CHRISTUS CULTURA

THE JOURNAL OF CHRISTIANITY IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

INAUGURAL EDITION | April 2019

Mission Statement Christus Cultura, Staff

Our mission at Christus Cultura is to Managing Editor, explore and highlight in innovative, cutting edge ways the intersection of Christian faith Charles William Carter, Ph.D. and the human experience as expressed in the study of the social sciences, including Associate Professor of History history, political science, psychology, Shorter University sociology, criminology, international studies, Christian and missionary studies, Associate Editor, and much more. Jared Adam Linebach, Ph.D. Vision Associate Professor of Criminal Justice and Chair of the Department of Social Sciences To that end, contributors to this journal present original research and solicited Shorter University items–from articles and essays to book reviews and commentaries–on issues Webmaster, important to the Christian life as it is experienced now, in the past, or could be Andrew Bailey experienced in the future. Our scope is Shorter University intentionally broad, both in terms of geography and time, as well as in content, because we seek to provide readers with a rich mosaic of the ways in which the influence of a single man, a humble carpenter from Nazareth, has continued to shape the human experience, society, and culture in profound ways. It is our sincere desire that readers will find the journal rewarding and spiritually life-enriching and that the content presented will serve, whether in profound or subtle ways, as a vehicle of the Great Commission (Matthew 28:16-20).

The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

In the Footsteps of King David: ontents Revelations from an Ancient C Biblical City

Authors: Yosef Garfinkel, Saar Ganor, and Letter From Editors Michael Hasel. Publisher: Thames &

Hudson, 2018. Scholarly Articles Section

--Review by Brenton H. Cook, Bob Jones Christology and Time: How the University Incarnation Revolutionized History Cold-Case Christianity: A Homicide --Brenton H. Cook, Bob Jones University Detective Investigates the Claims of A Rich Land with a Complex the Gospels History of Faith: Russia and Author: J. Warner Wallace. Publisher: David Cook, 2013. Modern Challenges to the Spread of Evangelical Christianity --Review by Lindsey E. Gayle, Liberty University --Charles W. Carter, Shorter University What God Has Joined Together A Scriptural View of Crime Author: Travis Agnew. Publisher: Tag Publishing, 2018. --Jared A. Linebach, Shorter University --Review by Andrea Stiles, Shorter Labeling Theories and Sex University Offender Registries: The 21st A Calling to Care: Nurturing Century Scarlet Letter: College Students Toward --Tari McNeil, Liberty University Wholeness Authors: Timothy W., and Kirsten D. Reentry Policy and Criminal Theory Riedel. Publisher: Abilene Christian University

Press, 2018. --Steven D. Grant, Liberty University

--Review by Andrew Bailey, Shorter Scholarly Book Reviews Section University

Seven Women and the Secret of Special Undergraduate Student Their Greatness Spotlight Article Author: Eric Metaxas. Publisher: Thomas How to Help a Third World Nation: Nelson Books, 2015. An Examination into the Third

--Review by Rosemary Thrasher, North World Countries of Central America Greenville University --Sydney Holmes, Shorter University

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Contributors to the Inaugural Edition Acknowledgments

Andrew Bailey, Ph.D. Candidate (New The Editorial Staff would like to thank some Orleans Baptist Seminary), individuals who contributed to the design of Webmaster, Shorter University this journal. Mr. Andrew Bailey, the webmaster of Shorter University, designed the Charles W. Carter, Ph.D. (Ohio State logo for the journal. In addition, Ms. Kate University), Associate Professor of Linebach designed the front cover for the History, Shorter University journal. Dr. Kathi Vosevich provided warm encouragement when we approached her with Brenton H. Cooke, Ph.D. (Bob Jones the idea of establishing a journal for Christian University), Associate Professor of academics who write on the intersection of Bible and Church History, Bob Jones Christianity and the Social Sciences. To these University individuals, we offer our sincerest gratitude.

Lindsay E. Gayle, Ph.D. Candidate in Criminal Justice, Liberty University

Steven D. Grant, Ph.D. Candidate in Criminal Justice, Liberty University

Sydney Holmes, History Major Undergraduate, Shorter University

Jared A. Linebach, Ph.D. (Alliant International University), Associate Professor of Criminal Justice and Chair of the Department of Social Sciences, Shorter University

Tari McNeil, Ph.D. Candidate in Criminal Justice, Liberty University

Andrea Stiles, M.A. (Harvard University), Instructor of Psychology, Shorter University

Rosemary Thrasher, M.A. (Clemson University), Instructor of History, North Greenville University

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Letter from the Editors 16:11), a place with no more death or mourning (Revelation 21:4), and a place with no more crying or pain Greetings, Dear Readers! (Revelation 21:4). Given these marvelous promises of the age to The publication of this edition, come, we long for that time. Though the very first, of our Christus Cultura: we are not there yet, we can train our The Journal of Christianity in the thoughts to be heavenward. “Finally, Social Sciences marks the culmination brothers, whatever is true, whatever is of a year-long process of turning into honorable, whatever is just, whatever is reality a vision of an academic journal pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is where scholars can publish on topics commendable, if there is any that examine the social sciences excellence, if there is anything worthy through an Evangelical Christian lens. of praise, think about these things The absence of such a journal has been (Philippians 4:8, ESV). It is our right recognized for a long time. Indeed, and privilege as believers to be able to academics at Evangelical Christian focus on the things above. It is our goal universities need a print-forum to share with this journal to help shed an eternal with other like-minded Christians their light on events and phenomena in this research and discuss the ways in which world. their faith shapes their scholarship, both inside and outside the classroom. As we say in our vision statement, it is indeed our sincere desire that readers will find our journal rewarding and spiritually life-enriching and that the In Christ, content presented will serve, whether in profound or subtle ways, as a vehicle of the Great Commission (Matthew Charlie Carter & Jared Linebach 28:16-20). Shorter University Rome, GA We, as believers, must keep our final destination in mind in all things, great and small. That destination will be April 1, 2019 a place of the fullness of joy (Psalm

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higher cosmic purpose that came to be CHRISTOLOGY AND understood by his followers who set about to TIME: HOW THE transform the course of history. What did it mean for God to come into INCARNATION time? This was the major question with which REVOLUTIONIZED the early church wrestled for more than four centuries until Augustine of Hippo gave the HISTORY definitive Patristic response.1 The story of the development of Christology through the first By Brenton H. Cook, Ph.D. four ecumenical church councils is well known. The church gave a clear answer to the question: Bob Jones University “who is Jesus Christ, and what is His relationship to the Old Testament Yahweh?” However, less well known is a second story of how a robust Christology led to a radical rethinking of the nature of time and the purpose of history. The whole narrative of human history, which was situated in time, came to have cosmic significance through the incarnation of Christ. In the words of Ernst Breisach, “Time was the space provided by God for accomplishing the great work of the mission to mankind.”2 It is the second story that is the concern of this work. The first section will attempt to define the terms “history” and “time.” It will also uncover the modern scientific idea of the “arrow of time.” The second section will investigate the Christian revolution in historiography brought about by the incarnation and resurrection of Jesus Christ. It will demonstrate that Christianity is not only

compatible with, but actually was an impetus Image Credit: Pixabay toward a modern conception of time and history. Finally, it will show that only a Christian The Second Story of the Incarnation conception of history, centered on the doctrine of the resurrection, can give history a Central to a Christian philosophy of teleological structure. history is the claim that God entered time. Jesus Christ the Messiah, God’s only begotten Son, Defining History and Time entered a human womb, was raised as an To understand what it means for God ordinary Jewish boy, rose to fame in Judea and to act in human history, one must begin with a Galilee, died a human death, and resurrected clear definition of “history” as the space in after three days. His life appeared ordinary which God acts. Further, to understand what enough, despite his many miracles; prophets history is, one needs to develop a coherent before him had done the same. But His understanding of “time” as the space in which resurrection signaled his mission was part of a history occurs. Both terms are so commonplace

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to human experience, they initially appear easy narrative which involves the totality of human to define. But both (especially “time”) prove experience in time. Christopher Dawson has surprisingly difficult to define precisely. said that within “the Christian interpretation of history . . . the whole temporal process of the What is History? life of humanity finds its end and meaning.”6 A rudimentary, but essentially useless When considering the discipline of definition of history, is “everything that history with the widest angled lens possible, happened before this moment.” History is a historiography merges with theological series of past incidents.3 Every day billions of considerations. History becomes more than a incidents happen across the globe in the lives of mere collection and interpretation of ancient billions of people. The vast majority, however, documents. It leads to the question of whether never find their way into the history books. there is a grand scheme to all the events of the History, therefore, in a more specific sense is past and even the future (which will one day be information. The writing of history depends upon the past). If God has acted in the past with a the collection of records, artifacts, oral purpose, presumably His actions in the future testimonies, fossils—extant clues to the will be compatible with His actions in the past. incidents of the past. History is also a process of History and eschatology, therefore, are both induction whereby the historian gathers relevant concerned to discover what God is doing in information and attempts to organize it into a time.7 coherent scheme. And history also involves A Christian historian will practice the interpretation of these records. Every historian same historiographical methods as his secular brings to the interpretive task his biases; counterparts when researching the incidents of consequently, no interpretation of the facts is the past. But inevitably he will assume that guaranteed to fully capture the meaning of the when dealing with history at a macroscopic incident. Finally, history is impartation. A level, there is a teleological order to the past, historian engaged in impartation creates a present, and future—to history and time— narrative of the past situating incidents in time because of the incarnation of the Son of God. and space on the assumption that there is some Gordon Clark argues, “scheme of things,” some coherent order or purpose to the past. It could hardly be otherwise. If the Early Christian historiography, in second person of the Triune God contradistinction to classical historiography, actually became flesh and dwelt among operates on the assumption that history is us, and died on the cross for men, that teleological. God would not have acted in event would naturally overshadow every human history without some great purpose. other aspect of the world, scientific or Jesus Christ’s life, his birth, his obedience to the historical. And such a descent of Deity Father’s will, his death, his resurrection, and his into human affairs would not only ascension are not mere incidents whose information involve a theory of history logically, but happened to be preserved by several gospel must psychologically provoke some writers.4 Rather, an inductive study and general reflection on history. Both interpretation of those gospel accounts logically and actually therefore immediately suggests the significance of Christ’s Christianity has a philosophy of history.8 life ripples into the past and into the future.5 Moreover, the New Testament epistles clarify What is Time? that the Gospels should be interpreted and History is situated in time. The term imparted not only in a local Jewish Palestinian “time” seems simple enough to define, but context but as pivotal events within a grand proves increasingly complex upon deeper

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investigation. Augustine said of the term time, “I imposed on nature by the human observer. The know what it is if no one asks me, but if I want objectivist approach sees time as an to explain it to an inquirer, I do not know.”9 independently existing phenomenon in the Zeno, the ancient Pre-Socratic universe.12 The subjectivist approach argues that philosopher, was the first to raise paradoxical humans experience time in different ways. For questions regarding time.10 If Achilles instance, adults tend to view time as passing magnanimously grants to the tortoise a much more quickly than do children. A week significant headstart in a race, then he seems interminable to a four-year old waiting guarantees his failure. The gap between the two for his birthday celebration; an elderly person racers can be subdivided into an infinite number wonders where the years have gone. But can it of increments that must be traversed in time be that a week is a long period of time; whereas once the race begins. But how, given a limited years constitute a short period of time? These allotment of time, can Achilles traverse differences in perspective suggest there is a infinity?11 psychological dimension to the human Another puzzle concerns the common perception of time. three-fold division of time into past, present, Immanuel Kant argues for the and future. Conscious human observers subjectivist approach. Time is an a priori invariably view themselves as situated in the category that humans impose on the data of present or the now of time. But what is now? The experience. future is not now. The past is not now. Past and future are non-existent when contrasted with Time is not something which exists of the present. A thousand past events over a itself, or which inheres in things as an thousand years could have transpired in the objective determination. . . . Time is space occupied in the present by a person, but nothing but the form of inner sense, that none of those events are presently real. is, of the intuition of ourselves and of our Nevertheless, the past must be real in some inner state. It cannot be a determination sense, otherwise, the present would be of outer appearances; it has to do neither incomprehensible. A person suddenly seized by with shape nor position, but with the amnesia can comprehend neither who nor relation of representations of our inner where he is. Memory brings the past into the state.13 present. But memory is fallible, calling into question our understanding of past reality. The subjective approach seems correct The future too must be real if the in its insistence that observers perceive the present is to find meaning. In fact, all human passage of time differently. However, this endeavor is motivated by the assumption of a approach does not offer a completely future beyond the now. Humans eat, breathe, satisfactory view of time for the simple reason sleep, and work on the assumption there is that the effects of time can be experienced by more life to come. Without some future persons who are not subjectively aware of its purpose, the present is meaningless. passing. A fetus ages in the womb as does a What this discussion has shown is that body in a coma; presumably, neither is the concept of the present is paradoxical. The subjectively aware of the passage of time. past and future are non-existent with respect to The objective approach, which enjoys the present. But the present is empty without the support of modern physics since Newton, the existence of the past and the future. sees time as an independent ontological Yet another puzzling problem category. The celebrated British astronomer concerning time is whether it should be Arthur Eddington has said “[Time] permeates understood subjectively or objectively. The every corner of physics. It stands in no need of subjectivist approach sees time as a category

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logical defense. . .. It has been woven into the now is a “privileged temporal location”17 that is structure of the classical physical scheme.”14 subjectively perceived. Einsteinian physics has only reinforced the view From a Christian perspective, a second that time is an objective physical phenomenon difficulty for the purely objective approach is that can be manipulated by gravity.15 Isaac that time affects the non-physical world that lies Asimov comments on the possibilities beyond the reach of either Newtonian or Einstein’s theory of relativity opens up Einsteinian physics. Christians use time-laden regarding time. terminology like spiritual growth and progressive sanctification and Christian maturity to describe If it turns out that motion will really developing conditions of the human soul. slow down clocks and leave a A proper conception of time, then, must permanent mark in the form of lost incorporate both subjective and objective time, that could have an interesting definitions. Whether philosophers and scientists effect on the possible adventures of agree to this incorporation, human civilizations future men in space. If a speed near that have always incorporated both concepts. On the of light could be maintained, time would one hand, civilizations have oriented their slow for the space voyagers. They might societies to objective, measurable astronomical reach a distant destination and return in phenomena. Lunar calendars track the waxing what seemed to them weeks, though on and waning of the moon. Solar calendars track the earth many centuries would have the movement of the sun across the sky. On the passed. If time really slows in motion, a other hand, civilizations have incorporated person might journey even to a distant arbitrary units of time based on subjective star in his own lifetime. But of course he human criteria that are detached from the would have to say good-bye to his own movement of astronomical bodies. The seven- generation and the world he knew. He day week is the obvious example.18 would return to a world of the future.16 Such paradoxes regarding time do serve higher purposes than creating mental angst. If Einstein is correct, time is a real property of One purpose is apologetic and is beyond the the universe and not merely a subjective scope of this paper.19 Another purpose is to construct. show that irrespective of how the philosopher But the objectivist approach is not defines time, every conception of time rests on entirely adequate either for two reasons. First, an unavoidable assumption. Time has direction. human observers do not perceive time as an Whether time is understood as a sequence of independent objective phenomenon. Rather, past, present, and future, or whether it moves they perceive themselves as being in time in swiftly or slowly, or whether time is understood such a way that there is a real now which can be subjectively or objectively, an underlying experienced as categorically different than not assumption is that time moves in one direction. now. An observer can view a mountain, a star, or The directionality of time is not only compatible an ant as entirely distinct from himself. But he with the Christian worldview, it was one of cannot observe time in this way. Even an Christianity’s distinct contributions to an astronomer travelling at light speed would understanding of history (as will be shown experience a now relative to his motion, even if it below). differed from the now experienced by humans on earth. Presumably he would live through an The Arrow of Time average human lifespan of seventy years relative The truth of time’s directionality was to his motion through space, even while definitively stated by Arthur Eddington, in a significantly more years elapsed on earth. This series of lectures he gave in 1927. He dubbed

7 Christus Cultura the concept of directionality, “time’s arrow.”20 These arguments introduced nothing Eddington was particularly concerned to show new to human experience; rather, they served to that the second law of thermodynamics put into argument form what has always been assumed time moved in one direction. experienced by human observers relative to time. The concept of “irreversibility” in Let us draw an arrow arbitrarily. If as we thermodynamics was formalized by the German follow the arrow we find more and physicist Rudolf Clausius in the 1850s.24 more of the random element in the state Likewise, the twelfth-century Persian polymath of the world, then the arrow is pointing Omar Khayyám, captured the idea succinctly in towards the future; if the random his world-famous poem, Rubáiyát: element decreases the arrow points towards the past. That is the only The Moving Finger writes; and, having writ, distinction known to physics. This Moves on: nor all thy Piety nor Wit, follows at once if our fundamental Shall lure it back to cancel half a Line, contention is admitted that the Nor all thy Tears wash out a Word of it.25 introduction of randomness is the only thing which cannot be undone. I shall The notion that time has direction, and use the phrase ‘time’s arrow’ to express consequently that history is teleological, seems this one-way property of time which has so common place, it is difficult to comprehend no analogue in space.21 that philosophers and historians ever believed otherwise. However, it was the Christian Since Eddington first delivered these worldview, which was introduced and expanded remarks, several arguments in support of time’s in the first five centuries of church history, asymmetry have been developed under the which brought about a revolution in how men concept of “the arrow of time”: thought about time. In fact, Christianity so thoroughly changed how people thought about (1) The thermodynamic arrow of time (as history that modern secularists have implicitly developed by Eddington) argues borrowed Christianity’s linear philosophy of that the increase of disorder history. It was the incarnation of the second (entropy) moves in one direction.22 person of the Godhead, which brought about (2) The psychological arrow of time argues this revolution. that since humans can remember the past but not the future, time The Incarnation and Historiographical must move from past to future. Revolution (3) The volitional arrow of time argues that A superficial understanding of Christ’s human volitional action aims at incarnation suggests it was a rare other-worldly changing the future, but never the event that has little to do with the present past. course of human history. Christ was virgin- (4) The causal arrow of time argues that born, lived a perfect life, died for human sins, causal events invariably precede resurrected and disappeared back into heaven. effect events in a directional Sure, he’s coming back one day to reward those sequence.23 who believe on him. But in between his (5) The cosmological arrow of time argues advents, he’s had no real effect on history. The from the expansion of the universe seasons roll by; the great wheel of time churns to a necessary direction in time. out endless centuries marked by incessant wars, natural disasters, and the rise and fall of endless human civilizations. Jesus’ gospel is an otherworldly message for those who want to

