments are the same as for the Global Warming Potential with enhanced contribution from the construction 200 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece In figure 7 the smog potential of the examined cases is presented in kg of equivalent CFC. In this case important smog potential appears in the phases of materials’ production and of building construction. During the materials production the differences between the examined scenarios are small with the conventional materials behave with the worst way. On the contrary during the building Figure 4. HH Particulate construction phase the conventional construction materials have the best behavior Figure 5 shows the eutrophication potential followed by the ecological materials, reused during the life cycle stages of the building in kg materials and finally recycled materials. of equivalent N2. Conventional materials Important can be also characterized the present high eutrophication potential in the contribution of the end of building life phase. phase of their production as well as in the Nevertheless during the operation phase of the phase of building operation. The lower building, and therefore overall, the reusable eutrophication potential belongs to reused materials have the best performance materials while the recycled and the environmental friendly behaves in the same way. Figure 7. Smog Potential In figure 8 the fossil fuel consumption is given Figure 5. Eutrophication Potential in MJ. During the materials production and building construction phases all examined Figure 6 gives the Ozone Depletion Potential of scenarios have almost the same behavior with the examined cases in kg of equivalent O3. the ecological materials excelling during the Again the higher ozone depletion arises from production phase and the conventional the building operation with the reused construction materials during the building materials presenting the better behavior and construction phase respectively. Again during the other three scenarios having almost the building operation best results are achieved same behavior. The rest building life cycle with the reused materials. phases can be ignored in this impact indicator. Figure 6. Ozone Depletion Potential Figure 8. Fossil Fuel Consumption 201 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece In figure 9 the consumption of primary energy the most important source of environmental in MJ for the examined scenarios in life cycle impact is the building operation, followed by phases of the building are compared. Again the the phase of materials construction and the most important part of consumed primary phase of building construction. The phases of energy is related with the building operation end of use of the building and beyond building and with the materials production with the life contribute little in the building reused materials presenting the best results. In environmental footprint. During the materials the rest phases the patterns are the same with production phase and during the building one described in fossil fuel consumption. construction phase all the scenarios give comparable results. But during the building operation phase the reused materials present the lower environmental impact as they are described in scenario 2. Overall, the greatest burden on the environment and society comes from the use of conventional materials, scenario 0. Ecological construction materials do not seem to fulfill the expectations for low environmental foot print since they lead to Figure 9. Total Primary Energy depletion of natural resources. Finally in Figure 10 the non‐renewable energy consumed for the examined cases is presented REFERENCES in MJ. The observed patterns are the same as [1] Grace K. C. Ding., 2016 ‘Life cycle assessments the one described in fossil fuel consumption (LCA) sustainable building materials: an overview’ and in primary energy consumption with an University of Technology Sydney, Australia overall excelling of the reused materials. [2] Hellenic Statistical Authority, 2011, 'Building census 2011' http://www.statistics.gr/el/census‐ buildings‐2011,retrived 30/12/2018 [3] Athena Sustainable Materials Institute, 2015, 'Athena Impact Estimator for Buildings' [4] Energy performance of buildings ‐ Calculation of energy use for space heating and cooling (ISO 13790:2008) [5] Hammond, G& Jones, Cr 2011,’Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE) Version 2.0’, University of Figure 10. Non Renewable Energy Bath, Bath [6] Berge, Bj 2009, The ecology of Buildings 4. CONCLUSIONS Materials, Architectural Press, Burlington From the presented materials it comes out that 202 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece TROMBE‐MICHEL WALL DESIGN & CALCULATION METHODS, D.Fidaros1*, C. Baxevanou2, A. Karagiannis2, A. Τsangrassoulis1 1Department of Architecture Engineering, University of Thessaly, 38221, Volos, Greece 2School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26335, Patras, Greece ([email protected]) ABSTRACT Trombe Wall is a SAH (Solar Air Heating) system that can combine passive heating and ventilated cooling during the yearly period, a factor extremely significant in Mediterranean climate conditions. The scope of the present work is to summarize guidelines for Trombe design according to international literature and to present the state of the art of the available computational tools for the assessment of its energy performance. The design guidelines according to the literature review concerns mainly the Trombe wall orientation, the wall area, the storage wall thickness, the ventilation slots, the cover glass properties and the air gap width. As far it concerns, the computational tools, a variety of models are presented beginning from analytical models with steady state and/or unsteady analytical calculations, monthly quasi steady models, BES (Building Energy Simulations) and CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) models, steady and transient, 2D and 3D geometries. As it concerns the design beyond the general guidelines available in international literature related with the design of SAH systems, there is a need for the development of quasi steady explicit models, which should be (a) easily used by the engineers and designers and (b) well‐calibrated for various SAHs configurations and operations. Appertaining to the computational tools there is still a lot of space for research for various operations of a Trombe wall (with and without ventilation, insulation and supplementary storage material ‐ eg pcm ‐ and natural or forced air circulation for heating and/or cooling). These models could be used for design optimization and for energy performance assessments. Also, analytical and CFD models could be used along with experimental results for the tuning of quasi steady and BES models. Finally, CFD studies can be used for the assessment of the performance of individual sections of SAH systems aiming at the improvement of their performance. KEYWORDS Computational tools, Design guidelines, Solar Air Heating, Trombe wall feature that can reduces energy demand by up 1. INTRODUCTION to 30% [1]. It transfers heat to a depth equal to one and a half times its height and according to Solar walls, also known as Trombe‐Michel [2] can reduce the final energy consumption for walls, are parts of building envelope that are heating up to 47%. designed to absorb solar radiation and store heat and at same time reducing the building's Trombe walls are divided into: a) ventilated and [3] energy requirements. If a solar wall is properly non‐ventilated , b) with natural or forced [2,4] installed it can be an important architectural circulation , c) with and without insulation 203 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece [5,6], d) only for winter operation or/and for for the simulation of transport phenomena in summer operation as a solar chimney. the room which is equipped with the Trombe wall and finally for the simulation of transport There is an extensive literature on the design phenomena of discrete sections of the passive and operation as well as the energy system. performance assessment of Trombe walls. An important part of the literature concerns In the section 2 of the results, design guidelines measurements in pilot constructions with according to the literature review are important conclusions which are difficult to be presented concerning mainly the Trombe wall generalized. Furthermore, for the optimization orientation, the wall area, the storage wall of the design as well as the calculation of the thickness, the ventilation slots, the cover glass energy efficiency, it is often suggested non user properties and the air gap width. friendly software and/or specialized commercial tools non trivial to an unfamiliar 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION average designer. Even ISO 13790 [7] is essentially limited to the description of 3.1 Computational models Trombe‐Michel wall operation only to In this section is described the category of the mechanical ventilation. This is one of the software tools as they distinguished below in factors that precludes the widespread Quasi‐steady models, the analytic solutions, application of such a useful passive heating the BES models and CFD simulations. system. 3.1.1 Quasi‐steady models In the present work an attempt is made to present on the one hand the basic general The operation of a Trombe wall is a dynamic guidelines for the design of a Trombe wall and operation with the transport phenomena on the other hand, the state of the art of the involved depending on the ever‐changing available computational tools for the external conditions and heat storage. This is assessment of its energy performance, therefore a difficult dynamic problem. In ISO‐ [7] covering all the range from quasi‐steady, 13790 an analytical quasi‐steady model is analytical, BES (Building Energy Simulations) suggested for the calculation of a Trombe wall and CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) energy performance. In the 2004 version of the models. international standard (UNE‐EN ISO 13790:2004) the calculation of the Trombe wall had to be done as an iterative process, because 2. METHODOLOGY the effective solar area had to be known in The literature review is organized in two basic order to calculate the solar gains of the air sections. The first concerns the computational layer. The 2007 version uses the total area of tools and the second section concerns design the Trombe wall to calculate those gains, so, guidelines. according to the equations of the 2007 version, iteration is not required and the suggested A wide range of computational tools is model can be considered explicit. This means presented beginning from quasi‐steady models that it can be solved by a spreadsheet. The (implicit and explicit) with monthly or seasonal important feature of the ISO model is that the time step, to analytical models steady state or quasi‐ steady model describes only the case of unsteady with a small time step, to BES tools forced ventilated Trombe wall, where the air commercially available or research type until flow through