Communicating Science

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Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation

Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation,

Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation

Infrastructure, human resources,infrastructure, international cooperation, human research resources, and development, international environment cooperation, and health, societal issues, industrial innovation

Infrastructure, human resources,research international cooperation, and development, research and development, environment environment and and health, health, societal issues, industrial innovation societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources,A international SCIENTIST’S cooperation, research and development, SURVIVAL environment and health,KIT societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation, Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation communicatingInfrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment science and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation, Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure,GENERAL INFORMATION human resources, international cooperation, research and development,development, environmentenvironment andand health,health, societalsocietal issues,issues, industrialindustrial innovationinnovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation Infrastructure, human resources, international cooperation, research and development, environment and health, societal issues, industrial innovation innovatioInfrastructure,Infrastructure, human humanresources, resources, international international cooperation, cooperation, research research and anddevelopment, development, environment environment and and health, health, societal societal issues, issues, industria industria Iinnovation f h i i l i h dd l i dh lh i li i d i li i Interested in European research? 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communicating science

“A SCIENTIST’S SURVIVAL KIT”

by Giovanni Carrada

2006 Directorate-General for Research Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union

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PRINTED ON WHITE CHLORINE-FREE PAPER Foreword

As much of the ongoing research is funded with public money, it is evident the need to inform the public about the main research results, so as to allow interested people to follow the ongoing developments and to form their own opinion on the basis of sound, science-based facts and data.

Fortunately, more and more events are organised on communicating science such as that held in Brussels on 14 and 15 November 2005. The European Commission publishes and freely distributes a number of brochures, movies, leaflets and other materials on European research for different age ranges. Science journalists are increasingly reporting about research and schools and science museums are multiplying their initiatives.

Probably, scientists and researchers can also still improve their skills and practice in interfacing with the media, elaborating and presenting information in a way that non initiated persons can easily and rapidly understand.

With the intention of providing a service to those scientists and researchers, we are glad to publish and freely distribute the English edition of this Survival Kit written by the journalist Giovanni Carrada, whose original publication has been supported by Italy’s National Permanent Conference of Deans from the Faculties of Science and Technology. We are thankful to professor Enrico Predazzi, President of the Conference for his kind permission to distribute this Survival Kit to a broad and international audience.

INDEX PREFACE INTRODUCTION A new job to learn Why engage in science communication? The advantage of being a scientist What is in this book Thanks

LEAVING THE IVORY TELLING A SCIENCE TOWER STORY Science and society: just like a marriage Telling a story, or rather getting read The rise and fall of the Public Understanding of Science Arguing, or rather persuading Do people care about science and scientists? Explaining, or rather making what is difficult easy Dialogue with society The text: short, clear and effective How knowledge and opinions of science are shaped The use of pictures The perception of risks Be part of the game Communication is an indispensable Sisyphean task USING JOURNALISTS Journalists and scientists: two different cultures What is a “good” piece of news? THE ABCS OF Not all journalists are alike How to access the media COMMUNICATING WITH How to answer the media’s requests THE PUBLIC Working together From peer to peer to public communication Competing for attention The power of emotions KNOWING THE MEDIA The power of storytelling Choosing the right medium Why is science “difficult”? Television Ethics in science communication Radio The generalist press The specialized press Books PLANNING YOUR Science museums and exhibitions COMMUNICATION The Internet Starting off on the right foot Clarify your aims Know your own audience Assess constraints and opportunities Choose your message When communication is an uphill battle The ten laws of human communication

INDEX - 7 TO WORK! SUGGESTED READING PREFACE The publication of this science communication primer was strongly encouraged and promoted by the Permanent National Conference of Deans from the Faculties of Science and Technologies.

The Conference is worried about the ther job as well”, or at least to have cultural, social and economic under- an idea of what it entails. Not eve- development which awaits a ryone, naturally, will discover a parti- Country in which there exists an cular talent for speaking directly to increasingly negative perception of the public, but it will be useful to science and basic research is everyone, in any case, to learn to contracting dangerously. work better with the media. This is Fortunately, the alarm sent out by the objective of Giovanni Carrada’s the Conference seems to have rea- book. The pages which follow des- ched all or nearly all the country’s cribe how the world of communica- science policy-makers, and oppor- tions today works from the inside, tune measures are being studied, including many tricks of the trade, where they do not yet exist. while keeping in mind the scientist’s One of the aspects neglected by point of view, interests, difficulties these measures, however, is an and values. This book is not a col- adequate maximization of the scien- lection of pre-packaged advice, tist’s work. If citizens do not know or rather, it introduces the reader to the appreciate what is being done in complex and sophisticated proces- research institutes and laboratories, ses of science and technology com- it is unlikely that science will find the munication, so that the reader will support and talents it needs to be able to apply them. continue to develop. For this reason, before examining Unfortunately, even we scientists the more practical aspects, the often underestimate this activity and book opens with a reflection on how tend to see it, in fact, as a marginal and why the relationship between detail. science and society is changing. It We have learned how to work in then proceeds with the underlying research and in the laboratory, but concepts of public communication, not how to work in the world of the and finally it discusses everything media. Indeed, our internal commu- that needs to be done before get- nication practices differ greatly from ting down to work, in the planning science coverage for general stage. audiences. But today we can no Most likely, the reader will find more longer ignore what the public surprises in this part of the book, knows, or thinks it knows outside since these first three chapters pro- our institutes or laboratories. vide the information which will help For this reason, it is important that him to begin thinking like a commu- increasingly more scientists accept nicator. the author’s invitation to “learn ano- The second part, on the other hand,

8 - PREFACE is dedicated to science communica- reason, the bibliography also offers tion practices, for scientists who essential specifically-targeted, easily want to take this job on personally accessible studies. as well as for those who work with The book is so easy to read and journalists or other communication fluent that as the title itself reveals it professionals. It is a true mineload of can be taken as a survival kit; yet, in useful information and suggestions reality, the covert soul of a potential for scientists that want or have to scientist and science communicator make themselves heard in the noisy is felt. The sincere enthusiasm in this world of today. In other words, this book is clearly rooted in professional manual is for the scientist who experience which fully recognises wants to survive in the sea of the the importance of science-citizen media which very often too easily interaction. distorts, or even portrays the exact This work, far from being exclusive- opposite of, what research has ly designed for the scientific world, sweated to achieve. should be, I believe, used as a basic Perhaps, the strong point of this text for every course of study in work, however, is represented by its Communication Sciences. If com- clarity of intent and expression. The munication is not a gift, or at least no frills language is clear and preci- not completely, and can therefore se while the examples are pertinent; be learned, this survival kit seems to its reasoning is well supported and be a good starting point. the tone even-tempered and thoughtful. It is organized in concep- tually solid paragraphs which are logically connected, allowing the reader to capture the key concepts of communicating science in the first, rapid reading. The quotations Enrico Predazzi cited at the beginning of each chapter are extremely appropriate, and President of the National are not simply decoration. On the Permanent Conference contrary they summarise the main of Deans of the Faculties of points which follow and draw the Science and Technologies reader in. Every section of the book is arran- Dean of the Facoltà di ged so that the reader will not waste Scienze MFN dell’Università di precious time, as the author knows Torino how much time is worth. For this To Paola and little Giulio and Pietro

PREFACE - 9 INTRODUCTION A NEW JOB TO LEARN A man who wants the truth becomes a scientist. A man that wants to let his subjectivity free may become a writer. But what should a man do who wants something in-between?

Robert Musil

In 1992, the astronomer Carl Sagan, Openings and closings protagonist of countless public appearances, as well as the author There have always been scientists of twenty books translated worldwi- dedicated to disseminating their de, an enormously successful televi- own work, the first being Galileo, sion series and a Hollywood film, who the Church never forgave for was denied membership to the his choice to write in vulgate rather National Academy of Sciences. In than in the more obscure Latin. fact he was not able to raise the Over the years, however, their required two-thirds vote from its willingness to do so has changed. members. Director of the Laboratory The Nineteenth century was one of of Planetary Studies at Cornell the most propitious, especially in University, Sagan had distinguished England. Beginning in 1826, and himself for the calculation of the for over twenty years, Michael greenhouse effect on Venus, for his Faraday described the latest deve- studies on the surface of Mars and lopments in science every Friday on the oceans of Titan, Saturn’s evening, during extremely crowded large moon. Too many colleagues lectures held at the Royal turned up their noses at his tireless Institution. activity in spreading scientific news, Yet, in the first few decades of the which had made him, perhaps the Twentieth century scientists’ enthu- most famous scientist in the United siasm for popularising science was States, and one of the most vibrant already greatly declining. In 1938 defenders of science in the world. Lancelot Hogben, afraid of jeopardi- Two years later the National zing his upcoming nomination as a Academy of Sciences reconsidered Fellow of the Royal Society, asked its vote, honouring him with the his colleague, Hyman Levy to pre- Public Welfare Medal. Sagan had tend to be the author of his book brilliantly challenged two important Mathematics for the Million, a popu- prejudices which besiege scientists lar work which became an internatio- that choose to communicate with nal bestseller. Only in the 1980s was the general public: the idea that there a large scale resurgence of scientists who do are distracted from public engagement with the world of their “real” work – research – and the research. This was no coincidence, idea that scientists are not able to as we will see in the next chapter. express themselves clearly, as if their mental universe were so far from the Today, however, most of the best common man that at the very least popular books on science are not they need a “translator”. created by “translators”, but by

10 - INTRODUCTION scientists. Just think of Richard a waste of time, but rather, in some Dawkins, Antonio Damasio, Stephen cases public engagement is now Hawking, Edward O. Wilson, Jared indicated as an “obligation”. Some of Diamond or Luigi Luca Cavalli these institutions, such as the Sforza. American National Science Foundation and the British Research Even outside of the star system, Council have produced guidelines on increasingly more scientists are deci- communication, and many have ding to try out this new job. In fact, created press offices or have hired a everyone, to different degrees and communication officer, promoting with different roles, may be asked to initiatives of every type including discuss or comment on his or her educational websites, documenta- own research or research in their ries, science shows and volunteer field. The reasons are varied many: service in research. Some, such as s(he)may need to respond to a jour- the American Society for nalist’s request, intervene on a deba- Neuroscience, have even formed a ted issue, assist with an exhibit or a staff of professionals dedicated to television show, present a degree, assisting scientists in communica- speak with lobbies or spokespeople tions with the general public. for interest groups, present their own activities to industry, local institutions More and more frequently, some or other possible financers, or simply basic training in communication is collaborate effectively with the press considered necessary for those who office of their own institution. work or are about to undertake a career in research. In Great Britain, A new climate for example, most of the Research Councils offer their Ph.D. students a Not many years after Carl Sagan’s few days of training in communica- rejection, the situation changed. tions and the media, while proper Today, in fact, scientific institutions courses are offered by universities, themselves, like the English Royal such as The University College in Society and the French Académie London. In the United States the des Science, the Australian American Association for the Commonwealth Scientific and Advancement of Science and the Industrial Research Organisation as Scientists’ Institute for Public well the American Association for the Information are the organizations Advancement of Science, are all invi- which usually see to this. ting their members to discuss their Why is there such renewed own work. It is no longer branded as enthusiasm?

INTRODUCTION - 11 WHY ENGAGE IN SCIENCE COMMUNICATIONS? Today communicating is considered a strategic function by the majority of organizations which interact in our social system. It identifies them, justifies them, allows them to gain consensus and to work to achieve the objectives that all systems have: to survive, to protect themselves, to obtain resources, and to grow. Annamaria Testa

First and foremost: that everyone can contribute to the Acquiring familiarity with the tech- Satisfaction progress of knowledge. niques of public communication of science may, finally, be useful in tea- The vast majority of scientists will Communicating with other ching. In fact, there is no reason to agree that, spoken or unspoken, it is scientists make a subject more difficult than absolutely natural to desire the dis- necessary. semination of research, be it one’s Paradoxically, public communica- Even if (contrary to what happens in own or from one’s field of study. It is tion can also help inform other public communications) students rewarding to go outside the confines scientists of your own activities, have freely chosen to study a sub- (human too) of one’s specialization overcoming the barriers which ject and have a precise reason for and share one’s own passions with separate different disciplinary fields. studying it, the ability to interest others: managing to do so can be a Progress in science and technology them and keep their attention alive, source of great personal satisfac- are, in fact, so rapid and numerous while helping them to save cognitive tion. Whatever the reason for deci- that in general scientists are only energy, can become precious in any ding to communicate, if you are not able to keep themselves updated in type of lesson or presentation. able to transmit your own passion it a highly specialized niche area of will be very difficult to obtain good knowledge. All scientists, in other Often, however, the communica- results. Konrad Lorenz was so words, are part of the general public tion of science has other purpo- popular because of his extraordina- when something that lies outside of ses, which are, perhaps, less ry ability to get his readers involved their field is discussed. noble but not less important. in the adventure of ethology, and the In the United States, competition for More than an end, in these cases, same is true for all the great scien- coverage in an important newspa- the dissemination of scientific cul- tist-communicators. per, like The New York Times, has ture becomes a means. Being In addition to spreading knowledge, been very strong, since it was dis- able to effectively express your- telling science stories helps convey covered that it helps to become bet- self, means being able to effecti- the value of a scientific way of thin- ter known even amongst collea- vely persuade others and send king and a rational attitude to pro- gues. out messages with clear objecti- blems, even to those which have Some preliminary data cited in ves in sight. nothing to do with science. Nature even indicate how scientific Historically, one of science’s most works that were covered by new- But above all it is important important cultural contributions was spapers were later cited more fre- for science its example as “good training for quently in specialized publications. democracy”. In fact, it was also Furthermore, new fields were If many scientists end up enthusiastic through science that the West lear- announced and in some way even about disseminating science, it is also ned to defend its own reasons with defined with respect to the others, in because they have had to make a vir- rationality and an assessment of books for non peer audiences, as tue of necessity. The great paradox of reality, distrust towards established occurred in the mid Nineties with the science today is, in fact, that while it is moral and cultural authorities, tole- studies on consciousness and ear- a hegemonic culture – few others are rance for others’ ideas and the belief lier with cosmology. able to change our way of living, pro-

12 - INTRODUCTION ducing, working and thinking so pro- to do, the more opportunities there fic opinions have on the decisions foundly and quickly – science literacy are to encounter (sometime even to related to research priorities beco- remains low. clash with) different social stakehol- mes obvious. Because scientific With rare exceptions, such as South ders or different points of view. research is ever more often the true Korea and Finland, international sur- cultural, social and economic driver, veys show almost unanimously that Thus, if until recently communicating the quality of science communica- citizens lack scientific knowledge, with society was an optional, today tion has become essential to demo- even in the most developed coun- it has become a necessity. And no cracy and progress. On the one tries. This shortcoming is even more one, in the scientific world, can hand then, it is necessary to avoid a serious given the continual growth of afford to ignore this. In fact, you technocratic drift, which would knowledge and its practical applica- cannot expect someone else, for mean shielding the true decisions tions. At the Lisbon Conference in example an “enlightened” politician, from public scrutiny behind a media 2000 the European government lea- to defend the interests of science. In smokescreen. This operation, in ders pledged to make the Union “the the last few years the relationships truth, would most likely boomerang most competitive knowledge-based between science and society have in the short run, as past experience society and economy” by 2010. As a begun to change radically. In this has taught. On the other hand, it is result, the poor understanding of regard some have spoken of a necessary to avoid the opposite, science by young people has beco- transition from “academic” science populist drift, in which an expert opi- me subject of public debate in to “post-academic” science. nion is much less important than the Europe. Disregarded in the past, the The important decisions which involve political game and the inevitable results of international enquiries on scientists’ work are no longer made by irrationality of the mass media. Not the level of student preparation, such the scientific community alone or by just this. It is also important to pre- as PISA (Programme fro International some office in a state department. vent the birth of a subclass, scienti- Student Assessment by the OECD), More and more often they are the fically speaking, made up of people are now published by important daily result of a complex negotiation with a who know nothing at all about the newspapers. In addition, occasions number of social groups: national and progress of the techno-sciences, for friction between science and local politicians, private companies and cannot understand how the society continue to multiply due to the and their associations, lobbies or spe- modern world works, and are there- influence of new technologies, the cial interest groups, “moral authorities” fore unable to participate in the life choices new advances force us to and the media. Often such decisions of a technological society. make or the impact new knowledge are also presented to the general has on the beliefs and values at the public, whose opinions are later reflec- The general objective of an effective base of our identities, culture and ted in the way the media and politi- policy for science communication is ways of thinking. cians behave. to (re-)construct a climate of reci- If one simply considers research on procal knowledge and trust bet- The new necessity to communicate cancer or AIDS, human space mis- ween science and society, establis- with the general public actually sions, biotechnology or genetic hing an authentically open and not shows how successful science is: screening, the growing weight (for just “cosmetic” dialogue with the the more you know and know how better or worse) which extra-scienti- public.