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escape the cycle and go off to live in heaven This cyclical view was not a marginal with him forever. Such inchoate views of the view, but was espoused by most ancient incarnation often combine with pessimistic historians. Ronald Nash says, “Almost all of the eschatologies (especially in America during the great civilizations existing before the beginning last century) in which the goal of history is of the Christian era ascribe to a cyclical pattern Christ’s return to put an end to the miserable to history. This was true in most of the ancient cycles of human existence. cultures, including Babylonia, Persia, ancient This pattern of thinking is not only Egypt, India, China, Greece and Rome.”26 foreign to the New Testament, it represents an Likewise, J. B. Bury argues, “The theory of ancient pagan philosophy of history that has not world-cycles was so widely current that it may been fully discarded by Christians. Far from almost be described as the orthodox theory of believing that history was an endless cycle of cosmic time among the Greeks, and it passed fatalistically determined events, the early church from them to the Romans.”27 came to recognize that God came into human These cycles did not merely history to accomplish a great purpose, to drive demonstrate certain similarities between cycles; history forward teleologically to a grand actual events repeated endlessly. John W. outcome. Early Christians discovered in the Montgomery argues, “For the philosophers and Jewish Old Testament a clear doctrine of historians of Greece and Rome, history had no creation ex nihilo, a beginning to history. They beginning and would have no end; and in the discovered in Christ’s advent, a central event in eternal cyclical pattern of the universe, Socrates history. And they discovered both in the Old would drink the hemlock again and again.”28 Testament sources and in the prophecies of Plato, perhaps the greatest among the ancient Jesus Christ that history is moving toward a philosophers, referred to the great cycle of goal. Simply put, history is linear. This linear history as the “perfect year”29 at the end of philosophy contrasted sharply with the classical which all the planets would align and the cycle view of history, which posited endless cyclical of time would begin again. Likewise, Marcus recurrence. Against the backdrop of this Aurelius, representing ancient Stoic beliefs, classical view, the Christian linear view stands spoke of the “the great cyclic renewals of out as revolutionary. creation.”30 Cyclical views of history serve to The Classical View of Time and History downplay the significance of historical events. The formal discipline of history There can be no fixed and permanent meaning emerged in the same soil of ancient Greek to an event that ceaselessly recurs in a constant culture that gave birth to philosophy. Early revolution of cycles. In fact, Mircea Eliade has philosophical inquiry was cosmological in its shown that cyclicalism amounts to an outright orientation, concerned with the question of the denial of the importance of history because source of the natural world. Likewise, early eternal truths cannot coexist with the cycle of attempts at historical inquiry were imbued by time. He suggests that only a Platonic pursuit of naturalistic assumptions. The Greeks believed the forms can deliver the philosopher beyond that cycles in nature were mirrored by cycles in the ceaselessly recurring shadow world of time: history. The year moves cyclically through four seasons. There was a daily rhythm to nature of The desire felt by the man of traditional birth, growth, maturity, and death. Likewise, the societies to refuse history, and to confine whole course of human history moved himself to indefinite repetition of repeatedly through an endless repetition of archetypes, testifies to his thirst for the events. real and his terror of ‘losing’ himself by letting himself be overwhelmed by the

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meaninglessness of profane existence. . .. with a unique beginning, central event, [His] behavior is governed by the belief and ultimate goal, told by Scripture.32 in an absolute reality opposed to the profane world of ‘unrealities’; in the last This view of a “unique beginning” to analysis, the latter does not constitute a history was unquestionably contributed to the ‘world,’ properly speaking; it is the church by the Hebrew Old Testament. Among ‘unreal’ par excellence, the uncreated, the the Greek philosophers, there never emerged a nonexistent: the void.”31 clear doctrine of creation ex nihilo even among those such as Aristotle who posited belief in Eliade emphasizes an important point: there can God as a Prime Mover. Pre-Socratic cosmology be no ultimate meaning inside a cyclical view of rested on a materialistic assumption; the history. What has happened, will simply happen universe was reducible to water, earth, air, fire, again and again. The ancients found a certain or even numbers as the Pythagoreans would comfort in this fact. The view that history is have it. Plato’s demiurge exercised a creative “open” to unknown future possibilities brought function, but he worked with pre-existing with it a certain terror. But in closing the circle materials from previous revolutions of the cycle. of history, they relinquished the hope that For the ancient Hebrews, however, there was history had any ultimate meaning. Unless no time, no history, and no material universe history is linear, there can never be an outcome before the beginning found in the first book of to the story of man in time. But for most of the the Law. ancients, opening the circle was too terrifying a The Hebrews also understood God to prospect. act in history in decisive ways. God’s actions were especially revealed in the exodus from The Christian Revolution of Time and Egypt in which God destroyed their captors and History chose them to be His special people. There is In the first century, a revolution began no hint in the Old Testament that such an event in historiography when the incarnation opened would be repeated again and again through the circle of history. The ancient Hebrews, endless cycles of time. True, the Hebrews did almost alone among the ancients, predicted the experience cycles of sin, judgment and opening of the circle. The early Christians restoration, but there is no hint in the Old completed it, stretching history out along a Testament that these cycles were driven by the continuous line with a definite beginning, a irreversible wheel of fate. Rather, the cycles central event, and a culmination. Ernst Breisach resulted from the nation’s corporate failures. writes, These failures provoked the warnings of the prophets, who not only promised release from The pagan and Christian inhabitants of captivity, but pointed forward to a grand the Roman Empire lived in two radically kingdom age in which the provisions of the different mental worlds. . .. A distinctly Abrahamic and Davidic covenants would be Christian view of history evolved in the fulfilled. There was no suggestion among the discussions among the church prophets that time itself would repeat. Mircea fathers. . .. The Great Comic Cycle of Eliade says of the Hebrew contribution, Plato and other philosophers, which repeated itself after thousands of years, For the first time, we find affirmed, and did indeed yield to a world created ex increasingly accepted, the idea that nihilo and running its course only historical events have a value in once. . .. History showed a development themselves, insofar as they are determined by the will of God. This

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God of the Jewish people is no longer of the ages and the inauguration of a permanent an Oriental divinity, creator of new world. archetypal gestures, but a personality The climactic event in history is the who ceaselessly intervenes in history. . .. incarnation of Christ which throws open the Historical facts thus become ‘situations’ circle of history for time and eternity is the of man in respect to God, and as such resurrection. When God acted in human they acquire a religious value that history, He not only changed the course of nothing has previously been able to history, He changed Himself through the confer on them. It may, then, be said permanent addition of humanity to the Second with truth that the Hebrews were the Person of His Godhead. God, in the person of first to discover the meaning of history Jesus Christ, not only took a human body, he as the epiphany of God, and this kept it, forever. Jesus never loses His humanity. conception, as we should expect, was He will not be endlessly reincarnated in a future taken up and amplified by revolution of the wheel of time. He was Christianity.”33 resurrected in a human body, and that resurrection was merely the first-fruits of the If the Old Testament implicitly assumes resurrection of the new world. a linear philosophy of history, the New The bodily resurrection of Christ means Testament boldly asserts it from beginning to that whatever cycles there may be of human end. The New Testament begins with the disobedience, misery, and death, these are incarnation and culminates with the end of brought decisively to an end by the Christian’s history and the beginning of a permanent new resurrection with him. It means that whatever world. The New Testament does not view the endless attempts were made at appeasing God incarnation as a mere incident of passing through ceremonial cleansing and animal historical interest. The New Testament does not sacrifices, these are now brought eternally to an assert that Christ came into human history end through Christ. merely to disappear again and let the endless The author of Hebrews seems to be cycles resume. Rather, the New Testament aware that many of his contemporaries failed to presents the incarnation as the climactic event apply the significance of Christ’s coming to an of the first creation and the inaugural event of evaluation of a cyclical view of history. In the the new creation toward which all history first chapter, he presents Christ as superior to moves. all those who have come before. For someone The incarnation is of such supreme committed to a cyclical view, these judgments importance, the first four books of the New of superiority are meaningless.34 Further, the Testament return to the theme from various author of Hebrews points to the unique angles. The fifth book of the New Testament character of Christ’s actions. They are non- argues that the message of Christ’s incarnation repeatable. “He has no need, like those high is so compelling and novel a truth in human priests, to offer sacrifices daily, first for his own history, it began to radically transform the sins and then for those of the people, since he Roman Empire from the first sermon at did this once for all when he offered up Pentecost. A series of epistles follow in which himself.”35 Again, the author says, various facets of the gospel are explained and applications made to the followers of Jesus Nor was it to offer himself repeatedly, Christ. The final book of the New Testament as the high priest enters the holy places Canon, regardless of what hermeneutic is every year with blood not his own, for applied to it, demonstrates decisively that then he would have had to suffer history is moving forward to a consummation repeatedly since the foundation of the

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world. But as it is, he has appeared once be proclaimed throughout the whole world as a for all at the end of the ages to put away testimony to all nations, and then the end will sin by the sacrifice of himself. . .. Christ, come.”39 The apostle Paul also spoke of this end having been offered once to bear the in his great chapter on the resurrection in which sins of many, will appear a second time, he links Christ’s resurrection to the future not to deal with sin but to save those resurrection of all believers. “Then comes the who are eagerly waiting for him.36 end, when he delivers the kingdom to God the Father after destroying every rule and every And again, authority and power. For he must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet. The last And by that will we have been sanctified enemy to be destroyed is death.”40 through the offering of the body of Jesus Christ once for all. And every The Augustinian Application priest stands daily at his service, offering At the time of Constantine the Great, repeatedly the same sacrifices, which can professional Christian scholars began to never take away sins. But when Christ compile the history of the church. Eusebius is had offered for all time a single sacrifice best known among them. But others, including for sins, he sat down at the right hand Socrates, Sozomen, Evagrius and Orosius told of God, waiting from that time until his the story of the first three centuries of the enemies should be made a footstool for church. Although they assumed a linear his feet. For by a single offering he has philosophy of history, these authors were not perfected for all time those who are primarily interested in articulating a Christian being sanctified.37 philosophy of history. Their work was to bring the record up-to-date from the first-century These “once-for-all” passages in Hebrews argue records of Acts.41 not only that history cannot be cyclical, but that It was Augustine, who although not there is some great goal in history. Gordon himself a historian, should be credited with Clark argues, giving the linear view of history its final Patristic form.42 In his Confessions Augustine relates his This goal cannot be merely the end of a passage through a variety of ancient schools of cycle that is to be repeated again…. A thought, which often included cyclical true goal is final, ultimate, and permanent. interpretations of history. But upon his Accordingly, if history is to be granted acceptance of Christianity and his reading of the significance, something must happen book of Hebrews, Augustine came to adopt a once for all. The end is a unique event, linear philosophy of history. A cyclical view, he and the whole historical process that determined, was incompatible with Christianity. leads up to the end consist in a series of unique events.38 [Philosophers] have therefore asserted that these cycles will ceaselessly recur, This is the great second-story of the one passing away and another incarnation. The incarnation, especially as it coming. . .. They exempt not even the climaxes with the resurrection, gives the whole immortal soul that has attained wisdom, course of human history meaning and direction. consigning it to a ceaseless History is moving forward, ceaselessly pressing transmigration between delusive toward the end for which God brought time blessedness and real misery. . .. into existence. Jesus spoke of this end to his According to those philosophers, the disciples. “And this gospel of the kingdom will same periods and events of time are

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repeated; as if, for example, the Biblical idea of history.”45 Similarly, George philosopher Plato, having taught in the Grant writes, “What must be insisted is that the school at Athens which is called the very spirit of progress takes its form and Academy, so, numberless ages before, at depends for its origin on the Judeo-Christian long but uncertain intervals, this same idea of history.”46 Plato and the same school, and the same During the Enlightenment, disciples existed, and so also are to be philosophers and historians rejected the notion repeated during the countless cycles that that history is moving toward its God-intended are yet to be,—far be it, I say, from us climax. Nevertheless, they preserved the view to believe this. For once Christ died for that history is directional, progressive, and our sins; and, rising from the dead, He purposeful. Very few have willingly returned to dieth no more . . . and we ourselves the cyclical view of the ancients.47 Roy after the resurrection shall be ‘ever with Swanstrom argues, “The majority of those who the Lord.’43 think seriously about history think in terms of a beginning and a linear movement through the The event that settled the issue for Augustine centuries to the present and on into the future. was the once-for-all character of the death of They attach some meaning to the entire flow of Christ. In fact, the birth of Christ ushered in the time.”48 sixth and final age in the drama of redemption.44 Augustine's magnum opus, the City of Conclusion: Resurrection and the Meaning God postulates that throughout history there are of History two parallel kingdoms, the kingdom of man and This work has demonstrated that the kingdom of God. When the temporal history, conceived broadly, is the impartation of kingdom of man—the Pax Romana—crumbled a narrative concerning man’s experiences in around the fifth-century Roman citizen, the time. Time, regardless of how it is defined by Christian need not despair; his life was part of a philosophers, has directionality. Thus, most larger historical narrative. The fortunes of modern historians operate from the assumption God’s kingdom were not tied to the fate of any that the narrative of man’s experience in time one human civilization. God’s great kingdom must move toward some great end. The arrow would march on over the wreck of nations and of time moves progressively forward and does empires. not cycle back endlessly through successive At the heart of Augustine’s City of God is revolutions as many ancient historians believed. not only the notion that history has direction, but This paper has also shown that it was that history has progress. In the kingdom neither modern science nor modern philosophy parables, Christ had predicted the growth of the that introduced the concept of linear history; it kingdom using the analogy of a mustard seed. was introduced by a Christian theology centered Augustine believed that history was the story of on the doctrine of Christ’s incarnation. If God the growth of that seed. acted in human history, He must have had some Augustine’s teleological conception of great end in mind for doing so. The incarnation history passed decisively into the thought climaxed with the resurrection of Jesus Christ, stream of western culture for the millennium in which his incarnation became a permanent following his death. But even today, historians condition. Christians can hardly conceive of still work on the assumption that history has time cycling back to a pre-incarnate period in direction. J. W. Montgomery says, “All our time. God, in the person of Jesus Christ, took a modern conceptions of historical progress— human body, and he keeps it, forever. Christ’s whether religious or materialistic, Christian or resurrection points to a future resurrection that Marxist—take their origin ultimately from the stands at the end of history and as the gateway

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to the new world, the resurrection unto eternal beneath the debris of a universe in life in which all the labors, sorrows, joys, and ruins—all these things, if not quite triumphs of this life will merge with their eternal beyond dispute, are yet so nearly certain, purposes in the next life. that no philosophy which rejects them It is the resurrection, then, that gives can hope to stand. Only within the meaning and purpose to history. To see this, scaffolding of these truths, only on the one need only examine those philosophies in firm foundation of unyielding despair western culture that have borrowed from can the soul’s habitation be safely built.49 Christianity the view that Christianity is linear and directional, but have failed to acknowledge When Paul visited Athens in the first that God came into human history and acted century, his message of the resurrection was met with a purpose. Karl Marx viewed history as with derision from both the Epicurean and progressing linearly through a series of Stoic philosophers who had adopted a cyclical revolutions spawned by class conflicts. George view of history. Two thousand years later, Hegel viewed history as progressing linearly despite the enormous influence of Christianity through a conflict and synthesizing of ideologies in human civilization, despite the fact that in which the spirit of the absolute became self- history splits in half—historians date events aware in human consciousness. Charles Darwin before Christ by counting backwards from His viewed history as progressing linearly through incarnation and events after Christ by counting competition and the survival of the fittest. forward from his incarnation—the Christian Enlightenment philosophers viewed history as view of history, centered on the incarnation and progressing linearly toward an inevitable resurrection is still a difficult sell. Christopher utopian society. In every case, the philosopher Dawson has said it well, borrowed from Christianity the notion of linear progress, but it was a progress denuded of any Hence it is very difficult, perhaps even lasting significance because it could not solve a impossible, to explain the Christian view single problem. Death. of history to a non-Christian, since it is Bertrand Russell was brutally honest on necessary to accept the Christian faith in this point. His materialism could offer history order to understand the Christian view of no ultimate purpose in the face of the inevitable history, and those who reject the idea of onslaught of death: a divine revelation are necessarily obliged to reject the Christian view of history as That Man is the product of causes which well. . . . That God should have chosen had no prevision of the end they were an obscure Palestinian tribe—not a achieving; that his origin, his growth, his particularly civilized or attractive tribe hopes and fears, his loves and his beliefs, either—to be the vehicle of his universal are but the outcome of accidental purpose for humanity, is difficulty to collocations of atoms; that no fire, no believe. But that this purpose should heroism, no intensity of thought and have been finally realized in the person of feeling, can preserve an individual life a Galilean peasant executed under beyond the grave; that all the labours of Tiberius, and that this event was the the ages, all the devotion, all the turning point in the life of mankind and inspiration, all the noonday brightness of the key to the meaning of history—all human genius, are destined to extinction this is so hard for the human mind to in the vast death of the solar system, and accept that even the Jews themselves that the whole temple of Man’s were scandalized, while to the Greek achievement must inevitably be buried philosophers and the secular historians it seemed sheer folly.50

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References

1Jaroslav Pelikan says, “The role of Testament legal system. And His kingdom Augustine . . . affected the history of every parables stretched forward into the centuries doctrine. . .. Almost anywhere one touches following his death and resurrection. the history of early Christian doctrine, 6Christopher Dawson, Dynamics of World Augustine is there either as a synthesizer or as History, ed. John J. Mulloy (LaSalle, Ill: a creator or as both. Almost no doctrinal Sherwood Sugden & Co., 1978), 251. emphasis was alien to him.” Jaroslav Pelikan, 7Ronald Nash concurs with the distinction The Christian Tradition: a History of the between different kinds of history. He argues Development of Doctrine, vol. 1, The Emergence of that there are essentially two approaches to the Catholic Tradition (100-600) (New York: history. “The first is what some call scientific University of Chicago Press, 1975), 293-94. history. Gordon Graham defines it as ‘the 2Ernst Breisach, Historiography: Ancient, attempt simply to arrive at an accurate Medieval, & Modern (Chicago: University of account of past events based upon sufficient Chicago Press, 1983), 80. evidence.’” Again, quoting Gordon Graham, 3I am here using Earle Cairns’ categories, Nash argues, “the second approach to history incident, information, induction, interpretation, and [is] the attempt to grasp ‘the meaning of impartation developed in his excellent human history as a whole.’ . . . Two names for treatment of historiography, God and Man in this approach are Speculative history and the Time: A Christian Approach to Historiography philosophy of history.” Ronald Nash, The Meaning (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House Company, of History (Nashville, TN: Broadman & 1979), 13. Holman Publishers, 1998), 5. 4The purpose of this work is not to defend the 8Gordon H. Clark, A Christian View of Men and historicity of New Testament events. On this Things (Unicoi, TN: The Trinity Foundation, topic, readers should consult the following 1991), 80-81. among other. Gary R. Habermas, The Historical 9“Si nemo a me quaerat, scio, si quaerenti Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ explicari velim, nescio.” Translated in John (Joplin, MO: College Press Publishing Warwick Montgomery, The Shape of the Past: A Company, 1996). J. Ed Komoszewski, et. al., Christian Response to Secular Philosophies of History Reinventing Jesus: How Contemporary Skeptics Miss (Minneapolis: Bethany Fellowship Inc., 1975), the Real Jesus and Mislead Popular Culture (Grand 20. Rapids: Kregel Publications, 2006). F.F. 10A good introduction to Zeno is found in Bruce, The New Testament Document: Are They James Jordan, Western Philosophy: From Reliable? (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Antiquity to the Middle Ages (New York: Publishing Company, 1981). N.T. Wright, The Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987), 27-29. Resurrection of the Son of God (Christian Origins 11A difficulty for Zeno’s paradox that he does and the Question of God, Vol. 3) (Minneapolis: not address is that an infinite series, produced Fortress Press, 2003). John McRay, Archaeology by division (rather than addition or & the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker multiplication) can add up to a finite number. Academic, 1991). Eta Linnemann, Historical Theoretically, the twelve inches of a ruler can Criticism of the Bible: Methodology or Ideology? be infinitely subdivided, 6”, 3”, 1.5”, .75” and Reflections of a Bultmannian turned Evangelical, so on. But the addition of all these trans. by Robert Yarbrough (Grand Rapids: subdivisions will always add up to exactly 12 Kregel Publications 1990). inches. 5For example, Jesus’ teachings and actions 12Andrew Rule distinguishes between these clearly had some reference to the entire Old approaches. “Psychological [subjective] time