the air gap is known. In paper [8], Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) models 2D a revision of the ISO suggested model is and 3D, steady‐ state or unsteady. The presented and some corrections are suggested. presented computational tools are designed This assessment pinpoints the existence of for the description and simulation of the whole some errors in the equations provided in EN structure operation of the passive element, or ISO 13790 [7] under steady state conditions and 204 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece suggest some modifications. Nevertheless, it is studied by simulating its operation with still holds only for known air flow rates. TRNSYS with hourly step as well as by LCA analysis. They conclude that based on the 3.1.2 Analytical models annual energy efficiency the Trombe wall In fact, it has long been attempted to should cover 37% of the surface of a wall. determine the performance of the solar passive However, based on the life cycle analysis, it elements function with an analytical tool that should cover 2.4%. The study concerns th city would allow the design of efficient devices. In of the Amman, Jordan. In the same work the [9] an analytical model is developed for development of an interesting analytical model calculating the energy efficiency of a Trombe is examined. wall with a monthly step using an equivalent [17] electrical circuit and a series of simplistic Paper studies a classical and a complex assumptions. In this concept a number of Trombe‐Michel Trombe wall with TRNSYS and analytical models have been suggested. Models an in‐house finite difference method that describe the operation of a solar chimney experimentally validated. They prove that the [10,11] or models that describe the operation of used computational methods are effective and Trombe wall [12]. All these models are implicit the Trombe composite wall appears better and require some kind of iteration technique to energy efficiency in cold and cloudy weather. solve the suggested system of equations. But In [18] they measure the performance of a unlike the quasi‐steady models in the system of Trombe wall in a real building and at the same equations, the air flow in the gap is also time, they calculate the performance with calculated. Their most important feature is the EnergyPlus. EnergyPlus does not have ready‐ assumption of the inside flow type in the gap. made components for Trombe walls however it The type of flow (laminar or turbulent) and the can be used to build related simulations. Its numbers Ra and Re respectively determine the effectiveness for non‐ ventilated wall has been relationships that will be used to calculate the tested by Ellis in 2003 [19]. heat transfer coefficients. Therefore, each 3.1.4 CFD models model corresponds to specific family of geometries (range of air gap width) and As expected, CFD techniques have also been external climatic conditions. used to study the transfer henomena that develop on Trombe walls either in areas that Those analytical models cannot be used relate exclusively to the wall area or in directly by engineers in the early stage of the computational domains that extend throughout design, since they require programming. Those the room. models are often embodied in BES models either they are used for the calculation of the Thus the studies start from 2D geometries heat transfer coefficients and air flow rates, using finite volume method [20] or finite which are required by the explicit quasi‐steady element methods [10], considering laminar or models. turbulent flows [21]. 3.1.3 BES models However, there exist studies in 3D geometries with the method of finite volumes. In paper [22] BES (Building Energy Simulation) tools have a CFD study is performed by simulating been widely used to simulate the operation of radiation with a DO model of a room in Trombe walls located in relation with area Belgrade equipped with a Trombe wall for [13] the energy where are installed. In work typical days of a typical meteorological year. In efficiency of a Trombe wall in the same the work [23] a solar chimney system with earth building in different orientations and different tubes is studied. The CFD model is certified cities in Portugal with Design Builder [14] and with a corresponding experimental device. A EnergyPlus [15] is calculated. similar study of a solar chimney is made in [24]. In [16] the performance of a Trombe wall is 205 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 3.1.5 Models for discrete parts of a Trombe the type of solar wall. In a non‐ventilated wall storage wall thickness increase can lead to reduction of heating gains, while in a typical The solar wall is practically a system for ventilated Trombe wall will lead to increase of producing hot air from solar energy, ie a solar solar gains [34]. As a rule of thumb, the air heater (SAH). Its principle of operation is thickness of the storage wall ranges from 15 to the same as that of a solar thermal collector, so 40 cm. Insufficient thickness leads to significant its study can be based on corresponding studies fluctuations in indoor temperature, but an of SAH systems used either for space heating or increase in thickness leads to an increase in for Domestic Hot water (DHW) production. cost. Finally a very thick wall significantly delays From a large number of studies for solar panels the transfer of heat inside, which can cause can be collected and examined information to thermal discomfort to the occupants [35]. increase efficiency focusing on increasing heat transfer with proper treatment of the Trombe wall performance also depends on the absorption surface (roughness, fins, etc.) [25]. combination of material and color of the The work [26] examines the amplification of heat storage wall. The type of materials is the most transfer using blades, rods or curved surfaces important factor for the operation of the wall on the collection surface. The work [27] also as it determines both he conductivity and the examines the use of fins, the use of multiple air thermal capacity [21,36]. A concrete wall can paths and the use of wires perpendicular to the reduce the mass required for heat storage by air path in order to increase turbulence and 90% compared to a paraffin panel and increase consequently the convection coefficient as well the efficiency by 20% [37]. Increasing the weight as the heat exchange surface. The use of other increases the heat storage capacity, however it matrix materials for heat storage is also also increases the static loads. [28]. Finally, interesting considered in the work As far it concerns the ventilation slots, a larger analytical models can be drawn from work on number of openings with smaller dimensions is more general SAHs and adapted to the preferable to a large opening [34]. It is [29] characteristics of a Trombe wall suggested to cover a 1‐2% of the storage wall 3.2 Design guidelines surface so not to reduce its thermal capacity [38]. Increasing of the area of supply slots in According to [30] the optimal orientation of a Trombe wall is ± 30 ° from the South. combination with increasing the thickness of the air gap between the glazing and the wall The optimal Trombe wall surface to the total leads to better ventilation [39]. The optimal ratio wall surface fraction is 37%. Above this of the slots’ opening and the height of the wall percentage the energy benefit is negligible is 3/20 when the width of the gap is greater [16]. The height of the wall should be greater than 0.1 m [40]. Finally as far it concerns the than 1 m so that it can be used as a solar optimum ventilation control strategy it is chimney [31]. suggested to open the slots 2‐ 3 h after the The optimal thickness of the storage wall sunrise and to close them 1 h before the sunset [41] depends on latitude, climatic conditions and . heat losses [32]. The thickness of the storage A very important feature concerning the wall is a key factor influencing the effectiveness Trombe wall design is the type of cover glazing. of the Trombe wall. Concrete for example can In the case of a single glazing that could delay heat transfer inside the building interior maximize the solar gains during the day the use from 120 to 150 min for every 10 cm of of night insulation would be necessary to thickness, while for a wall with thickness 20 cm reduce heat loss [42]. For mild climates with heat will require several hours to reach the significant sunshine such as the case of Greece, room interior [33]. The relationship between double glazing is recommended. Double glazing thickness and performance also depends on has better energy performance in summer to 206 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece achieve passive ventilation [39]. external climatic conditions, since the calculation of heat transfer depends on the Another suggestion is to replace the side walls type of flow in the air gap. of the Trombe wall with glazing. This can lead to an increase of 16% of the incident radiation The BES models require specialized handling as it can utilize the radiation both at sunrise and and data and they suffer from the ame at sunset. This increase in incident radiation can appropriateness problems as the analytical lead to an increase in internal temperature of 3 models. [43]. to 6°C with negligible additional losses CFD models, either they concern the whole SAH Another important proposal, which leads to an either part of it require specialized increase in construction costs, is the use of programming qualifications or commercial electrochromic materials in the glazing. These resources. However, they can be used along are transparent in the spectrum of solar with measurements for the validation of (visible) radiation when the temperature is low analytical and BES models and/or for the and heating is required and opaque in both the calculation of heat transfer coefficients used in visible and infrared spectrum of radiation when quasi‐steady models. the temperature is high [44] . Another issue that could be considered is that Finally important role has the width of the air the design guidelines should be used with care gap between the cover and the storage wall. as they concern specific climatic conditions or According to [40] the optimal width of the gap is they are derived by simulations with definite the 1/10 of the height. Thus, the optimal width datasets. [40] is between 0.2 and 0.3 m . In others, however, the width of the gap must be limited ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS to 2 to 5 cm in order to create a small space for air [13]. The work has been carried out under Research Program HFRI: Numerical and experimental assessment of solar air heater systems 4. CONCLUSIONS performance towards zero energy buildings‐ What could really help an engineer in the early NUMEXSAH, funded by GSRT. stages of designing a passive solar system such as the Trombe wall would be the existence of a REFERENCES quasi‐steady explicit model with a set of equations that could be solved sequentially on a [1] Wang, R., Zhai X.,2009, Handbook of Energy spread sheet. Such a model currently exists Systems in Green Buildings, R Springer, Verlag only for mechanically ventilated Trombe wall, Gmbh Germnay, 2018 since the explicit quasi‐steady models requires [2] Balcomb, J.D., 1992, Passive solar buildings, the knowledge of air flow through the air gap. Hong Kong: MIT Press Furthermore, the simplistic assumptions they [3] Yezioro, A., 2009, A knowledge based CAAD contain may affect the results, especially if the system for passive solar architecture. 