INTRODUCTION - 13 Visibility, consensus, trust campaign was necessary to “sell” rily lost causes. A referendum cam- the Human Genome Project. Initially paign which intended to prohibit any The first objective, from this point of the campaign involved periodicals type of research in biotechnology view, is to obtain visibility. In fact, it is for the scientific community and was defeated in Switzerland in difficult to make yourself heard if you then gradually included popular 1998, because scientists made an are not “visible”; or rather, if you are not recognised as someone impor- magazines which baptised the all out effort to inform the general tant and entitled to speak by the human genome “the book of life”. public, and learned to use the same general public or specific stakehol- When, in the first half of the Nineties, instruments of public communica- ders. Naturally, visibility must be the Finnish government gave the ok tion as their adversaries. positive; namely, it must be associa- to a decade-long 13.5% annual Finally, there are times when it is ted with social consensus regarding increase in spending for research, essential to make a scientifically its very existence and activity, which the decision was made possible by based voice heard loud and clear, can play on an entire range of moti- the construction of a widespread such as when irrationality risks vations, from the usefulness of one’s and profound social consensus in exploding, in situations like the own research to national pride. More than ever, obtaining or protec- the country. The ultimate example is SARS epidemic, an earthquake or ting your financing is tied to this Telethon’s financial contribution to the umpteenth new “cure” for can- consensus. Social support is, in research for rare genetic diseases. cer. The fundamental objective is, fact, a prerequisite for political sup- Telethon is a series of national chari- however, to establish with society, port. Just think, for example, of the ties professionally managed, that or key members of it, a deeper and role public mobilisation played in collect donations for dozens of more solid relationship based on determining the financial contribu- millions of euro with single annual trust. Only on this basis, tested over tions for the research and treatment televised events. time, will the inevitable gap be brid- of two important illnesses with very Without social consensus, not even ged; even if to some degree there different incidence like AIDS and breast cancer, or for cancer lobbying is enough: as the GMO will always be a difference between research and research on cardio- experience has shown, politics must those who hold very complex kno- vascular diseases, which in actual follow the electorates orientation, no wledge and all the rest. fact represent the number one matter how unreasonable it may be. cause of death in western countries. Consensus, not necessarily of an And there are other examples as entire social body, becomes, in fact, well. even more important when the objective is difficult to reach. When Social consensus is not automati- the decision is controversial, and it cally created, based on how good may be so for various reasons, the the cause is objectively, but it needs final decision is always political. And to be actively pursued with effective political decisions are not always communication. rational. In some issues, which can be defined “ideological”, the free- It was no coincidence that a few dom of research itself may be in years of an intense communication question. But they are not necessa-

14 - INTRODUCTION THE ADVANTAGE OF BEING A SCIENTIST Nothing shocks me. I am a scientist. Indiana Jones

The combined pressures to publish not (well) represented in the public underlined that the general public and find resources for research do arena risk losing their say, resour- views being a scientist as an asset, not make the life of a scientist easy. ces, trust and at times even free- compared to the journalist. Their Even without the added task of lear- dom. credibility is higher simply because ning a new job. There is nothing exceptional in all of (s)he is are the one who creates the Many may not feel particularly talen- this. All great social actors have had knowledge and does not simply ted as communicators. And per- to take this same road, and science pass it on second hand. haps they are not. Basically, they is beginning to take it up at least a have chosen a completely different generation late, compared to, for If it is true that the consequences of career. Many others may not like this example, the private sector. And this science and technology are too job, perhaps because they feel as if is a road that you cannot turn back important to leave in the hands of they have to “dirty their hands” in on. Why not, then, delegate public scientists alone, it is also true that some way. Others may not like the communication to professionals? As the relationship between science idea of adding their personal contri- in all organizations, in science, com- and society is too important to sim- bution to the general information munication is inevitably being hand- ply leave in the hands of non scien- overload. led more and more often by profes- tists. Communicating with the general sionals, and it should be that way. public is, in fact, not without risks, However, the active involvement of At times, to speak with a foreigner it as we will see further on when we scientists remains indispensable, is better to learn their language examine some of its ethical aspects. because they are always the first link rather than to use an interpreter, and There is an actual risk that even in in the chain of communication. then perhaps complain if you do not important choices the better com- Every choice made at the beginning understand each other. municator’s position will prevail, and of the chain will influence everything notthe one held by the scientist with that happens subsequently, for bet- better arguments. Moreover, a ter or worse. Professionals, such as scientist may be appreciated more if the press officer, must, in any case, (s)he is telegenic rather than for the be informed and guided. impact factor of their publications. Moreover, because of the very spe- The need for public communication, cific nature of science compared to however, remains. other sectors, it is often difficult for a non expert to have as good a com- The mechanisms which have crea- mand of the subject as the scientist ted the escalation of volume and doing the work, or to see all its impli- communicative hyperboles in every cations, even in the long term. sector of society now apply to The scientist, in other words, is the science as well. And the price for person best equipped to correctly not communicating, or communi- posit the communication, and at cating poorly, is becoming higher times to do it themselves. Most every day. Today those who are international reports have, in fact,

INTRODUCTION - 15 WHAT IS IN THIS BOOK The best effect of any book is that it excites the reader to self-activity. Thomas Carlyle

The purpose of this book is to help the rules needs to be identified case would be resolved if citizens simply those who work in the world of by case, using your creativity, which had access to more scientific kno- research to communicate the is, as we all know, is a curious mix of wledge? This subject is then develo- contents and importance of their rationality and subjectivity. A book, ped using the results of reports and own work or the work in their field. moreover, may not be the best surveys, in addition to the most In fact, it provides the essentials for means to transmit practical kno- important analyses of how knowled- public communication in science wledge: it is better to demonstrate ge and opinions on science are sha- and technology for scientists who something and then have it done, ped, and ends with the new models wish to take this task on in person just as we do in the laboratory. of communication between the as well as for those who choose to The following pages, however, do world of research and society. use the media or professionals. In offer an good way to begin, or to re- Chapter 2 discusses the basic prin- this last case a scientist risks limiting order and enrich what has already ciples and concepts of communica- his role to checking the correctness been learned from past errors or ting science to the general public, of the content and wasting precious intuition. which are (almost) the opposite of opportunities, or worse dictating This book is arranged “from general those used for peer audiences. It wrong choices. theories to small tricks of the trade”, begins with the need to compete for The idea is to take a look at what in the sense that it begins with a attention in a world in which everyo- lays behind the work of professional more general and theoretical frame- ne is forced to raise their voice lou- communicators, like journalists, who work and, little by little, moves on to der and louder: excellent reasoning understand how to address the more practical and functional infor- is not enough and an emotionally public at large, and learn to use their mation. A simple manual of practical flat communication does not “make skills to the benefit of science. advice, similar to the ones already the grade”. Nor is it enough to This volume is a collection and sum- available internationally, would not “translate” into a simpler language, mary of reflections and experiences be enough, in fact, to get an idea of which presumes, in any case, that from the last few years, not only in how complex and sophisticated the the reasons (obvious and less the field of public communication of processes of communication are, obvious) why the public finds scien- science and technology, but also in especially if the subject is science or ce difficult are clear. It is necessary the social sciences and the wider technology. to create stories which contain and world of professional communica- Let us take a look, then, at the possibly embody the facts and argu- tions; in addition, naturally, to the book. ments that must be presented to the author’s own experiences. Chapter 1 helps understand how public. But, can you learn to communicate? and why the relationships between Planning is the subject of Chapter 3. The good news is that the rules to science and society are changing Public communication cannot be communicate effectively are few and and how long-standing difficulties improvised, and the most serious simple. The bad news is that it is not have been addressed. In particular errors, in fact, are those made at the easy or natural to apply them. To the crisis of the main approach used beginning. Planning means thinking some degree, in fact, communica- until recently, the so called Public carefully about a number of ele- ting is a repeatedly new process, Understanding of Science, is exami- ments: objectives, audience, the and the most suitable application of ned. Is it really true that everything subject’s limitations and opportuni-

16 - INTRODUCTION ties and messages to transmit. And every type of medium, as well as to own objectives and possibilities. The if the task is an uphill battle and the opportunities and dangers of main media are examined in relation involves more than one contribution, pictures. to science: their characteristics, dif- it is necessary to devise an informa- Chapter 5 deals with communicating fusion, audience, suitable topics, key tional campaign. through journalists, or rather how to advice and how to access them. Chapter 4 deals with communicating use the media to reach the target in person, as the author, and thus audience. Success means recogni- Given the wide range of topics dealt above all how to transform what you sing and overcoming the differences with, but also considering the value want to explain in something the between your professional back- of the reader’s time, this book is public is willing to listen to. Three ele- ground and the journalists’ experien- inevitably a synthesis which, to ments are examined in detail: what a ce, but also distinguishing between make the reading easier, has avoi- good science story is and how to the various types of journalists. A ded notes and quotations. For this find and construct it; how to be special topic discussed is how to reason a practical bibliography has convincing, applying the classic access the media as well as how to been added to facilitate a more techniques to science and technolo- answer their requests. The chapter detailed study of the subjects dealt gy as well as a few specific solutions. closes with how to learn to work with with in each chapter: documents Finally the ideas and the tools to journalists and the importance of which can be downloaded from explain, or rather to make a difficult establishing good personal relations- Internet, which are fortunately topic easy are discussed. In addi- hips with them. numerous in this sector, have been tion, attention is given to the quality Chapter 6 is dedicated to the choice given more attention than books of writing, a basic skill necessary for of the most suitable media for one’s and articles.

THANKS

Having worked with Piero Angela for over ten years has taught me almost everything I know about science and technology communication. In addition to many “tricks of the trade”, Piero Angela has shown me that science can be explained clearly while respecting both science and the public. Precious advice and suggestions were offered by my friends, Romeo Bassoli, Massimiano Bucchi, Rossella Castelnuovo, Emmanuele A. Jannini and Elisa Manacorda. Finally, a special thanks to Prof. Enrico Predazzi, president of the National Conference of Deans from the Faculties of Sciences, who from the very start believed in the idea of a “survival kit” to help our scientists explain science and make its reasons heard.

INTRODUCTION - 17 CHAPTER I LEAVING THE IVORY TOWER Science and society: just like a marriage Today's scientists are no longer constrained simply by the laws of nature, as was generally the case in the past, but also by the laws (and attitudes) of the land. Norman Augustine

Once upon a time there was an era sacred social role, to face the open the best way to understand the rela- in which, when science spoke, citi- sea of distrust, controversy and tionship between science and zens took off their hats and listened public assessment or, to use a more society is perhaps to compare it to a to the Word, in silence. It was the fashionable word, accountability. It marriage. era of The World of Tomorrow, the became necessary to account for 1939 New York fair, the era when their choices, not only to the general Just like a married couple, science the Atomium in Bruxelles was built public, but also to the same institu- and society look for and need each in 1958, the era when man landed tions which had previously suppor- other, and are joined by an unwrit- on the moon in 1969. In those days ted them unconditionally (probably ten, but no less binding contract. people believed what the doctor, because of the long-lasting upshot Society needs science as its driver physicist or agronomist said. of their victorious role in the Second for social, economic and political World War first, and later the Cold success, while science lives off the That period, a long honeymoon with War). resources, talents and freedom that science, is over. the society makes available. At the end of the Sixties, the term The new climate has resulted in very “scientific” began to take on negati- different consequences. For exam- In the good old days (even if they ve connotations, evoking more ple, English high energy physicists were not as good as memory would doubts than certainties. In the col- lost out, when a few years ago they have them) the partnership between lective imagination the promise to received the following request from science and society resembled old continue to improve life for all began Her Majesty’s Minister of Scientific fashioned marriages. We were all to lose ground to negative icons cal- Research: “In thirty lines explain why poorer, but at least the husband led “DDT”, “Chernobyl” or British taxpayers should invest a (alias science) was “the head of the “Talidomide”. substantial part of their resources in house”, or at least he could exercise Higgs’ Boson research”. What a certain amount of authority. Then, In 2000, the Science Museum of those physicists wrote is not known, when his authority was questioned, London conducted an in-depth but they did not convince the minis- the marriage itself underwent a cri- market survey for a promotional ter. Proposition 71 had more luck, sis. The most important The cou- campaign. One of the most impor- winning the referendum held in ple’s complaints represent its most tant findings revealed that its name California on 2 November 2004 to important symptom. needed changing: the most negati- resume research on embryonic ve element indicated by the focus stem cells and grant financing for If we listen to science, it tells us that group, and that the authors of the three billion dollars (financing is society does not understand it, that survey agreed had to be removed, uncountable) in that state alone. it is not interested in scientific results was the word science itself. At least Thanks to the people’s voice, and does not understand how science is not alone. California will likely become the science works. It does not pay As with every important group, from most advanced centre in the world attention to those questions science the government to the Catholic for this type of research too. knows the most about and exagge- Church, science and technology too rates its (few) errors, while taking for had to abandon the safe port of a Even if every metaphor has its limits, granted its (immense) benefits.

18 - CHAPTER I Society does not take it into consi- not to the interests of the common As in a true marriage, the first step to deration often enough and cuts off person whose taxes pay for solve a crisis is to understand the othe- its life supplies; in short, society research. It does not want to explain r’s reasons, whether they are right or shows little or no gratitude. what it does to anyone, even if it wrong, because dialogue begins with If, on the other hand we listen to seems clear that it is pursuing the these. Understanding the other’s point society, it tells us that science cau- most futile curiosities. It is a world in of view and explaining your own means ses problems that it does not know the shadows, out of control. It does knowing how to communicate. Until how to solve. It caters to govern- not explain itself (perhaps even today, however, a different approach ments, the military or multinationals, intentionally). has been used.