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for the Twenty-First Century (Wheaton, IL: must be real because we can be aware of it as Crossway, 2010), 27. a purely inner experience to consciousness; 20Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World, but is it the only real time, the objective time 69, 88, 100, 295. being merely and ‘artificial’ schematization for 21Ibid., 69. some limited purpose? Or is objective time 22Stephen Hawking gives an analogy. “Imagine the only real time, psychological time being a cup of water falling off a table and breaking the result of some subjective warping? Are into pieces on the floor. If you take a film of both real time; and, if so, how are they this, you can easily tell whether it is being run related? Or is time as such unreal? Andrew K. forward or backward. If you run it backward Rule, “Time,” in Twentieth Century Encyclopedia you will see the pieces suddenly gather of Religious Knowledge, An Extension of the New themselves off the floor and jump back to Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia, ed. L.A. Loetscher form a whole cup on the table. You can tell (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1955), the film is being run backward because this 2:1116. kind of behavior is never observed in ordinary 13Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, tr. life.” Hawking, A Brief History of Time, 148. Norman Kemp Smith (London: Macmillan, 23David Hume famously raised 1933), 76-77. epistemological difficulties with the 14Arthur Eddington, The Nature of the Physical relationship between cause and effect World (New York: Cambridge University relationships. But his argument primarily Press, 1928), 36. concerned the observer’s inability to define a 15Readers unfamiliar with Einstein’s theory cause, rather than the sequencing of events. will be helped by Stephen Hawking, A Brief 24In 1854, Rudolf Clausius published an History of Time. 10th ed. (United States: argument “On a Modified Form of the Scientific American Modern Classics, 2004), Second Fundamental Theorem in the 15-35. Mechanical Theory of Heat” in which he 16Isaac Asimov, The Intelligent Man’s Guide to argues that cooler bodies never transfer heat Science (New York: Basic Books, 1960), 1:286- to hotter bodies. Thus, a steaming hot cup of 87. tea will transfer heat into the room in which it 17This is Gregory Ganssle’s language in God is placed, cooling the tea, and raising the room and Time: Four Views (Downers Grove, IL: temperature (albeit slightly), but the cooler IVP Academic, 2001), 14. room will never raise the temperature of the 18One of the finest treatments of historical room. conceptions of time is Daniel Boorstin’s 25William H. Martin and Sandra Mason, eds. magisterial work, The Discoverers (New York: Edward FitzGerald’s Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám: Radom House, 1983). A Famous Poem and Its Influence (London: 19C.S. Lewis posed an intriguing argument for Anthem Press, 2011), 15. the soul based on the universal assumption 26Nash, The Meaning of History, 31. that time is moving too swiftly. No parent 27J. B. Bury, The Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into laments that his kids grow up too slowly. its Origin and Growth (London: MacMillan and Older people universally ask, “Where have the Co., Limited, 1921),12. Bury argues that for years gone.” People complain of time “flying” the Pythagoreans, for instance, “each cycle but never “crawling.” This universal sense repeated to the minutest particular the course that we are awkwardly situated in time stems and events of the preceding. If the universe from the fact that each of us has an eternal dissolves into the original chaos, there soul that has been bound by time. The appeared to them to be no reason why the naturalist cannot account for this sense of second chaos should produce a world time’s passing too quickly. Lewis’ argument is differing in the least respect from its nicely summarized in Louis Markos, Apologetics

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The best general work on Christian predecessor. The nth cycle would be indeed historiography is Michael Bauman and Martin numerically distinct from the first, but Klauber, eds. Historians of the Christian Tradition otherwise would be identical with it, and no (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1995). man could possibly discover the number of 42A study of Augustine can be a massive the cycle in which he was living. . . . The undertaking. His philosophy emerges through course of the world’s history would contain an an inductive study of his City of God. A endless number of Trojan Wars.” Ibid. succinct introduction can be found in Gordon 28Mongomery, The Shape of the Past, 41-42. H. Clark, Historiography Secular and Religious 29“None the less however can we observe that (Nutley, NJ: The Craig Press, 1971), 282-253. the perfect number of time fulfils the perfect 43City of God, Book 12, chpt. 13. year at the moment when the relative 44Augustine’s stages of redemptive history are: swiftness of all eight revolutions accomplish (1) From Adam to Noah. (2) From Noah to their course together and reach their starting- Abraham. (3) From Abraham to David. (4) point, being measures by the circle of the From David to the Babylonian Exile. (5) same and uniformly moving. In this way then From the Babylonian Exile to the labor pains and for these causes were created all such of of Mary. (6) The birth of Jesus Christ to the the stars as wonder through the heavens and end of the age.) turn about therein, in order that this universe 45Montgomery, The Shape of the Past, 42. may be most like to the perfect and ideal 46George P. Grant, Philosophy in the Mass Age animal by its assimilation to the eternal (Vancouver: Copp Clark, 1959), 49. being.” R.D. Archer-Hind, ed., The Timaeus of 47Friedrich Nietzsche is an exception. In the Plato (New York: MacMillan and Company, Gay Science he argues for a return to cyclical 1888), 129-131. view under the notion of “eternal recurrence.” 30Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Meditations, Historians Oswald Spengler and Arnold 11/1, trans. Maxwell Staniforth (London: Toynbee are sometimes interpreted as Hammondsworth, 1964), 165. embracing a cyclical view. But theirs was not 31Mircea Eliade, The Myth of the Eternal Return the repetitive cycle of the ancients. Rather, (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 2005), 91- they argued that there were cycles in history, 92. J. W. Montgomery observes similarly, but history itself was not an ever-recurring “Non-Western cultures have centered their cycle. The book of Judges demonstrates that attention not on man’s action in time, but on there were cycles of blessing, failure, eternal truths outside of time (i.e., on judgment, and repentance in ancient Israel. metaphysical speculation), and on But these were not identical cycles of identical representations of these truths in mythical events. dress.” The Shape of the Past, 35. 48Roy Swanstrom, History in the Making: An 32Breisach, Historiography, 77. Introduction to the Study of the Past (Downers 33Eliade, Myth of the Eternal Return, 104. Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1978), 37. 34Ronald Nash makes this case in The Meaning 49 Bertrand Russell, A Free Man’s Worship of History, 45. (1903). 35Hebrews 7:27 (ESV) 50 Christopher Dawson, “The Christian View 36Hebrews 9:25-28 (ESV). of History” in C.T. McIntire, ed. God, History, 37Hebrews 10:11-14 (ESV). and 38Clark, A Christian View of Man and Things, 78. Historians: Modern Christian Views of History 39Matthew 24:14. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 401 Corinthians 15:24-25. 31. 41A fine work on early church historiography is Glenn Chesnut, The First Christian Histories, 2 ed. (Macon, GA: Mercer University, 1986).

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Yet in the Putin era, such optimism has been borne out with mixed results. Although Russia has never had as strong an evangelical presence as it does today, powerful forces remain at work in the nation that strive to A Rich Land With A blunt evangelism’s impact. In fact, democracy Complex History of Faith: in Russia over the past two decades has become a facade for a new kind of state Russia and Modern Challenges authoritarianism in which the government, at the urging of the Russian Orthodox Church, to the Spread of Evangelical continues to stamp out, with differing degrees Christianity of success, any perceived opposition to Orthodoxy’s position of dominance on issues of faith. By Charles W. Carter, Ph.D. The Rise & Dominance of Orthodoxy in Shorter University Tsarist Russia The Russian Primary Chronicle dates Christianity’s official origin in Russia to the Throughout its rich, storied history, actions of Grand Prince Vladimir I of Kiev. evangelical Christianity has faced hurdles that Specifically, in 988 A.D., the prince made have hindered it from taking firm root in the Christianity the official faith among the soil of the world’s largest country: Russia. To Kievan Rus, who historically had been pagans be sure, Eastern Orthodoxy has been the and whose collective identity later formed the dominant brand of Christianity in Russia for basis of modern Russian identity (Leong, xii). centuries, often heavily promoted by the state At the time of Vladimir’s fateful decision, the from tsarist times to the present. Indeed, ever Byzantine Empire, the cradle of Eastern since Greek-speaking Byzantine missionaries Orthodoxy, was at the zenith of its power and converted Prince Vladimir of Kiev to international cultural influence, thus serving as Orthodoxy in the tenth century, Russians a model for Vladimir both to gain knowledge have had an affinity for the Orthodox model of Christianity and to forge an importance of the faith and worship, seen in everything alliance for his kingdom. In the process, from its ornate onion-domed churches, icons, Byzantium exerted considerable influence on and chants to its focus on a patriarchal model the Russian Orthodox Church in terms of of ecclesiastical leadership. Given Russia’s liturgical development (Leong, 26-27). historical trajectory and tradition of autocratic In addition, the Byzantines provided the governmental and church rule, the model for the architectural design of Russian marginalization of non-Orthodox forms of churches, as the first of such churches the faith, including Roman Catholicism and adopted the cross-cupola (dome) motif especially evangelical Christianity, has become prominent in Byzantium. Later, Russian an entrenched feature of ecclesiastical life. churches set themselves apart from their Notwithstanding the heavy oppression of Byzantine influencers by reducing the number non-Orthodox Christianity during the Soviet of support columns and pillars (Bremer, 11). era (1922-1991), there were renewed hopes Ever since, the beautifully crafted onion- that the advent of democracy in Russia after domed churches of Russia have remained a the Cold War would usher in a new age in symbol of Orthodoxy worldwide. To outside which evangelical Christianity would make observers, these churches even today continue great strides in winning converts. to serve as a testament to the deep religiosity

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outlawed their religious activities (Wardin, of the Russian past. The great Orthodox 244). cathedrals, such as Saint Basil’s in Moscow, Given their similarities with the Stundists, remain a major feature that drives tourism to Russia’s small Baptist community feared that Russia. heavy restrictions on spreading the Gospel would affect them as well. Indeed, it appears that many Baptists were subject to much scrutiny from time to time, given their focus on the Bible. Yet, occasionally, Russian officials were advocates for the Baptists. “The spread of Baptists who recognize the civil authorities,” one official wrote in the mid- 1800s, “is in no contradiction with the state interests of the empire” (Werth, 96). At the same time, Baptist and Free Church missionaries lived in fear, and the type of Christianity they promoted was shunned by the state. Not until the Edict of Toleration (1905), enacted under Tsar Nicholas II, did the situation significantly improve. With this legislation, such evangelicals were now free to, among other things, hold religious services, produce their own religious literature and import literature from abroad, and even own property (Wardin, 325). As historian Heather J. Coleman writes, “The 1905 Revolution

St. Basil’s Cathedral, Moscow, Image Credit: Pixabay launched a period of rapid expansion for the Baptists, both numerically and At the same time, however, the state- organizationally” (Coleman, 25). The situation sponsorship of Orthodoxy in Russia’s long had never looked brighter for evangelical tsarist period of history resulted in the penetration of the world’s largest country. marginalization of Protestant Christianity, especially in the 1800s. The nineteenth century, of course, saw many foreigners travel The Bolshevik Revolution: The Soviet to Russia, some of whom sought to spread Persecution of Christians of All Stripes the evangelical faith. Yet hopes for progress were short lived, One such movement, known as as the Russian Revolution (1917), organized Stundism, was influenced by German by communist agitator Vladimir Lenin and his Evangelicalism. The Stundists in Russia, fellow Bolsheviks, ushered in an unforeseen known for setting aside an hour each day for and unprecedented age of Christian Bible study, called for the widespread persecution in Russia--the likes of which proliferation of the Bible among the masses, Europe had never seen before. In the tsarist as well as upheld a literal view of the Bible’s period, Christianity had been so ingrained in revelation. They were not surprisingly deemed Russian national identity that foreign travelers a threat to Orthodoxy’s control, and so a law often referenced the intense Christian enacted in 1894 under Tsar Alexander III religiosity of Russians. The country, for example, was often called Holy Russia, given

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in his youth, his later conversion to Marxism the widespread presence of churches and and murderous ways while in power revealed chapels. But for Lenin’s communist a hostility to faith. Bolsheviks, all religion had to be stamped out, Not only were Christians targets but as it was viewed as a mere form of social other faiths as well. Given increasing Soviet control. Karl Marx, the German philosopher tension with Japan in the 1930s, for example, behind the ideology of communism, had Buddhists in particular were singled out for notoriously referred to religion as the “opium scrutiny, with many facing accusations of of the masses.” As a virulent atheist and spying for Japan. Indeed, it seemed that devout follower of Marx, Lenin held similar Stalin’s paranoia knew no bounds. Against views about religion. Lenin’s success in this backdrop, Christians too faced establishing military and political control over persecution in the early Stalin era as well. Yet all of Russia by 1922, after a bloody and heart- it was largely sects on the margins, such as the wrenching civil war that saw many Christian Jehovah’s Witnesses, that often found deaths, meant the rise of a new age of terror. themselves in the notorious labor camps, The Bolsheviks, who changed Russia’s known as gulags (Rappaport, 227). In addition, name to the Soviet Union, made atheism the the Russian version of the Salvation Army, official new state religion. Realizing that the the Armiya Spaseniya, was disbanded in 1923 tsars of the past routinely had used the and only allowed to reemerge officially Orthodox Church as a tool for social control, decades later (Merritt, 478). Perhaps the Bolsheviks sought to curtail the power of somewhat surprisingly, there were still the church in order to control the masses approximately one-half million Baptists in themselves. Monasteries were shut down, for Russia in 1927 (Rappaport, 227). example, and prominent church leaders were As the Soviet Union industrialized and arrested, including Patriarch Tikhon (Phillips, became a superpower under Stalin, the Soviet 62-63). In addition, the state seized many of government increasingly co-opted the the churches, blowing up some with dynamite Orthodox Church for state purposes. If Stalin and converting others to office space for could not wipe out the faith of the masses, he official party purposes. Some Bolsheviks, reasoned, he could at least control it to attempting to win over the religious, claimed promote his own ends. that religion should continue to be a private The first prominent incidence occurred matter. during the Second World War, known in It was Lenin, however, who intervened Russia as the Great Patriotic War. Stalin relaxed with a decree announcing the separation of restrictions on the Orthodox Church after the church and state (Bremer, 80). Although many Nazi invasion of Russia wreaked havoc on nations with robust religious communities Soviet morale. As a result, the Soviet also have professed a principle of separation leadership encouraged church attendance to between church and state, including the unite the masses and provide a boost in United States, such rhetoric meant something national confidence. “The Russian people totally different for the Bolsheviks. It meant accepted this war as a holy war, a war for their state persecution of Christian communities. faith and their country...., Metropolitan The government, with its newly created League Nikolai even proclaimed, “Patriotism and of the Militant Godless, set to task in the early Orthodoxy are one” (Miner, 51). Soviet era mocking Christian beliefs as In 1944, amid the war, the Union of superstition in state propaganda (Phillips, 63). Evangelical Christians and Baptists With Lenin’s death in 1922 and the rise (AUCECB) also came into existence. As to power of Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, historian Constantine Prokhorov writes,...“a religious persecution carried on. Although single Evangelical Christian-Baptist body was Stalin had once entertained becoming a priest

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led by communist party strong-man Leonid easier to control” (Prokhorov, 17). This union Brezhnev. included not only Baptists but also later Indeed, Brezhnev’s long rule of the Pentecostals and Mennonites, among others. Soviet Union (1964-82) was characterized by The religious differences, along with the considerable improvement with the West, centralization, led to a rupture of the Union with implications for greater religious by the 1960s (Ibid., 17-18). toleration. Indeed, the 1970s was the era known as detente: a relaxation of tensions amid the Cold War marked by the de- Khrushchev & the Closing of Churches escalation of the nuclear arms race and Notwithstanding such developments, unprecedented communication between Stalin’s death in March 1953 marked an end Moscow and Washington. Significantly, the to one of the worst eras of violent persecution high point of detente was Brezhnev’s signing in Soviet history. His successor as leader, of the Helsinki Accords in 1975, a document Nikita Khrushchev, made history in 1956 by that gave the impression that the Soviets denouncing the cruel state excesses associated would begin respecting human rights--a with Stalin and his cult of personality. The supposed marked break from the process was known as De-Stalinization, an authoritarian past. informal repudiation of the past. And, indeed, in some ways, Brezhnev’s Yet while many Christians may have detente benefited Baptists within the Soviet reasoned that the time was now ripe for fertile Union. For starters, Brezhnev was far less evangelical activities, they were badly mistaken likely to use violence to curtail the activities of about Khrushchev’s toleration of religion. Baptists. Rather, it seems his government The new leader’s vow to defeat the West in focused on winning over the masses to the Cold War, along with his unpredictable atheism through the school system and rhetoric, produced renewed anxiety. education (Jones & Randall, 53). During In fact, Khrushchev launched a major Brezhnev’s rule, Baptists in the Soviet anti-religious campaign, one of the most Republic of Moldavia even obtained official restrictive in Soviet history. He was especially sanction to publish some 8,000 Bibles and effective, more so than any other Soviet hymn books (Ubeivolc, 41). leader, in closing churches. Indeed, more than At the same time, Baptists still sometimes five thousand churches were closed under gave their life for their faith, as evidenced by Khrushchev’s rule (Marsh, 82). The the 1972 murder of Vanya Moiseev. A soldier, government had introduced so much red tape Moiseev eagerly shared his evangelical faith that it was extremely difficult for even with family and fellow soldiers, in the process Orthodox churches to register for approval. gaining converts. Although uncultured, In fact, some 4, 219 Orthodox Christian Moiseev claimed to see visions of angels, a societies were stripped of their official testament to his personal religiosity. Yet he registration between 1961 and 1966 (Davis). was beaten and stabbed to death by fellow Such was life during Khrushchev’s anti- soldiers (Wurmbrandt, 53), a development religious campaign. that led many to view Moiseev as a true modern-day martyr. “Are you a believer? Be ready to die!” became a slogan among some An Era of Contradictions: The Brezhnev Baptists in this contradictory era of official Period tolerance but unofficial suppression Perhaps a sigh of relief among (Prokhorov, 108). Evangelicals came in 1964 when Khrushchev Interestingly, the presidential rise of was removed from power in a bloodless coup Jimmy Carter (a Baptist) in 1977 encouraged

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Soviet Baptists to file applications for emigration. Perhaps they mistakenly believed The New Era: Democracy & the Hopes that the United States now would eagerly take for Russian Evangelical Ascendancy them in. Baptists and Pentecostals had filed The end of the Cold War and the 35,000 of such applications by 1977, even breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 were though no major departure wave among such among the most momentous historical Christians and others seeking religious developments of the twentieth century. freedom ensued until the late 1980s Against this backdrop, evangelical (Hardwick, 129). Yet the Brezhnev missionaries hoped for unprecedented administration, thanks to the intervention of opportunities to win over converts in the Carter, did release from prison in 1979 Soviet once again newly renamed Russia. Indeed, Baptist leaders Gennadii Kryuchkov and Christianity, in this early post-Soviet era, Georgii Vins and allowed their emigration to seemed to experience somewhat of a the United States (Johnson, 324). Renaissance. After all, seventy years of state- sponsored atheism, with all of its spiritual and Gorbachev, Glasnost, & Christianity societal plagues, had left the masses alienated. No doubt, Mikhail Gorbachev’s rise to Not surprisingly, then, the early years of power in the Soviet Union in 1985 ushered in Russian democracy under Boris Yeltsin’s a new era of change. In many ways, leadership (1991-99) saw a flourishing of Gorbachev marked a dramatic break from the Baptist missionary activity, both foreign and heavy-handed rule of the past. He introduced domestic. the concept of glasnost, or openness, that gave The fear of growing Baptist influence, Russians freedom to speak their minds and however, led the Russian Orthodox Church to discuss the negative features of the Soviet seek to stamp out evangelical activities. past, including the issue of religious Bending to pressure by 1997, Yeltsin made a persecution. In addition, Gorbachev deal with the Russian Orthodox Church to renounced the Brezhnev Doctrine, which had favor Orthodoxy. In return, he expected and been an explicit Soviet threat to intervene indeed received the Orthodox Church’s militarily in Eastern-bloc nations that sought powerful support of the political class, democratic reforms. Gorbachev believed that including endorsing his candidacy in elections. the nations of Eastern Europe under Soviet (Steinberg & Wanner, 285-86). Thus, a new control, such as East Germany, Hungary, era of privileging Orthodoxy and Romania, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and marginalizing Evangelical Christianity had Bulgaria, all had the right to chart their own emerged course of development, free from Soviet This ‘I-will-scratch-your-back-if you- coercion. scratch-mine” relationship between Russian Against this backdrop, several positive political and Orthodox Church power has developments ensued for Evangelicals during continued during the more-than-decade long Gorbachev’s stint in power (1985-91). The rule of Vladimir Putin (1999-2008, 2012- Salvation Army was allowed to reopen, and present). the Soviets allowed religious believers, who This special relationship, however, has had faced persecution, to emigrate. Not only not always meant that the Orthodox Church that, 1988 marked Christianity’s 1000-year- simply does the bidding of the Putin presence in Russia. The Gorbachev administration. Sometimes the situation works government, one historian notes, approved of in reverse. Patriarch Alexy, the current the celebration of this pivotal event, “which patriarch’s predecessor, was a respectful critic signaled the end of the period of State militant of Putin’s efforts to change the Russian atheism” (Prokhorov, 16).