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Chatzidimitriou1,3 1Environmental Design, School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, Parodos Aristotelous 18, 26335, Patra, Greece 2Department of Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art, UNIWA, 11521, Athens, Greece 3Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, AUTH, 54636, Thessaloniki, Greece (*[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]) ABSTRACT A major design concern in recent years has been the quality and adequate lighting of workplaces in public administration buildings by making appropriate use of natural daylight. Τhis study, examines the influence of different shading methods implemented in public administration buildings on daylight quality and energy savings potential. To be more specific the paper presents an analysis and evaluation of various shading systems that can be applied to public administration buildings, in order to achieve adequate and uniform daylighting in the workplace as well as to reduce the energy required for heating cooling and artificial lighting. It is further investigated, through an existing case study building whether or not the application of shading systems reduces the natural daylight in the interior space, and if their absence leads to the increase of thermal gains. The analysis results demonstrate that the absence of shading systems causes overheating during the summer period as well as glare problems, undesirable in the offices of the building. Taking into account the above analysis, the conclusions of the comparative evaluation of the results lead to useful data for the design and further study of shading methods in administration buildings. These methods can utilize daylighting and provide visual comfort to occupants, while the energy required for heating and cooling can be reduced. KEYWORDS Daylight; administration buildings; bioclimatic design; shading systems; visual comfort; energy savings. visual comfort offered by daylight was 1. INTRODUCTION compromised and replaced by the artificial lighting systems. Consequently, the artificial Daylight in buildings has long been used in lighting of public office buildings came to order to ensure visual comfort conditions represent the 23‐28% of the total electricity indoors. However, after the energy crisis of consumed, making it imperative to reconsider 1973, the need to reduce heat gains and losses utilizing natural daylight to provide adequate through the building envelope led to a lighting of buildings [1]. reduction in both the number and dimensions of the openings of the buildings. As a result, The main goals of the daylight design of a building are to ensure sufficient lighting levels 211 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece inside, so that users’ requirements are met, to 2. METHODOLOGY reduce or eliminate the risk of glare and to The assessment of shading systems is avoid strong contrasts in the brightness of performed on a case study building, the internal objects. It should also be highlighted, Services Building of the Municipality of that in office users prefer daylight as they Makrakomi, situated in Makrakomi, Fthiotida believe that it leads to less stress and (lat. 38.93o). Two simulation software tools [2]. discomfort than working under artificial light were used, ECOTECT v.2011 and RADIANCE, in The daylight inside a building is calculated order to evaluate the influence of shading based on the daylight factor (DF), with systems on the diffusion of daylight at the sufficient values for offices ranging from 2% to occupants’ working level in the office space of 5% [3]. For other uses in building interior spaces, the administration building and on visual the daylight factor values may range from 0 to comfort. These programs also evaluate how 5% in an area that occupies approximately 80% the shading systems affect the requirements of the interior space and reach up to 10% or for artificial lighting and the heating and 15% near the windows [4]. cooling loads required to ensure thermal In order to achieve adequate daylight inside comfort. the building, measures must be taken to More specifically, the interior space studied, is ensure the building’s quality in terms of design Office no.1 located on the 1st floor of the and construction. Glazing surfaces and Services Building (Fig. 1 ‐ 3). This building has a windows allow the diffusion of daylight in the disadvantaged east orientation, without the interior space but on the other hand, increase existence of any shading system. The study the risk of glare and visual discomfort, as well evaluated the application of three solar as the building cooling loads. Quality control is protection systems in the following case achieved by selecting openings of appropriate scenarios: size, and suitable location on the building facades, and by using high quality glass panes Table 1. Examined cases of solar protection. and shading elements [3]. Shading systems Shading system The design of a building for daylight should scenarios description include the installation of appropriate shading Base Case 0 Without shading system systems at the openings, in order to avoid overheating and glare indoors. At the same Case 1 Exterior horizontal fixed time, care should be taken not to limit lighting blinds to very low levels, mainly in cloudy days. Case 2 Exterior horizontal fixed blinds with internal light‐ These shading systems can be distinguished in shelf three general categories: 1) internal 2) external Case 3 Exterior vertical movable and 3) systems contained in the windows blinds glazing. The third type can be divided into According to the literature research, these several sub‐categories depending on the type systems are common methods of solar of protection they provide and their mode of protection in administration buildings. operation (mechanical, manual or mixed) [5]. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the performance of various shading systems and the potential to achieve at the same time adequate utilization of daylight and energy savings in administration buildings. 212 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece The analysis was completed with the comparative evaluation of the results. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Solar shading study From the solar shading study, it emerged that in the current situation (base case) the solar radiation enters the space of Office no.1 mainly from the east openings in the morning and Figure 1. East (main) view of Makrakomi reaches the back of the room, both in the Municipality Service Building in Makrakomi, winter period and in the summer months. Fthiotida. The horizontal blinds, with or without the light‐ shelf, (cases 1 and 2) manage to efficiently shade the office space both in the morning and during the rest of the day during the employees' working hours. The most effective way of shading the east openings of Office no. 1 is to put vertical movable blinds which can rotate around their support axis and take such a position that prevents the entry of the sun rays inside the office (case 3). Their disadvantage is the restriction to view outside during the hours that are at an oblique angle. Figure 2. Office no. 1 floor plant. 3.2 Daylight analysis 3.2.1 Distribution of daylight study DF% The Radiance Program was used for the analysis of daylight distribution for overcast sky. The distribution of DF was calculated for the current situation and for every shading system scenario separately (Fig. 4 ‐7). %D F 15.0+ 13.6 Figure 3. View Office no. 1. 12.1 10.6 9.2 The above shading systems were tested on the 7.8 6.3 space of Office no.1 for the degree of influence 4.8 3.4 that each one has on both daylight and the 1.9 reduction of energy consumption. More 0.5 specifically, the following studies were carried Figure 4. Base Case 0 ‐ Distribution DF (%). out: ‐ solar shading study, The results for the current situation (Base Case ‐ study of daylight distribution, 0) show excessive daylight close to the ‐ analysis of the thermal loads for heating and openings which may cause glare either directly cooling the office or through computer screens. Also, daylight is 213 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece not enough in the area of the NW corner of the Radiance program was then used in order to office. calculate the lighting levels at the employees’ working level for sunny sky conditions. The The application of horizontal blinds (Case 1) date set for the calculation was June 21th at 8 manages to prevent glare near the openings a.m., as the most unfavorable case in terms of and to create a uniform distribution of daylight. the possibility of glare. %D F In the current situation (base case) and during 15.0+ 13.6 the day and time of the study it was observed 12.1 10.6 that the lighting levels were too high in 9.2 7.8 relation to the desired ones (fig. 8). 6.3 4.8 3.4 1.9 0.5 Figure 5. Case 1 ‐ Distribution DF (%). With the additional application of the internal light shelf (Case 2), it was observed that the area of sufficient daylight is extended further in the room and beyond the space near the openings. In this area the daylight is distributed Figure 8. Base Case 0 ‐ daylight levels (lux). more efficiently. The application of external horizontal blinds (case 1) reduces the levels of daylight on the %D F most unfavorable day, and limits the area of 15.0+ 13.6 potential glare (above 2000lux) to an area of 12.1 about 1.00m from the east openings (fig. 9). 10.6 9.2 7.8 265.45 6.3 4.8 2818.56 3.4 1.9 0.5 613.55 Figure 6. Case 2 ‐ Distribution DF (%). 365.51 The placement of vertical movable blinds (Case 3) causes the smallest reduction of the daylight factor DF in comparison with the initial condition. As a result, most of the office’s Figure 9. Case 1 ‐ daylight levels (lux). space has sufficient lighting (> 2%). By installing an additional internal light‐shelf (case 2), a larger area of the office has lighting %D F levels above 300lux (fig. 10), and in this way, if 15.0+ 13.6 employees avoid the area near the openings, 12.1 10.6 they can ensure satisfactory working conditions 9.2 7.8 in terms of daylight provided. 6.3 4.8 3.4 1.9 0.5 Figure 7. Case 3 ‐ Distribution DF (%). 