The rise and fall of the Public Understanding of Science Our most urgent and direct message must be to the scientists themselves: learn to communicate with the public, be willing to do so and consider it your duty to do so. The Royal Society Report on the Public Understanding of Science, 1985

To simplify (but not too much), the (books, articles, exhibitions, society. According to its basic premi- scientific community’s reaction to this museums, events) launched by the se, known in the specialist literature as crisis gave birth to the idea that it scientific community for the general the “deficit model”, the root of public was society that had to understand public, and an explicit objective for controversies on science or techno- science and that everything would be programmes, committees, founda- logy is the fact that citizens lack an fine if only citizens had greater scien- tions, agencies, scientific associa- understanding of scientific knowled- tific knowledge. tions and institutions in every develo- ge, theories and methods. Thus, if The idea behind the vast majority of ped country. these were translated from specialist communication activities was the so The Public Understanding of Science terminology into more popular lan- called Public Understanding of has been a kind of “standard model” guage, the controversies would Science. This expression became a of the interpretation of relationships automatically resolve themselves. In label for every type of initiative between science, technology and this model, science and society are

CHAPTER I - 19 considered “two social bodies sepa- much more complicated. education? What incentives would rated by a sort of semi-permeable In truth, it would be enough to consi- they need? To get an idea, just think membrane which allows the flow of der the nature itself of communication what it would be like to ask a scientist information (dissemination) and processes to understand that a one “to become literate” in another sub- actions (technological innovation) way relationship could not work. This ject of great social relevance, such as from science into society, but it does does not mean downplaying the law. not permit flows in the opposite value of specialized knowledge, but Would (s)he be really willing to delve direction”. simply that it is necessary to be rea- into the technicalities of criminal pro- As far as communication is concer- listic. Choices and opinions, no mat- cedure or administrative justice that ned, the public is considered a basi- ter how right, cannot be imposed in a are essential for a really informed opi- cally homogeneous and passive democratic society: no one would nion? Outside of our professional audience for the “pure” knowledge accept them and the attempt to do it niche, we are all “public”. produced by scientists, who are the would almost surely backfire. In some cases, then, the most fre- source of the flow of information, and A consensus must be created about quently discussed science is the one to some degree the censor as well. the choices to be made, just as in a with fewer certainties. Just think, for The choice of what knowledge ought marriage. But there are also more example, of climate change. If the to be given is therefore based on the specific reasons. First of all, what scientific community itself has not yet presumed cultural and cognitive gaps does it mean to understand or know reached a consensus on the subject, in the public, rather than on their science? Does it mean knowing what sense does the Public questions, interests and skills. many scientific facts? Many theories? Understanding of Science make? The Public Understanding of Science Scientific methods? Or how science The idea of changing citizens into litt- model recognises, of course, one functions as an institution? And in le scientists could also turn out to be important part of the problem. With each field, what is the acceptable useless. If we look at survey results, it rare exceptions, a vast number of level of knowledge, and for which is clear that there is not a clear corre- surveys in almost all developed coun- types of audiences? No one has lation between the level of scientific tries have actually found low levels of managed to give a convincing ans- literacy and attitudes and opinions on scientific literacy in the population. wer to these questions yet. science. In the United States, for But is this really the most important Moreover, the idea of transforming example, there is a generally more statistic? If citizens knew more about citizens into little molecular biologists positive attitude than in Europe, molecular biology, would they really or little statisticians is much more dif- despite the lower level of scientific lite- be less diffident about genetically ficult than can be imagined. For at racy. Generally speaking, more infor- modified foods? least three reasons. med people tend to have stronger At the end of the Nineties, this rather The first is that they would need to opinions for or against a particular simplistic approach to relationships know too much. To get a real idea of innovation: this is the result, for exam- between science and society, and the possible risks of electromagnetic ple, of two important enquiries therefore, to the communication of fields, for example, it would be neces- conducted in Great Britain and Italy science, began to show clear signs of sary to be familiar with the nature of on transgenic foods. its shortcomings. The strongest electromagnetic radiation, its interac- It is difficult to make forecasts. signals were felt in Great Britain, the tions with living cells, and the epide- Attitudes and opinions are in fact the very country that in 1985 launched miological research on them. Yet how product of complex processes that the “movement” with the famous many areas of expertise should our depend on individual mental models, Bodmer Report and that had inves- poor citizens have to master? which in addition to factual elements ted more than others, even through a The second is the so called paradox include emotions, ethical considera- special financial organization, the of specialization: as the quantity of tions, prior knowledge and value jud- CoPUS (Committee for the Public knowledge produced increases, or is gements. These are all things which Understanding of Science). In 2000 at the least revised (two things which cannot be modified with a simple the important report “Science and are happening at a terrifying speed), addition of a little more information. To Society” prepared by the Chamber of the possibility for a single individual to begin with then, an effective commu- Lords, with the help of important fact- master it is reduced. nication requires a Scientific finding surveys, recognised that In society the basis of shared kno- Understanding of the Public. despite the efforts made the British wledge can only diminish: if, on the Communicating Science is, then, population not only continued to be whole knowledge is growing, then something a bit more sophisticated, scientifically illiterate, but the much contemporarily the individual expe- in which psychological, and especial- hoped for appreciation had changed rience of ignorance can also grow. ly emotional concerns play an impor- into an aversion to research. And if The third reason is the lack of suffi- tant part. Could this be where the Great Britain is crying, the other cient motivation. How many people problem lies? Has the flame of love nations are not laughing. are willing to invest the time and effort gone out in this marriage, at least in Unfortunately (or luckily) things are necessary to get a good scientific the heart of society?

20 - CHAPTER I Do people care about science and scientists? The end of our foundation is the knowledge of causes, and secret motions of things; and the enlarging of the bounds of human Empire, to the effecting of all things possible. Francis Bacon

There is something profoundly disturbing, something desired but also feared, something that has always been implicit in Bacon’s project but that, the closer it comes to being achieved, the less attractive it is. Jon Turney

The idea of not being loved in the Feelings toward science reveal a with something new, rather than risk outside world is fairly widespread in fundamental ambivalence between not seeing potential danger. the scientific community. And just fascination and fear. And where According to a study conducted in like in real marriages, it is usually there is ambivalence, not much is Germany, people are four times as taken out on a third party, that in this needed for a positive perception to more likely to react negatively than case is not another person, and not become negative. positively to a new scientific deve- even a mother-in-law, but typically lopment. This type of “instinctive journalists, envied for their unjustly This ambivalence is a more general rationality” is responsible for the earned power over the public’s problem of modern society, an era greater attention given to negative mind, and thus, community-made- of continual changes, which present information, and may explain our decisions. promises as well as threats. As the propensity to take the benefits of Scientists are actually top on the list cultural historian Marshal Bearman science for granted and exaggerate in the results of surveys on social wrote, “Modernity is refreshing and its errors or the fears it stirs. consensus and the credibility of the exhausting, full of energy and terri- Another psychological mechanism various professional categories, fying. Above all it is open. To be is an instinctive distrust towards such as the Eurobarometer reports modern means living in an environ- those who hold knowledge that we and the Science Indicators from the ment which promises adventure, do not have; it tends to always crea- National Science Foundation. power, joy as well as the growth and te a barrier between the expert (and According to the 2001 transformation of ourselves and the more generally, those who have Eurobarometer report on science world. At the same time, it threatens received a scientific education) and and technology, the three most to destroy everything that we have, the others. highly esteemed professions in everything that we know.” From this point of view, the fact that Europe are medical doctors, scien- Ambivalence is more explicit for the new “objects” of science, from tists and engineers, while journa- technology, in which we recognise DNA to nanotechnologies, are invisi- lists, entrepreneurs and politicians the possible benefits, but also the ble and outside the reach of com- are at the bottom of the list. The ability to knock down age old limits mon knowledge and common balance between the benefits and and dissolve acquired categories. sense does not help. Consequently the negative consequences of Care must be given, then, to restrain they are more mysterious and may science and technology is also the temptation to magnify the arouse distrust or even simple dis- considered positive. “power” of science: moderation, in interest. Some problems, however, do exist. addition to being usually more cor- It is also for this reason that science Indeed, the same report reveals that rect, is, in any case, more advisable museums now have a limited 42.8% of Europeans agree with the than technocratic optimism which is impact and are visited almost exclu- statement “scientists are responsi- still, in part, in fashion. sively by children. If it was once easy ble for the bad use of their discove- Other psychological mechanisms to understand how a steam engine ries by others” while 80.3% agrees are also at work. They are as simple works, perhaps with the help of a with the idea that “the authorities as they are powerful. One of these is cutaway or a mechanical model, should formally oblige scientists to the tendency to become more alar- today we can open a cell phone and observe ethical norms”. med than necessary when faced observe it for hours without even

CHAPTER I - 21 beginning to understand how it Asia and the United States than in engagement, bi-directionality, invol- works. It is not surprising, then, that Europe, and much more than in the ving communication, debate, but the highly polluting coal had better Arab states. above all dialogue. press than high frequency electro- To return to our metaphor, the rela- If science and society want to get magnetic waves receive today. The tionships between science and along they must learn to communi- media magnify all these worries. society now resemble a modern cate more and better. No one says The ambivalent feelings towards marriage, in which there are more that it is easy, but it is the price to science and technology oscillate, arguments (and more separations) pay in a mature democratic society. then, between fascination and fear, because the partners are equal. Some examples, like Finland, but the crossover point in this emo- For this reason, The Public Under- California and some Asian nations, tional couple is different depending standing of Science has begun to let us hope that the price can be on the cultural milieu. Today, scien- be an “unadvisable” expression transformed into opportunity. For ce probably stirs more fascination in and it is now preferable to talk about both partners, of course.

Dialogue with society Before talking, you must listen. To make yourself understood, you must first understand. Annamaria Testa

Today society no longer signs blank only after two years of informing and Even if implicit, the new contract bet- checks for anyone, not even for scien- consulting all the main social players ween science and society increasingly ce. Exactly like a married person, citi- involved. more often determines what can or zens expect to be consulted (and infor- This new way of making decisions cannot be done in the laboratory. In med) before a decision is made. In fact about technology is really only one sign almost every field, scientists must now it should always be made together. of the wider crisis of the old contract explain the meaning and aims of the This is true for any decision; whether to between science and society. research they intend to carry out. And have a mammogram done, to build an Yesterday, society interpreted it more if they are unable to do so, or they incinerator or even a dump for nuclear or less this way: “I will support you and encounter other types of issues, for waste. you will provide the benefits; but you example bioethical, they may see the As events such as the controversial do it, I trust you completely”. necessary financing or the very permis- project for the Italian national disposal Today, however, society wants to know sion to continue certain types of site for radioactive waste at Scanzano at least who you are and what you do, research denied. In this new context, have taught us, you cannot simply and a web site which clearly and com- your own spaces need to be negotia- decide, announce and then defend prehensively explains this is the least to ted, and to negotiate you must com- your decision, because this will even- be expected. At the same time, it also municate, which means knowing each tually mean abandoning the project. wants you to explain it to children, per- other and exchanging ideas. What is needed today are clear pro- haps with exhibits or a television programmes for public consultation, gramme, and to offer a useful service The communication of science is no during which the problem is not explai- for adults, for example practical health longer simple dissemination, but rather ned just from a technical point of view. information, just as the large American a process in which different players Citizens, on the contrary, need to be biomedical research centres do. produce knowledge, messages, attitu- heard and then given answers which Furthermore, if the research produces des and new practices accepted by all. take into consideration their requests, potentially risky technologies or raises Science plays a fundamental role, but uncertainties and the values at stake. It ethical questions, society wants to be in this process many may want to have is even possible that a different techni- able to have its say, but it especially a say, including the media, institutions, cal solution may be found. Just consi- wants to be reassured that the scien- environmentalists, associations of peo- der what happened before the appro- tists feel responsible towards society, ple with various diseases, as well as val of the law which regulates the expe- and not only towards science, and that citizens’ committees. And they are rimentation on embryonic cells in Great they are more concerned about the often right. In order to remain an autho- Britain: parliamentary debate began public than other groups, like industry. rative voice, science has to keep socie-

22 - CHAPTER I ty’s trust, which is obtained through The consequences of one person’s only “what do people need to reciprocal understanding and not negative behaviour, especially if the know”, we should ask “what do with simple statements of facts, no others do not strongly and publicly people think they need to know”, matter how incontrovertible they disassociate themselves from them, “what will be the effect on people of are, let alone statements of authori- have repercussions on the entire what I want to say ”, “What do they ty. As in a marriage, trust must be community. know, or think they already know”. earned with effort and is easily lost; In order to create a climate of faith Indeed, if communication is to be a one night stand, and it is over. and trust there must be channels of successful we need to deal with rea- Both science institutions and indivi- communication which are always lity, but also with the perception of dual scientists shoulder this respon- open and scientists must be willing this reality held by the people you sibility. to communicate. Instead of asking want to communicate with.

How knowledge and opinions of science are shaped There is no great invention, from fire to flying, which has not been hailed as an insult to some god. John B.S. Haldane

The photograph of a cow which is king for the most logical and rational Even if there is no model which des- being given a shot of hormones may explanation. Rather, we make a cribes the shaping of popular ver- arouse an animals’ rights activist’s pretty quick evaluation based on our sions of science, a few interesting indignation and worry about its pos- personal experience and opinions, mechanisms have been clarified. sible effects on a mother’s health. as well as the social and cultural The starting point of many analyses On the contrary, it may make a far- context we live in. In particular, we is that information, scientific or rela- mer happy because of the increa- tend to select those elements which ted to scientific facts, arrives piece- sed productivity it represents. confirm what we already think and meal, usually from very different They are not mental experiments, disregard or rationalize the others. sources and lacking an interpretati- but a test actually carried out by a Thus, the ground where our messa- ve framework, either because this German scientist on a group of citi- ge is going to be planted cannot be framework is not provided, or zens. Whatever is communicated ignored, since their interaction because it is too complex. Our never ends up on a tabula rasa, as determines whether a message is mind, however, literally abhors the more orthodox approach of the ignored, distorted, misunderstood scraps of information, the lack of Public Understanding of Science or otherwise understood and meaning and significance, and an holds, but interacts with everything accepted. In other words, you need image of the world is reconstructed people know or think they know on a realistic model of the public you using the scraps available, unifying the subject, with their convictions are addressing. them with ties which are often arbi- and feelings, their distrust, the way The public of science is still unfami- trary and irrational, filling in the blanks they are used to getting information liar. Despite the enormous cultural, with what we have. It is a bit like the and their personal experiences. social and economic impact of way vision works. In other words, our For scientists to base themselves on science, there is nothing similar to mind actively tries to build meaningful their own attitudes, shaped by the sophisticated surveys made for structures where there are none, scientific facts and their own field of the advertising market to draw from. making use of the knowledge, studies, is particularly misleading. Understanding what happens when concepts and devices we already Their attitudes are the result of the a scientific theory or facts become possess. special mental training provided by common knowledge and opinion is, The appropriation of a scientific theo- their scientific education. Each one however, a task some sociologists, ry or facts is not at all passive, but of us, in real life, almost never social psychologists, anthropolo- rather it is an active process guided weighs the pros and cons of a posi- gists, cultural historians, and cogni- by our common sense which tries to tion with the utmost impartiality, loo- tive scientists have ventured upon. respond to specific demands.

CHAPTER I - 23 In its most popularised version, for transformed into social representa- what every scientist tries not to do in example, an old theory on the cere- tions, that are not limited to reassu- his work. Yet, the scientist who dis- bral hemispheres often divides the ring, restoring a sense of continuity regards the importance of this in the brain into a “warm” right hemisphe- to one’s own representation of the field of public communications re, tied to emotions and sociality, world, but concretely guide actions. makes a big mistake. and a “cold” left hemisphere, ratio- Like filters, different representations nal and “evil”, though it is just one lead to different interpretations of Not knowing what the social repre- way to respond to the very human the same scientific facts, news or sentations in play are or ignoring need to classify individuals using discoveries, channelling the reac- them can lead to misunderstan- typologies, like “artists” or “engi- tions into the same number of direc- dings, and therefore, to ineffective neers”. tions. To every effect, the represen- communication at best, and a The most frequent aim of these tations act as pre-judgements. damaging message at worst. reconstructions, however, is to build A very popular social representation The social representation “resists”, a bridge between a new develop- is the “naturalness” (which equals in fact, the expert’s mindset becau- ment and what is already known or genuineness and safety) of traditio- se it is based on other elements and believed, or rather, to make the nal foods compared to those produ- other ways of thinking that can also unfamiliar familiar by reducing it to a ced industrially. This representation be very strong. more ordinary image. The “laziness” was established at the end of the of the mind also plays a role in this, Sixties in a specific cultural context Communicating risk is perhaps the since it usually looks for shortcuts and after various episodes of bad field in which social representations that allow us to economise on our business by the food industry, count the most. In this context the own cognitive energy. Every scien- because of the legitimate desire to scientist’s voice easily loses its privi- tist knows how much effort and know what ends up on our plates. It leged role and becomes just one of determination is needed to pay has ended up influencing our rela- the various points of view on the attention to the facts themselves tionship with all foods, leaving little issue. This is not a value judgement, and resist the temptation to read room to examine each case specifi- but simply an observation. something into them that (s)he cally. Unfortunately, this is what often would like to see. Basing his ideas on prejudices (pre- happens: therefore, it is necessary A scientific theory or a fact is thus judgements), of course, is exactly to be aware of it and keep it in mind.