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In light of the new restrictions in Russia pension system a few years back, a imposed on evangelical activity, what is the development that led Putin to change course Bible-affirming Evangelical Christian to do? “Alexy did not damage his relationship with First, it is important to pray to God for Putin,” John and Carole Garrard write, positive change in Russia. To begin, we “because he did not challenge state authority” should pray that the Russian leadership will (Garrard, 249). become more open to the missionary work of Still, in recent years, non-Orthodox Baptists and other Evangelical Christians. We Christian missionaries have faced new should also pray that the Russian citizenry burdens in spreading the faith. In particular, demands greater religious toleration. If the 2016 saw a dramatic turning point in terms of latter occurs, the Russian political class would new restrictions in Russia on Protestant be forced to allow greater freedom of religion evangelization efforts. That year, a law came in Russia, a development that has never into effect that prohibited the sharing of the occurred in the nation’s long history. Lastly, Gospel in people’s homes and on the we should pray for courage and perseverance Internet. The only legal space to share one’s in the face of opposition. At present, faith, according to the law, was the confines missionaries must adapt to the current of a church building. The Russian Orthodox circumstances, even if it means the risk of Church, however, has been exempt from the deportation. God expects no less of his law, a position that clearly demonstrates the children. privileging of Orthodoxy by the state. This law, known as the Yarovaya law, played a role in the US Commission on International Religious Freedom’s designation of Russia as one of the worst places in the world in terms of freedom of religion (Shellnutt).

References Conclusion The history of Russia, both in the distant Bremer, Thomas. Cross and Kremlin: A past and today, has been characterized by the Brief History of the Orthodox privileging of Orthodoxy and the Church in Russia. Grand Rapids, MI: marginalization of Evangelical Christianity. William B. Eerdmans, 2013. No doubt, the worst era was Soviet rule, Coleman, Heather J. Russian Baptists and which saw the persecution of not only Spiritual Revolution, 1905-1929. Baptists but also Orthodox Christians. At the Bloomington, IN: Indiana University same time, the tsars, with the qualified Press, 2005. exception of Nicholas II, also favored Russian Davis, Nathaniel. A Long Walk to Church: A Orthodoxy as a tool to promote state Contemporary History of Russian interests. Today, the situation is very similar to Orthodoxy. New York: Routledge, the way it was in the past. Christians are no 2018. longer ridiculed, as they were during the Hardwick, Suan Wiley. Russian Refuge: Soviet era. However, Putin depends on the Religion, Migration, and Settlement Russian Orthodox Church’s approval to hold on the North American Pacific Rim. onto power. Not surprisingly, then, laws are Chicago: University of Chicago enacted in such a way as to promote Russian Press, 1993. Orthodox interests above those of other Christian faiths.

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among Evangelical Churches in an Johnson, Robert E. A Global Introduction to Eastern European Orthodox Context. Baptist Churches. Cambridge: Carlisle, UK: Langham Monographs, Cambridge University Press, 2010. 2016. Jones, Keith G. and Ian M. Randall. Wardin, Albert W. On the Edge: Baptists Counter-cultural Communities: and Other Free Church Evangelicals Baptistic Life in Twentieth Century in Tsarist Russia, 1855-1917. Europe. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2013. 2008. Werth, Paul W. The Tsar’s Foreign Faiths: Leong, Albert. The Millennium: Christianity Toleration and the Fate of Religious and Russia, AD 988-1988. Freedom in Imperial Russia. Oxford: Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Oxford University Press, 2014. Seminary Press, 1990. Wurmbrandt, Richard. The Overcomers: Marsh, Christopher. Religion and the State Stories of Love and Strength from the in Russia and China: Suppression, Founder of the Voice of the Martyrs. Survival, and Revival. New York: Orlando, FL: Bridge-Logos, 2006. Continuum, 2011. Merritt, John G. Historical Dictionary of the Salvation Army. Lanham MD, Scarecrow Press, 2006. Miner, Steven Merritt. Stalin’s Holy War: Religion, Nationalism, and Alliance Politics, 1941-1945. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003. Phillips, Steve. Lenin and the Russian Revolution. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers, 2000. Prokhorov, Constantine. Russian Baptists and Orthodoxy, 1960-1990 Carlisle, UK: Langham Monographs, 2013. Rappaport, Helen. Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 1999. Shellnutt, Kate. “Russia’s Newest Law: No Evangelizing Outside of Church,” Christianity Today, 8 July 2016, at https://www.christianitytoday.com/n ews/2016/june/no-evangelizing- outside-of-church-russia- proposes.html Steinberg Mark D. and Catherine Wanner (eds.), Religion, Morality, and Community in Post-Soviet Societies Washington:Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2008. Ubeivolc, Vladimir. Rethinking Missio Dei

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theories explain some crime but not all theories explain all crime. Opposing viewpoints from early criminological theory illustrate the shaky foundations of the criminological discipline. The classical school of criminology viewpoint is based on the free will of the offender, while the positivist school of criminology viewpoint is based on deterministic characteristics of the offender. As with most problems that theorists attempt to solve using opposite ends of a spectrum, neither can be completely accurate which means there must be some middle ground or alternative perspective that addresses the problem more fully. Though there is no “modern theory” – a theory posited within the last 500 years – that addresses the existence of criminality fully, there is a perspective that, when adopted, seems to address the root of criminal behavior. Prior to the establishment of the classical and positivist schools of criminology, a practical application of the supernatural theory of crime was the foundation for society. This supernatural perspective will be addressed later but it is the modern outgrowth of the Scriptural view of crime as specified within the pages of the Holy Bible. Over time, the Scriptural view of crime gave way to the supernatural theory because the supernatural theory made it easier to punish Adam & Eve & The Serpent, Image Credit: Pixabay individuals who engaged in criminal activity. This article will discuss the Biblical support for the total depravity of man – also known as the sin nature and original sin – as the root cause of criminal conduct. Herein, A Scriptural View of Crime the two terms, total depravity of man and sin nature, will be used interchangeably to refer to By Jared A. Linebach, Ph.D. the state of mankind as defined by God. The term original sin will be used to refer to the Shorter University fall of man as described in Genesis 3. It should also be noted at the outset that the There are many perspectives on the discussion of the sin nature will be from view of man, particularly as it relates to the God’s perspective not from man’s depravity of man. The abundance of theories perspective. There are plenty of other on how and why people commit crimes can theories that deal with the depravity of man easily be found in any criminological theories from man’s perspective. book. However, no single theory explains every act of social deviance. That is, all Defining Human Nature: Imago Dei

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bearers of God – they were as perfect as they, Humanity was created by God and for or we, would ever be. All of this was God. God created man from the dust of shattered after the temptation – not as a result earth and created woman from man on the of the temptation, but rather a result of sixth day of creation. This was the only time, yielding to the temptation – of Adam and Eve during the creation account, that God is at the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and recorded as identifying the whole of His work Evil in the midst of the garden (Genesis 2-3, as “very good” (Genesis 1:31, ESV). When ESV). Moses records the creation account and provides God’s discussion with Himself about Defining Human Nature: Sin Nature the creation of man, he does so using some In order to begin to define the specific terms: “’Let us make man in our concept of the sin nature, original sin must image, after our likeness’” (Genesis 1:26, first be established. While the term “original ESV). The meaning of image and likeness sin” is found nowhere in the 66 books that has casually come to represent a physical make up the canon of Scripture – the Holy likeness to God. However, the real meaning Bible – original sin, as a concept, is well is a bit less obvious. established by the Apostle Paul. The concept The use of “our image” and “likeness” of original sin is one that begins in the in Genesis indicates a deeper meaning than beginning. Original sin, as described in physical likeness, especially since “God is Genesis 3, portrays the first man, Adam, and spirit” (John 4:24, ESV). It seems much more his female counterpart, Eve the suitable likely that being made in the image of God helper, as having stepped outside the confines relates more to our moral, intellectual, and of God’s command. Adam and Eve ate of spiritual nature (Munyon, 1994). The image the forbidden fruit hanging from the Tree of of God is more about who we are and less the Knowledge of Good and Evil. It made about something we have or something we do no difference to a Holy God that Adam and (Munyon, 1994). Eve were coerced or entrapped in this Another scholar describes the image temptation to consume the fruit by the of God as both a “natural and moral image” serpent. While the serpent reaped its own (Menzies & Horton, 1993, p. 84). The natural consequences by presenting the temptation, image encompasses the intellectual aspects of the act of disobedience against the Divine was the person, but elaborates to include elements committed freely by Adam and Eve. of personality, sensibility, and rationality. In One result of the original sin, Adam contrast, the moral image houses our will, our and Eve were forced to leave the paradise freedom to make decisions. “Moral image in where God had originally placed them to live mankind is also the quality of our personality out their days. The original sin not only had that relates to the rightness or wrongness of geographic consequences, but it also had the use of our powers” (Menzies & Horton, physiological and psychological consequences. 1993, p. 85). It is this sense of right and The physiological consequences came in the wrong that allow us to relate to God. form of hard manual labor, pain in childbirth, These two perfectly formed first and death – thought not immediate physical humans – Adam and Eve – came to reside in death. The psychological consequences came the Garden of Eden. They enjoyed fellowship in the form of subjugation to one’s husband with God, walking with Him in the cool of and the realization that one would eventually the day. They enjoyed the fruit of the garden die. Original sin, while limited to the Garden and were allowed to eat of any of it except of Eden, has lasting consequences for all of that from one tree. They enjoyed perfect humanity. communion and communication with God in The original sin is only the starting that place. There, they were perfect image

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The flow and purpose of these point for the conversation about the sin passages clearly indicate the divine nature. Just as with original sin, the terms sin conceptualization of the sin nature. Sin and nature or the total depravity of man are not the sin nature entered the human race through found in the Scriptures. However, just like Adam “in an abuse of the freedom given to original sin, the framework for understanding created beings equipped with a will” (Menzies the sin nature is abundantly clear. The & Horton, 1993, p. 87) and has been concepts of sin nature and total depravity can transmitted to every other human, making the be expressed in positive and negative terms. entire human race sinners and worthy of the “Negatively, it means that man, as a result of consequences for that sin: death (Romans the fall, has lost his original righteousness and 6:23). The exact mode of transmission for the love for God. Positively, it means that man’s sin nature is a mystery. Genetic transmission moral nature has become corrupted, and that and evolutionary development transmission he has an irresistible bias toward evil” are two posited modes of transmission. (Barabas, 1967, p. 213). Scripture gives no clear answer to the The notion of the sin nature is most question about how the sin nature is clearly expressed by the Apostle Paul in his propagated within the human race. What is writings. First, Romans 5 provides the known is that sin is an all-pervasive tendency clearest picture of the sin nature within man. which must be dealt with if the human race is A deeper analysis of New Testament passages to live as God intended. will be assessed later but Romans chapter five gives an excellent description of the Human Nature in the Old Testament transmission of the sin nature. “Therefore, The Old Testament discusses the just as sin entered the world through one man characteristics of human nature. The account [Adam], and death through sin, and in this begins in Genesis 2 after the creation of all way death came to all men, because all things, to be discussed in greater detail later. sinned” (Romans 5:12, NIV). The Apostle The major theme relating to the sin nature in Paul’s point is expounded in five additional the Old Testament is that, since the original passages in Romans 5: sin of Adam – known simply as “the fall” – , • “the many died by the trespass of the the human race was and is sinful from before one man” (Romans 5:15, NIV) we were born. Psalm 51:1-5 states “Have • “the result of the one man’s sin: The mercy on me, O God, according to your judgment followed one sin and steadfast love; according to your abundant mercy blot out my transgressions. Wash me brought condemnation [to all]” thoroughly from my iniquity, and cleanse me (Romans 5:16, NIV) from my sin! For I know my transgressions, • “by the trespass of the one man, death and my sin is ever before me. Against you, reigned [from the time of Adam to the you only, have I sinned and done what is time of Moses; verse 14] through that evil in your sight, so that you may be justified one man” (Romans 5:17, NIV) in your words and blameless in your • “the result of one trespass was judgment. Behold, I was brought forth in condemnation for all men” (Romans iniquity, and in sin did my mother conceive 5:18, NIV) me” (ESV). The Psalms continue a few chapters • “through the disobedience of the one later to discuss the beginning of the human man the many were made sinners” sinful condition. Psalm 58:1-3 states “Do you (Romans 5:19, NIV) indeed decree what is right, you gods? Do you judge the children of man uprightly? No, in

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bring a clean thing out of an unclean? There your hearts you devise wrongs; your is not one” (ESV). While some of the earlier hands deal out violence on earth. The wicked passages provide a bit of hope when it comes are estranged from the womb; they go astray to remedying the human condition, the from birth, speaking lies” (ESV). The theme passage seems to indicate that there is no of post-fall sinfulness from birth is clearly turning back from one’s sinfulness, or delineated. However, Isaiah provides a bit of uncleanness. As the sin nature is examined good news as it relates to our condition. through an Old Testament lens, there seems Isaiah 48:8-9 states “You have never heard, to be no permanent cure for the sin nature. you have never known, from of old your ear has not been opened. For I knew that you Human Nature in the New Testament would surely deal treacherously, and that from The Old Testament was the written before birth you were called a rebel. ‘For my Word of God prior to the incarnation of name's sake I defer my anger; for the sake of Christ which required a specific theme for my praise I restrain it for you, that I may not discussing the sin nature. As the New cut you off’” (ESV). Isaiah’s words illustrate Testament passages are assessed, it is clear that God is not pleased with our natural state, that a different theme can be, and must be, but He also does not desire to completely expressed by God. The major theme as it wipe us out as He did to humanity with the relates to sin nature in the New Testament is flood – except Noah and his family. that there is a contrast between the sinful So, the sin of Adam and Eve lead to nature and the spirit that must be explored. their banishment from the Garden of Eden The Apostle Paul clearly delineates this theme and to the transmission of a broken nature to when he says: “For the desires of the flesh are the rest of humanity. However, against the Spirit, and the desires of the Spirit Deuteronomy 24:16 explains: “Fathers shall are against the flesh, for these are opposed to not be put to death because of their children, each other, to keep you from doing the things nor shall children be put to death because of you want to do” (Galatians 5:17, ESV). Just their fathers. Each one shall be put to death as in the Old Testament, the term sin nature for his own sin” (ESV) and “In those days does not exist in the pages of the New they shall no longer say: ‘The fathers have Testament. However, the concept is certainly eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are carried over from the Old Testament set on edge.’ But everyone shall die for his framework. own iniquity. Each man who eats sour grapes, The New Testament does not spend his teeth shall be set on edge” (Jeremiah 31: time debating the merit or existence of a 29-30, ESV). Additionally, Ezekiel 18:20 sinful nature. Rather, the writers of the New states “The soul who sins shall die. The son Testament assume – work from the premise – shall not suffer for the iniquity of the father, that the sinful nature is a reality in the life of nor the father suffer for the iniquity of the all humanity. Jesus makes that point very son. The righteousness of the righteous shall clear in a discourse with a young rich ruler: be upon himself, and the wickedness of the “And as he was setting out on his journey, a wicked shall be upon himself” (ESV). These man ran up and knelt before him and asked three passages clearly explain the state of the him, “Good Teacher, what must I do to inherit human condition. Somehow the original sin eternal life?” And Jesus said to him, “’Why committed in Eden led to the sinfulness of do you call me good? No one is good except Adam and Eve, and it led to the inclination to God alone’” (Mark 10:17-18, ESV, emphasis commit sinful acts by their descendants. added). Christ was making a point to the The last concept to discuss before young man that goes beyond the scope of this moving to the New Testament passages can chapter, but nonetheless, Jesus is expressing be found in Job 14:4 which states “Who can

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refers to the physical body but is using the the state of human nature: our nature is totally term in Romans 7 and 8 to describe the “seat corrupt, sinful. This utterly sinful nature to of wrong desire” (Marino, 1994, p. 278). which Jesus refers is completely contrary to Second, the flesh does what is evil (See his wholly holy nature. His nature – the result Romans 7:5; Galatians 5:17-21) and nothing of His divinity as evidenced by His good dwells there (Romans 7:18). Third, the conception by the Holy Spirit and virgin birth Apostle Paul recognizes that a battle is raging – is one that is completely without blemish or within his being; a battle for control of the spot which is what made Him the perfect body and actions. contrast to the sinful nature. The Apostle Paul continues in the As has already been stated, the next chapter. “For those who live according consequences of that original sin have lasting to the flesh set their minds on the things of effects on all of us. Some of the ways in the flesh, but those who live according to the which all humans living today are affected by Spirit set their minds on the things of the that first sin include: Spirit. For to set the mind on the flesh is • that all humans are bound to Adam in death, but to set the mind on the Spirit is life some way (See Romans 5:12-21; 1 and peace. For the mind that is set on the Corinthians 15:21-22), flesh is hostile to God, for it does not submit • that all humans are completely unable to God's law; indeed, it cannot. Those who are in the flesh cannot please God” (Romans to impress God with our ability to do 8:5-8, ESV). The Apostle Paul is still using good (See Romans 3:23), and sarx to describe the flesh here, but is using • that all humans have been affected by phroneō for mind. The Apostle Paul is actually and have contributed to the using a word that means to think after or be universality of sin in that an adult with of a certain mind (Vine, 1996). a corrupt nature will produce The Apostle Paul’s usage in the New offspring with a corrupt nature (See Testament correlates closely with the Old Job 14:4; Matthew 7:17-18; Luke 6:43) Testament usage of lev or levav which refers to (Marino, 1994). heart, mind, and understanding. Taken together, the Old and New Testament terms The existence of the sin nature is not for mind/heart connote a place that can be refuted in the pages of the New Testament. corrupted (See Genesis 6:5; Deuteronomy However, the writers of the New Testament 15:9; Isaiah 29:13) but is not the seat of do focus on contrasting the two natures: the corruption within the human being (Marino, sinful nature and the spirit-lead nature. 1994). The prophet Jeremiah warns of the Romans 7:18-20 states “For I know that capabilities of the heart – the levav – in a nothing good dwells in me, that is, in my thematically appropriate verse for a theory of flesh. For I have the desire to do what is right, crime from a Scriptural standpoint: “The but not the ability to carry it out. For I do not heart is deceitful above all things, and do the good I want, but the evil I do not want desperately sick [or wicked]; who can is what I keep on doing. Now if I do what I understand it?” (Jeremiah 17:9, ESV). do not want, it is no longer I who do it, but sin that dwells within me” (ESV). Romans 7 The Two “Adams” details the difference between the two natures. Fortunately for the whole of First, the sinful nature is one that resides in humanity, God did not leave us to flounder in the flesh though the body is not of itself evil. a state of total depravity. He made a way for The Greek word used for flesh is sarx. The us to rejoin Him and His family. Apostle Paul knows that sarx traditionally