3.2.2 Study of daylight levels 214 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 302.79 The results of the energy performance 3376.21 analysis reveal that: ‐ In the current situation Office no. 1 requires 699.34 637kWh per year for heating and 1034kWh 418.24 for cooling. ‐ With the installation of the external horizontal blinds the thermal loads increase Figure 10. Case 2 ‐ daylight levels (lux). to 687kWh and the cooling loads decrease to 965kWh. With the installation of vertical external blinds ‐ The installation of additional internal (case 3), lighting levels of more than 200lux are shelves in addition to the blinds, further achieved in the north‐west corner of the office reduce the thermal loads to 679kWh and and close to 500lux and above in the rest of the increase the cooling loads to 975kWh. office (fig. 11). As a result, if employees avoid those areas, where maximum values are ‐ The vertical external blinds reduce the observed, they can work in conditions of thermal loads to 665kWh and the cooling satisfactory visual comfort. loads to 995kWh compared to the initial condition. 201.63 2305.45 562.84 353.30 Figure 11. Case 3 ‐ daylight levels (lux). Figure 12. Graphical representation of total annual 3.2.3 Study of energy requirements energy consumption distributed to heating and The energy performance analysis focused on cooling loads (kWh). the calculation of heating and cooling loads for the office no.1. The whole analysis was carried out using the program ECOTECT v.2011. The 4. CONCLUSIONS calculated monthly and annual thermal loads The analysis of the influence of different for the tested scenarios are presented in the shading devices on daylight distribution and following table (Table 2). energy requirements for a case study office space in a public administration building led to Table 2. Heating ‐ cooling loads and annual energy requirements of Office no. 1. the following conclusions: Annual Annual 1. Vertical movable blinds are the most Total annual consumption consumption energy effective way of shading the east openings, Cases of heating of cooling consumption as they provide the ability to rotate around energy energy (kWh) (kWh) (kWh) their support axis and take such a position Base 636.56 1034.16 1670.71 that prevents the entry of sunrays inside the Case 0 office. Their disadvantage is the restriction Case 1 687.45 964.79 1652.23 to view outside during the hours that are at Case 2 679.39 974.64 1654.03 an angle. Case 3 664.93 994.22 1659.15 2. The application of shading methods results 215 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece in a more uniform distribution of daylight at 8. The application of shading systems leads to working level throughout the office area and the increase of the required energy for up to its depth. The shading systems also heating in winter and reduces the required eliminate glare which is observed mainly in energy for cooling in summer. the morning and create a working In conclusion, the shading systems may control environment with smaller changes during the daylight in the interior of the building to working hours. obtain more uniform daylight distribution and 3. The disadvantage of the application of to reduce or eliminate glare and cause a shading systems is that they reduce the decrease of cooling loads in the cooling season average daylight factor to levels below 2%. and an increase of heating loads in the heating As a result, the use of artificial lighting is season. required. 4. In the current situation, the office receives REFERENCES high levels of daylight (>800lux) on the [1] Greek Ministry of Development, 2008, Energy st examined day on June 21 at 08:30 am. Efficiency Action Plan. Athens. pp. 25‐33. With the application of shading systems, the areas of high daylight levels are significantly [2] Doulos L., Tsangrassoulis A., Topalis F.V., 2007, Evaluation of lighting controls in office buildings, reduced and limited to a zone near the east 6th WSEAS International Conference on CIRCUITS, openings. SYSTEMS, ELECTRONICS, CONTROL & SIGNAL 5. The application of external horizontal blinds PROCESSING. Cairo Egypt. pp. 29‐31. causes the greatest reduction of daylight but [3] Axarli Κ., Yannas S., Evaggelinos Ε., if combined with internal light‐shelves the Zacharopoulos I., Marda Ν., 2001, Volume A': reduction is less. Bioclimatic design of buildings. Patra: HOU. pp. 155‐ 250. 960‐538‐336‐5. 6. The vertical blinds placed at an angle of 60o clockwise reduce the levels of daylight on [4] Tregenza P., Loe D., 1998, The design of June 21st and limit the area of intense lighting. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 156. lighting above 2000lux to a small area of 0‐419‐20440‐7. about 1.00‐2.00m from the east openings. [5] Gherri B., 2015, Assessment of Daylight Performance in Buildings. Southampton: WIT Press. 7. With the installation of shading systems, the pp. 60. 978‐1‐78466‐040‐6. required thermal loads increase and the cooling loads decrease. 216 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece THE MICLOCLIMATE OF THE COURTYARDS IN BUILDING BLOCKS: SIMULATION OF THE MICROCLIMATE OF A BUILDING BLOCK AND RESEARCH OF THE IMPROVEMENT POTENTIAL THROUGH THE RECONFORMATION OF EACH OPEN SPACE. E. Markou1, A.Economou1,2 1School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 18 Aristotelous st , 26335 Patra 2School of Applied Mathematical and Physical Sciences, National Technical University of Athens Email: [email protected], [email protected] ABSTRACT The speed of reconstruction in the big cities of our country, the need of the inhabitants for affordable housing and the lack of environmental conscience in the past years, led to the expulsion of natural elements from the cities. Vacant land has been reduced to a bare minimum and nowadays it is vital that nature returns in these areas. Making the best of the remaining urban vacant space is one of the last possibilities for urban recovery. Sustainable architecture design of the vacant areas inside a building block can contribute to the change of the overall image of the city by improving the quality of life. The object of the present work is to investigate the possibility of improving the microclimate and thermal comfort conditions through the redesign of the free spaces inside a building block. For this purpose, building block 179 in the center of the city of Serres was chosen. With the help of the ENVI‐met simulation program, the current situation and the improvement proposal are evaluated. The data analyzed led to the conclusion that bioclimatic interventions related to the use of cold materials and the increase of natural elements (low green, trees, water) improved the thermal comfort conditions for the users of the area. KEYWORDS building block; vacant areas; microclima; thermal confort; ENVI‐met quality of life and consequently on the mental 1. INTRODUCTION and physical health of its inhabitants. (Nilsson, et al. 2011). The rapid development of Greek cities led to densely built up and densely populated urban Based on the microclima’s ideal size an centres. The microclimate that is formed in an environmental regeneration can be proposed urban area is influenced by human activity and because it influences directly the place where the form of the built environment, in addition people live, work and are affected by the city’s to the special weather conditions that prevail negative consequences on them. (Tumini, in each area. The degradation of the natural 2015) environment and the lack of quality urban The urban climate is a combination of green spaces in the urban fabric of the city microclimates that is produced by the roads have negative consequences not only on the and in the open spaces between buildings. It formation of the microclimate, but also on the depends by the physical and functional 217 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece characteristics and the morphology of the 3. STUDY AREA immediate environment. (Oke, 1987) 3.1. The city of Serres The building block is the basic organizational The city of Serres is the capital of the cell of the urban fabric. (Gerolimbou, et al. municipality of Serres, belongs to the 1986) The way it is structured affects the Administrative Region of Central Macedonia in overall image of the city. The redesign of the Greece (Figure 1). valuable free spaces of each building block according to bioclimatic criteria can improve the microclimate and the thermal comfort conditions of the inhabitants of the whole city. Studies conducted to improve the microclimate of outdoor conditions in recent years are increasingly using simulation models. The scientific community has turned to the study of these models in an effort to assess the impact in time and to improve urban redesign proposals. of Figure 1 (Research Area) (www.serres.gr) 2. METHODOLOGY Characteristics of the city Initially, the research refers to the effect of • It is located at an altitude of 50m above sea outdoor design, materials, plantings and other level and for the most part it is almost flat parameters on the microclimate and comfort (www.serres.gr). conditions that develop within the urban fabric. For this purpose, the evolution of the • It belongs to the 3rd climatic zone, which legislative framework regarding the means that it consists of buildings with high configuration of the courtyards has been taken energy consumption needs for their cooling and into account. heating (OJHR, 2017). The research, then, focused on the scale of a •Its population amounts to 58,287 inhabitants building block, the block (179) in the city of (HSAG,2011). Serres where the current situation was studied • It is classified in the 2nd level category of and the renovation of its free spaces was residential centres, which have services that proposed. cover the area of Serres, while there are The block 179 was chosen because it brings operations in the city that have radiation together a wide variety of different features outside the area of Serres. that allow the conclusions to be generalized • According to the new General Urban from the level of a building block to the city Planning (GUP) (OJHR,2013) the city is divided level. into 17 urban units, which are grouped into The paper is completed with the evaluation of seven districts. the improvement achieved through simulation 3.2 The building block 179 with specialized software and concludes with The Building block 179 is located in the city general instructions for the optimal design of centre, between Merarchias St, Thessalonikis building block. St, Redestou St and Alexandridi St. In fact, these are two building blocks in 179 and 179a that are separated by a narrow street, Delaporta St. (Figure 2). 218 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece B.B. 179 B.B. 179A Figure 4. 