The perception of risks It happens, that for a common vice of nature, that we conceive greater trust or stronger terror for the things we have not seen and that are hidden and unknown. Julius Caesar

There are very few technologies that “electromagnetic pollution” than the the general public’s lack of techni- do not present any risk, however damage caused by smoking. cal knowledge or the exaggerated small. Yet the acceptance of a tech- Psychologists’ studies have revea- alarm and distorted facts the media nology depends less on a statistical led that the degree of control indivi- have transmitted. In fact cultural, estimation of a risk, than on a per- duals feel they have over the pheno- moral and often even political com- sonal decision based on the risk menon highly influences their opi- ponents contribute to this factor. perceived and the advantages it nion of the expert’s probabilistic The issue of GMOs, from this point seems to offer. estimates. of view, is truly paradigmatic. The evaluation is never completely In the Anglo-Saxon world the risk Transgenic foods arouse, at least in objective, therefore a citizen’s eva- society perceives is often represen- Europe, extremely strong and luation may also be very different ted as the product of hazard (the widespread outrage despite the from the expert’s assessment risk as evaluated by scientists) and extensive scrutiny they have been expressed in probabilistic terms. For outrage (the degree to which the given and a decade of consumption example, people worry much less citizens react). Outrage cannot be without the minimal negative conse- about car accidents than plane explained, as the scientific commu- quence in a good part of the rest of crashes, more about the so called nity often tends to, exclusively by the world. The situation is the result

24 - CHAPTER I of many different elements; for one the no risk guarantee for any new own world, in addition to the there is a pre-existing social repre- activity or technology, of the so cal- amount of trust (again) in the social sentation of foods. Then there is the led “precaution principle”, at least in players that are in charge of keeping so called “symbolic short circuit bet- its more restrictive interpretations. this risk under control. ween food traditions deposited in The role of the media in all this is Communication, then, must explain history, artificiality and transgression important, but different in part from the probabilistic size of the risk in of the natural order”, as well as poli- what is commonly believed. It is understandable terms, and if neces- tical and economic interests tied to true, in fact that the media love this sary reassure. But it should never be the protection of European agricul- subject because it is interesting and limited to giving the nude and crude ture from international competition. captures attention, even if nothing facts. On the contrary, the risk There are founded concerns for the has actually occurred yet. And it is needs to be placed in a context, regulation of intellectual ownership true that they sometimes distort the illustrating the causes, effects, impli- in the field of genetics, not to men- facts. Various studies have, howe- cations and interests in play, and if tion the story of Frankenstein, an ver, suggested that what actually there are any, the benefits which extremely powerful myth of contem- happens is that the media do not tell accompany the risk, answering any porary popular culture of science people what to think, but what to questions and expectations the and technology, where a creature, think about. In other words, they general public may have. fruit of an illicit interference in the decide what the public should be All these elements, in fact, come mechanisms of life, escapes his exposed to or not. And that is not together in the social representa- creator’s control. Because of these all. tions that are not necessarily a factors, any type of public debate It also seems as if people’s attitudes death warrant. on the topic must take place on this to scientific risks become more playing field, a strongly rooted fra- negative simply because they are mework which does not lend itself frequently discussed, regardless of to a rational and reasonable discus- whether the risk is emphasized or, sion of the subject. It is in this set- to the contrary, reassessed. ting that another social representa- The evaluation of the risk is a perso- tion has been able to grow, which is nal issue and eventually depends on less powerful but not less foolish: the acceptability of the risk in one’s

Be part of the game In modern democratic conditions, science like any other player in the public arena ignores public attitudes and values at its peril. “Science and Society” Report Chamber of Lords, 2000

The perception of risks, just like the tion of the facts and arguments is tory of science in popular culture, shaping of other social representa- not sufficient, before making the first beginning with the culture today. tions of science and technology, is move it is necessary to clearly iden- And since most communication formed during public debate which tify: the participants, the points of takes place in the media, this needs can occur anywhere, but mainly in view, feelings and interests involved, to be studied carefully. the media. It is here that the boun- favourable influences as well as the daries are negotiated as to what is obstacles that need removing and In order to know the playing field it is accepted by society and what is those which can be sidestepped. not necessary to examine the work not, which risks to accept and As Jon Turney, one of the most per- of scientific journalists, who general- which to refuse. Moreover, it is here ceptive scholars in the social repre- ly reflect a vision of the world which that the credibility of science (its sentation of science and technolo- is not unlike that scientists themsel- knowledge, its methods, its objecti- gy, wrote: If we want to understand ves, but television, daily newspa- ves) must be won. the origins of the vocabulary used pers, movies illustrated women’s The first condition for effective parti- today to talk about science, we not magazines, interest groups’ web cipation is to know and understand only need to trace the internal deve- sites, science fiction: it is more the playing field. If a simple exposi- lopment of science, but also the his- important to look at what “lay” jour-

CHAPTER I - 25 nalists and other professionals are turned out to be unfounded, and the each of the many possible circums- saying (even unconsciously) about innovations, which affected daily life, tances. Scientists are the ones who social representations since they are were also invisible and did not offer must learn to communicate with the the most truthful interpreters of the obvious benefits to the consumer. public, each in their own context. common way of thinking. The initial demands for “strict” regu- Whatever the recipe chosen may lation of the nanotechnological sec- be, one ingredient is indispensable: This is how the negative social tor, if indeed it makes sense to talk trust, which compensate for the representations can be caught in about it in such a heterogeneous knowledge that is inaccessible to a time, and perhaps acted on imme- field, have already made themselves non peer audience. A case in point diately, before they solidify and heard. is the physician-patient relationship. cause damage. This is the case, for In these cases the situation can be This is the main path to a good rela- example, of the rising wave against averted and the playing field can be tionship between science and nanotechnologies, which really changed in time. We all tend, in fact, society. emerged from futurology sold as to prefer information that confirms In all cases - and there are many - in science by Eric Drexler, the author of the opinions we already have. which a true understanding of the Engines of Creation, by Michael Information on new topics, or topics science involved is illusionary, the Crichton in his novel Prey, and in the perceived as such, very strongly only choice available to the public is famous interview of Bill Joy, the late influence attitudes. Everything that between trusting or not trusting the scientific director of Sun is said thereafter will have to take experts. Microsystems for Wired magazine: the first impression into considera- Be careful, though. Even if the gene- is there anything better than swarms tion. Politicians are very familiar with ral public does trust the expert, its of undetectable androids about in this game: for this reason they trust is no longer a total authorization the world to reawaken the ghost of always try make themselves heard and does not substitute dialogue. Frankenstein? This might even on popular issues. Rather it is the objective, reached crack a smile, considering that There are no infallible recipes, howe- after time, of good communication, nanotechnologies is one of the most ver, for effective involvement in or rather reciprocal knowledge and matter-of-fact and useful sectors in public debates. Each case is diffe- respect as well as credibility won on material sciences, if the situation rent. As we will see in Chapter three, the field after continual availability. were not quite so similar to the the right recipe needs to be found When trust in science weakens, in GMO issue raised a few years back. case by case, by analysing the topic fact, the credibility of other players, At that time too the alarm was and context of the communication. from magicians to alternative forms sounded in good faith, although it There is not one valid recipe for of medicine grows stronger.

Communicating is an indispensable Sisyphean task Now, here, I see. It takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place. Lewis Carrol

In the Odyssey, Homer describes the also a never-ending “task”. Indeed, Communication of science helps, destiny that awaits Sisyphus, every discovery, every application then, to continually re-construct the Aeolus’s son, founder of the city of makes us review what we know or bridges between what we knew and Corinth, and an extremely shrewd think we know, or at least change our what has just been discovered, conti- man. When it is his turn to descend usual way of doing things. It forces us nually up-dating the social represen- into Tartarus, the gods condemn him to face new problems that we do not tations in circulation. to pushing an enormous boulder up a know how to solve, new choices to Yet, from our point of view there are hill, which then rolls down the hill as make, and new knowledge that we two ways to remain in the race. soon as he nears the top, making him do not how to classify and interpret. The first is routine communication, repeat this arduous task in eternity. Yet, no one likes changing, at times an ever-open channel with society Public communication of science is not even scientists themselves. to be used to construct, over time,

26 - CHAPTER I the indispensable basis of reciprocal knowledge and trust. This form of communication is carried out with updates, activities in schools, offering useful information and services for the media. We are talking about communicating through various social players, including the media, local institutions, interest groups or individuals. The second is, instead, crisis communication, which is used for expressing opinions on issues at hand.

It should be very clear: without routine communication, crisis communication is of no use. If the public that you want to convince do not know you, do not think you have ever offered anything useful, or have never been able to test out their trust in you, they will not listen.

Having said this, we can begin to address the basic concepts of the public communication of science.

CHAPTER I - 27 CHAPTER II THE ABCs OF COMMUNICATING WITH THE PUBLIC

From peer to peer to public communication A different language is a different view of life. Gustave Flaubert

When the sophisticated Atlantic to communicate with the rest of Monthly magazine published The society: while science works with Double Helix in two episodes at the hypotheses and empirical observa- beginning of 1968, it stirred both the tions, the general public tend to readers’ admiration and a small hor- believe stories which ring true. net’s nest of issues. Whatever did James D. Watson want to do with Learning to write a scientific paper is his adventure of how the structure part of every scientist’s training. of DNA was discovered? Did he Since the Nineteenth Century, the want to flatter himself, slander his norms for writing up research have ex-competitors, tell a science story, been very clear. They were created or get rich from an unscrupulous for communicating data and argu- business deal? ments as quickly and effectively as What critics were actually repriman- possible. In its prescribed form, ding the Nobel winner for was the with the sections arranged in a fixed simple fact that a scientist, indeed, a order, from the abstract to the great scientist, had written a book bibliography, the scientific paper is that was not only fascinating, but organized so as to leave as few even enjoyable. ambiguities as possible in: the lan- What a difference there was, in fact, guage is impersonal and lacking in between the book, which eventually narration; its syntax is simplified; its became a classic, and the two small semantics rigid. The language is concise pages in the 25 April 1953 highly specialized and extremely issue of Nature with which Watson concise and there are no digres- himself and Francis Crick opened sions or figures of speech. the era of molecular biology. Watson Unfortunately, however, the very had simply understood earlier than reasons why an article is written this other colleagues that communica- way are the same that make scienti- ting with society is something com- fic literature practically illegible outsi- pletely different from communicating de of specialist circles. within one’s own professional circle: Public communication has different it is not a simplified version, nor a requirements; it follows different “translation”, and not even a simpler norms; and above all, it takes place way of teaching. in a different context. Most of the problems which occur during an Unfortunately, the kind of communi- exchange of ideas with society arise cation scientists are used to using is when these differences are not very far from what should be used taken into consideration.

28 - CHAPTER II Competing for attention Just like the fighter plane that breaks the sound barrier, a concept today must have an aerodynamic shape to overcome the barrier of the excess of information. The thrust of the hyperbole is not, in itself, necessarily enough. There must also be the ability to penetrate found only in the elementary concepts, summarized in a slogan. Giuliano da Empoli

The first big difference, and one that is becoming increasingly more diffi- the discoverer of the double helix is often underestimated, is that cult: we are transforming ourselves understood, but also all the defects communication among experts into a society overloaded with infor- that popularisation of science might implies the readers’ complete atten- mation. have, like sensationalism. Yet it can- tion, since they are already interes- What does this mean, practically not be disregarded if effective com- ted in the information because they speaking? On the one hand, the munication is to take place. need it. On the contrary, non expert means and opportunities for infor- readers (or listeners, viewers, visi- mation are multiplying and now The rule of thumb is that something tors) usually do not have any parti- include almost any type of event, becomes news if the public finds it cular reason to pay attention to created or sponsored by a great new, but above all, interesting. For what is being said. They do not have variety of groups. this reason it must touch a funda- to listen. Their attention must be On the other hand, it is necessary to mental human need, or a subject won, otherwise any effort made yell louder than ever in order to be which has already caught public becomes useless. heard. Messages are more and attention. more often shouted and simplified, It is not the public that must take in forms which are shorter or faster The piece of news that “filters interest in science, but science that than ever before, in the hope that at through” is the one that most easily must try to make itself interesting to least something will catch the publi- strikes the strongest chords, which the public. c’s attention and “filter through”. involve our health, economic deve- Just flip through the magazines from lopment, wonder, national pride, If today there is a much valued com- a few years ago or watch an old fear and so forth. Just look at how modity, this is people’s attention. television programme again and you much attention climatology has Many are competing for this atten- will see. received since we have begun to tion, and they are usually well- Competition begins in a newsroom worry about global warming. If what equipped: businesses, politicians as where scientific news is also expec- we want to talk about does not stri- well as lobby groups for small and ted to be “sexier” than ever. Not ke one of these chords, a tie can be large interests are all in search of even important international scienti- found – an excuse, an honest one – visibility and consensus. In a kno- fic magazines are completely immu- to bring it up. These days even wledge-based society and econo- ne to this trend: in the race to be tal- science and technology need the my not only science needs to com- ked about, they too sometimes skills of the spin doctor, the specia- municate more. Even beyond the make a mistake, like the famous list who knows how to turn news commercial needs, today there is incident of the “memory of water”, in into something more appealing. much more information to support a 1989 issue of Nature when a result To explain a new development in every type of product or service which was apparently extraordinary geophysics, for example, it is always than there was in the past. Yet the soon after proved to be a sham. better to try and link it to earthqua- more people talking, the easier it is The difference between peer and kes or volcanoes. The classic trick for individual voices to get lost. public communication is at the root to get a scientific congress in the Competition is therefore strong and of almost all the strong points, as news is to save a piece of good

CHAPTER II - 29 news for the occasion. The articles’ creating (or recreating) the reason, areas of knowledge to someone headlines will carry only that piece of which exists naturally among collea- else. news, but many articles will also talk gues, to learn about it. The gatekeeper is, thus, a filter that about the congress. The secret, acts as a guarantee for some types then, is to start off with matters and Only a few manage to escape an of information. Today there are gate- motivations which already hold apparently relentless drift towards keepers for vacations, computers, public interest, and then little by litt- increasingly louder and potentially wines and fashion. Editorialists of le perhaps lead the discussion to misleading forms of communication. large newspapers are gatekeepers. other areas. Marketing experts call these people In science they are the important “gatekeepers” (the gate to people’s popularizers or Nobel prize winners, The importance of a result, however attention), for they have, in fact, gai- famous people that do not need to big it is, may not be enough to make ned the authority and social position shout to make themselves heard. it news. Knowing how to communi- to strongly influence the public’s Institutions like NASA can become cate means, first of all, knowing how choices. Bombarded with informa- gatekeepers too, as long as they to transform what you want to say tion, each one of us, in fact, tends to work effectively to build up their into what the public wants to know, delegate the choices in specific image and credibility over time.