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the timeline found with the second and third And you were dead in the trespasses chapters of Genesis. Within the pages of and sins in which you once walked, Scripture, a chronological account is not following the course of this world, always given. However, almost always within following the prince of the power of a chapter or even a book of the Bible is the the air, the spirit that is now at work account provided chronologically. The details in the sons of disobedience—among found in chapters two and three of Genesis whom we all once lived in the are no different – they may be presented out passions of our flesh, carrying out the of chronological order but there is no way to desires of the body and the mind, and discern that based on the information were by nature children of wrath, like provided. Therefore, the best course of the rest of mankind. But God, being action is to take Scripture literally as it details rich in mercy, because of the great the account of the fall of man. love with which he loved us, even when we were dead in our trespasses, Timeline of Genesis 2 and 3 made us alive together with Christ— Genesis 2 begins with a review of the rest by grace you have been saved. that God enjoyed after creating the whole of (Ephesians 2:1-5, ESV) the universe. In verse 7, we begin to see a more detailed account of the creation of man This passage contrasts the two and the events that followed. The account natures, but it also hints at a contrast between found in chapter 2, in order, are as follows: what has commonly been referred to as the • God formed man out of the dust of “two Adams”. “Thus it is written, ‘The first the earth and breathed life into his man Adam became a living being’; the last nostrils causing the man to become a Adam became a life-giving spirit. But it is not living soul. the spiritual that is first but the natural, and then the spiritual. The first man was from the • God planted a garden eastward in earth, a man of dust; the second man is from Eden and place the man within it. heaven” (1 Corinthians 15:45-47, ESV). It o Within the garden, all manner can be understood from this passage that the of trees and plants could be first Adam is the Adam of Genesis who was found. created in God’s own image yet partook of • God gave a decree to the man. the fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of o The man could eat freely of Good and Evil condemning all of humanity to any tree within the garden. isolation from God. By contrast, the second The man was required to Adam, the last Adam as 1 Corinthians o avoid eating from one specific explains, is none other than Jesus Christ who tree: the tree of the knowledge came into this world to reconcile all of humanity back to God and heal our broken of good and evil. relationship with Him. o If man ate of the tree of the While many could recite the account knowledge of good and evil, of the creation from memory, it can often be he would surely die that day. described as the gist of the story rather than a • God recognized that Adam needed presentation of the details of that account someone to help him – it is not good found within the pages of Scripture. Far too for man to be alone. often, the details and precise order of events • God formed every manner of beast gets lost in our memory of the account. and fowl. He brought them before Understanding the comparison of the two Adams begins with a proper understanding of

30 The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

• The eyes of the man and woman were the man who named each one, but opened, they recognized their none were found to be suitable as a nakedness, and they hid. helper. • The man and the woman made • God caused the man to enter a deep clothes out of fig leaves in an attempt sleep, took one of his ribs, and formed to cover their nakedness. woman from that rib. • God, in the cool of the day, comes At this point, things seem to be going calling in the garden for the man and really well. Adam has named all the beast of the woman. the field and all the fowl of the air. Adam has • The man explains that he hid from even been provided a wife, a helper, whom he God because he was afraid because he can enjoy. Both Adam and Eve are naked and was naked. are not ashamed of being so. They were • God inquires who told them that they innocent and without blemish at that time. were naked. They enjoyed all that the garden in Eden had to offer. However, chapter 3 of Genesis o Part of that inquiry is God’s begins with a description of the antagonist of asking if the man and woman the account. While the details found in ate of the forbidden tree’s chapter 2 are all initiated by and focused fruit. around God, the details of chapter 3 are • The man speaks up first placing the focused around the activities of man: there is blame on the woman, and indirectly a lesson in that. The main details, in order, of God, who gave him the fruit to eat. chapter 3 are as follows: • God turns to the woman who places • The serpent, who was more subtle the blame on the serpent who than all other beasts, speaks to the deceived her. woman saying “Did God actually say, ‘You shall not eat of any tree in the Consequences are placed on each of garden’?”. the three parties. The man gets his • The woman then corrects the serpent punishment, the woman gets her punishment, and the serpent gets his punishment. Despite identifying that they may eat of any passing blame onto someone else, everyone is tree in the garden except one. responsible for his or her own actions in this However, the woman does not quite account. quote God correctly either: “You shall not eat of the fruit of the tree that is in Contrasting Characteristics of the Two the midst of the garden, neither shall Adams you touch it, lest you die.” The first Adam, the one found in • The serpent then tells the woman that Genesis tending the garden, and the second she will not die, but that her eyes will Adam, the one foretold by the prophets and be opened and she will be like God. fulfilled in Christ, have some similarities. Both Adams were flesh and blood in the • Seeing that the fruit of the tree was image of God. Both Adams bore the good for food, the woman decided to consequences of sin and were sentenced to eat of the fruit. death. Both Adams were representatives for • The woman offered the fruit to the their respective natures: bringing life or death. man who decided to eat it. Both Adams engaged in one defining act that

31 Christus Cultura

Through the first Adam, the perfect altered the course of humanity. While these imago dei was broken. The whole of humanity similarities exist, the differences between the still resembles God’s image in some ways but two Adams are much more important in the does not perfectly resemble God’s image. discussion about the sin nature. The point the second Adam, Christ, was to The differences that exist between the reconcile humans back to God. We still do two Adams are not just slight differences. not perfectly resemble God, but, after the They seem to be diametrically opposed to one point of salvation, God no longer sees the another; these differences are complete shortcomings of the individual when He looks opposites as they concern the whole of at him or her. Christ’s single act on the cross humanity. The differences are outline as of Calvary allowed for all of Adam’s follows: disobedience to be undone. That is the hope • The first Adam was form out of the of the Gospel: men no longer need to remain dust of the earth, while the second separated from God but rather can be Adam was sent from heaven (1 separated to God! Corinthians 15:47).

• The first Adam was made a living

being, while the second Adam was a

life-giving spirit (1 Corinthians 15:45). • The first Adam was characterized with disobedience, while the second Adam was characterized by obedience (Romans 5:19). • The first Adam transgressed (Hosea 6:7), while the second Adam was tempted in every way as we are but was without sin (Hebrews 4:15). • The first Adam was faithless (Hosea 6:7), while the second Adam was faithful (Hebrews 3:1-2). • The first Adam ushered sin into humanity (Romans 5:12), while the Image Credit: Pixabay second Adam ushered the no-strings- attached gift of justification into humanity (Romans 5:15-16). • The first Adam’s actions resulted in Significance to Criminological Theory death, while the second Adam’s While the discourse of Scripture actions resulted in resurrection provides a great deal of hope for the believer (Romans 5:17-18). regarding the sin nature, there is still a nature that pulls individuals toward sin or • The first Adam brought death to all lawlessness. This pull is described by the humanity, while the second Adam Apostle Paul in Romans: “For we know that brought life to all humanity (1 the law is spiritual, but I am of the flesh, sold Corinthians 15:21-22). under sin. For I do not understand my own actions. For I do not do what I want, but I do

32 The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

is appropriate as outlined in Matthew 18:15- the very thing I hate” (Romans 7:14-15, ESV). 20. First, when a brother in Christ commits a The Apostle Paul recognized that even having wrong against an individual, the individual is a transformed life, accepting the gift of Christ to go and speak to the brother. If that is which is eternal life, is not sufficient to negate effective, the chain of correction ends. or obliterate the sinful nature swirling within However, when that is not effective in each person. Perhaps, then, the question that correcting the behavior, a small group of two should be asked is not “how is it that some or three go to speak with the brother in an engage in criminal activity”, but rather it attempt to correct the behavior. If that is should be asked: “how is it that some do not effective, the chain of correction ends. engage in criminal activity?”. However, when that is not effective, the Given the facts of Scripture, it would group grows to the entire congregation. The seem significantly more likely that one would whole of the local fellowship gets involved in engage in lawless, criminal, sinful acts rather the correction. The goal is not to shame the than actively avoid that kind of behavior. It brother into submission, but rather the goal is must be true that it is easier for humans to to help the brother recognize the err of his choose the sinful, lawless action as the ways and reconcile him back to the local Apostle Paul describes. However, God has fellowship and to God. established various institutions to help curb or The third sphere endowed with manage the urge to engage in criminal authority by God is the government. In the behavior. Some of those institutions are: the Old Testament, judges were used as family, the community, and the government. governing bodies for the people of Israel. God has established these spheres of However, the Israelites demanded a king like influence that people might be able to better other nations (1 Samuel 8:5-6). God granted live with one another. The smallest sphere is that request and in so doing gave authority to that of the family environment. The family the king over the people. Israel, and all other has a very clear chain of command in nations, have had godly, benevolent rulers, Scripture. First, the father is the head of the and they have all had ungodly, malevolent household, answerable to God for the rulers. The type of ruler really makes little spiritual direction of the family (Ephesians difference in his or her ability to exercise 6:4). Second, the wife is answerable to God authority over the people. “Let every person but also to her husband. She is to support her be subject to the governing authorities. For husband in his pursuit to establish a godly there is no authority except from God, and home and family (Ephesians 5:22-24). Third, those that exist have been instituted by God. children are to obey their parents (Ephesians Therefore whoever resists the authorities 6:1-3). The task of leadership over the resists what God has appointed, and those children rests with the father and mother. It who resist will incur judgment” (Romans is their job to ensure that children are directed 13:1-2, ESV). Those who fail to obey the and disciplined toward the right things. laws established by the governing authorities Scripture teaches: “Train up a child in the way will feel the wrath of that governing authority: he should go; even when he is old he will not “for he, [the governing authority], is God’s depart from it” (Proverbs 22:6, ESV). This servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be first sphere, the family, can go a long way afraid for the does not bear the sword in vain” toward curbing lawless, sinful acts in (Romans 13:4, ESV, emphasis added). The individuals. sword has often been used as an illustration The second sphere is that of for capital punishment; however, it is at least a community. This community might also be tool for discipline and correction, the point of referred to as the local fellowship, the which is to encourage people to act rightly – congregation. Therein, a specific progression

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Jr. (Eds.), Vine’s complete expository that is, in accordance with God’s law. dictionary of Old and New Testament When these spheres of influence fail, words. Nashville, TN: Thomas individuals cave to the sinful nature within Nelson Publishers. them and criminal, lawless behavior can result. Various theoretical perspectives have merit when it comes to understanding why individuals commit crime. However, none of those theories even come close to an overarching, all-encompassing reason why crime exists. The acceptance that sinfulness is within everyone is the only explanation for all types and variations of criminal or deviant activity. The real choice is whether to take God at His Word.

References Barabas, S. (1967). Zondervan’s Pictorial Bible Dictionary. M. C. Tenney (Ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Jeeves, M. A. (1976). Psychology & Christianity: The view both ways. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Lamoureux, D. O. (2015). Beyond original sin: Is a theological paradigm shift inevitable? Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith, 67(1), 35-48. Lee, J. & Theol, M. (2014). The human dark side: Evolutionary psychology and original sin. Journal of Religious Health, 53, 614-629. Marino, B. R. (1994). The origin, nature, and consequences of sin. In Editor S. M. Horton (Ed.), Systematic theology: Revised edition (pp. 255-290). Springfield, MO: Logion Press. Menzies, W. W. & Horton, S. M. (1993). Bible doctrines: A Pentecostal perspective. Springfield, MO: Logion Press. Munyon, T. (1994). The creation of the universe and humankind. In Editor S. M. Horton (Ed.), Systematic theology: Revised edition (pp. 215-253). Springfield, MO: Logion Press. Vine, W. E. (1996). An expository dictionary of New Testament words with their precise meanings for English readers. In Editors M. F. Unger and W. White,

34 The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

adoption by individual persons of the negative Labeling Theories and Sex label artificially imposed on them by their particular society as a result of perceived Offender Registries: The criminal and or socially deviant behaviors 21st Century Scarlet Letter (Bernard et al., 2016). Simply stated, Lemert (1951) argued that once negatively labeled by their society, affected persons were not By Tari McNeil effectively dissuaded from continuing their criminal and or socially deviant behaviors, and Liberty University instead acted in accordance to how their particular society had already defined them to be (Bernard et al., 2016). Lemert’s general theory of deviance Lemert’s general theory of deviance (1951) (1951) has contemporary relevance in the built upon the theoretical foundation American criminal justice system, particularly previously established by Tannenbaum’s in the development and implementation of (1938) labeling theory, which sought to provide sex-offender registries (Bernard et al., 2016). a general theoretical explanation for the Generally speaking, sex offender registries negative and correlative effect of assigning a provide law enforcement officials with a specific behavioral label or definition to standardized means of monitoring convicted individual persons based upon their presumed sex offenders, and American society with socially deviant behaviors. Tannenbaum valuable information regarding sex offenders (1938) theorized that once negatively living and or working in their neighborhoods. associated with a societally imposed label, a It is also true that there are two specific flaws person typically internalized that societally in sex offender registries that render them st imposed label and continued the deviant susceptible to becoming the 21 century behavior because of their perception that they equivalent of the “Scarlet Letter.” were what society had defined them to be (Bernard, Snipes, & Gerould, 2016). Lemert’s Summary general theory of deviance (1951) elaborated Although this paper is primarily on Tannenbaum’s (1938) labeling theory focused on Lemert’s general theory of through Lemert’s argument that it was likely deviance (1951), Bernard et al. (2016) also that there were also biological, psychological, discussed additional evidence-based research or social components involved in criminal and on labeling theories conducted by others, and socially deviant behaviors, and that there were also provided readers with a comprehensive also two separate and graduated levels of discussion of evidence-based research into these specific behaviors: primary and secondary. conflict criminology. As a result, readers were Primary deviance was defined as the provided with an informed definition and infrequent and unorganized criminal and or understanding of each theory, and its specific socially deviant behavior demonstrated by relevance and value to a better understanding individual persons which had elicited a of criminal and or socially deviant behavior. A negative reaction and behavioral label from brief overview of labeling theories and the general society of those persons. Left conflict criminology is provided (Bernard et unchecked and unlabeled, Lemert (1951) al., 2016). argued that these particular behaviors were Tannenbaum’s labeling theory (1938) not likely to increase in either frequency or was developed from his research into conflicts nature (Bernard et al., 2016). Secondary that he believed typically occurred between deviance was defined as the internalized juveniles and adults in urban areas. There are

35 Christus Cultura

individual persons by their specific societies, two essential concepts to this labeling theory: but which did not effectively dissuade those definition of the situation, and internalized definition affected persons from continued criminal and (Bernard et al., 2016). Tannenbaum found or socially deviant behavior (Bernard et al., that juveniles and adults in urban areas 2016). Overall, Tannenbaum (1938) and typically defined neighborhood conflicts Lemert (1951) both found that labeling differently. While juveniles saw their specific behaviors of individual persons as behaviors as typical child’s play even as the criminally and or socially deviant and also juveniles grew older, adults appeared more directly associating socially undesirable likely to believe that juveniles should “grow behaviors with the social identity of those out” of certain behaviors at some point in the persons, did not effectively dissuade those reasonably foreseeable future (Bernard et al., persons from continued criminal activity or 2016). When that did not happen as quickly as further deviant behaviors (Bernard et al., adults desired, adults tended to figuratively 2016). attach a negative label or stigma to specific Other researchers found that at least deviant behaviors and to the juveniles, which some criminal offenders did not consider established a negative correlation between the themselves as such, even if already proven presumed deviant behaviors of juveniles and guilty of a criminal offense. Although each of the overall social identity of those juveniles. these researchers studied a different type of Once a juvenile internalized the negative criminal offender, Yochelson and Samenow definition of their behaviors and social (1976), Cameron (1964), and Cressey (1953), identities, Tannenbaum (1938) found that all found that the criminal offenders they juveniles tended to act in accordance with the studied had not internalized a negative self- image that their society believed them to be image of themselves as a result of criminal (Bernard et al., 2016). convictions (Bernard et al., 2016). Instead, as Lemert’s general theory of deviance Sykes and Matza (1957) argued, each was able (1951) elaborated on Tannenbaum’s labeling to rationalize or “neutralize” their criminality theory (1938). Lemert (1951) included both so that it either justified their criminal juveniles and adults in his theoretical offending or ameliorated their criminal explanation of criminal and deviant behaviors, culpability. Specifically, Sykes and Matza and also stated that these behaviors were (1957) stated that there were five explanations likely influenced by biological, psychological, for this type of justification or neutralization and social factors specific to individual of criminal offending: denial of injury, denial of persons (Bernard et al., 2016). Although responsibility, denial of the victim, condemning the Tannenbaum (1938) essentially explained the accuser, and a stated belief in a higher loyalty basic elements of the differing types of (Bernard et al., 2016). Overall, each researcher criminal and deviant behaviors, Lemert (1951) provided a nuanced perspective on the variety specifically affixed explanatory terms to of criminal offenders, criminal offenses describe the two levels of deviant behavior: committed, and how specific offenders primary and secondary. (Bernard et al., 2016). reconciled criminal offending with their Recall that primary deviance was explained as desired social image (Bernard et al., 2016). the infrequent and unorganized criminal or Bernard et al. (2016) provided an socially deviant behavior demonstrated by overview of conflict theories, and a brief individual persons, which had elicited a explanation of each is provided. Sellin (1938) negative reaction and behavioral label from stated that conflict was inherent when the their specific societies. Secondary deviance cultural norms of a particularly complex was explained as the internalized adoption by society were violated. More specifically, Sellin individual persons of the negative reaction (1938) stated that there were two types of and behavioral label imposed on those

36 The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

between them, and that increased levels of conflicts: primary cultural conflicts and secondary criminal offending were more likely when the cultural conflicts (Bernard et al., 2016). Primary differing levels of authority possessed greater cultural conflicts were defined as conflicts that power than the subordinate citizens (Bernard arose between the conflicting cultural norms et al., 2016). of two different cultures in a particular society. Secondary cultural conflicts were Contemporary Relevance defined as those that occurred when a single Although the labeling theories and culture evolved into many different conflict theories described are somewhat subcultures within the same complex society different in their attempts to provide an (Bernard et al., 2016). Sellin’s theory (1938) adequate theoretical explanation for criminal held that with differing cultural norms in the offending, there is a common element same society, that the resulting conflict between each theory when evaluated and between those norms significantly contributed compared as a whole. Each theory included a to the level of criminal offending in that description of conflict and its potential particular society because the existing law in influence on criminal offending (Bernard et those particular societies would no longer al., 2016). Labeling theories stated that represent a consensus among all cultures in conflicting definitions of deviant behaviors that society (Bernard et al., 2016). Vold (1958) inevitably resulted in differing interpretations elaborated on Sellin’s (1938) conflict theory of appropriate behaviors and helped thwart and explained the significance of groups in effective solutions to criminal offending. conflict theory. More specifically, Vold (1958) Conflict theories focused on the specific explained that the differing goals and social nuanced details of certain characteristics dynamics of competing groups contributed to typically present during times of conflict: a sense of conflict as each worked to make differences in cultural norms, levels of their specific contribution to a particular authority, and group and individual dynamics society (Bernard et al., 2016). Vold (1958) (Bernard et al., 2016). Although no one believed that conflicts between competing specific criminological theory alone could groups in a particular society contributed to adequately explain the genesis and evolution the level of criminal offending in a particular of all criminal offending, each theory included society, because of the conflicting legal goals a description of a specific label that was of the majority citizens tasked with the attached to a specific culture, a specific type specific crafting and enforcement of laws for of authority and citizenry, and or to specific that society, and those not in the majority group and individual dynamics, which helped who were tasked with abiding by laws they did provide a better understanding of how not draft and may not intend to abide by specific labels could help identify relevant (Bernard et al., 2016). Turk (1969) developed actors and potential areas of conflict. This his theory of criminalization during a particularly may aid in a more informed understanding of turbulent period in American history, and his the criminal offending, resulting in more theory represented a nuanced perspective on effective interventions and legal sanctions for criminological theory reflective of that time. criminal offenders (Bernard et al., 2016). Turk (1969) argued that there were specific Returning to Lemert’s general theory conditions conducive to conflict between the of deviance (1951), his theoretical explanation differing levels of authority and subordinate of the significance of primary and secondary citizens in a particular society (Bernard et al., deviance in relation to criminal and deviant 2016). Generally speaking, Turk (1969) stated behaviors has profound implications for the that the level of organization and effective development and implementation of psychological sophistication of each were sex offender registries (Bernard et al., 2016). predictive of the likelihood of conflict