3ds proposal 3.4 Evaluation of the proposal using software Figure 2. Study area The evaluation of the proposal was done with the use of the ENVI‐met simulation software The building block 179 has significant (www.envi‐met.com). courtyards of different forms (interior courtyard, lawn, unstructured plot, small Air and surface temperatures, wind speed and square, roads that can become areas for PMV thermal comfort index were studied pedestrians). It has a section with high and during a typical day of the hottest month of the densely built buildings and a section with low year, before and after the application of the construction and, finally, it is at a key point for configuration proposal. the creation of a green network in the city. The data entered in the program are presented 3.3 Regeneration proposal in the following table (Table 1): The proposed interventions (Figure 3, 4) aim at Table 1 (Study area data). improving the microclimate of the area and the Geographical 23ο33΄ (length) 41ο05’ thermal comfort conditions, especially during (width) location of the city of the summer months, therefore great emphasis Serres is placed on increasing the green areas, on the extensive planting of new trees and the use of Simulation day 20 July 2018 cold materials and water elements. Simulation duration 24 hours Wind direction West Dimensions of 50 * 50 cells of geometric model 30 cells height Grid analysis on the 5m horizontal and vertical axis Model dimensions 250m x250m Figure 3. Master plan A typical summer day was chosen for the simulation. The highest temperature observed on this day was recorded at 17:00 when it reached 32.38oC and the lowest at 4:00 where 21.23oC was recorded. Respectively, the highest relative humidity was presented at 4:00 (67.55%) while at 17:00 (28.55%). 219 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece The direction of the prevailing winds, according 03:00, 06:00, 09.00, 12.00, 15:00, 18.00, 21:00 to HNMS, was set to be west. Soil moisture was and 00:00 (Figure 5). set at 60% and 70% at the upper and lower soil levels respectively. The building shells, located in the study area as mentioned above, are made of conventional materials (concrete, brick) and are mostly covered by roof. The reflectivity of the building materials was set at 0.5. Their heights range from 4m up to 18m. Both during the simulation of the current situation and that of the intervention proposal the building shells remained stable. Elements, Figure 5: Points of observing the results such as the green walls that existed in the proposal to renovate the central courtyard, The proposal for the renovation of OT 179 were not calculated due to program included: constraints. The elements that differ in the two • The unification of its two sections with the simulations cover an area of 7475m² and relate conversion of the intermediate small road into to flooring materials, planting surfaces, trees a pedestrian street and water elements (only when they occupied • The increase of the green area by 30%, the large areas). The percentages of participation replacement of the asphalt surface on of the individual elements in the total area as Delapotra St with water permeable materials well as the areas they occupy are shown in and on Thessaloniki St with cold materials. table 2 below. Table 2. Percentage of participation of the • The replacement of existing dark paving individual elements in the whole surface and areas slabs with green surfaces and cold materials. • The addition of water surfaces at 3% of the total area • The planting of a large number of new trees. 3.5 Results The aforementioned interventions brought about a significant reduction of the surface temperature which is more intense during the As mentioned above, the simulations covered a noon (Figure 6). period of twenty‐four hours and the results regarded the air and surface temperatures, wind speed and the PMV thermal comfort index prevailing in the area before and after the regeneration proposal. In order to be able to quantify the results, 15 points were selected which are scattered in the study area. Three points were selected in each Figure 6. Surface temperature section (Thessalonikis St, Redestou St, Central courtyard, Delaporta St and Court of Law Contrary to the temperature of the surfaces in Square) and an average result was emerged the simulation of the intervention proposal, the from them for eight specific hours of the day air is colder in the morning, while during the 220 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece day it reaches the same levels as in the current • The extensive use of natural elements situation and in the afternoon it exceeds them. (green, water) as well as the replacement of At night, however, in the proposal the air impermeable coating materials with water‐ temperature is almost 2oC lower (Figure 7). permeable ones with a high reflectivity index (cold materials) contribute to the improvement of the microclimate and thermal comfort conditions of the building block and consequently can help to improve the conditions of the whole city. • The unification of the uncovered areas of the building blocks can contribute to the improvement of the conditions of the area, but Figure 7. Air temperature this also requires the cooperation of the Wind speed seems to be favoured by the citizens. increase in green areas as it seems to show higher values throughout the day (Figure 8). REFERENCES [1] Gerolimbou Α., Kalogirou, Ν., Kafkoula Κ.,(1986). old and new in Urban Planning. In Ε. Σ. Θ. Getimis (Ed.),pp11‐40 [2] Nilsson, K., Sangster, M., Gallis, C., Hartig, T., de Vries, S., Seeland, K., Schipperijn, J. (2011). Forests, Trees and Human Health. Springer Science, Business Media B.V, Dordrecht.pp 168. [3] Oke, T. R. (1987). Boundary layers climates Figure 8. Wind speed [4] Tumini, I. (2015). The urban microclimate in Finally, the PMV thermal index shows that open space. Case studies in Madrid. Cuadernos de Investigación Urbanística thermal comfort for users has improved significantly although it remains high during the [5] (OJHR) Official Journal of the Hellenic Republic, afternoon (Figure 9). B/4003/17.11.2017, 2017. Technical directive of Technical Chamber of Greece for sustainable buildings p.188 (Available at:http:/www.et.gr/search_publicati on (accessed 30/9/2020)). [6] (OJHR) Official Journal of the Hellenic Republic,168/AAP/20.05.2013,2013. Approval of the New General Urban Plannig (GUP) of the Municipal Unit of Serres, pp.2241‐2320, (Available at:http:/www.et.gr/search_publicati on (accessed Figure 9. Thermal index PMV 30/9/2020)). [7] (HSAG) Hellenic Statistical Authority of Greece, 4. CONCLUSIONS 2011. Statistical data: Population 2011, Serres. The research showed that: [8] www.serres.gr (accessed 30/9/2020)). • The improvement of the microclimate and [9] www.envi‐met.com (accessed 30/6/2020)). the conditions of thermal comfort affect the use of an urban space but also the quality of life of the inhabitants. 221 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 222 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece THERMAL PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF A CLAY HOLLOW‐BRICK MASONRY WALL SUBJECTED TO FIRE K.J. Kontoleon1,*, I. Bakas1, K. Georgiadis‐Filikas1, M. Saba2, T.G. Theodosiou1, E. Liapi1 1 Laboratory of Building Construction & Building Physics, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Gr‐54124, Thessaloniki, Greece 2 CIEL Laboratory, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Balamand, Lebanon ([email protected]) ABSTRACT This work aims to analyse the thermal performance of a clay hollow‐brick masonry wall under a fire action referring to the standard time‐temperature curve (EN1991‐1‐2). For this fire exposure, temperature profile calculations underline the thermal response of certain wall configurations, while resulted temperatures of the non‐exposed surface can illustrate the thermal resistance in terms of the insulation criterion (I). For the aims of this study, a transient thermal model is utilized to assess the fire behaviour of the assumed wall assemblies. This paper introduces a full three‐ dimensional finite‐element analysis focused on heat transfer processes; in this regard, conductive, convective and radiative heat transfer mechanisms are assessed by adopting a finite element methodology (FEM) to cope with the geometry of the wall, the thermophysical properties of building materials and the prevailing environmental conditions. With respect to the thermal performance of the masonry wall subjected to fire, two sets of thermophysical property values of the clay material were examined. Accordingly, the influence of clay thermal conductivity and density variations were considered to deduce the thermal responsivity of masonry walls. In addition, a parametric procedure highlights the findings of a numerical study concerning the effect of low thermal emissivity coatings applied to hollow‐bricks cavity surfaces. Results of this analysis indicate the fire behaviour of masonry walls under elevated temperatures. The outcomes of this investigation exhibit a suitable approach to improve the overall fire performance of building elements under severe transient conditions. KEYWORDS Fire action; Hollow clay‐brick; Masonry wall; Thermal emissivity; Thermophysical properties. fire‐ smoke alarm systems, sprinkler systems 1. INTRODUCTION and fire extinguishers, can detect whether there is smoke/heat in a building and Nowadays, fire safety design of buildings has slow/restrict the growth of the fire. On the acquired a great deal of world‐wide interest. In other hand, passive fire protection solutions this regard, fire safety design can be attained concern a set of measures that by the integration of active and passive fire compartmentalize a building envelope through protection systems. First of all, the installation the use of fire‐resistance rated elements. of active fire protection technologies, such as 223 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Among the different building envelope change processes during the melting stage, solutions, increasing awareness about the give clues to big‐picture thermal behaviour at benefits of improving the assembly and fire circumstances. thermal properties of opaque building elements underlines a profitable way to cope 3. TRANSIENT THERMAL ANALYSIS OF with this demand. Within the basis of the MASONRY WALL aforementioned concerns, the assessment of cavities in building elements (i.e. hollow clay‐ 3.1 Analysed masonry wall assembly bricks) also shows a significant effect. The As shown in Figure 1 (a), the analysed building influence of the emissivity of cavity surfaces assembly refers to an uninsulated masonry has been analysed thoroughly under wall. The masonry wall consists of conventional [1‐3] conventional environmental conditions . hollow clay‐bricks, which are laid in and bound Previous research results have shown how together with cement mortar. In that respect, coating the internal surface of the cavity leads the thickness of each clay‐brick unit of the to a significant reduction of radiative heat masonry wall is 25 cm, while the thickness of exchange. Another work has specified the the bond between bricks and mortar is performance of clay masonry walls under fire considered to be 1 cm. In addition, both sides [4‐5] action ; results summarise the end‐ point of the brick wall are covered with 1.5 cm thick parameters that control their fire‐ resistance. lime mortar. In the framework of another study the thermal behaviour of a reinforced concrete slab The exact layout of the cross section of a brick subjected to fire was examined [6]. unit is specified in Figure 1 (b); the Furthermore, upgrading of the overall thermal corresponding stratigraphy of hollow cores is response of wall assemblies through a proper illustrative of brick layers in the Southern and selection of density is emphasised in another Eastern European countries. study [7]. The above‐presented literature reveals that there is a gap within the context of the fire performance of masonry walls under a variety of thermal emissivity and thermophysical properties. These issues are investigated and discussed in the following sections. 