The power of emotions Whatever the sun may be, it is certainly not a ball of flaming gas. D.H. Lawrence

Communication among scientists is it was a person who talked about it. In public communication emotions neutral and lacking in emotions. All scientists know very well how are not a cheap trick to raise atten- Thus, only the facts speak, motivate important passion is for their work, tion, let alone something manipulati- and convince, not the person pre- but they also know it must be set ve (as long as it is intellectually senting them, nor the hope that the aside when it is time to evaluate the honest). To be sure, gaining public theory is right, and not even fascina- results. Yet when communicating confidence and creating positive fee- tion they hold. with the public it would be wrong to lings can be more persuasive than In public communication, on the wear this mask of detachment. This indisputable facts. other hand, the quality of the dis- very show of neutrality may be The first step in any public communi- cussion or data is not enough. The necessary to avert falling too deeply cation is, therefore, to identify which same data that for scientists are in love with hypotheses which could emotions will win over the public. An another piece to add to a well- turn out to be wrong, or when pre- emotionally flat communication, in known picture of knowledge (and senting results to colleagues, but in fact, “does not filter through”, or is emotions), for the public is only an time, it has been costly to the scien- immediately forgotten. isolated fragment of information, tist’s public image, since it still car- This simple fact, already taught by with almost no meaning. While ries connotations of reserve and the ancient orators, has been, Watson and Crick only needed a coldness. indeed, rediscovered by the neuro- short, dry article in Nature to captu- Indeed today it is crucial to make sciences, which have re-evaluated re the scientific community, that for one’s topics appealing, and if possi- the role feelings and emotions play years had been anxiously awaiting ble spectacular or even sensational on our cognitive abilities. the solution to the DNA puzzle and (of course within acceptable and There are infinite ways to lend emo- perfectly understood its value (for ethical limits); there is no longer tions to a topic, some noble and science as well as its discoverers), in room for scientists who are disorien- others base. The best way to choose order to grab the public’s attention ted by or even scorn the idea of is to identify your own emotions as a the Double Helix was needed, a popularising their research. scientist, and then find the closest book which recreated everything possible link with your audience: the behind that research, including the If confronting the facts of reality is the feelings of wonder at how nature urgency of the two young scholars’ common denominator of all types of works, intellectual curiosity, the “mad pursuit”, pressed by the com- scientific enterprise, arousing emo- search for answers to important petition of many and much more tions is the common denominator of existential questions or world pro- qualified colleagues. In other words, all forms of communication. blems, the pleasure of working in

30 - CHAPTER II special areas and so forth. The Holy tionship between speaker and liste- in any literary text, a dialogue with Grail, from this point of view repre- ner, in which the emotional factor the public, imagining for a moment sents the reversal of man’s “disen- highly influences the ability to reco- what the reaction may be to what is chantment with the world” by scien- gnise, evaluate, and possibly even said and consequently adapting it to ce, so despised by the Romantic retain the information presented. the answer. poets. For this reason a scientific work may Allowing your own passion to also have many authors, while a The quality of communication transpire will also help to make that book or a popular article has only depends greatly on the quality of the fundamental transition from “com- one. relationship which is established municating something”, typical of with the audience. As in friendship communication among experts to Effective communication has two and marriages, the better you know “communicating with someone”. legs. The first is rationality, that in the each other, the more respect there One aspect of communication planning stage helps to identify the is, the better you will get along. which is often neglected, in fact, is opportunities, but above all the limi- that information is not exchanged in tations of communication. The abstract terms, but within a rela- second is the ability to construct, as

The power of storytelling It is not the voice that directs the story: it is the ears. Italo Calvino

While the scientific article was inven- degrees we always find a story, or a adding the basic concepts in play, ted only once, stories have always fact, a concept or a way of reaso- the history of the discipline’s internal been told in all human civilizations. ning disguised as stories. This is development and the explanation of The human mind seems to be spe- true for an article, but also for a tele- its possible ties with the reader’s cially made for creating stories, vision programme, a book, a docu- personal experience. which represent the most natural mentary or a lecture. The need to involve the reader or the way to receive information. The Science stories have much in com- spectator means destroying the pres- mental images created by stories mon with the language of journa- cribed form of a scientific work. are precious cognitive references lism. In a story, there is an adventu- Instead of the usual sections, there is, since they organize our experiences re, with the characters’ deeds, the what in journalist jargon is called the and make them coherent. time of action and a place, that even “inverted pyramid”, since the A story which captures our attention it its simplest form must therefore assumptions (the base of the pyra- “forces” us to read or listen to it until include the famous “5 Ws” of mid) are the last thing to think about: the very end. A story is also an English journalism: Who, what, the opening line needs to capture the important memory aid; in science where, why and when, to which we audience’s emotions, then the heart we can recall Fleming’s mould, can add the H of how. The narrator of the story is told, and only later are Newton’s apple or the snake in is as close to the reader as (s)he is the details given, beginning with the Kekulé’s dream. It is no coincidence to the characters and, unlike the most important. When the details that in English journalism an article scientist, shuns abstraction. As the become less important, they can be is called a story. old journalistic saying goes: “ cut. The story does not necessarily Explain ideas with facts and facts have to reflect the order and reality of Whatever the means, the format, with people”. events, but there may be digressions, the aim and the content, communi- Choosing what goes into a story explanations, flashbacks, analogies, cating science to the public means does not depend on the need to be metaphors and so on. knowing how to turn it into a story. thorough and exact, but on how the The text is no longer impersonal, contents work in the narrative struc- strictly in the third person narrative If we examine popularisation that ture, which then acts as a filter and with a wide use of impersonal works, we rarely find anything that against the temptation to tell it all. At and passive forms, but it becomes resembles a textbook or a scientific the same time, however, the context spoken language, which carefully work simply translated into simpler of the news – usually absent in a follows the imaginary route and language. Concealed to different scientific report – is recovered, by mental rhythm of the listener. The

CHAPTER II - 31 discourse must flow smoothly it does not manage to also clearly (effective journalism, which is not without any snags, because it is explain what it is talking about. It necessary the best) and other forms also meant to be read (or listened to) has been said that the moment of of public communication. just once. comprehension is to knowledge No science story, however exciting what an orgasm is to sex. This is and readable, is, however effective if what distinguishes it from journalism

Why is science “difficult”? Science often explains the familiar in terms of the unfamiliar. Lewis Wolpert

Communication among scientists talk about “DNA”. The same thing A lack of meaning includes almost everything neces- can be said for concepts. sary to make it difficult, not only for Our mind also has a difficult time In order to understand, you must non scientists, but often for those handling dimensions, like nanome- also want to understand, and belie- who are not specialists in the field. tres or billions of years, that are ve you can. Even when scientists try to speak very different from the measure- The first problem is that science clearly, however, they do not ments used that can be encounte- often deals with objects and pheno- always explain themselves well. red in daily life: this is a problem mena that are far, or at least seem to Indeed, science is often difficult, or that can be solved with appropria- be far, from real life experiences. at least complex, in itself, and it is te analogies. Before explaining, these need then not necessarily true that it can be to be put into a context that high- made easy or readable like the arti- Maps lights their connection with the cle in an illustrated magazine or a public’s experiences and motiva- televised news report. In any case, Science is a network of knowled- tions. If you want to talk about the much can be done. You do not ge that is connected on various life of a star, you might begin by need a natural gift for clarity, as levels of complexity, and thus it is explaining that the atoms that make long as you understand what difficult to understand a topic up our body have not always exis- without knowing the basics. might make science difficult. Some ted, but were moulded in a thermo- Moreover, scientists hold the map reasons are almost obvious. nuclear oven inside a large star. of their own discipline, but the public does not. Even if in public The fact that scientists have a men- Language communication there is usually tal map of their topic, and are also little space to outline the bases of used to looking at their theme in Science thrives on specialized lan- a topic, you cannot presume the minutia, often makes for an account guage, from mathematics to the public has the same motivation in which details tend to prevail over various specialist terminologies, in that a university student has to the wider vision of the problem, and which many words do not even know them: at least those princi- therefore over the more general ples crucial to understanding the have a direct translation, but refer meaning of the topic, which is taken message need to be included. No to concepts or entire processes for granted. Indeed, finding a mea- more than this, however: a good that can be very complex: just rule of thumb is to explain one ning, its relevance or applicability is think of “genetic expression”, “tec- thing at a time. one of the problems in the commu- tonic” or “inflation”. nication of scientific topics. Communication requires, on the For this reason it is hard to get contrary, the use of a shared lan- Explaining means accompanying excited about the structure of guage. Thus technical terms someone from what (s)he already organic molecules, while cosmolo- should be avoided, and when it is knows to what (s)he does not know gy, which provides answers to impossible to pass them up, their yet. Thus, an explanation is always a questions that man has always meaning should always be explai- line of reasoning as well, naturally asked, is so popular. ned, even when it might seem suitable to your audience’s level of Finally, the lack of interest and desi- banal, as, for example, when we understanding. re to understand rooted in bad

32 - CHAPTER II scholastic memories can never be na like motion or blood circulation, made up of a communication in the underestimated. These memories which have always been just under strict sense of the word, which also account for the sense of inade- our nose. In cases in which unders- involves the contents, and in a quacy people experience when they tanding requires thinking like a meta-communication which invol- approach science. A small demons- scientist, it is important to warn the ves the relationship established bet- tration that science is not so difficult public of this specific difficulty, gui- ween the speaker and listener, and to understand would help to overco- ding them through this different way that transmits the emotional spirit of me this psychological barrier: per- of seeing things. the communication itself. haps an initial simple line of reasoning could be used even if it is not Identifying Not making yourself understood is closely related to the main theme. In the audience’s problems worse than not being understood. It other words, it is a matter of brea- means, in fact, communicating your king the ice, just as science Generally speaking, it is always disinterest in the public as well as museums and science centres do necessary, to remember that while the low opinion you have of their with informal styles of education. communication is, first and fore- ability. Whoever uses complicated most, a dialogue – which at times is language, perhaps because (s)he The unnatural imaginary– with an audience, any believes this will make him more nature of science explanation needs to be preceded credible, runs the risk of seeming by an understanding of the difficul- detached and offensive. Science seems “difficult” for less ties the audience may encounter. obvious reasons as well. Compared to journalists, or at least The main reason is that, although professional communicators, scien- practicing science may seem like tists have the great advantage of the most natural thing in the world, knowing the subject well, but the science is actually a profoundly great disadvantage that it is not as unnatural way of learning. As Lewis easy for them to understand what Wolpert, the embryologist who hea- the public might find difficult. ded the British Committee for The On the contrary, journalists, as non Public Understanding of Science, experts, are aided by their own emphasized: science implies a spe- experience and easily recognise cial way of thinking that is unnatural these difficulties. A skilled communi- for two main reasons. In the first cator does not take anything for place, the world is not built on a granted and saves readers, viewers basis of common sense. This or listeners the problems (s)he has means that “natural” thought – com- already had her/himself, and perhaps mon ordinary good senses – will even conveys the same, fresh enthu- never help to understand the nature siasm for what (s)he has just learned. of science. With a few rare excep- If scientists want to make themsel- tions, scientific ideas are counter- ves understood, then they must intuitive: they cannot be acquired by make a greater effort to become an simply examining phenomena and observer of their own topic from the they often have little in common with outside, as we will see in greater daily life. In the second place, doing detail in the next chapter. Given the science requires a conscious awa- large asymmetry that exists bet- reness of the traps of “natural” ween scientists and their audience, thought: common sense is inclined they need to carefully watch their to error when it is applied to pro- level, time and ways of explaining. blems which need sound and quan- titative thinking. The explanations The imperative suggested by common sense are of being clear extremely unreliable. Our mind is, in fact, Aristotelian, not It is very important, in this regard, Galilean: for this reason becoming a that everybody understands. Once scientist requires training in a diffe- the segment of the public you want rent way of thinking, and not only to address is identified, it makes no the simple acquisition of knowledge. sense to explain yourself only to a If this were not true, we would have part of it, and forget about the rest. understood earlier simple phenome- Every communication is actually

CHAPTER II - 33 Ethics in science communication If one tells the truth, then sooner or later one will be found out. Oscar Wilde

The prescribed form for drafting a temporary nature, which is even gue that has behaved inappropriate- scientific paper helps to eliminate, to truer for the frontiers of science: if ly, accepting the attitude that “there a large degree, those shady areas this is the case, it is better to ackno- is honour among thieves”. As soon which might hide missing or shaky wledge this fact immediately, so that as the unprofessional conduct is data, a logically weak point in the those who are reading or listening discovered, people will note your line of reasoning or an unclear expe- are aware of the nature of the infor- silence and lump you together. rimental procedure. mation received. Finally, possible conflicts of interest On the contrary, in public communi- Results that are popularised should should be declared. The increasing cation, if the large asymmetry in the have already undergone a peer- intertwining of public and private knowledge held between the expert review. There is no easier way to research will offer more opportuni- and non expert is added to the lose public confidence than to ties for the mask of scientific objec- techniques applied (narration, emo- announce something that is then tivity to hide interests which have tion, rhetoric devices, partial expla- challenged or rejected shortly after- not been or cannot be revealed. nations) the potential for deception wards. This already happens fre- Never underestimate, though, the or manipulation is enormous. quently enough for physiological public’s discernment of which sour- In short, scientific research’s great reasons. Nor should the appeal to ces of information can be trusted influence implies just as great a public opinion be exploited as a and which cannot. responsibility. The more science substitute for the scientific commu- Since ethics is a question of values, touches everyday life of society with nity’s consensus. Respect for fac- the ethics of public communication greater speed and less mediation, tual truth alone may, however, not has a dimension which is less the less scientists can disregard the be enough, because you can be obvious, but perhaps more funda- ethical implications of their research guilty of omission. mental. and communication. The possible negative consequen- While it may be true that scientific ces of your research should not be knowledge does not have a moral In order to open a channel for dialo- disregarded. Discovering the gene- dimension of its own, the methods gue with public opinion, trust is tic basis for the predisposition of an used to obtain it and its possible necessary. But trust is easy to loose illness, for example, opens the door applications do. It is true that scien- and difficult to gain – or, worse, gain to improved prevention, but also to tists sometimes lose or cannot have back – and the positive or negative potential discrimination. The fact control over how their results are consequences of scientists’ com- that the balance may be positive applied, yet there is nothing worse munication are often reflected on overall does not mean, in fact, that than an attitude in scientists who rid their professional circle, if not on the negative aspects do not exist. Their themselves of this problem by entire scientific community. omission might, indeed, be brought appealing to the “pureness” of their to light by someone else, creating research. On the contrary, scientists In this case too, there exists a more serious damage to your credibility. should not only declare the values at obvious and a less obvious ethic. Another error is the omission of the root of their work, but also be The first rule is to respect the factual other options, when there is not just ready to divulge the social implica- truth. A precise account, complete one to choose from. In other words, tions of their work as well the work and honest, should be ready to cla- you should not offer one option, the of others, and their own opinion, rify how the results were obtained, one we are convinced of, as the only positive or negative. Who is more how reliable they are, whether they possible choice; not even in good entitled to do so? What better agree with other studies, what credit faith. This situation is more common opportunity is there to communicate is due to other scientists, and if in medicine and in the choices of that scientists are responsible citi- others disagree and why. technologies: consider, for example, zens? Moreover, results should not be the pros and con of the various As many considerations made in emphasized more than is rightful: a sources of energy. other fields have underlined, you public that has been disappointed It can also be considered omission cannot be convincing (or be so for a once, will be sceptical forever. One when you do not dissociate your- long time) if you are not genuinely of the key features of science is its self, publicly as well, from a collea- convinced that you need to work

34 - CHAPTER II ethically and consequently do so, especially at the institutional level. In other words, if there is no sub- stance there is no effort great enough in public relations to conceal your limits. In an open society, in which you are examined under the microscopes of many, there is no way to keep possible flaws hidden. Thus, you must first examine your own values compared to the society’s values, and the respect owed to its citizens; only then can you begin to think about constructing visibility and credibility, which represent the most precious assets for the individual scientist as well as for the community (s)he belongs to.