37 Christus Cultura

monitor the daily life activities of these Sex offender registries are a dual-purposed particular offenders. (Bernard et al., 2016). and externally imposed sanction on convicted Secondary deviance as it is applied to sex criminal offenders: a standardized means for offender registries located in the United effective law enforcement monitoring of States, could be explained as the resulting convicted sex offenders, and as a publicly realization of convicted sex offenders that available resource for concerned citizens they have not only criminally convicted of regarding specific sex offenders living and or specific sex offenses, but also socially working in their neighborhoods. A convicted and segregated as a result of their comprehensive overview of sex offender conviction for specific sex offenses designated registries and their relevance to Lemert’s by their particular jurisdictions (Bernard et al., general theory of deviance (1951) are 2016). Although specific restrictions provided. convicted sex offenders varies by jurisdictions, convicted sex offenders are Sex Offender Registries typically prohibited from certain types of According to Thomas (2012), the employment such as professional positions United States and the United Kingdom have associated with minor children (Thomas, been the trailblazers responsible for the initial 2012). Mandated residency requirements for development and implementation of sex convicted sex offenders is also common offender registries. There are currently (Levenson, 2009). As a result, some convicted approximately 650,000 registered sex sex offenders could internalize a negative self- offenders in the United States, so there is image initially imposed on them as a result of clearly a need for an efficient and accurate sex their criminal convictions for sex offenses and offender registry in this country (Levenson, fail to desist from continued criminal 2009). A comprehensive explanation of the offending especially when similarly situated relevance of Lemert’s general theory of with other convicted sex offenders in close deviance (1951) to the effective development proximity. and implementation of sex offender registries There are two specific flaws in the in the United States is provided. A brief current development and implementation of overview of suggested recommendations for sex offender registries in the United States sex offender registries located in the United today: relatively unfettered public access to States is also provided. individualized information about specific sex Lemert’s general theory of deviance offenders, and sometimes illogically mandated (1951) was not specifically developed as a residency requirements for convicted sex means of providing guidance for the effective offenders. Thomas (2012) stated that the development and implementation of sex United States is the only country in the world offender registries in the United States, but that provides interested persons with open this theory is relevant to American society’s access to information about convicted sex determination that there must be a offenders included on sex offender registries standardized database of individualized and located in the United States. This is despite publicly available information regarding the the varying jurisdictional definitions of what enormous amount of convicted sex offenders constitutes sex offending, and the current in the United States today (Bernard et al., accuracy of the published information about 2016). Primary deviance as it is applied to sex specific sex offenders (Thomas, 2012). offender registries located in the United Mandated residency requirements for States, could be explained as the generally convicted sex offenders typically include negative reaction of society to the criminal prohibitions against residing in within a deeds of convicted sex offenders and the certain proximity to parks, day care centers, correlative societal need to identify, label, and

38 The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences

requirements, assuming that those properties and other areas that are typically frequented were also available for selection, but this also by children. Levenson (2009) stated that while means that the entire sex offender population there was limited research about the of that particular county would be limited to effectiveness of housing restrictions, some living in that specific area of the county. This studies had concluded that these particular would likely do little to safeguard the mandated residency restrictions had little perception and reality of public safety in that effect on the recidivism of some sexual particular geographic area, and also do little to offenders since it was a well-established fact positively affect the property values of those that the sexual victimization of children is properties (Levenson, 2009). Unless well- typically done by those closest to them such thought out and implemented, information as a family member or by a person otherwise about specific sex offenders included on sex already known to the family. As a result, offender registries located in the United States sexual predators are more likely to have ready risks subjecting sex offenders to becoming access to their desired victim regardless of the unwitting recipients of the 21st century version actual residency of the perpetrator of that type of the scarlet letter, becoming further branded of sexual victimization (Levenson, 2009). by society as a result of criminal convictions Two recommendations for more for sex offenses. accurate and effective implementation and development of sex offender registries in the Christian Worldview United States are provided. First, public Joshua 2:1-24 provided a welcome access to individualized information about biblical perspective on both the negative and specific sex offenders should be restricted to positive and effects associated with that individuals personally requesting access to society’s stigmatization and labeling of sexual that information directly from the relevant law offending, as well as a biblically purposed enforcement agency. Although perhaps version of the scarlet letter (New International intimidating to some interested persons, it is Version). Rahab was a known prostitute in preferable that that law enforcement provides Jericho, a biblical land targeted by Joshua and current and accurate information regarding several spies who were intent on seizing convicted sex offenders only to identified Jericho on God’s command for the residency persons rather than allow unfettered access to of God’s children. Although the local society this type of information from the comfort and had looked down on Rahab because of her anonymity of one’s own home. Especially occupation as a prostitute, Joshua didn’t. with the varying jurisdictional definitions of After having received refuge in Rahab’s house sex offending, and sometimes inaccurate or from representatives of the King of Jericho outdated information, sex offender registries intent on apprehending spies known to be could become a source of nosy neighbors and hostile to the ruling interests of the King, criminally minded citizens. Second, while it is Joshua instructed Rahab to tie a scarlet cord understandable that American society would in the window of her house so that when want to help better ensure the safety of its Joshua and his men returned to seize the land most vulnerable citizens, some mandated they would not also unintentionally cause residency restrictions are simply unreasonable. harm or fatal injury to either Rahab or her For example, Levenson (2009) stated that family as a result of her previous faith-based 99% of homes in Orange County, Florida are aid and assistance to them. Because of her within 2,500 feet of parks and day care faith-based and valuable assistance to God’s centers. Not only does it mean that convicted earthly cavalry, Rahab’s deliberate placement sex offenders only have approximately 1% of of the scarlet cord in a window of her home the homes in that county to choose from in spared her and her family from the wrath of order to fulfill mandated residency

39 Christus Cultura

God during the battle vanquishment of Jericho (Joshua 6:17).

Reentry Policy and Criminal Theory

References By Steven D. Grant

Liberty University Bernard, T., Snipes J., & Gerould, A. (2016). Vold’s theoretical criminology (Seventh In January 2008, Pres. George W. Edition). New York, NY: Oxford Bush signed into law the Second Chance Act of University Press. 2007. The purpose of this law was to Levenson, J. (2009). Restricting sex offender reauthorize government funding for reentry residences: Policy implications. Human programs originally passed in 1968 under the Rights, 36(2), 21-23. law entitled Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Thomas, T. (2012). The registration and Streets Act (United States, 2008). Reentry monitoring of sex offenders: A comparative programs have been a part of criminal justice study. London, England: Routledge. programs throughout history with the primary question hypothetically being, how do offenders reintegrate into society after their incarceration, and what can society do to prevent released offenders from becoming part of the 68% of those individuals that returned to prison within three years after initial release (Lafleur & O’Grady, 2016)? While this hypothetical question is fundamental to modern reentry theory, this question is only a reformulation of a question that has been pondered by various civilizations across time. The concept of reentry and how it is implemented in a society has risen and fallen across time as attitudes of societies toward crime has changed (Kleinfeld, 2016) The scope of this paper is to consider the formation of current reentry policies and how specific criminal theories may have influenced the formation of these policies.

Current Reentry Policy The concept of punishment for violations of the law seems to be a basic idea Moses & The Ten Commandments. Image Credit: to the human psyche (McGeer & Funk, 2015). Pixabay, Modified. Indeed, in the first criminal act recorded in Scripture, the murder of Abel by his brother Cain, punishment is meted by God, the ground was cursed so Cain would no longer

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Annang & Scutelnicu, 2016). American’s are be able to cultivate crops and Cain would be, now questioning the wisdom of harsher “… a vagrant and a wanderer on the earth” sentencing as overcrowding and the economic (Gen 4: 12b, NASB). Cain’s reaction is realities of having to house and feed a revealing. Cain be subject to the penalties growing prison population become known. listed above, and God’s face was hidden from For example, the amount spent on corrections Cain. Cain also feared that anyone finding went from $9 billion nationwide in 1982 to Cain, would kill Cain for the murder of Abel $60 billion in 2002 (Report of Reentry (Gen 4:13-14). If McGeer and Funk (2015) Council, n.d.). Because of these realities, are correct in their assessment that seeking reentry is an attractive alternative within the punishment for crimes committed is a normal criminal justice system. human reaction, then Cain’s fear was very Reentry however is not a new real. concept. Under the Mosaic law, those laws Punishment can take many forms and which did not result in the death penalty, had McGeer and Funk (2015) posit that seeking penalties that required individuals to punishment for crimes committed is a factor reimburse what was stolen from their in human thinking, based upon evidence that neighbors (Exodus 21-22). Cities of refuge supports their claim. However, their research were set up across ancient Israel for those that also indicates that humans prefer a accidently killed someone. By living in these punishment that is not only has a form of cities, these individuals were safe from those retribution but also a component of the seeking vengeance for the death they had punishment that goes beyond mere caused but, the individual had to remain in the retribution. Reentry theory is one component city until the death of the High Priest of the idea of something that goes beyond the (Deuteronomy 19:1-10). In each case after the retribution for a crime (O’Hear, 2007). requirement of the law were met, the The simplest definition of reentry is, offenders returned to society and their lives according to the Report of the Re-entry with no other punishment. Council (n.d.), “…the process of transition While a comprehensive study of the that these individuals, who are predominantly history of how criminal justice systems in the male and disproportionately nonwhite, make past have dealt with both retribution and from prison or jail into the community” (pg. rehabilitative issues toward convicted xviii). While the definition is simple the criminals is desirable, such a study is not execution of the policy and reasoning behind germane to this paper. Modern reentry the present push by federal, state and local policies can trace its beginnings to the early governments is more complicated. The 1800s. At that time in England those execution of reentry policy is a subject beyond convicted of crimes not worthy of the death the scope if this paper but the emphasis on penalty, were placed in prisons where reentry in the present criminal justice system conditions were horrific (Craig, 2009). is a reaction to the higher number of Public opinion of the time believed offenders that are being released into society criminals should be locked up and were in the last few years (Pinard, 2010). beyond redemption. Prisoners that did return The higher number of individuals for prison were often shunned without any released has been traced to the philosophy of hope a normal life in society. Prisons were imposing harsher sentences on crimes privately run with little government oversight. committed by individuals which began in the The normal needs of sanitation, feeding of 1970s and 80s. Policies such as three-strike prisoners, and housing were barely adequate. laws and determinate sentencing incarcerated A common trough was used as a bathroom, offenders longer and the Americas prison individuals allowed to visit areas where population grew (Pinard, 2010; Amasa-

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government to provide additional funding to prisoners were housed were overcome by the states as they attempted to formulate reentry stench of human waste, unwashed bodies, and programming that would successfully allow disease. The mentally ill, men and women, offenders to reintegrate into society and slow prisoners that had committed different levels the rate of recidivism among offenders of crime were commonly housed together, (United States, 2008). With this type of and all shreds of human dignity were striped funding made available questions inevitably from the prisoners (Craig, 2009). arise concerning the types of programs that In 1813, Elizabeth Fry visited the can be created to facilitate a greater chance of women’s section of London’s Newgate reentry for offenders. Governmental and Prison. Fry encountered these conditions and nongovernmental programs along with private began pushing for reforms and policies which businesses have been created to help with resemble modern reentry polices. By 1817 Fry offender reintegration (Mijs, 2016; Halushlca, established an organization that provided 2016;). clothing, education for prisoners and their Despite all the positive aspects of children incarcerated with them, vocational reentry key questions remain. At what level training enabling these women to make a should reentry programs take place? Are the living when they returned to society, and states primarily responsible for overseeing programs that spoke to the spiritual needs of reentry or should communities themselves the prisoners. Eventually, Fry and her take the lead in reentry initiatives in their compatriots, brought about prison reforms areas. If reintegration is the responsibility of many of which are incorporated into the state government to a level should the correctional facilities today (Craig, 2009). state let the communities become involved? Today’s reentry policy has much in Perhaps the key point in discussing reentry common with Fry’s ideas about education, policy is that successful reentry policies are a vocational training and other programs that way of reducing recidivism but is this an help released offenders reintegrate into accurate measure of a successful policy society. However, as previously discussed, the (O’Hear, 2007; Mellow & Barnes-Ceeney, emphasis on reentry policy today stems from 2017)? different needs than those that were prevalent These are valid questions that need an in Fry’s time. The basic needs of offenders answer which unfortunately, are beyond the however, remain the same (Craig, 2009). purpose of this paper. The purpose of this The main emphasis of present reentry paper is to discover the foundational criminal policies focuses on providing the support theories that have influenced the formation of systems that are needed for the successful reentry policy as it exists today. It is to this reintegration of offenders into society. Basic purpose that this paper will be directed. support issues such as housing, education, vocational training, and employment, are Foundational Theories primary issues that are discussed by those that There are many theories that posit the formulate reentry policies. Other needs related reasons that an individual may commit a to mental health, peer mentoring, drug abuse criminal act. This essay will examine three of and family counseling are also discussed to a these theories and their relationship to the greater or lesser degree depending on the formation of modern reentry policy. Classical, jurisdiction. The basic issues are agreed-upon Social Disorganization and Control theories at the federal, state, and county levels (Report will be considered. of Reentry Council, n.d.; Levitan, 2018; Fresh Start, 2016). The Second Chance Act 0f 2007 was an effort on the part of the federal

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risk to society with the possibility that those Classical Theory that are in reentry may choose to break the Looking at the various ideas of law and returned to prison thereby putting current reentry policy and how those ideas are public safety at risk (Schlage, 2018). written into those policies, this writer is struck The aspirations of reentry policy by the underlying tone which insinuates that should be embraced. The Fresh Start (2016) offenders made a rational choice in choosing program of Gallatin County in Montana to commit the crime for which they were provides for those in reentry to have case imprisoned. Rational choice theory is part of managers and supervision by probation and the classical theory of crime which posits that parole during their time in the program. This those that commit crimes have made a free is a valid precaution, and the policy is still will choice to commit the crime of which they written with public safety in mind (O’Hear, convicted. This is of course after these 2007). individuals have carefully considered the It is important to consider that while opportunities at hand and the ramifications of the concepts of rational choice and other what might happen if the individual is caught. aspects of classical theory are subjectively It is hoped that the consequences of an written into reentry policies, there is the reality individual’s criminal actions would deter that an individual in reentry, continues to use someone from committing the crime. These rational choice and must consider the choices consequences include swift action in they are offered when working their reentry punishing the individual or sentences that are program. The consequences of those choices sufficiently long enough to cause individual to can have a positive aspect. Individuals in these rethink about committing the crime again programs can use the same rational thought (Bernard, Snipes, & Gerould, 2016). processes to choose positive paths that will Current reentry policy reflects this help them successfully reintegrated into philosophy. Individuals entering reentry society (Schlager, 2018). programs are placed within these programs in From a Judeo-Christian perspective, the hope to prepare them to reenter society. the points of classical criminal theory fit well However, there is still a perception that these with the biblical perspective of human nature. individuals present a risk to society. This risk Man’s freedom to choose is a gift from God comes in the form that they could recidivate, and dovetails with the concepts of rational so programming is geared to focus on their choice theory. There are many passages of past weaknesses rather than their strengths. Scripture that point out man’s freedom to After all, those reentering society have broken choose obedience to God over rebellion. the social contract of society so the writers of God’s instructions to Adam regarding the tree reentry policy take this underlying lack of trust of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:16- into consideration that require strict rules that 17) is one such passage. the individuals in reentry programs are Perhaps a stronger passage however is required to follow, but these individuals are in Joshua 24 during Joshua’s last instructions afforded very little input into what path they to Israel. In this classic passage in verses 14 would like to see their particular program take and 15, Joshua tells Israel to choose between (Schlager, 2018; Kleinfeld, 2016). God, the Egyptian gods, or the gods of the Policy writers emphasize recidivism as Canaanites. A clear choice was given to Israel a main goal of establishing successful reentry and Israel also knew the consequences of programs. The elimination of recidivism is following any other god but the God that usually said to be accomplished by helping delivered them from Egypt. The book of those being reintegrated to become prosocial Deuteronomy is replete with the blessings of citizens (Fresh Start, 2016). These are worthy choosing to follow the God of Abraham Isaac aspirations but here again the assumption of

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community (Bernard et al, 2016; Windsor, and Jacob and the curses for following any Jemal, & Benoit, 2014). other god but Jehovah. Often when inmates are released into In this passage rational choice, a clear existing reentry programs, they are sometimes presentation of consequences of not following released into the communities from which God and a form of deterrence in these they came. Often the effects of social consequences is presented. It is hoped those disorganization in these communities consequences would be enough to prevent the contributed to the reasons that released children of Israel from following other gods. offenders committed their crimes (Mellow & By analyzing this passage, as well as others, Barnes-Ceeney, 2017). Many reentry policies the fundamental concepts of classical theory take these facts into consideration with state can be seen as a biblical concept. The use of policies often supplying the basic framework classical theory philosophy as it relates to of understanding on how to support reentry policy rest solely on the idea that community efforts to flesh out the plans of offenders make rational choices after implementing programs that help offenders to analyzing consequences of their choices. The address the issues of housing, employment, results of this is a written policy that family support and the other issues that face subliminally considers the negative aspect of offenders trying to reintegrate (Report of the the offenders’ crimes and the risk that these Reentry Policy Council, n.d.; Windsor et al, individuals may pose once they are released 2014). back into society (Schlage, 2018). Evidence that social disorganization is foundational to how reentry policy is Social Disorganization formulated will be presented by this writer When reading the Fresh Start Strategic relating to the issues of housing and Plan (2016) the Montana State Wide Reentry employment. These two issues dictate how Taskforce’s report to the Law and Justice reentry policies are written to provide answers Interim Committee (Levitan, 2018), and the for housing and employment concerns that Report of the Reentry Policy Council (n.d.) are facing offenders after release from prison. this writer was struck by the specific way in Adequate housing is considered to be which these reports and plans address the the major concern of offenders upon release. issues of housing, employment, and family Offenders that lack reliable housing and use support. There are other issues addressed the temporary housing found in homeless within these reports, but these three specific shelters have a higher rate of reincarceration issues are also discussed in social than homeless people have never been a part disorganization theory. of the criminal justice system. It is often Social disorganization theory suggests difficult for offenders to obtain housing that the commission of crimes within a because of their criminal histories (Levitan, community are related to communities that 2018). States, such as the state of Ohio, that have high unemployment rates and have a engaged in programs that study and provide high level of fluidity in the families that housing support for offenders both relocate in an out of the community. This economically and by way of giving incentives fluidity also contributes to a greater lack of to public and private owners of rental family continuity. Because of weak family properties. Of the offenders that participated continuity and the fluidity of people moving in study, “60% were less likely to be we in and out of these communities, whole incarcerated, 40% less likely to be rearrested communities lack a cohesiveness which for any crime, and were significantly more prevents the community from reaching a likely to receive more mental health and consensus on problems that are facing that substance abuse services” (Levitan, 2018 pg.