2. IMPACT OF FIRE ACTION IN TERMS OF (a) (b) TEMPERATURE PROGRESS Processes that involve temperature Figure 1. Layout of examined masonry wall. dissimilarities through solids and fluids define a It should be noted that the pattern in which transient heat flow through time. On this the brick units are assembled, as well as the account, the rate of heat flux is directly related geometry of brick cavities, can vastly affect the to the interrelated temperature fluctuations. heat transfer processes through the masonry Within this framework, analysing the exposure wall. of building elements against fire actions 3.2 Material properties of masonry wall (elevated temperatures) suggests an even more multifaceted procedure. Although the The thermophysical properties of: (a) the clay research theme appears to be similar, there are material of brick units composing the masonry several additional points to be examined; for wall, (b) the brick bonding – cement mortar example, temperature‐dependent physical and (c) both coatings – lime mortar, are listed [8] properties of materials, as well as phase in Table 1 . With reference to hollow‐blocks, 224 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece two different types of clay material are To resolve heat transfer processes through a examined (lightweight and heavyweight). building member it is necessary to specify: (a) Table 1. Thermophysical properties of involved the geometry of its structure, (b) the thermal masonry materials. properties of entailed building materials and (c) the forcing functions on both boundaries. λ ρ C Material p [W/(m∙K)] [kg/m3] [J/(kg∙K)] In this study, the masonry wall as well as material properties have been already clarified. Clay 0.40 1000 1000 (Lightweight) Besides, temperature variations rely on the thermal analysis of the masonry wall exposed Clay 0.80 2000 1000 to the fire action. Given this, a finite element (Heavyweight) methodology (FEM) and an associated Cement 1.40 2000 1000 simulation software (COMSOL Multiphysics [10]) mortar are utilized to simulate heat transfer Lime mortar 1.40 2000 1000 mechanisms (Figure 3). Thereby, the deriving processes of heat transfer are: ▪ Conduction through solid wall sections. Apart from that, different values of the thermal ▪ Free convection within air cavities. emissivity coefficient of the clay material on hollow‐brick cavity surfaces are taken into ▪ Long‐wave radiation on cavity surfaces. account (ε = 0.10, ε = 0.50 and ε = 0.90). ▪ Convection and radiation on boundaries. 3.3 Environmental conditions ‐ Fire action Gas temperatures in the vicinity of the fire exposed masonry wall can be replicated by adopting nominal temperature‐time curves according to EN1991‐1‐2 [9]. For the aims of this work the standard temperature‐time curve is applied as the principal forcing function (Figure 2): Tfire(t) = 20+345∙log10(8∙t+1) [oC] (1) On the other hand, the air temperature in the Figure 3. Three‐dimensional modelling and meshing sequence of heat transfer effects via COMSOL margin of the unexposed surface of the Multiphysics. masonry wall is assumed constant: Tair(t) = 20 [oC] (2) 4. RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS In this study, the analysed assemblies correspond to non‐insulated masonry walls with variable clay thermal conductivities λ and densities ρ of hollow‐ bricks. Two sets of thermophysical property values of the clay material, corresponding to lightweight hollow‐ bricks and heavyweight hollow‐bricks, are analysed. Furthermore, in order to highlight the significance of heat transfer due to radiation the effect of the thermal emissivity ε Figure 2. Gas temperatures due to fire action. of hollow‐brick cavities is taken into account. 3.4 Analytical solution ‐ Numerical analysis As it is already mentioned, three values of the 225 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece thermal emissivity are assessed. In overall, a As shown in Fig. 4 (a), an increase of the total of six masonry wall configurations are thermal emissivity, leads to a parallel increase thoroughly analysed (Table 2). of the resulted temperatures of the non‐ exposed surface. Thus, for lightweight masonry Simulation software output showing the impact walls subjected to fire the maximum surface of the above‐mentioned parameters, on the are nearly T = 185 oC, T = development of temperatures of masonry walls temperatures surf surf o o subjected to fire (standard time‐temperature 220 C and Tsurf = 235 C for ε = 0.10, ε = 0.50 curve, EN1991‐1‐2), are given in the following and ε = 0.90, respectively. It is worth noting subsections. All numerical simulations are that as the value of the thermal emissivity carried out by adopting a finite difference increases, its effect on the temperature values analysis, via COMSOL Multiphysics simulation weakens. Moreover, the rate of temperature software (the duration of the thermal increase declines as asymptotically approaches simulation is 6 hours). a constant value. Table 2. Analysed masonry wall configurations with From the graphs in Fig. 4 (b) it can be observed reference to the considered thermal properties of that variations on clay‐material properties the clay material. affect the thermal response of heavyweight No. ε λ ρ masonry walls in a similar fashion. For this case [‐] [W/(m∙K)] [kg/m3] the corresponding temperature values of the non‐exposed surface are approximately Tsurf = st 1 Set of clay material properties 180 oC, Tsurf = 240 oC and Tsurf = 265 oC. Lightweight hollow‐brick 1 0.10 0.40 1000 It becomes apparent that the thermal 2 0.50 0.40 1000 behaviour of a masonry wall is strongly related to the thermal emissivity ε of the clay material 3 0.90 0.40 1000 of cavity surfaces of hollow‐ bricks. Considering nd 2 Set of clay material properties the above, the thermal effectiveness of low Heavyweight hollow‐brick emissivity coatings is essential with respect to 4 0.10 0.80 2000 moderated heat fluxes through the geometry 5 0.50 0.80 2000 of the masonry wall. Studying the effects of 6 0.90 0.80 2000 rising temperatures on the unexposed surface of the separating masonry wall revealed that brick units integrated with low‐ε coatings are 4.1 Effects of thermal emissivity less prone to the engaged fire exposure; the corresponding temperature reduction values The graphs of Fig. 4 (a) and (b) refer to the can vary from 50 oC (lightweight dependence of the shown temperatures, of the o non‐exposed to fire surface, on the clay’s configurations) to 85 C (heavyweight thermal emissivity ε. configurations). 226 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Figure 4. Temperature evolution of the unexposed masonry wall surface, in relation with the thermal emissivity of the clay material: (a) lightweight hollow‐brick, (b) heavyweight hollow‐brick. 227 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 4.2 Effects of thermophysical properties properties (low values of λ and ρ) are higher in comparison to the second choice of clay Following the findings presented in the thermophysical properties (high values of λ and previous subsection it becomes evident that ρ). As it is clear, the effect of the thermal the effect of thermal emissivity ε in terms of resistance is more profound rather than the heat wave propagation and temperature thermal capacity. In other words, a lower elevation is dominant; in this regard, the thermal conductivity value improves the variation trend of temperatures with ε is overall thermal response of a wall subjected to straightforward. Nevertheless, a careful fire. examination of the presented temperature variations indicates that the thermophysical Furthermore, Fig. 6 delineates the temperature properties of the clay material, such as thermal growth for a thermal emissivity of the clay ε conductivity λ and density ρ, can shift the material equal to =0.50. For the heavyweight t hierarchy of the optimal masonry wall masonry wall, initially, as time elapses from = t configurations subjected to fire (according to 0 sec to = 16000 sec, the temperature values the temperature peaks on the unexposed of the unexposed surface are lower in surface), at a certain time point. Thus, the comparison to the lightweight masonry wall. objective of this research is to clarify the However, this behaviour is reversed for the t t significance of the correlations between the remaining time (from = 16000 sec to = thermal resistance (R) and the thermal capacity 21600 sec); thus, the heavyweight wall (C); in this matter, an increase in the walls’ clay assembly shows worse thermal performance thermal conductivity and density lowers its compared to the previous trend. This implies thermal resistance but, at the same time, that the thermophysical properties of the clay increases its thermal capacity. material of hollow‐bricks should be emphasized at the very beginning, during the The influence of the thermophysical properties modelling process of building envelopes. variations of the clay material (for a certain value of ε of the clay material in the region of Similarly, Fig. 7 highlights temperature the hollow‐brick cavities) is underlined in Figs. variations for a thermal emissivity of the clay ε 5, 6 and 7. As seen, the temperature material equal to = 0.90. At first, for the progression through masonry walls shows a heavyweight masonry wall, as time elapses t t similar pattern to the one specified before; from = 0 sec to = 14100 sec, the thus, a gradual rise of surface temperatures is temperature values of the unexposed surface driving this overall trend. are lower in comparison to the lightweight masonry wall. After this point and for the In Fig. 5, the graphs illustrate the dynamic remaining time (from t = 14100 sec to t = process of heat flow for both sets of the clay 21600 sec), this state is altered; consequently, material, while assuming a value of its thermal the temperature development for the emissivity equal to ε = 0.10. For the entire lightweight wall assembly is better. period of the analysis the transient thermal behaviour of the heavyweight masonry wall is From the above results it becomes evident that superior, as compared to the lightweight the influence of the thermophysical properties assembly. In that respect, for the entire period of the clay material is strongly related to the ε of the analysis the demonstrated temperatures thermal emissivity . for the first choice of clay thermophysical 228 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Figure 5. Temperature evolution of the unexposed masonry wall surface for ε = 0.10. Figure 6. Temperature evolution of the unexposed masonry wall surface for ε = 0.50. Figure 7. Temperature evolution of the unexposed masonry wall surface for ε = 0.90. 