Never, never try to manipulate your public, not even for a good reason. If people realize what you have done, they will feel humilia- ted, and where health or safety are concerned, this can mean wiping out your credibility for who knows how long. A policy made to exploit your credibility is a sure recipe for disaster.

The first objective of a scientist’s public communication policy is to earn a reputation as a credible speaker. As remarked by Hans Peter Peters, an expert on the problems between science and society: “It is always better to inform and explain your reasoning as honestly, clearly and completely as possible. Even if we will not convince our readers or listeners, at least we will have given them the impression that we respect them. This too can play a part in forming their opinions, since information does not stand alone. At times, the perception of honesty can obtain more than the information itself”.

CHAPTER II - 35 CHAPTER III PLANNING YOUR COMMUNICATION Starting off on the right foot It sounded an excellent plan, no doubt, and very neatly and simply arranged; the only difficulty was, that she had not the smallest idea how to set about it. Lewis Carroll

From NASA on down, many scienti- The most common errors zens, and not to themselves. fic institutions have their own strate- There are also content errors, like gy for communication. No commu- The first is that you cannot make suggesting the wrong message or nication, in fact, should be improvi- yourself heard. This occurs when contradicting earlier statements, sed, least of all science communica- you are unable to access a channel thus irritating or alienating somebo- tion. Let us immediately clear the of communication, because no dy. field of one misunderstanding: the newspaper shows interest in your Even when these errors have been idea that communication is only topic, but also when you turn to the avoided, a more subtle, but not less intuition and creative impulse. wrong people, perhaps because serious error may remain: the lack of Natural talents are rare. you have used a channel which an objective. In any professional communication, does not reach the audience you subjectivity and the strike of genius are interested in. Rarely the scientific community is enter into play only later, after care- You can also manage to talk to the able to distinguish between the ful analysis has clarified its objecti- right audience, but without being understanding of science and the ves, constraints and opportunities. understood. Comprehension in a appreciation of science and its Even in advertising, a field that from crucial aim when you talk about benefits, as if making citizens little the outside seems like a kingdom of science, unlike, for example when experts means automatically gaining free reigning creativity, the creative you talk about politics or literary cri- their support. pair (copy and graphic designer) ticism. This error might even backfi- start work only after a long and re. The choice of one of the many things often extremely sophisticated analy- You can also be clear but not inter- that can be discussed or one of the sis by the marketing team has defi- esting, usually because the content various points of view on a topic ned the constraints to work within. or reasoning selected represent must, in other words, help to reach Think first: putting together intuition priorities for you as a scientist or the the objective. If for example I want to and planning, which follows a preci- institution you belong to, but not for convince you of the usefulness of a se sequences of stages and verifi- the public. This category includes new, very expensive accelerator, tal- cation, is a valuable rule at all levels, information on congresses or king about the spinoffs of fundamen- whether it be for a single contribu- expensive experimental apparatus, tal physics or describing a chapter in tion (an article for a magazine, a or in any case, what scientists hold the history of the research, appealing school visit to a laboratory, a radio citizens should know. Today, howe- to national pride, might be more use- interview or a book), or, even more ver, as in many other sectors the ful than the fascination offered by the importantly, for the planning of an consumer is the focus of attention: theories of everything or Higgs’s information campaign. In this way, communication must therefore be, boson theory. The opposite choice you can at least protect yourself first and foremost, a service offered will be made, of course, for a class from the most common errors. by those who do research to citi- visit to a laboratory.

36 - CHAPTER III Think first - audience your planning than jotting down a concept, which is a single page lis- All the stages in the process of - constraints ting and justifying the choices communication are important. In made. This is a tool widely used to this chapter we talk about planning, - opportunities check if everything is coherent and that is everything that takes place convincing. before getting down to work, name- - message These elements, chosen with ratio- ly before writing an article, contac- nality but also with a pinch of creating a journalist, commissioning a Only later will the concrete oppor- tivity, should produce a story. But contribution, organizing an informa- tunities, or rather the resources, we will deal with this point in the tion campaign, etc. In fact, there is ability and access to the media, be next chapter. almost never just one way to talk considered. Here you will find a about something and the choice check list of “filters” which the idea must be based on careful conside- or initial need should go through. ration of five essential elements: There is no better way to evaluate

Clarify your aims Our plans fail because they do not have an objective. If one does not know to which port one is sailing, no wind is favourable. Seneca

The first question to ask may seem educated people, and that they may message, means and language banal, but in reality it is crucial not be the ones who have to be which work best . because everything depends upon interested in us, and that we need to Today, there are truly few generalist its answer: “Why am I doing this?”. force ourselves to interest them, this media (actually, a few TV channels The decision to communicate too attitude clashes with one of the and they are more expensive and often expresses only the desire to basic principles of every communi- difficult to access, while usually spe- come out of isolation or obscurity by cation. cialized media (scientific magazines doing something for example), which are easier to Communication which has some- reach, are a way to enter the cultu- Defining you objectives means deci- thing good for everyone has almost ral market, gain attention and even- ding which category of people you always something bad for everyone. tually approach other more impor- want to address and what type of And it is more difficult. tant and influential channels. change you want to obtain in them. If necessary, it is better, then, to The public, in fact, are heteroge- multiply and diversify your contribu- It is no coincidence that the first and neous in sex, age, socio-economic tions, packaging them for a homo- most delicate task of a communica- level, interests, needs, background geneous segment, whether it is for tion consultant is to help clients cla- knowledge and cognitive abilities. schools, policy-makers, the local rify their ideas on these two points. For a series of reasons which community or journalists. concern the transformations that More often than you can imagine, Who do I want to address? our society is undergoing, the public there is no need to speak to everyo- tend to be increasingly divided into ne. It is important, in fact, to speak When asked this question, many still cultural “tribes”. As advertising to your stakeholders, the people answer “the interested general experts know very well, communi- that may be interested in your public” usually meaning the educa- cation functions best for each seg- research or the organization that ted audience. Now, apart from the ment of the public, when it is cut to has produced it. Since the list is fact that there are actually very few size: each audience needs the, generally potentially very long, priori-

CHAPTER III - 37 ties should be established. Who do objective in technical or scientific nation, always present, must be use- I most need to communicate with? fields, what is “this something” ful in achieving the objectives pur- exactly (this needs changing).. The sued. What change problem in this case is to be realistic The communication from a centre of do I want to obtain? and not give in to the temptation to volcanology, for example, might focus explain everything. Unless you are on various subject matters: you might Once your public have been identi- writing an entire book, you should explain to the local community, (fami- fied, it is necessary to clarify the concentrate on just one element. liar with its behaviour, that someone is change you want to obtain. Usually, The most obvious choice would be always monitoring the volcano; tou- the objectives of a communication to concentrate on a fact, which in rists might be interested in the fasci- are part of one of these categories: some cases, for example when you nation this large and spectacular talk about risks and safety, cannot natural phenomenon holds; the be avoided. You might, however, media might want to know what - the exchange of information prefer to discuss a concept, which types of forecasts can be made and is often necessary in human gene- how reliable they are; politicians may - visibility/awareness tics, since facts about molecular be interested in the fact that the cen- biology are often too complex. Or tre’s annual budget represents a small - dialogue you might explain the meaning of a fraction of what the forecasts can research project, as is often done in help save should an eruption occur. - persuasion fundamental physics, in which both Thus, the choice of the fact, concept the facts and concepts require too or meaning will depend upon the When you say you would like the much background knowledge and interests, expectations, needs and public to know or understand some- impracticable languages. possible fears of that particular seg- thing, which is the most common In the other cases the scientific expla- ment of the public.

Know your own audience When an ear grows sharper, it becomes an eye. Rumi, Persian poet and mystic from the XIII century.

The secret of Piero Angela, the jour- Once your audience have been the press and through specific sur- nalist that “invented” scientific popu- identified, you should be able to veys. In fact, very few studies on the larisation for Italian television and its answer at least three questions: publics of science exist, except for well-recognised leader for 25 years, the fields of biotechnology and infor- is an extraordinary sensitivity for his - Who are they? mation technology. Even if the sta- audience, whose interests, tastes, kes are just as high, there exists cultural level and reactions he - What do they already nothing similar to the very sophisti- knows perfectly. know about the topic? cated surveys used in advertising. His audience, however, are different Identifying a segment of the public from those which watch other televi- - What do they think about it? means understanding how complex sion programmes, including science your explanation can be, as well as programmes. When doing this, the researcher has what their expectations, motivations the opposite problem from the jour- and interests are. Different means Knowing the people you are nalist. While the journalist must learn are better for reaching different addressing is one of the first rules of the scientific knowledge, the resear- audiences; for example adults might communication. No words can cher needs to learn the “lay kno- prefer TV; teenagers, Internet; child- always be clear or persuasive. Clear wledge”, including which media ren, museums and exhibitions; and or persuasive words exist only for a their audience receives their infor- the establishment, influential new- specific audience, which you must mation from. This information can spapers. To know a specific public have a reliable model of. be found personally, or if possible, in means choosing the right media for

38 - CHAPTER III them and the testimonials they consi- ry to begin your discussion with pre- den below the surface? Or are they der the most credible and listen to. existing interests and only later values, large public movements, as It is easy to assess what the public introduce new and important infor- strong as they are slow to change? already know about the topic: usual- mation. If you decide to (or if you can) go ly they will know very little. Every one It is more difficult to understand along with the popular public stan- of us can be compared to a curious what ideas the public have about ce, so much the better, because fourteen year old, more or less, in the topic, or rather what its public you will find some extremely useful those fields that are outside our pro- image is. A media analysis does in allies. But if you decide (because fessional field. The topic itself can fact help, but it is not conclusive. A you have to) to go against them, you be of help here. It is more likely, for more refined analysis is necessary, if will need to be very aware of your example that the public know what possible with special surveys and position and use more care in your happens during a heart attack, focus groups, but meetings can also presentation. In these cases, the which is often explained by the be useful. In order to find the right best thing is to calmly analyse the media, than how chemical bonds topic for a conference on homeopa- reasons behind the positions you do work. The exception is the sub- thy, for example, it might be more not share, listening more to the group with particular interests, like important to know what is apprecia- public than to your colleagues, people with a particular disease, ted most in homeopaths and their trying to understand how they have who are particularly motivated and approach to the patient, rather than come to these conclusions using used to getting information from the to get information on studies that cultural analysis or a history of the Internet, or other sources. disprove their effectiveness. In other controversy. The next step is to understand what words, it is necessary to learn to lis- The most serious error that can be our public want to know. Above all we ten and carry out some cultural and made is to demonstrate that you are must consider their interests, social analyses. not familiar with public opinion, or concerns and hopes, along with the A simple exam of the media does even worse, do not respect it, in an most popular topics of public debate. not provide an understanding of attempt to force your point of view Subjects tied to energy saving, for what is at stake and where the on them because you know more example, are of interest when the public stand. Are they opinions or than they do. Rather, it is important cost of oil goes up, and only to the simple frills on the surface of aware- to be open and willing to an exchan- people who actually pay the energy ness, easily changed? Or are they ge of ideas, and only later, calmly bills. In effect, it is always necessa- attitudes, stronger sympathies, hid- explain your position.

Assess constraints and opportunities The ideas of new opportunities do not just wait around to be discovered. These ideas have to be produced. Edward de Bono

Whatever topic you want to discuss vely from different points of views, large iceberg might represent the has constraints to consider and exploring all the possibilities. opportunity to talk about climate opportunities to exploit, and they may warming at high latitudes, and per- not be easy to identify, especially if Is it news? haps the activity of a national labo- you are involved in the minutiae of the ratory in Antarctica. For the same problem. Considerable personal kno- Everything that is news has a built- reason those researches can be wledge and investment do not help, in appeal, just like everything that linked to a subject of current in fact, to see the subject from the has to do with popular issues. events. outside Seeing through the public’s Often, in science, the news in A recent blackout can be, on the eyes, is, however, essential during the itself, is not as important as the contrary, the opportunity to talk planning phase as well as in asses- maturation of a line of research. In about topics tied to new sources of sing what has been done. this case a curious piece of news energy, while the death of a celebri- Let us forget, then, that our topic is might represent the opportunity to ty, the starting point for a discussion the simplest and most interesting in talk about the rest as well. of your own research on the disease the world and try to asses it objecti- The detachment of a particularly which (s)he suffered from.

CHAPTER III - 39 Fascination or surprise The outbreak of a new infectious The discovery of a 1 meter tall homi- disease, even if few people have nid that lived up to eighteen thou- Can your topic make the imagina- caught it, stirs more interest than a sand years ago on an island in tion fly? parasitosis that has run havoc in Indonesia was, for example, linked, The popularisation of science has agriculture. An asteroid which pas- even in Nature, to the possibility that always used fascination and surprises close to the Earth receives more the famous yeti found in the se; just think of the relative weight attention than another that crashes Himalayas might also be more than carried by topics like space, dino- on Jupiter. A mathematical model just the fruit of the imagination. saurs, human evolution and animal applicable to the fluctuations in the Many results in robotics receive behaviour. stock market attracts more attention disproportionate coverage compa- Even if not all subjects stir the ima- than the birth of an entire new red to their actual import because of gination, many lost causes may be branch of mathematics. In this case the fears and hopes tied to the salvaged to some degree by “para- too, if the topic handled does not development of robots. siting” more popular subjects: the seem immediately useful, it can be When a topic seems to be, however, microfauna of the soil becomes a worthwhile making an effort to find wanting in emotional charge, this miniature savannah; material scien- an application or a consequence should be sought, naturally without ces, modern day alchemy; a result that it might have, perhaps in the exaggerating. It may be found, for in the field of cosmology, a fruit of future. Generally speaking, the example in the circumstances in Einstein’s theories. public appreciate concrete benefits, which it was discovered, in the and more than anything else they connection to a particular celebrity The size appreciate whatever might benefit or even, in an exciting hypothesis, of the natural public our health. Just look at the warm wel- even if it has not yet been explored. come biotechnological products in The discovery of prions, before mad How many people are potentially medicine received compared to cow disease made them famous, interested in the subject? those in agriculture and food industry. gained fame, largely because they Niche subjects are always more dif- were found during the study of their ficult to sell than subjects which Expectations transmission during a ritual in a New touch a large number of people. Guinea tribe, whose members ate A result, small as it may be, in the And what happens now? their dead relatives’ brain. treatment of breast or lung cancer Every discovery or new application receives greater publicity than the opens a brand new scenario, and Contextualization definite cure for medullary carcino- interest will be higher where the ma of the thyroid, which is extreme- expectations tied to it, good or bad, How pertinent is it to every day life? ly rare. A study on global warming in are important. Many studies in psychology have Italy will attract more attention than Cloning the sheep Dolly, for exam- shown that the closer a topic is to our another on the growth rings in ple, raised as many strong negative world, the stronger our interest is: that Alpine fir trees. While it may be true expectations as the announcement is why medicine takes the lion’s share that scientists naturally tend to ove- of “cold fusion” produced positive in the popularisation of science. restimate the potential interest their ones. Without bothering with events When, on the contrary, the topic own sector holds, they should not of this size, important expectations seems remote, the initial step is to commit the error of underestimating can be created by the perfecting of understand how to relate it to some- it either. Sometimes a little bit of a new genetic test, the discovery of thing the public consider relevant. imagination will help find a particular new planets outside our solar sys- When you want to discuss the study point of view that can make it inter- tem, the raising of spermatozoa in of solar neutrinos, it would be best to esting to a wider audience. An elec- the laboratory or a new agriculture explain that we live under a continual tronic nose, for example, can be variety. When dealing with a topic, it shower of these particles. seen in another light if it can help is also important to carefully explore If you talk about macromolecular discover explosives in bags at the the considerations, especially extra- design, it would be worthwhile recal- airport or used for the quality control scientific, that the public could ling that the origin and cure of many of foods. make. diseases depend on their structure.