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there is an effort on the part of government 16). The program studied in Ohio became and private stakeholders to provide permanent after a five-year study (Levitan, employment opportunities that enhance and 2018). are foundational to the reentry process (Mijs, States then begin to consider 2016; Halushka, 2016). legislative action that will provide incentives From a Christian perspective, to renters so that offenders may find better Scripture is quite clear regarding the need for housing. Other legislative action would society to help those that are having a difficult include additional funding to support time living their lives. Clearly, offenders offenders in finding housing and look at reentering grading into society fit this regulations that will make it harder for criterion. As previously discussed those landlords to use the criminal history of an individuals returning from the cities of refuge individual as a means of denying housing to were free to live their lives in society without offenders. Private stakeholders are also legal penalties (Deuteronomy 19:1-10). In finding opportunities to open private housing many passages across the old and new facilities that specifically deal with offenders Testaments God directs the people of the that are reentering society. The impact of the church and Israel to care for the needs of the housing issue is being addressed legislatively widows, orphans, strangers, and the poor and at the state level, and more directly at the local to give them justice (Zachariah 7:9-10). The level by local reentry efforts (Levitan, 2018; call is also given to visit prisoners while Mellow & Barnes-Ceeney, 2017). incarcerated (Matthew 25:36, 39, 43, 44). Employment is the second issue that Except for the passage in is helping to rewrite the horizons of reentry Deuteronomy 19, it would be poor isogesis on policy. As reentry policies began to make the part of this writer to insinuate that any of headway as an option to offenders reentering these verses indicate reentry as being part of society adjust to a new life away from the God’s call to help those less fortunate structure that is often found in prisons, states members of society. However, this writer began to not only make funds available for cannot help but wonder if it is indeed not the several programs which included vocational mission of society to help prisoners training. These programs, including the reintegrate into society. If offenders are vocational training, often started in prison, considered poor and in need of justice, this but training was also provided through state writer can justify this position. Unfortunately, agencies and private organizations most often there is a tendency in American jurisprudence in local communities. The relationship to follow the American idea that individuals government funding agencies and private that commit crimes are no longer part of training job placement businesses is society (Kleinfeld, 2016). This is not a biblical sometimes complicated, especially for position and it is incumbent upon Christians nonprofit organizations (Mijs, 2016; to forgive and allow reconciliation to those Halushka, 2016). individuals that are guilty of criminal actions For these organizations, funding is against society and in some cases against often dependent upon performance. individual members of the church (Ephesians Organizations often have quotas for placing 4:31). offenders in jobs successfully and if quotas are not met, organizations may lose the funding Control Theories which will be given to another organization There are a great number of control that performs better. While this exchange theories in criminal justice philosophy. between governmental funding and private Individuals researching reentry policies, organizations may seem convoluted the cannot help but realize the foundational important take away from this example is that

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offenders in the program. This characteristic impact that such theories have on reentry was emphasized as necessary for participants policy. Control theories in general look at to continue to hold a job after placed. characteristics such as low self-control on the It seems that as policy is written there part of offenders, informal social controls is one insurmountable factor that keeps (institutions such as marriage, service and the coming to the forefront of these written military, family ties, employment, and policies. The aspect of offender risk was becoming a parent), and conforming to discussed in the section covering classical societal norms are only some of the many theory. Yet, here again policy that is written is aspects that control theories hypothesize as written from the perspective that if offenders causes of crime (Bernard et al, 2016; Lafleur in reintegration programs can be taught & O’Grady, 2016; Lafleur, 2017). aspects of self-control, as well as how to There are indeed a great many theories inculcate themselves within the aspects of that consider the causes of criminal activity their lives that come under the umbrella of however when looking at reentry policies as informal social controls and if these written it is difficult to ascribe anyone control characteristics can be part of the individual theory as being foundational to those policies. offender’s mind set, there will be less risk to Therefore, this writer will consider control in society (Schlager, 2018). Unfortunately, little general and their effect on reentry policies. research has been done to ascertain the Lafleur & O Grady (2016) recognize this effectiveness of such programs making the difficulty in an article which calls for an implementation of such theories what Lafleur integrated control theory to help understand (2017) calls atheoretical. If Lafleur’s analysis is the process of reintegration. correct, then more research must be done in Written reentry policies place a lot of this area to verify the success or failure of emphasis on offenders being under such theories. supervision in all aspects of the reentry From a biblical viewpoint, the process. There are programs that are part of philosophy of control theory is to some the reentry process that touch on subjects extent validated by Scripture. Romans 13:1-8 such as parenting, anger management, discusses the reason behind the establishment addiction counseling, and other programs that of governments. Verse three is particularly promote prosocial behavior that are based on insightful as it reads, “…for rulers are not a cognitive thinking and evidence-based cause of fear for good behavior, but for evil. practices. These policies and the programs Do you want to have no fear of authority? Do that are formed to enhance these policies are what is good, and you will have praise from designed to instill in the offenders the the same” (NASB). What is particularly telling thoughts and skills needed to conform to about this verse is that those that obey the law societal expectation (Mijs, 2016; Windsor et al, have no fear. This writer implies that 2014). individuals that have a strong desire to adhere What is intrinsic to reentry policies is to the law and conform to the rules of society that regardless of what is being taught the be a proof of control theory. It is only those priority of any of these programs is to instill that break the law that have a need to fear the idea that controls need to be in place in punishment by governing authorities the lives of the offenders. This was evidenced in the research compiled by Halushka (2016). Conclusion In the research of organizations that help Three criminal theories have been offenders find employment, Halushka noted discussed as foundational to the that these organizations maintained an implementation of current reentry policy. atmosphere of accountability which was However, it should not be construed that impressed as a desirable characteristic to the

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Act, great strides will come in small these are the only three policies that are steps. Federal Sentencing Reporter, 20(1), inculcated into reentry policies as written. The 136-137. number of criminal theories in existence make Gallatin County Criminal Justice Coordinating it impossible to comprehensively discuss all Council. (2016). Fresh Start Strategic the could be foundational theories for reentry Plan 1-13. policy. It has also been discussed that reentry Halushka, J. (2016). Managing rehabilitation: as a judicial tool is not new and has as a Negotiating performance concept been present since biblical times accountability at the frontlines of (Schlager, 2018). reentry service provision. Punishment Reintegration of offenders needs to be & Society, 19(4), 482-502. constantly reengaged by policymakers. Those Kleinffeld, J. (2016). Two cultures of that make reentry policy should not be afraid punishment. Stanford Law to see reentry is a work in progress and should Review, 68, 933-964. one aspect of reentry fail, policy makers Lafleur, R. (2017). Making it on the Outside: should make the necessary changes so what Unraveling the effects of self-control works will be found (Farabee, 2007). In all and informal social control in three theories discussed, biblical views have reintegration (Doctoral dissertation, been offered that support the legitimacy of Guelph) the theories as they relate to reentry policy. Lafleur, R., & O’Grady, B. (2016). Making it Reentry policy as a theory is admirable on the outside: Towards an integrated and necessary to help offenders reintegrate control theory for understanding the into society. As this writer researched the reintegration process. The Howard various theoretical needs of reentry policy and Journal of Crime and Justice, 55(1-2), 42- what is necessary to make reentry policy 56. successful, this writer was encouraged by the Levitan, M. (2018). Report to the Law and foresight with which many contributors to Justice Interim Committee (pp. 1-32) policies have put into their efforts. What is (United States, disappointing however is the seeming inability Montana Department of Corrections, Reentry to transfer the theory into practical reality. Task Force). McGeer, V., & Funk, F. (2015). Are References ‘optimistic’ theories of criminal justice Amasa-Annang, J., & Schutelnicu, G. (2016). psychologically feasible? The How promising is the Second Chance probative case of civic Act in reducing recidivism among republicanism. Criminal Law and male ex-offenders in Alabama, Philosophy, 11(3), 523-544. Georgia, and Mississippi? Journal of Mellow, J., & Barnes-Ceeney, K. (2017). Key Public Management & Social Policy, 23(2), factors to promote successful 22-33. comprehensive reentry Bernard, T. J., Snipes, J. B., & Gerould, A. L. initiatives. Federal Probation, 81(3), 22- (2016). Vold's theoretical 31. criminology (7th ed.).New York, NY: Mijs, J. J. (2016). The missing organizational Oxford University Press. dimension of prisoner reentry: An Craig, S. C. (2009). A historical review ethnography of the road to reentry at of mother and child programs for a nonprofit service incarcerated women. The Prison provider. Sociological Forum, 31(2), 291- Journal, 89(1) 309. Farabee, D. (2007). For the Second Chance O’Hear, M. M. (2007). The Second Chance

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Act and the future of reentry reform. Federal Sentencing Seven Women and the Reporter, 20(2), 75-83. doi:10.1525/fsr.2007.20.2.75 Secret of Their Greatness Pinard, M. (2010). Reflections and perspectives on reentry and collateral Author: Eric Metaxas. consequences. The Journal of Criminal Publisher: Thomas Nelson Books, Law and Criminology, 100(3), 1213-1224. 2015. Schlager, M. D. (2018). Through the looking glass: Taking stock of offender reentry. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Review by Justice, 34(1), 69-80. Rosemary Thrasher United States. (2008). An act to reauthorize the North Greenville University grant program for reentry of offenders into the community in the Omnibus Crime Control Seven Women and the Secret of Their and Safe Streets Act of 1968, to improve Greatness by Eric Metaxas, published by reentry planning and implementation, and for Thomas Nelson Books in 2015, is the much other purposes. Washington, D.C.: U.S. anticipated answer to Seven Men and the Secret of G.P.O. Their Greatness by the same author. The seven United States, Department of Justice, Council women are Joan of Arc, Susanna Wesley, of State Governments. (n.d.). Report of Hanna More, Maria of Paris, Corrie ten the Re-Entry Policy Council. Boom, Rosa Parks and Mother Teresa. Windsor, L. C., Jemal, A., & Benoit, E. (2014). The title is somewhat misleading, Community Wise: Paving the way for because the path to greatness is not a secret. empowerment in community Matthew 5:19 says, “Whosoever shall do and reentry. International Journal of Law and teach [these commandments] shall be great in Psychiatry,37(5), 501-511. the kingdom of heaven,” and Matthew 18:4 continues, “Whosoever therefore shall humble himself as this little child, the same is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven.” Greatness, then, requires both obedience to God and humility. The way Metaxas describes greatness in the introduction is quite similar, “using what God gives you for the benefit of mankind,”(viii). Metaxas does not preach about greatness, but he lets these women demonstrate greatness through their lives and actions. Two women in particular humbled themselves in the service of others. Corrie ten Boom showed love to her Jewish neighbors by gathering extra ration cards at great risk to her family, hiding Jews in her home, witnessing to prison guards, and holding worship services in Ravensbruck Image Credit: Pixabay, Modified. Concentration Camp. Mother Theresa often said she was inspired by Christ’s teaching that

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abortion speech, causing the officials on the “in as much as you have done it to the least of platform to squirm. I was also intrigued to these My brethren, you have done it un to learn that Hanna More became a more “vital Me.” Both these women humbly served those Christian” after reading Cardiphonia, by John around them. Newton, the former slave- trader -turned Joan of Arc, Hanna More, and Rosa hymn writer. Now I am curious to read Parks had something in common in that they Newton’s book, too. I was amazed that each believed in a cause and were willing to Susanna Wesley, who as a young women had work toward it despite hardships. We may not “a theological knowledge superior to many all believe in the voices Joan says she heard, ministers of that day,” (32) did not fully but she believed in them, and she acted understand salvation until, at the age of accordingly, enabling her to lift the siege of seventy one, after hearing her son John Orleans and get the Dauphin crowned preach, the Lord used the words of the Lord’s Charles VII. Hanna More used her writing Supper to convince her that “God for Christ’s skills to promote abolition of slavery, sake had forgiven all my sins,” (56). education of the poor, and a new, egalitarian Seven Women is nothing if not an attitude toward women. While the politicians uplifting and encouraging book. No person of her day worked at changing laws, Hanna who reads this book will ever again think, worked at the equally important job of “What I do does not matter.” Whatever your enlightening people’s minds. Rosa Parks walk of life, your humble obedience to God’s refused to give up her seat on the bus and her calling will have consequences that continue action became the flashpoint of the on for generations, and that are not revealed Montgomery, Alabama bus boycott. The until heaven. Readers of Seven Women will be Supreme Court subsequently ruled that blessed and encouraged by the accounts of so segregated buses were unconstitutional. All of many women committed to serving God and these women helped change history. serving their fellow man. Susanna Wesley served her large family despite great hardship. She did what she could with what she had, which was a great education. She reared all of her children in the “nurture and admonition of the Lord,” In the Footsteps of King and produced one of the great preachers of David: Revelations from an the Great Awakening, John Wesley, and the great hymn writer, Charles Wesley, both of Ancient Biblical City whose influence is with us today. Eric Metaxas’ characters come alive in Authors: Yosef Garfinkel, Saar Seven Women. Each chapter is a short Ganor and Michael Hasel, biography that transports you to another time Publisher: Thames & and place. You don’t want to put the book Hudson, 2018 down until you find out what happened to each heroine. The author’s style is engaging and conversational enough to attract casual Reviewed by Brenton H. Cook readers, and the historical backgrounds and Bob Jones University the lives of each woman are meticulously researched to please the serious readers. In the Footsteps of King David: Revelations One of my favorite parts of the book from an Ancient Biblical City is a history of the was when Mother Teresa accepted the Nobel seven-year archaeological investigation of Peace Prize, surprising the audience by taking the opportunity to make a strong anti-

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mustered their troops against King Saul’s Khirbet Qeiyafa, a city dating to the reign of army. The city is the first major fortified city King David. The city was largely unknown to be excavated from the eleventh century. even to the archaeological community before The authors identify Khirbet Qeiyafa (Arabic a 2008 New York Times article devoted a full for “ruin of Qeiyafa”) as the city of Shaaraim, page to describing the site’s initial findings. mentioned three times in the Bible (Joshua Since then, Khirbet Qeiyafa has generated 15:35-36, 1 Samuel 17:52, and 1 Chronicles extraordinary interest disclosing for the first 4:31-32). In the biblical account of David and time a layer of civilization contemporary with Goliath, the Philistines are said to have fled David. Archaeologists and authors Yosef the battle along the road to Shaaraim. Garfinkel, Saar Ganor and Michael Hasel Radiocarbon dating on nearly thirty devoted seven excavation seasons to the site, carbonized olive pits indicate the city was concluding their work in 2013. They have destroyed no later than 970 BCE—the best managed to produce a highly readable volume dating yet discovered for any level in any introducing not only the city, but the biblical city. discipline of archaeology to the non- Archeologists identified five stages in professional. the construction of Khirbet Qeiyafa. In the Khirbet Qeiyafa is located near the first, the city site was cleared of earlier area where the biblical tradition locates the settlements and a bedrock city perimeter was shepherd boy’s battle with the Philistine giant. established. In the second, builders quarried While the authors acknowledge the limitations stones from several sites situating them along of archaeological research in definitively the perimeter line. In the third, builders establishing the existence of David, they constructed two city gates and their chambers. interpret the finds at Khirbet Qeiyafa as a In the fourth, the city walls were raised. In the refutation of the popular minimalist approach fifth, private houses were constructed. Unlike and defend the biblical tradition as reliable. other cities from the time, Kherbet Qeiyafa At the end of the twentieth century demonstrates detailed central planning. King David and his illustrious son Solomon The city’s archaeological yields are came to be viewed by minimalists as impressive, including more than 400,000 imaginative literary creations. Arguing that the pottery sherds, limestone bowls and animal historical texts of the Old Testament were mangers. Iron daggers, swords, bronze written during the Hellenistic or Persian arrowheads, a bronze ax and numerous periods, minimalists viewed the biblical texts storage jars were unearthed. Fragments of two as minimally reliable if not entirely small alabaster vessels, were also discovered apocryphal. Minimalists not only eliminated together with Egyptian amulets and several the possibility of a United Kingdom, but also engraved seals and artifacts (perhaps pendants questioned the existence of a Judahite or earrings) carved from animal bones. Cultic kingdom before the mid-eighth century BCE. objects found at the site include a basalt altar, While Garfinkel, Ganor and Hasel fall far carved temple models and seven mazzebot— short of endorsing the complete historicity of standing stones without anthropomorphic or the Old Testament (including the United zoomorphic images. A single ostracon (a Kingdom of Judah and Israel), their work potsherd with an inscription) turned up in represents a significant blow to minimalism 2008 but has proven difficult to decipher. and defends the view that Judah was an Archaeologists have a paucity of written established Kingdom by 1000 BCE. material to work with for the 300-year period Khirbet Qeiyafa is situated at the from the 12th to the 9th century BCE. western edge of the upper Shephelah near the Six factors suggest Khirbet Qeiyafa is entrance to the Valley of Elah, where the a Judahite city. The city’s casemate wall plan biblical record tells us the Philistine’s

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this book, Wallace gives a detailed account of resembles that of four other cities in the the evidence presented in the Gospels, and kingdom of Judah. Analysis of tens of how to investigate that evidence to determine thousands of animal bones disclosed no pig its reliability and validity. The author was an bones. The site turned up no cult atheist for many years, who later converted to paraphernalia typically found in Canaanite Christianity after investigating the evidence of cities. The extensive use of iron tools fits the Jesus as outlined in the Gospels in the Bible. pattern of additional Iron Age cities in Israel. Wallace uses his investigative skills to guide The city is strategically located on the border readers through the evidence presented in the between the Judean Shephelah and Philistia. Gospels to show how closely the case for And finally, the site yielded an inscription on a Christianity can be related to his cold cases. sherd that was written in a Semitic language. The foreword and introductions set the reader In the Footsteps of King David is not up for what to expect in the book and provide merely a detailed archaeological report written some background information on the author for experts in the field. Rather the text reads himself and how he came to be a Christian. like an adventure novel, field guide, The first section in the book guides readers archaeology introduction, and ancient history through ten principles on learning how to be a all rolled into a single volume. Supplementing detective, with supporting examples from the text are city schematics, photographs, homicide cases and witnesses. The second maps and diagrams taking the reader on section teaches how to examine the evidence location. The authors include numerous presented in the New Testament Gospels, anecdotes describing the complexities and using the investigative principles outlined in pitfalls of archaeological work and give their section one. readers a realistic assessment of the limitations Throughout the book the author uses of the archaeological discipline for clear, concise language that the reader can reconstructing the past. understand and provides supporting examples or scenarios to help the reader grasp the concepts being presented. When investigating Cold-Case Christianity: a cold case or the case of Jesus, Wallace informs readers to have an open mind and be A Homicide Detective willing to assess the evidence without any Investigates the Claims of preconceived notions. He states, “The questions is not whether or not we have ideas, the Gospels (First Edition) opinions, or preexisting points of view; the question is whether or not we will allow these perspectives to prevent us from examining the Author: J. Warner Wallace evidence objectively” (30). Being able to fully Publisher: David Cook, 2013 investigate the claims of the Gospel begins by putting opinions to the side to truly Reviewed by understand the evidence at hand. Wallace Lindsay E. Gayle focused on investigating the eyewitness Liberty University testimony (chapter 4) and discussed the importance of reviewing the eyewitness testimony in cold-cases to determine the Cold-Case Christianity: A Homicide validity of it. However, for the case of the Detective Investigates the Claims of the Gospels was death and resurrection of Jesus, Wallace written by J. Warner Wallace, a cold-case cannot review the original eyewitness’s homicide detective of twenty-five years. In testimony because they are deceased. In cold