229 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece 5. CONCLUSIONS [2] Fantucci, S., Serra, V., & Martinelly, A. (2014). Thermal effectiveness of low emissivity coatings in Analysing the thermal behaviour of masonry hollow bricks: a numerical analysis for different walls under fire actions is an integral part of cavity concentration. 9th International Masonry building design. The selection of materials’ Conference 2014, Guimarães, Portugal. thermal properties plays a significant role as [3] Bouchair, A. (2008). Steady state theoretical regards the temperature evolution through model of fired clay hollow bricks for enhanced building elements. Neglecting these aspects external wall thermal insulation. Building and may cause severe consequences and Environment, 43(10), 1603–1618. repercussions in terms of fire behaviour. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.10.005 The present paper has interpreted the key [4] Nguyen, T.‐D., & Meftah, F. (2012). Behavior of issues that define the propagation of heat clay hollow‐brick masonry walls during fire. Part 1: through masonry walls, settled with clay Experimental analysis. Fire Safety Journal, 52, 55– hollow‐bricks, subjected to fire. The effect of 64. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2012.06.001 the thermal emissivity is central, and it [5] Nguyen, T.‐D., & Meftah, F. (2014). Behavior of accounts for the majority of present masonry hollow clay brick masonry walls during fire. Part 2: configurations. High emissivity results in an 3D finite element modeling and spalling important heat bridge that accelerates the heat assessment. Fire Safety Journal, 66, 35–45. transfer and the heat wave progress towards doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2013.08.017 the unexposed side. Decreasing the emissivity [6] Allam, S. M., Elbakry, H. M. F., & Rabeai, A. G. will introduce a secondary heat resistance (2013). Behavior of one‐way reinforced concrete within the brick unit. Furthermore, another slabs subjected to fire. Alexandria Engineering way to reduce the influence of rising gas Journal, 52(4), 749–761. temperatures relies on the proper selection of doi:10.1016/j.aej.2013.09.004 the density of the clay material. As seen, the [7] Kontoleon, K. J., Theodosiou, T. G., & impact of the density relies on the emissivity of Tsikaloudaki, K. G. (2013). The influence of concrete the clay material on the hollow‐brick cavity density and conductivity on walls’ thermal inertia surfaces. parameters under a variety of masonry and insulation placements. Applied Energy, 112, 325– Results have highlighted these issues from a 337. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.06.029 quantitative and qualitative point of view. In conclusion, their consideration should be given [8] Greek Ministry of Environment and Energy. special attention to upgrade the fire response Greek Regulation for the Energy Efficiency of Buildings (KENAK) 2010. of building envelopes, as well as to tackle the necessities of current regulations. [9] EN 1991‐1‐2, Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures – Part 1‐2 “General Actions – Actions on Structures Exposed to Fire”, European Standard: Brussels REFERENCES November2002. [1] Fioretti, R., & Principi, P. (2014). Thermal [10] COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, Performance of Hollow Clay Brick with Low version 5.3", COMSOL, Inc. (www.comsol.com). Emissivity Treatment in Surface Enclosures. Coatings, 4(4), 715–731. doi:10.3390/coatings4040715 230 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece THE EFFECT OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE EXPOSURE ON THE THERMAL BEHAVIOUR OF INSULATED MASONRY WALLS K.J. Kontoleon1,*, T.G. Theodosiou1, M. Saba2, K. Georgiadis‐Filikas1, I. Bakas1, E. Liapi1 1Laboratory of Building Construction & Building Physics, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Gr‐54124, Thessaloniki, Greece 2CIEL Laboratory, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Balamand, Lebanon ([email protected]) ABSTRACT The main objective of this study is to assess the thermal behaviour of insulated masonry walls subjected to a fire action with reference to the standard time‐temperature curve (EN1991‐1‐ 2). This forcing condition can affect substantially the development of temperatures through the examined building configurations. Nevertheless, the impact of fire exposure relies to a large extent on the position, the thickness and the flammability of the studied thermal insulation layer (EPS). In addition, this work is extended to address and analyse the effect of hollow clay‐brick elements as regards the thermal emissivity of air cavity surfaces. Reported results stress the influence of these issues on the developed temperatures of the unexposed surface. It is important to note that temperature profiles in this region indicate the fire resistance of masonry walls, with respect to the insulation criterion (I). In this context, a transient thermal model is introduced to unveil numerically the fire performance of the considered masonry walls (finite element method, FEM). A three‐dimensional finite‐element analysis is carried out to handle the fundamental heat transfer mechanisms, as well as to define the geometry of masonry walls, the properties of materials and the prevailing environmental conditions. To conclude, the findings of this investigation highlight the fire response of insulated masonry assemblies subjected to controlled temperature variations. KEYWORDS Fire exposure; Hollow clay‐brick; Insulation flammability; Masonry wall; Thermal emissivity. insulation has become one of the most 5. INTRODUCTION important properties of wall elements, because of the global need to reduce energy In fire protection on of the most reliable and consumption in buildings. Many of the thermal traditional fire protection measures is the insulation layers used in building construction effective compartmentation of rooms with are burnable and could affect the fire response building elements that can sustain the thermal of the wall assembly. exposure of the fire and block it from spread. This passive measure is actually yet another Wall assemblies have been researched and property requirement that the classic building optimized against thermal insulation elements should fulfil. Concurrently, thermal requirements. Wall elements based on clay hollow‐bricks introduce the need for cavity 231 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece optimization which plays a significant role in transient problem. thermal response. The influence of the emissivity of cavity surfaces has been analysed 7. DYNAMIC THERMAL ANALYSIS under conventional environmental conditions [1‐3] Previous results have shown how coating 7.1. Configuration of masonry walls the internal surface of the cavity leads to a As shown in Figure 1 (a), analysed building significant reduction of radiative heat configurations correspond to insulated exchange. Another work has specified the masonry walls. The masonry wall consists of performance of clay masonry walls under fire clay hollow‐bricks, which are connected with [4‐5] action ; results emphasise to the key cement mortar. The thickness of each brick parameters that define their fire‐ resistance. unit is 25 cm and the thickness of the bond The present study aims to analyse the thermal between bricks and mortar is 1 cm. Apart from performance of insulated masonry walls settled that, the insulation layer is considered as with hollow clay‐bricks and insulated with unexposed or exposed, with reference to the burnable thermal insulation. The investigation fire action, while its thickness is taken dEPS = 5 draws upon the challenges and opportunities cm or dEPS = 10 cm. At last, both sides of the of assessing the impact of the standard time‐ brick wall are covered with 1.5 cm thick lime temperature curve (EN1991‐1‐2) on the mortar. thermal behaviour of masonry, focusing The layout of the cross section of a brick unit is primarily on the role of the insulation layer and given in Figure 1 (b); the design of hollow cores radiation heat transfer through brick cavities. is illustrative of brick layers in the Southern The research gaps in this emerging field are part of Europe. The pattern by which brick identified, including: the effect of the insulation units are organised, as well as the layout of characteristics, such as position, thickness and brick cavities, can affect heat transfer flammability, as well as the emissivity of hollow processes through the masonry. clay‐bricks. The following sections will briefly describe and demonstrate the trend of Insulation Layer temperature variations, under a variety of External / Internal insulation/masonry solutions. 6. INFLUENCE OF FIRE ACTION IN TERMS OF TEMPERATURE DEVELOPMENT In general, physical processes involving Hollow Clay‐Brick temperature variations through solids and fluids depict a transient heat flow. In that (a) (b) event, the rate of heat flow is directly linked to the shown temperature fluctuations on the Figure 1. Outline of analysed masonry walls. nearby environment. 7.2. Properties of masonry wall materials From this perspective, it is clear that studying The thermophysical properties of: (a) the clay the exposure of building elements to fire material of brick units forming the masonry actions (rapid increase of temperatures) wall, (b) the brick bonding – cement mortar, (c) advocates an even more complex procedure. the insulation layer of expanded polystyrene – Although this topic appears to be analogous, EPS and (d) both coatings – lime mortar, are there are several additional points that should listed in Table 1[6]. Furthermore, three values of be addressed; accordingly, temperature the thermal emissivity coefficient of the clay dependencies of material thermal properties material on hollow‐brick cavity surfaces are and phase change processes or decomposition assumed (ε = 0.10, ε = 0.50 and ε = 0.90). (melting and gasification), affect the entire 232 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Table 1. Thermophysical properties of involved masonry materials at 20 oC. λ ρ Cp Material [W/(m∙K [J/(kg∙ [kg/m3] )] K)] Clay 0.800 2000 1000 Cement 1.400 2000 1000 mortar Insulation ‐ 0.035 30 1500 EPS Figure 2. Thermal conductivity of EPS as a function Lime mortar 1.400 2000 1000 of temperature progress due to fire. 7.3. Environmental conditions – Fire action The EPS of the thermal insulation layer is a Gas temperatures in the vicinity of the fire burnable thermoplastic material and its exposed masonry wall can be depicted by using properties are affected by elevated nominal temperature‐time curves according to temperatures. The EPS insulation is always EN1991‐1‐2[8] (Standard ISO‐ 834 Fire Curve). In covered by another non‐ or difficult burnable this study the standard temperature‐time layer in order to be protected against ignition curve is taken as the current forcing condition according to local fire protection requirements. (Figure 3): EPS is stable until 100°C but after that enters in Tfire(t) = 20+345∙log10(8∙t+1) [oC] (1) a glass transition phase and above 110 °C undergoes rapid thermal degradation[7]. The Then again, the air temperature in the limit of inflated EPS beads lose their volume and at 150 the unexposed surface of the masonry wall is °C have returned to their initial diameter. At considered to be steady: 160 °C EPS is a viscus liquid and no longer can Tair(t) = 20 [oC] (2) be categorized as a solid insulating board. Above 278 °C starts the vaporization of EPS. For this study the thermal conductivity of EPS is displayed on Figure 2. Thermal conductivity is taken as 0.035 W/(m∙K) until 150 °C and above this limit is being rapidly increased until 10000 W/(m∙K) at 200 °C. This linear increase will expedite the heat transfer through the material and virtually remove it from the heat transfer calculation. This numerical treatment will introduce a non‐linear thermal behaviour of Figure 3. Gas temperatures due to fire action. the wall element to approximate the liquification and vaporization of the insulation 7.4. Methodology – Modelling & simulation layer above 150 °C. The possible ignition of the To carry out the thermal problem solving of vapours of EPS is not treated and it is not part insulated masonry walls it is necessary to of the scope of this study. designate the geometry of their assembly, the thermophysical properties of associated building materials and, definitely, the controlled temperature variations of the surrounding environment. For the aims of this study, a finite element methodology (FEM) and a capable simulation 233 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece program (COMSOL Multiphysics[9]) are utilised 10 10 0.10 11 10 0.50 to analyse heat transfer mechanisms (Figure 4). 