Importance Emotional significance Comprehensibility

Why do we need it? What will chan- What emotions can it arouse? Can it be easily understood? ge after this discovery? Emotions and feelings are the If a topic is not understood, then The more a result influences our indispensable salt for every commu- nothing is gained from the com- way of living, the more interest it nication, because they the spark the munication. arouses. reader’s or listener’s interest. Many topics, like chemistry, the

40 - CHAPTER III theory of the superstrings and most help of enormous numbers of ply the opportunity to explain to the of mathematics, remain almost com- photographs, films and cartoon ani- public what interests a scientist. pletely excluded from popularisation mation made available for free for Every time it is possible, you should simply because they are too difficult. decades by NASA. The availability make the effort to also offer the In these cases, after considering the of good images is essential if you public something that lasts and that instruments which can be used to want to offer a topic to illustrated is considered useful, interesting or make the topic clearer (we will talk magazines and television, and often that they can tell family and friends about this in the next chapter) it can it is the deciding factor in whether about, even if it is only marginally be helpful to avoid concentrating on they choose to cover it. The topic tied to the main topic. the explanation of the facts, verifying then becomes a so called photo If for example you talk about geneti- whether it might be easier to explain opportunity, that is, an excuse to cally transmitted deafness, it is use- the concepts, or the meaning of the show pictures. For this reason there ful to give information on new instru- research or only its application. are increasingly more scientific labo- ments to discover it at birth. If you ratories or institutions that produce talk about the importance of flavo- Spectacularity or have produced visual documen- noids in a healthy diet, it is right to tation of their activities, and make it give nutritional advice about eating Does it lend itself to a spectacular available to the media. fruit and vegetables. In addition to show? an opportunity to spread important Images can be extraordinary pro- Service knowledge, it is a way to thank the moters of a scientific topic. Just public for their attention. think of ethology, made popular by Which service can be offered to the television documentaries, or space public? exploration, made familiar with the Communication should not be sim-

Choose your message The greatest book is not the one whose message engraves itself on the brain - but the one whose vital impact opens up other viewpoints. Romain Rolland

After your aims have been clarified, but above all, the public’s needs, earthquakes more effectively” is bet- your audience identified and the and it should be summed up in just ter than “The catalogue of historic topic’s constraints and opportunities one sentence. “Ninety percent of the earthquakes is a fundamental contri- analysed, it is necessary to focus on research on rare genetic diseases bution, the pride of European seis- the message. The message is the was conducted by Institute X and mology”. extreme synthesis of what you want helped to discover the cause of the Focusing on a message is essential to communicate, or rather the most serious and widespread non especially when using “fast” and essential core of the contents or line genetic diseases”, could be the ambiguous means, that leave limited of reasoning that should, in any message for a fund-raising cam- space to reflection, like the radio or case, be learned and remembered paign for research. Whereas “The television; because it is that morsel by the receiver: everything, in the new polymer is the first worldwide that will remain in the heads of an communication, must contribute to which can substitute silk and will audience which is often distracted. getting it through to the public. The renew the national textile industry”, In defining the message it is impor- message is almost never as obvious might be the gist of the announce- tant to make an effort to go beyond as it is in the communication. Indeed ment for a new patent. the initial hypotheses that come to it guides it like the north star: it helps Careful attention should be given to mind, remembering above all who to give focus to an interview, it is the possible incomprehension or misun- you are addressing. If for example nut of the question that you want a derstandings. we want to promote a university’s journalist to address immediately, it A message must be brief and clear, degree courses in science, different is the first input that you give a press but not generic. “The catalogue of publics are sensitive to different mes- office or whoever has to produce a historic earthquakes will help to clas- sages. A government or a banking communication for us. sify the Italian territory more precise- foundation might be asked to contri- In order to be effective, the message ly in terms of seismic danger, thus bute because “the graduates in the must take account of the objectives, preventing damage produced by field of science are important to eco-

CHAPTER III - 41 nomic development”. If we are sed, it will be necessary to weigh drafting of any communication. addressing young prospective stu- and balance these messages. The subject in the next chapter is dents you can appeal to the fact Wherever possible, the message communicating in person, while the that “ a science degree opens the should first be tested and if neces- chapter that follows deals with com- door to a fascinating world and can sary adapted, and subsequently its municating through journalists. be the gateway to an international impact should be assessed. Before dealing with them, however, career”. Whereas their parents The aims chosen, the public being it is necessary to consider the exis- might want to know that “it is not addressed, the topic’s constraints tence of at least one other aspect of true that you cannot find a good job and opportunities, and the message planning. with a science degree”. If there is are the elements to put together more than one group being addres- when you move on to the actual

When communicating is an uphill battle Victorious warriors win first and then go to war, while defeated warriors go to war first and then seek to win. Sun Tzu

Not always can you announce the expensive and usually extended have our same interests, such as discovery of a simple cure with no over time and requires a more particular industrial associations or side effects for a terrifying disease, sophisticated approach: when tac- associations for the sick, environ- or a new source of clean and cheap tics are not enough, you need a mentalist organisations or political energy, or the intention to carry out strategy. forces. Together a course should be a research project at no cost, whose Having a strategy means, first and traced and agreed upon to create benefits are clear to all and have no foremost, knowing how to identify all knowledge and awareness about bioethical and environmental stakeholders with interests in the the topic, or to change the existing contraindications. In the real world, issue, and being able to interpret the perception of it. things are almost always more diffi- complex relationships that tie them Finally it is necessary to ensure the cult. together: particular segments of the financing to be able to carry it out. Very often, public communication of public, policy-makers, non govern- There are no recipes or simple science helps to face complex ment organizations, the media, the check lists to create and implement situations, but at times the work is scientific community and opinion a strategy of this type, which goes all uphill. This is what happens with leaders. far beyond the single scientist’s pos- topics like GMOs, the chemical or It is then necessary to analyse the sibilities, if for no other reason than nuclear industry, or simply basic public images circulating within the the fact that in the field of science research in fields that may seem social body, to measure public opi- such previous experiences are few, esoteric. nion with special surveys or other even at the international level. Nor In these cases a single contribution instruments and reconstruct why can a simple survival kit deal with is not enough and a more complex and what caused these problems. these problems. Yet it is important and concerted effort is needed. On these bases, then, it is important to know they exist. Generally speaking, it is more to form alliances with groups that

42 - CHAPTER III The ten laws of human communication Before getting down to work, it might be useful to check the planning of your communication in the light of a small Decalogue that recalls a few psychological truths (from Hugh Mackay, Why don’t people listen?, 1994).

1 It's not what our message does to the listener, but what the listener does with the message, that determines our success as communicators.

2 Listeners generally interpret messages in ways which make them feel comfortable and secure.

3 When people's attitudes are attacked head-on, they are likely to defend those attitudes and, in the process, to reinforce them.

4 People pay the most attention to messages which are relevant to their own circumstances and point of view.

5 People who feel insecure in a relationship are unlikely to be good listeners.

6 People are more ready to listen to us if we also listen to them.

7 People are more likely to change in response to a combination of new experience and communication than in response to communication alone.

8 People are more likely to support a change which affects them if they are consulted before the change is made.

9 The message in what is said will be interpreted in the light of how, when, where and by whom it is said.

10 Lack of self-knowledge and an unwillingness to resolve our own internal conflicts make it harder for us to communicate with other people.

CHAPTER III - 43 CHAPTER IV TELLING A SCIENCE STORY Telling a story, or rather getting read Always do what you are afraid to do. Ralph Waldo Emerson

If we run through the list of interna- communication, and are usually tional bestsellers from the last few found in those areas in which the years the science books we find are communication reports on socially usually stories. useful information, like information It is a lot more difficult for an essay, for people with a particular disease in the strict sense of the word, to or information on risks. meet with success. In Oliver Sack’s Public communication should never stories, for example, the oddities of be a simple list of information, like the human mind are investigated by an instruction manual, even if it is neuropsychology with stories of real translated into simpler language. people, stories in which every scien- Our mind, faced with new informa- tific discourse apparently disap- tion, always looks for a meaning, an pears. The writings that made underlying theme to latch onto. At Stephen Jay Gould famous are the very least, the line of reasoning often inspired by real events or presented should be introduced famous people. Stephen Hawking with an opening question, followed explained the frontiers of astrophy- by an exposition of facts and then a sics in A Brief History of Time. discussion and answers. The most Indeed a trend in publishing which effective solution, however, consists has become extremely popular and in “disguising” the line of reasoning particularly successful, uses science inside a story. This story acts as the stories to talk about entire branches audience’s guide through the thick of learning. Fermat’s Last Theorem forest of unfamiliar subjects, so that by Simon Singh represents perhaps they will not feel lost, and will actual- the most famous case. ly encourage them to continue A story can be found anywhere, in onward. documentaries, on television shows and radio programmes as well as in Turning a scientific discussion into a magazine articles. It may be only story means making a discussion one of the ingredients used, per- that is not natural, natural; making haps as a device to catch the the abstract concrete, or rather, tur- audience’s attention right from the ning what the author wants to say start. The exceptions are relatively into what the audience prefers to rare, however, at least in successful hear.

44 - CHAPTER IV WHAT IS A STORY

A story is a type of substitute expe- How to find a story you found in assessing your topic, rience that draws the reader, or the and find a narrative map which can listener, into a situation which (s)he The choice of a story, from the many put them together. You could begin would never have experienced that can be constructed around the with the most promising element and otherwise. For this reason we find same topic, should be based on your then make sure the others fit in cohe- certain recurrent elements develo- audience, the medium, the space rently. ped (and not simply cited): available and your objectives. To talk about the carbon cycle in At times the story will choose itself, in nature, for example, if the most - characters we get to know and a manner of speaking. In order to appealing idea seems to be the link can identify with, including some explain what gene therapy is, for between the worlds of living and non good and perhaps even some bad example, you might tell the story of a living things, you might try the trick (a researcher, a group of sick peo- child affected by a serious autoimmu- Primo Levi used in his famous story ple, an animal population, a cyclo- ne disease, beginning with the disco- Carbonio. In this story he describes ne, a photon inside the Sun…) very of the disease up to its cure. the element’s biogeochemical cycle At times the choice is less banal. In through the adventures of a single - the driving force behind the way this way, physics in the twentieth cen- carbon atom in rocks, the atmosphe- a character behaves which tury could become a Biography of re, plants, animals and men. appeals to public interest (revea- Physics; the developments in evolu- During this stage it is necessary to ling a mystery of nature, solving an tionary biology might fill the history of find the right images. In most stories environmental problem, saving the research carried out by the that work, certain standard figures or someone, predicting a natural phe- Grants, a married couple that for devices can be found; very often they nomenon) decades on the Galapagos islands can also be used to tell science sto- have traced the evolution of Darwin’s ries. One of these is the struggle to - the setting (a laboratory, an exo- chaffinches as it has occurred; while overcome apparently undefeatable tic forest, the upper atmosphere, a the climax towards the explosion of obstacles, another is the countdown coral reef…) Krakatoa might provide the idea for a towards a dreaded event, or perhaps large fresco on the progress of geo- there might be a contest between - the time period (today, Galileo’ physics and the impact of geophysi- dishonest opponents, the misunders- era, twenty years from now when cal phenomena on the biosphere and tandings of others, the “crossing of we will have landed on Mars…) human life. the desert” etc. In Primo Levi’s story If you are not able to find a suitable the theme is a journey and the return - the action which takes place over story right away, the best thing to do home. At the beginning of the story time, or rather the structure which is take the elements identified during the atom is freed from a calcareous organizes the whole story your planning, beginning with what rock and after thousands of adventu-

CHAPTER IV - 45 res returns to form another one. importance of carbon in the biosphe- cate the meaning of the topic. To These images are especially useful at re, but not in a discussion on climatic continue our example, it must explain the beginning of the story, where it is changes: in this case it would be bet- that a thousand different strands, visi- important to establish a relationship ter to follow a group of carbon atoms, ble and invisible, join the biosphere to with the reader, and at the end of the in which only a few manage to return non-living components of the planet. story, where they help to reinforce its “home” to a rock, while others are for- The story, in other words, should sim- emotional aspect. ced to remain in a purgatory called plify the complexity of topic to a “legi- Once a satisfactory storyline is outli- atmosphere, as molecules of carbon timate” level, without sacrificing its ned, it is necessary to verify that it is dioxide. A good science story, in conceptual depth. coherent with the objectives set and addition to transmitting information The story, finally, must be easily told in the message chosen. Primo Levi’s and stirring emotions, should then the space and time available, which is journey of a single atom of carbon make its public fly higher, offer an usually limited. may be suitable to describe the important interpretation or communi-

HOW TO CONSTRUCT A STORY A GOOD IDEA IS ONLY THE BEGINNING, BECAUSE THE STORY NEEDS TO BE CONSTRUCTED. THE FIRST STEP IS TO MAKE AN OUTLINE. PROFESSIONAL WRITERS KNOW WELL THAT WRITING WHAT YOU HAVE TO SAY IN ONE SITTING IS ALMOST ALWAYS A UTOPIA, AND THIS IS TRUE FOR BOTH LONG AS WELL AS SHORT TEXTS. IN FACT, OFTEN THE MORE CONCISE THE TEXT NEEDS TO BE, THE MORE DIFFICULT IT IS TO WRITE. THE OUTLINE SHOULD DEFINE THE PHASES IN THE STORY, ASSIGNING EACH PART A PURPOSE AND ARRANGING THE NECESSARY MATERIAL IN THIS ORDER. WITH THE HELP OF THIS GUIDE, WRITING BECOMES MUCH EASIER.

There are no rules to construct a for them to find a few surprises. For heart pump, highlighting the weak story, which is the result of personal example, you might show that the points which might give out after planning, but some advice could be study of these rare heart diseases problems in the ionic channels, but useful. could lead to a cure for heart disea- which can also be protected if these For a start, it is necessary to find a ses which could touch anyone of problems are discovered in time. If point of view which stirs an emotion, us. After the opening, a brief and there is not much space – or time – or at least is already of public inter- clear account of the facts would be available (thus almost always) it is est. In order to talk about sharks, for appropriate to clarify what you want better to follow just one line, without example, it is better to begin with to discuss. In our example, we des- sidetracking which makes the rea- the fears that they might arouse, cribe how a heart is made, how the der or viewer go back and forward, even if the objective is, in fact, to electric signal which orders the because they will get lost easily. show that these fears are unfoun- contraction is emitted, how the Unlike what happens in fiction, in ded. The public need to be accom- heart cells are connected and coor- which digressions and flashbacks panied step by step to this conclu- dinated. Then the narration itself are commonly used, in science sion. In order to discuss the mole- begins. communication the story contains a cular bases of some heart diseases A story that works is not a simple line of reasoning, that the public it is better to begin with the sudden series of facts placed in order. On should follow effortlessly in only one death on a playing field of a famous the contrary, it is the result of a direction. To conclude, it is usually footballer, than with the ionic chan- selection of events that lead to worth going back to the initial ques- nels in heart cells. Capturing your something significant. The narration tion or situation, thus closing the audience’s attention must be done that “captures”, then, is not sequen- narrative circle. If the story opens at the start, otherwise the public are tial, but consequential. It needs a with a question, the end must lost before you have even begun. plot, which is nothing more than a contain the answer. The finale Be careful though. Do not play all construction of events meant to should also leave the public with your best cards at the beginning produce a particular effect on the something, usually a clarification of because the narrative path needs to audience. In our case this effect is the message you decided on in the be paved with golden coins. New the explanation of a phenomenon; planning stage, because the last thing and interesting information acts like thus, the plot follows the various read or listened to is normally what is bait drawing the audience to the physiological mechanisms which most easily recalled, and what will conclusion, where it would be fitting ensure the normal functioning of the continue to echo in their minds.