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Wallace to be fully accepting that Jesus was cases, detectives may be able to return to the the truth. This book is an excellent read for same witness to hear their story again. For those who are wanting to dig deeper into the Wallace, he has to use the evidence in the evidence of the Christian faith. Also, it serves Bible about eyewitness testimony. as a great tool to help defend your faith to Another of the principles discussed is those who may have trouble believing. to hang on to every word (chapter 5). In doing this, the reader, when investigating the What God Has Joined claims of the gospels, should pay close attention to the words and phrases used in the Together gospel. To pick apart the wording of the gospels to develop a full understanding and Author: Travis Agnew analysis of what the Bible is saying about the Publisher: Tag Publishing, account of Jesus. Wallace tells how in the 2018 gospel of Mark, Peter is frequently mentioned and was the source of information in Mark’s gospel. This led to the proof that Mark was an Reviewed by Andrea D. Stiles eyewitness account to the case of Jesus. Shorter University Wallace also discusses conspiracy theories as they relate to the eyewitness accounts of the death and resurrection of Jesus through the In this book, Travis Agnew, pastor, Apostles. Wallace notes that the Apostles author, and devoted father, makes the case for could not have conspired together due to the necessity of a biblical foundation for their extended time apart from one another successful marriage. From the outset, the after the death and resurrection of Jesus. Also, author relies on a biblical definition of “none of the twelve recanted their claims marriage from Genesis and honors the related to the resurrection” decades after the symbolism of marriage to illustrate the incident and were persecuted for their claims relationship between Christ and the church (116). This evidence proved the Apostles were that is detailed in Ephesians. Written in a eyewitnesses who told the truth. direct and concise manner, What God Has Examining the evidence of the gospels Joined Together, addresses common challenges was done by asking four questions: were they to marriage. In 31 brief chapters, the author present, were they corroborated, were they names and describes what often creates a accurate, and were they biased? Wallace divide between spouses. Each title contains provides detailed information to answer these the words, “Let no ______questions and discusses how the eyewitness Separate.” This design makes for easy access accounts pass each test to prove the case of to useful information on specific topics. Jesus. Wallace leaves the final decision up to Additionally, each chapter utilizes relevant the reader on how they want to go from scripture passages for readers to reference, “belief that” to “belief in.” At the end, the study, and apply. Topics include conflict, author leaves readers with a postscript, which selfishness, indifference, expectations, provides them with details surrounding his communication, secrets, hardship, personal encounter of turning to Christ after incompatibility, disrespect, addiction, adultery, reviewing the evidence in the Gospels. pornography, money matters, pride, Wallace tells how he became a “two decision” friendships, in-laws, children, career, midlife Christian, meaning he accepted Christ as his struggles, and more. The straightforward Lord and Savior, but that had to be done after approach to addressing these issues makes carefully examining the evidence of Jesus. them experientially relatable. Personal journal Knowing the truths of the evidence allowed

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The centrality of commitment to Christ for pages for noting reflections and responses to marital longevity and vibrancy is unmistakable suggested scripture reading identifies the in the pages of this short book as well as the author’s purpose to draw readers into possibility for marriage to reflect the wonder engagement with scriptures’ teachings on of the gospel to a watching world. marriage. This book is a must-read for dedicated The author’s understanding of marital marriage partners who hope to build and pitfalls is communicated as one who walks the maintain a lifelong, healthy marriage. Though marriage road with his own two feet. His written for a Christian audience, there is reliance on scripture to shine illuminating light valuable wisdom to be gleaned for anyone on the nature of those involved in marriage who is willing to consider a radically different guides the reader and encourages honest view of marriage than that of current western reflection. The emphasis on every person’s culture. need for correction, direction, and Rather than seeing marriage simply as commitment orients the reader to a biblical means to happiness, status, and personal perspective. Obviously written to a Christian fulfillment, marriage is presented as an audience, the author does not shy away from opportunity to learn and grow in sacrificial, the fact that the challenges unbelievers face in not self-serving, ways. It offers insight into marriage also emerge in Christian marriage. the heart of both the Christian faith as a He acknowledges the human susceptibility to whole, as well as to the integral role of error that leaves no one untouched. marriage within the faith. All of one’s Intertwining scripture with story connects the relationships may be enhanced by applying present to the past, making clear that the root the concepts and practices of peacemaking, of marital conflict has not changed. The understanding, and self-regulation that the tendency for human beings to look outside of book promotes. Making clear the necessity of self to another as the cause of their own commitment to superordinate goals, those dissatisfaction is universal and only changes things that matter to both or all members of a when this truth is faced with acceptance and relationship, rather than to what matters to a humility. single individual, leads to better relationship Each topic covered reveals the satisfaction for those involved. fundamental role of sin nature that is to be Because it is a relatively short book, battled daily for marriage to be a picture of only 128 pages, it can be read quickly for sacrificial love. Love is defined as unselfish, information on a broad range of interpersonal grace-based, chosen, committed action as challenges. The topics are ones to revisit when opposed to an emotional, feeling state. relevant circumstances call for clarification on Responsibility for honoring the marital appropriate responses that will likely result in commitment is placed on the individual, preservation of relationship. At this particular fostering maturity and encouraging personal time in America when about half of all agency. The book’s journal section calls for marriages end in divorce, this little book considering personal experience in light of provides a hopeful alternative, one that scripture giving opportunity for readers to honors the call to love long and to share life notice their own attitudinal or behavioral as one through all of its difficulties and joys mishandling of the marriage relationship. The until death, nothing else, requires parting. format calls for accountability; to document where you are, where you need to be, and how you plan to get there. As one gains biblical understanding from chapter to chapter, roles and responsibilities are clarified, and God’s purpose for marriage is discovered.

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Martin (Taylor University). This chapter seeks A Calling to Care: to address the reality that students often have no real conception of what true self-care Nurturing College Students means, especially living in a context that gives Toward Wholeness them false examples of what good self-care looks like. They take the time to note that true

self-care cannot come from technology or Authors: Timothy W., and society but from a Christian understanding of Kirsten D. Riedel existence as being ultimately about the pursuit Publisher: Abilene Christian of God, citing the work of James K. A. Smith. University Press, 2018. They also note that self-care is not simply beneficial, but a calling upon their lives from Review by Andrew F. Bailey God, claiming that “when self-care is viewed Shorter University as a vocational pursuit, it becomes one that is intentionally implemented in practice, with mindfulness of self and the practice, and one Herrmann and Riedel have put that is holistic” (96). They demonstrate that together a rather helpful collection of essays true spiritual maturity, which is what mentors about the need for higher education are seeking to engender in their protégés. institutions to consider their role in caring for A further article that bears mentioning their students. Each contributor to the book is “A Call for Holistic Intellectual Care of works in a higher education or university University Students: An Essay for the context and thus are each poised to give Twenty-First Century Academy” by Anita particular insight into the nature of the Fitzgerald Henck (Azusa Pacific University). relationship between institutions, including In this essay, she points to the modern professors and staff, and students. Several tragedy of the “loss of intellectual cultivation chapters of the book stand-out as particularly of individuals, communities, and society at helpful in developing a better understanding large” (112). She argues that, by focusing on of what it means for an institution of higher self-examination in a spiritual sense, which education to care for their students, especially contemporary higher education institutions from a Christian worldview. have done, encouraging the growth of the First, Miroslav Volf (Yale Divinity spiritual self, colleges and universities have School) writes an essay entitled “What will lost their primary focus, which is to foster save the world? Caring for a World We “intellectual development and care” (113). Cannot Save.” Here, he discusses the nature This critique of contemporary institutions is of the world broken by sin, a brokenness well taken, in that self-actualization has which needs fixing but cannot be fixed by become the measure for success in higher human effort. Humans can, however, “mend” education, especially in a secular context. the situation, or to “improve the state of a Henck is right that what is needed is a return single person” (27). He juxtaposes the to developing students intellectually, and Volf Christian worldview of man’s brokenness with is right that this cannot be done through a the failed attempts of modernism to fix the purely modernistic framework but through world through scientific analysis. He argues the lens of a Christian worldview. that the only true solution comes from a Herrmann finishes this book with a Christian conception of the world. powerful essay entitled “Higher Education as Another helpful article is “Teaching an Exemplar of Care: Creating a Campus Students to Care for Themselves” by Kristen Culture of Care”. Here he makes the scathing D. Riedel (Belmont University), Emilie K. accusation that, far too often, institutions and Hoffman (Taylor University), and Jessica L.

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personnel of higher education have been Special Undergraduate “guilty of treating students as revenue Spotlight Essay: streams” rather than as human beings who have been placed under their care (197). He also notes that, since Christian higher How To Help A Third education has not been as lucrative monetarily as they have been in previous years, this World Nation: financial turbulence has led some institutions An Examination into the “to act as if their mission is simply to survive” rather than their own stated mission of caring Countries of Central for their students (198). His solution is to America develop a mentoring structure and to actively attempt to avoid a consumerist mindset about By Sydney Holmes the nature of institutions. He notes “caring Shorter University for students is much more complex and driven by much different ends than caring for customers” (210). The idea that institutions do not exist simply as training for professions Since its founding in 1776, America feeds a robust understanding of the true value has been a beacon of hope and prosperity to of liberal-arts based education; a value lost all those who desire a better future. Americans too often in today’s colleges and universities are very fortunate to live in a first world but a value that, if better understood, will country, where they have limitless option and chart new paths for success. opportunities. The United States has millions of immigrants flooding into the country, hoping to call it home. Most of these people come from third world countries. The term third world country originated from the Cold War to distinguish those who were neutral in the war but has evolved to mean a country that is poverty stricken. Some of these countries are better off than others. Specifically, in Central America, most of the countries are in economic and political turmoil. However, Costa Rica is in the middle of Central America, and it is far more prosperous than its neighbors in the region like Honduras and Nicaragua. Indeed, Costa Rica is doing better than its neighbors due to a stable government, limited dealings in narcotrafficking, and a great relationship with the United States. To understand the situation in Costa Rica, we first need to understand the conditions of its neighbors. Nicaragua has always had a rocky government since its independence. When the Spanish left, there was no one to take their place. Many of the up

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Nicaragua and Honduras are considered two and coming politicians and generals grabbed crucial stops in the drug delivery route. for power. One of these ambitious politicians Nicaragua is currently in a civil war, and part in the 1930s was Juan Bautista Sacasa, and his of the war is a battle against the drug cartels. trusted general was Cesar Augusto Sandino. Honduras is the other country caught At the time, there was a small conflict in the drug violence in Central America. between Nicaragua and the United States over Before the cartel smuggles the drugs into the the presence of American troops in United States, the drugs must pass through Nicaragua. Juan Sacasa favored compromise Honduras (Lewis 139). Honduras is a nation with the United States, while Cesar Sandino of drug violence. Those who stand in the way wanted the Americans gone. As Alejandro of the drug lords or are in the wrong place at Cesar writes, “Sacasa soon comes to a the wrong time have a habit of disappearing. compromise arrangement with the US Special Honduras has the highest murder rate in Commissioner in Nicaragua, but Sandino history. It also holds the title of the highest refuses to lay down his arms. Instead, he murder rate in a non-war country. There is no withdraws to the mountains of northern escape from the drug violence: “On average, Nicaragua with several hundred followers to there were 20 homicides a day. 83.4% of these launch a guerrilla campaign” (Cesar, 637). homicides were committed with firearms” This campaign led to a civil war in the country (Lewis, 139). led by Sacasa and Sandino. After a bloody Unfortunately, it does not seem like campaign, Sandino and his Sandinistas seized this is a problem that will be solved anytime power of Nicaragua. soon, as drug violence is increasing. Sandino ended up making a treaty “Honduras is considered a major drug route with the United States, which helped set up to the U.S. Smuggling is said to have increased the new Nicaraguan government through after the US suspended anti-drug support American funding. A few successors later and following the 2009 Honduran coup d'état,” Anastasio Somoza, a corrupt leader, was now one expert notes. “Weak domestic law in charge of Nicaragua (Cesar, 637). After the enforcement institutions make Honduras a discovery that funds were being misused, the popular point of entry for drug routes United States withdrew its support, leaving through Central America” (Gootenburg, 23). the country in the hands of a long line of In addition to drug violence, the government corrupt rulers. This reaction put a small dent in Honduras is anything but secure. Many of in the country’s relationship with the States. the government officials have participated in Nicaragua now portrayed Americans money laundering scams. Honduras is as wolves in sheep’s clothing. “…[T]here has anything but a safe and stable place to live. been much criticism of American activities,” Now that we have a better understanding of one expert writes, “and the criticism of the Costa Rica’s surroundings, we can begin to activity most frequently heard is that the see what makes it different than its neighbors. troops of the United States are in Nicaragua Unlike its neighbors, Costa Rica has a to defend the interest of Wall Street, which is great relationship with the United States. exploiting the country in merciless fashion” Costa Rica is one of the few places in Central (Cesar, 641). Even today, Nicaraguans have a America where democracy is not a facade put dismissive attitude towards American aid and on by the drug lords. Costa Rica, as a result, prefer to operate without it, which is is one of the safest nations in Central acceptable to the Americans who want to end America. the primary source of income for most Central Americans, drugs. Central America is used to pushing drugs into the United States starting from Columbia and ending in Mexico.

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Costa Rica’s largest export is coffee. It has six different coffee growing regions that produce so many different roasts and types of coffee. The United States has even set up a few Starbucks coffee plantations in Costa Rica. Usually, when one hears of a country setting up a business in another country, one expects to hear the worst. Wages for farmers have improved for those who work on the coffee plantations, and many can afford smaller luxuries they could not afford before. Because of its trade agreement, Costa Rica has also taken steps to stay neutral and in some cases attempt to prevent the flow of drugs moving through the country. “The United States and Costa Rica enjoy robust bilateral law enforcement and security cooperation,” one source notes, “and have signed a maritime cooperation agreement that facilitates narcotics seizures, illegal migrant rescues, illegal fishing seizures, and search- and-rescue missions” (‘Costa Rica’). By making an agreement with the United States to try and put a halt on migrants, drugs, and other potentially harmful activities, Costa Rica

Sydney Holmes (top-left) with Costa Rican School is indeed the safest country in Central Children, Photo Credit: Sydney Holmes America. Costa Rica also has another source of One of the reasons Costa Rica is revenue because of its good relations with the positioned better than its neighbors is because United States. Many Americans either move it has strong, amiable relations with the to Costa Rica or spend vacation time there. United States. Costa Rica and the United The number of American tourists only grow States get along for many reasons, “The each year. Indeed, some 120,000 US citizens United States and Costa Rica have a history of reside there (‘Costa Rica’). Tourism has close and friendly relations based on mutual helped the Costa Rican economy. Americans respect for democratic freedoms, free trade, love it because the exchange rate is in favor of and other shared values” (‘Costa Rica’). Costa the US dollar. The exchange rate is about 593 Rica also has a democratic government like Costa Rican Colones for one US dollar. Costa the United States. In fact, the United States Ricans love American tourism because of the helped Costa Rica form its democratic extra flow of currency coming into their government. It is one of the few places in a economy. To those who sell their produce or third world country where democracy is not artisan products in the market or to those just a facade for the world to see. Every who run large tourist attractions everyone citizen gets a vote and a say in determining benefits from American tourism. who the president will be. The similarities in Perhaps because there are a large the governments make it easier to trade with number of Americans on Costa Rican soil, the other democratic nations, like the United United States also offers Costa Rica military States. support. Costa Rica does not have its own

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Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama, “The army. It has not had one for almost 70 years Strategy is a bipartisan, multi-year U.S. (‘Costa Rica’). The United States does not government plan covering all seven Central have a military base in Costa Rica. However, American countries. The Strategy aims to the United States government has stated that secure U.S. borders and protect American should Costa Rica ever need foreign citizens by addressing the security, assistance, the United States would be there to governance, and economic drivers of illegal assist the nation (‘Costa Rica’). There have immigration and transnational crime, while been some protests from Costa Rica’s increasing opportunities for U.S. and other neighbors like Nicaragua and Honduras that businesses. The Strategy focuses on three the United States should not ever have a overarching lines of action: 1) promoting military presence in Costa Rica. Their prosperity, 2) enhancing security, and 3) governments are not nearly as stable as Costa improving governance (‘Costa Rica’).” The Rica’s, and the leaders in power do not want United States does have a self-interest in to give it up. They make their arguments helping these states develop. By making these against the United States military presence by nations stronger, it will cut back on some of saying the United States would only use it as a the illegal drug and migrant problems the ruse to gain access to Central America’s country is facing. However, it is a mutual resources (Busey). Hopefully, there will not be beneficiary plan. By helping the nations a need for the United States to have a full become stronger on their own, their nations military presence in Costa Rica. quality of life improves. Millions of people Costa Rica is so different from its will be better off, and fewer children will be neighbors. It leaves the question: What is starving or hurt. The list goes on and on. Costa Rica doing right and how can we Safety is one of our basic human needs. If improve life throughout Central America? A humans do not feel safe, they can make some majority of Costa Rica’s safety is directly very bold and rash decisions in order to make related to its alliance with the United States. them feel safe. By making the people of the Unlike their neighbors, Costa Ricans listen nation feel safe, the country gains more when the United States gives advice and aid. stability. Their government is also a real democratic The United States cannot do all the society, unlike the other countries that use heavy lifting by itself. The people of the other democracy as a front. Most of these other nations must do their part to help their countries hate democracy because of the bad nations grow in every way possible. They name their leaders have given it (Busey). must end the drug violence. They must help Costa Rica has wisely used its foreign aid to put an end to their corrupt leadership. They benefit the country not just it is leaders. Aid need to help make their economies grow. If has been offered to seven Central American the people do not support the foreign aid and countries by the United States, including accept that things need to change, nothing will Honduras and Nicaragua. These countries ever change despite how much foreign either misuse their aid or reject it altogether. assistance they receive (Mark). The aid would Costa Rica has successfully had less drug- prevent the situations from becoming worse. related violence than the rest of Central In conclusion, there is no one way or America. Costa Rica honors its agreements correct way to help a third world country. with the United States. Each country has its own set of problems The United States of America can politically and economically. If the people are only provide so much aid to countries that not in support of aid like those in Honduras resist help. The United States still sends aid to or Nicaragua, the aid will seem futile. the same seven Central American Countries: However, there are countries in Central Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala,

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America that give us hope. Costa Rica is not perfect. Many people live in poverty, but there is a noticeable difference in the way their Impact, and Response, 59-66. RAND country thrives in the circumstances. There Corporation, 2011. will probably always be some nations labeled http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7249 as third world countries, but that does not /mg1076af.14. mean their standard of living should not "Costa Rica." U.S. Department of State. improve. The United States can only help so February 09, 2018. Accessed October much, but the most important thing we can 08, 2018. do is to never give up on those who have in https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/ some ways given up on themselves. 2019.htm. Gootenberg, Paul. "Talking about the Flow: Drugs, Borders, and the Discourse of Drug Control." Cultural Critique, no. 71 (2009): 13-46. References http://www.jstor.org/stable/254755 00. Lewis L. Yarlett. "History of Rangelands in Busey, James L. "Foundations of Political Honduras." Rangelands 2, no. 4 (1980): 139-40. Contrast: Costa Rica and Nicaragua." http://www.jstor.org/stable/3900020. The Western Political Quarterly 11, no. 3 Mark D. Merlin. Economic Botany 56, (1958):. doi:10.2307/444571. no. 1 (2002): 100. Cesar, Alejandro. “Nicaragua and the United http://www.jstor.org/stable/4256534. States.” Advocate of Peace through Justice 90, no. 10/11 (1928): 641-44. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2066205 1. Chalk, Peter. "U.S. Responses." In The Latin American Drug Trade: Scope, Dimensions,

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