12 10 0.90 Thus, the main processes of heat transfer are: ▪ Conduction regarding solid wall sections. Simulation software findings exposing the ▪ Free convection within air cavities. effect of the aforementioned parameters, on ▪ Long‐wave radiation on cavity surfaces. the temperature variations of masonry walls subjected to fire (EN1991‐1‐2), are presented ▪ Convection and radiation on boundaries. in the following subsections. To accomplish this goal, all numerical analyses are carried out via COMSOL Multiphysics simulation software. The duration of the analysis is considered to be 6 hours. 8.1. Masonry walls subjected to ISO‐834 fire curve – Unexposed insulation layer The graphs in Fig. 5 (a) and (b) delineate the temperature variations due to fire, on the non‐ exposed surface, for a masonry wall with an Figure 4. Three‐dimensional modelling and meshing insulation layer positioned on the unexposed sequence of heat transfer effects via COMSOL side of its structure. Multiphysics. In Fig. 5 (a), the thickness of the insulation layer is assumed to be dEPS = 5 cm. As seen, a 8. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION low value of emissivity (ε = 0.10) appears to be The main objective of this paper is to valuable in terms of temperature increase. determine the thermal behaviour of insulated Therefore, for the entire period of this analysis masonry walls subjected to a certain fire action the maximum temperature does not exceed 25 (Standard ISO‐834 fire curve). Analysed oC. This implies, that heat fluxes through the masonry wall scenarios take into account region of air cavities are immensely diminished. different positions and thicknesses of the Nevertheless, this trend regarding temperature insulation layer, as well as different values of variations is not similar for ε =0.50 and ε = 0.90. the thermal emissivity of air cavity surfaces A higher value of emissivity results to a within clay hollow‐bricks. Consequently, a total dominant heat bridge that accelerates the heat of twelve masonry wall configurations are flow towards the unexposed surface of the comprehensively examined (Table 2). masonry wall. Subsequently, for ε = 0.50 and ε Table 2. Data sets of analysed masonry walls, with = 0.90 the insulation layer retains the regard to the position/thickness of EPS and the temperature rise bellow 25 oC for a period of emissivity of the clay material. 4.3 hours and 3.5 hours, respectively. No. dEPS [cm] ε [‐] Moreover, Fig. 5 (b), refers to a thickness of the st 1 Set of masonry wall configurations d Unexposed insulation layer insulation layer EPS = 10 cm. The thermal 1 5 0.10 response of these configurations has followed 2 5 0.50 a similar trend; for ε = 0.50 and ε = 0.90 the 3 5 0.90 4 10 0.10 exposed temperatures are below 25 oC for a 5 10 0.50 6 10 0.90 period of 4.4 hours and 3.6 hours, respectively. 2nd Set of masonry wall configurations Hence, the effect of the insulation thickness is Exposed insulation layer shown to be slight, with reference to the rise of 7 5 0.10 8 5 0.50 temperature values. 9 5 0.90 234 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Figure 5. Temperature variations due to fire, on the non‐exposed surfaces of insulated masonry walls, for an unexposed insulation layer with thickness: (a) dEPS = 5 cm and (b) dEPS = 10 cm. temperature peaks From these facts one may conclude that the (after 6 hours, final plotting thermal behaviour of a masonry wall is of transient thermal analysis) are o o fundamentally related with the thermal approximately Tsurf = 25 C, Tsurf = 115 C and o emissivity ε of air cavity surfaces of hollow clay‐ Tsurf = 155 C for ε = 0.10, ε = 0.50 and ε = bricks. An increase of the thermal emissivity 0.90, respectively. As emissivity increases, its leads to a corresponding increase of the consequence on unexposed surface developed temperatures on the non‐exposed temperatures declines. surface. For dEPS = 5 cm and dEPS = 10 cm the 4.2 Masonry walls subjected to ISO‐834 fire 235 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece curve – Exposed insulation layer strategies in buildings. However, from a fire The graphs in Fig. 6 (a) and (b) show the performance point of view it is also important temperature variations due to fire, on the non‐ to assess how the arrangement of insulation exposed surface, for a masonry wall with an affects the effectiveness of masonry walls insulation layer located on the exposed surface under fire exposure. Taking into account this of its structure. condition, a numerical analysis was carried out to comparatively analyse the fire performance As has already pointed out, the impact of an of characteristic wall insulation forms with unexposed thermal insulation layer regarding reference to the rapid increase of the mitigation of temperature peaks is shown temperatures on their unexposed surface. to be profound. On the contrary, an insulation layer subjected to the fire action presents a The graphs in Fig. 7 (a) and (b) show that the dissimilar thermal behaviour. In that respect, different wall insulation forms, subjected to the reduction of temperature variations is ISO‐834 fire curve, have a remarkable effect on shown to be the same, regardless of the the temperature response rate and the heat insulation layer thickness, since the melting of flow through the assemblies of masonry walls. EPS restricts evocatively the overall thermal Placing the insulation to the non‐exposed resistance of the masonry wall. Accordingly, surface of the brick layer exhibits a more suitable thermal behaviour. Thus, it decreases both graphs (for dEPS = 5 cm and dEPS = 10 cm) the rate of temperature rise, but still faces demonstrate an almost identical pattern as critical challenges, as the influence of the regards the temperature evolution. In other thermal emissivity is significant. words, the role of a flammable insulation layer thickness subjected to a fire action is negligible. Furthermore, from the above results it becomes evident that the temperature From a quantitative point of view, someone difference between unexposed and exposed can notice that the temperature peaks for ε = o o 0.10, ε = 0.50 and ε = 0.90 are Tsurf = 50 oC, insulation scenarios range from 20 C to 25 C, Tsurf = 130 oC and Tsurf = 175 oC, respectively. approximately. Then again, temperature Furthermore, for the previously mentioned variations regarding the examined thermal emissivity values the temperature increase up emissivity margins (ε =0.10 and ε = 0.90) lead o to 25 oC is exhibited for a period of 3.0 hours, to temperature deviations up to 125 C (with 2.0 hours and 1.5 hours, respectively. reference to a similar thermal insulation layer placement). 4.3 Overall evaluation under fire action: Exposed vs. Unexposed insulation layer In general, the appropriate placement of the thermal insulation layer is widely known as one key factor in terms of energy‐ efficiency 236 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece Figure 6. Temperature variations due to fire, on the non‐exposed surfaces of insulated masonry walls, for an exposed insulation layer with thickness: (a) dEPS = 5 cm and (b) dEPS = 10 cm. 9. CONCLUSIONS describes the temperature variations due to Throughout this study, the determination of fire, on the non‐exposed surface, for a masonry the thermal behaviour of insulated masonry wall with an insulation layer positioned on the walls subjected to fire action was assessed. unexposed side of its structure. And the second Numerical analyses were conceded with regard delineates the temperature variations due to to the position/thickness of EPS and the fire, on the non‐exposed surface, for a masonry emissivity of the clay material on the wall with an insulation layer located on the temperature variations of masonry walls exposed surface of its structure. subjected to fire. Two settings were evaluated, one that 237 st 1 International Conference on Environmental Design (ICED2020) 24‐25 October 2020, Athens, Greece extent the exposed temperature profiles. REFERENCES [1] Fioretti, R., & Principi, P. (2014). 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(2014). Behavior of hollow clay brick masonry walls during fire. Part 2: related to the thermal emissivity of air cavity 3D finite element modeling and spalling surfaces of hollow clay‐bricks. The impact of assessment. Fire Safety Journal, 66, 35–45. the non‐exposed surface regarding the doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2013.08.017 mitigation of temperature peaks is shown to be profound. High emissivity leads to a central [6] Greek Ministry of Environment and Energy. Greek Regulation for the Energy Efficiency of thermal bridge that facilitates the heat transfer Buildings (KENAK) 2010. and the heat wave progress towards the unexposed side. Decreasing the emissivity [7] S. Mehta, S. Biederman, S. Shivkumar, Thermal suggests a secondary thermal barrier within degradation of foamed polystyrene, J.Mater. Sci. 30 the brick unit. (1995) 2944– 2949. doi:10.1007/BF00349667. [8] EN 1991‐1‐2, Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures Furthermore, different assemblies regarding – Part 1‐2 “General Actions – Actions on Structures the insulation layer position and thickness have Exposed to Fire”, European Standard: Brussels addressed a dissimilar thermal behaviour. In November2002. that respect, the reduction of temperature variations is shown to be the same, regardless [9] COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, version 5.3", COMSOL, Inc. (www.comsol.com). of the insulation layer thickness, while the position of the insulation layer affects to some 238