46 - CHAPTER IV CONTROL

Just like an evaluation of the topic is is the only way to verify if the narra- contrary, is too heavy, anticipating carried out during planning, the out- tion flows, if there are any gaps or emotions and reactions stirred by line needs to be checked by putting incongruences, if there are times in each passage and consequently, yourself in your public’s shoes. This which the attention fails, or on the adjusting them.

Arguing, or rather persuading People are generally better persuaded by the reasons which they have themselves discovered than by those which have come in to the mind of others. Blaise Pascal

The power of a story that rings true is bit of rhetoric. This art does not invasive way from parasites; to poli- very strong, because it helps the always get good press, particularly ticians about why the rest of the mind “to see” something that is among scientists, but in some cir- world is using them. occurring, and we all tend to believe cumstances it is simply naïve to disre- The second and less obvious condi- what we see, even if only in our ima- gard its basic principles. If applied tion is to establish the right type of gination. Yet, it is not necessarily true with honesty, in fact, it can make the relationship, because this will that this is enough to convince. communication much more effective. influence how the information given Often persuasive arguments are nee- is received. To affirm, for example ded that do not necessarily coincide Thinking about the public that “any serious scientist will tell with the nude facts, which are what is you that no genetically modified found in scientific papers. This is true Convincing is not only a problem of food is harmful to your health” is one simply because the public do not technique. As the ancients already of the best ways to irritate your liste- know everything that an expert in the theorized, it first requires taking your ner. Persuading means, in fact, area knows. Thus, it is necessary to public into consideration. deciding not to impose a power learn to weave not only a line of rea- The first fairly obvious condition to based relationship and recognising soning around a story, but also a be persuasive is, in fact, adopting your public’s ability to understand convincing argument, or more speci- the type of argument that your par- and decide for themselves. In other fically, instructions for interpreting the ticular public are more inclined to words, it means respecting them. facts and correlations in the argu- accept, and appeal to the motiva- Moreover, it also means respecting ment, which clarify. tions most important to them. If, for their opinions. When you argue a If for example you discuss introducing example, you want to persuasively point, in fact, you admit that at least a gene into a plant with molecular promote the opportunities offered in principle there are other possibili- biology techniques, it might be useful by the use of GMOs in agriculture, it ties. To begin by saying that “oppo- to clarify for those who are not familiar would be more convincing to talk to sition to GMOs” is based on irratio- with the improvement of cultivated farmers about why these products nality, or unmentionable interests” varieties, that genetic modification is can help the competitiveness of denies that there are any others: much more limited, precise and bet- their farms, also in the long term; to your own thesis, when you are tal- ter known than modifications carried consumers about why genetic engi- king to a sceptical audience, must out with traditional techniques. neering can safeguard local probe demonstrated. In one word, it is important to use a ducts by protecting them in the least

CHAPTER IV - 47 How to construct a line of - narratio: the exposition of the The counterintuitive result reasoning facts which introduce the topic; Catching the public by surprise can A solid line of reasoning is impor- - confirmatio: the exposition of destabilise the public’s assumptions tant, and should include elements the arguments and the proof in and help to open the door to new which need to be identified or defi- their favour; information, thus creating a new ned carefully: cognitive equilibrium. In food infor- - refutatio: the exposition of the mation, for example, popular fads - the thesis, or rather what you arguments against the opposing and clichés, like the importance of want to convince your public of thesis; iron in spinach the dissociated diet, (“Tests for approval have success- that pasta makes you fat or fruit fully demonstrated that GMOs do - peroratio: the explanation of should be eaten with the peel, can not pose health risks”); the conclusions’ meaning for the be disproved. (these cannot really public and the declaration of be considered fads because they - the arguments, or rather the sta- what you expect the public to do have been considered “true” by tements underlying the thesis (the or think. generations of mothers) approval procedures make it pos- This tool works well when the topic sible to exclude with certainty the As you can see, the classic rheto- is not particularly controversial. problems feared.”); ric model is not very different from Otherwise it could turn out to be the prescribed format for a scien- counterproductive, for it may trigger - the proof, or rather the factual tific paper. A persuasive commu- confrontational feelings. data which supports the argu- nication based on an argumenta- ments (“in ten years, although tive construction uses, in fact, Comparisons GMOs have been consumed by what psychologists call a “central hundreds of millions of people, not path”. For the same reason you can also even a stomach-ache has been This path requires the listener to make a comparison with a similar reported”); pay attention, reflect carefully on situation, usually in another country. the information provided, relate In order to convince your public of - the premises, that are the explicit and integrate the information with the importance of earthquake-proof statements at the basis of the enti- what (s)he already knows and buildings you can talk about the dif- re argument (“all plants we cultiva- elaborate a new assessment. In ferent consequences that earthqua- te are the result of genetic modifi- other words, it requires a certain kes of equal strength have on cation, including radical modifica- amount of cognitive energy. Turkey and Japan, perhaps compa- tions, brought about on the wild The problem is that in a society ring two equal-size earthquakes that progenitor plants for thousands of characterised by information actually occurred. The idea in this years”); overload we cannot think careful- case is to help understand how ly about every message that rea- many things we take for granted - the assumptions, statements or ches us, and very often the spa- that we should not (like “earthqua- circumstances that are not even ces available are very brief, as in kes kill”, while “it is the house which mentioned since it is presumed a TV interview for the news. In collapses that kills”). that the public already agrees with this case you can use “short- you on them (“we all want pro- cuts”, or rather what psycholo- The use of data ducts that are safe for our health”); gists call a “peripheral path”. In this instance, force of persuasion Few but well chosen data can chan- The actual construction of your line will not be left only to arguments ge the premises of the discussion of reasoning with the help of these pertinent to the thesis, but will themselves. Showing, for example, elements can be carried out with also depend on the attractiveness how the number of animals used in various methods. The classic or the charisma of the speaker (a experimentation has declined over method based on Latin rhetoric is well know scientist or a Nobel the years, is better proof than many usually the most effective and can prize winner, for example), the statements of principle that resear- be suitable in extremely different cir- surprise offered by a partial chers want to avoid useless suffe- cumstances. This includes the follo- datum (soya and kiwi cause aller- ring and use alternative methods wing sections: gies, not GMOs”) or even to a few whenever possible. witty words. - exordium: the introduction used Other tools of persuasion can be The ace in the hole to win over the public and explain added to the classical ones, and why the speaker is important for are often effective when talking A few significant cases can say the topic; about science. more than an entire discourse.

48 - CHAPTER IV When discussing the importance of Opening up to the other general topics, including the impor- animal experimentation, you can side’s reasons tance of high tech companies, uni- talk about how the discovery of versity startup and the value of basic insulin used to control diabetes If the public have different ideas on a research. Only at the end of each would not have been possible topic, these should be recognised, report does a short data-filled file without experimentation on dogs. and if possible appreciated. On the explain that the success story was Or, to demonstrate the importance more controversial issues in particu- really a happy island in a sea of trou- of curiosity-driven research, you lar it is better not to set off useless bles. might explain that the computer is opposition. On the contrary whene- the result of studies of pure logic by ver possible you should try to be Method is more important Alan Turing. And again, on the receptive to the adversary’s opi- than the result home page of the website for the nions. Society of Neuroscience there is a Take for example a television pro- At times, understanding how scien- link to a page called “Brain gramme dedicated to the centennial ce works can be even more convin- research success stories”, explicit- of the birth of Giulio Natta, an Italian cing than the results achieved. This ly dedicated to those stories able to chemist who won the Noble prize in might be the case, for example, in a persuade the public and policy 1963 for the discovery of some of comparison of science with the makers of the need to increase the most frequently used plastics pseudo sciences and the paranor- federal financing of biomedicine. today. In addition to talking about mal, in which showing how a scien- the social value of the introduction tist searches for the truth is more Forecasts for the future of plastics and the thousands of useful than tying to disprove, time benefits that they brought at all and time again, the thousands of A story told is something in some levels, it also cited some of the pro- statements which continue to re- way real, and an extrapolation of blems tied to the production of present themselves on extrasensory something that already exists waste. This fact created some ill fee- perceptions or UFOs. acquires the flavour of certainty. lings in one of Natta’s biographers Teaching the public to use scepti- To persuade your public of the but gave credibility to the program- cism regularly, rather than explaining potential of stem cell research you me, thus avoiding any accusation of why a certain phenomenon is can help them to see how different partiality (for “polluting chemicals”). impossible, is like teaching someo- the future will be for a person dia- In the same way, when speaking ne to fish rather than providing the gnosed with diabetes or about homeopathy it is better to dis- fish. Parkinson’s disease in twenty cuss the importance of a good rela- years, when regenerative medicine tionship with the patient, something Control will have achieved the hoped for usually highly appreciated in advances. This can be an extreme- homeopaths, with the hope that the Just as you checked the story, ly useful tool as long as your extra- same relationship might characteri- controlling your line of reasoning polations are not too farfetched. se the relationships with allopathic requires you to put yourself in your doctors, who can also offer effective audience’s shoes; this time you Changing the premises therapies. want to look for weak points in your reasoning, foreseeable perplexities Sometimes it is not easy to unders- Playing on positive feelings which you did not account for or tand why the public have such a gaps in your logic. distorted idea of a subject, but Sounding an alarm, playing on fear once the reason has been discove- or widespread criticism is often red you hold the key to changing counterproductive. The idea of a that idea. dead end situation may tempt you The lack of appeal in the study of to dismiss the problem, or in any materials science, for example, is in case, put off any type of engage- good part owed to the very prosaic ment with the public. and sectoral image that outsiders Optimism of the will is almost always may have. To disprove the prejudice more effective than pessimism of surrounding this discipline it might reason. be sufficient to associate it with The success of Italian television creativity and explain how the wide- reporting on science and society ranging use of advanced materials grew decisively when it stopped dis- means that graduates in this field cussing only the negative side of will have the opportunity to pursue things. The new reports, in fact, use their own individual interests. success stories to discuss more

CHAPTER IV - 49 Explaining, or rather making what is difficult easy Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler. Albert Einstein

There exists a threshold of difficulty below which the mental machine does not turn on, and another above which it gets stuck. Piero Angela

An explanation is the lowest com- many things as possible. Your publi- than usual, or in any case focus a mon denominator of any type of c’s most limited resource, after their little bit differently. The line of reaso- science communication and the first attention, is the their cognitive ning will be the foundation that sup- measuring stick it is judged by. energy. ports your explanation, but compa- In communicating with the public, red to what is usually presented to then, the pleasure of understanding How much should I colleagues, there will have to be must be second to the pleasure of simplify? enormous differences. the explanation, because the public should not feel as if they have to do It is important to offer your audience Points of reference homework, otherwise, they will give a mental challenge that they can up. handle; therefore it usually needs to The main difference is that when tal- It is not easy to be clear. If describe relatively simple. king to a non peer audience it is bing and convincing require a good Every time you engage in scientific necessary to reconstruct an over- amount of intuition, explaining pri- popularisation, in fact, to some deg- view of the topic, an absolute must marily requires practice. A series of ree a compromise needs to be for the public. And to do this you suggestions and the knowledge of a made, thus losing a part of the topi- need to begin with familiar exam- few tools, however, help avoid rein- c’s complexity or depth. ples, since it is easier to understand venting the wheel. To understand how much you need something that you have a mental to simplify, you can weigh the costs picture of. In other words, it is a Clear ideas of simplification against its benefits: matter of providing the public with a if further simplification means distor- map they can use to orient themsel- The first condition is to clarify your ting the message, then you should ves with. ideas: it is not possible to be clear if go no further. If however, precision The first type of map is used to iden- you do not think clearly, if the mea- and thoroughness means that the tify the position of the topic in the ning of the topic, in addition to its message will be lost or the public territory represented by scientific technical contents, is not clear. will lose interest, greater simplifica- knowledge of the world. Let us ima- If there exists one small secret in the tion is needed. Often it is preferable gine we must explain the meaning popularisation of science, it consists for the public to grasp the overall of a sexual signal in the female body in identifying one interpretation. This meaning of the discourse, rather like the 2:3 ratio between the waist should be single unifying idea that is than only parts of its contents com- and hip measurements, an indicator obviously suitable for your aims and pletely. of a good ability to reproduce since public, and can act as a filter for the As a rule, you can adjust your infor- it is the result of an excellent hormo- information so that the entire dis- mation by thinking about what type nal balance. In this case it is better course revolves around this inter- of specialist knowledge you would to remind your audience first that we pretation. Talking about the life of understand in a field that is different are the product of an evolutionary the stars, for example, can mean from your own, perhaps outside the process that rewards those charac- concentrating on the importance of scientific world. teristics which assure the highest their mass in predicting their destiny number of offspring. And then that while omitting other considerations. Developing a line there are other characteristics to be of reasoning selected including psychological How much should be explained? features like personal preferences, It is necessary to explain everything Presenting a line of reasoning, even especially the ones tied to the choi- that helps to understand the topic or in story form, is one way to tell the ce of a partner. to make the message convincing, public that what follows needs Those who do not have these but nothing more. You should resist consideration, and that they will underlying concepts in mind might the temptation to talk about as need to pay a bit more attention find the idea of choosing something

50 - CHAPTER IV based on an unconscious element us to give up, even if they are three of these in a row in a talk, you almost absurd. accompanied by a definition. will irreparably disorient your reader Similarly, the public might need a Mitochondria are “the cell’s power or listener. Thus it is necessary to real map if you are talking about an plants”, but it is not always neces- use this type of data with parsimony, object that is not familiar, usually sary to use their name. The criterion aided perhaps by an analogy. because it is invisible. to decide whether or not to use a To explain the size of a molecule of If for example you discuss the technical term is its usefulness, or DNA, for example, you can explain human genome, not everyone rather if it needs to be used often or that, if it were enlarged 100 million knows exactly where it is and what if the public will have to use it again. times its atoms would be as big as role it plays. It would be a good idea, To avoid creating problems for your a golf ball and that the human geno- then, to recall straight away that our audience it is always better to me would be 80,000 kilometres body is made of thousands of explain terms and concepts, even if long, about twice the length of the billions of cells, and that each one it may seem banal to do so, becau- Earth’s meridian. holds the nucleus of a genome cou- se they often reflect semi-knowled- ple, that is a bit like its “instruction ge that is not well understood. Metaphors manual”. Among these we can include, for Every map must therefore begin example, “DNA”, “natural selection”, A very important tool for explaining with something familiar. From this “scientific theory”, “immune sys- is the metaphor, the rhetorical figure point you can circle in on the subject tem”: never take anything for gran- which replaces a word or expres- until you have reached the core of ted. sion with another that offers an intui- your explanation. For the same reason it is advisable tive analogy. never (or almost never) to use It becomes particularly useful when Warnings mathematics, which is almost com- describing phenomena that cannot pletely absent from popular books in be described with terms or exam- At times the place you bring the this field. ples relative to daily life experiences. public to is particularly unusual, diffi- The most important concepts of the When explaining research on the cult, or in any case far from the eve- explanation, then, should be repea- prevention of new blood vessel for- ryday world. In these cases it is bet- ted if necessary, to be sure that they mation in tumours, for example, you ter to warn them, presenting the are understood. Repetita iuvant. can talk about “cutting off supplies”. topic as an adventure into a strange Nuclear particles become “small and fascinating land. This may be Examples balls”. The co-evolution between necessary when you explain how prey and predator is described as new particles are created with the In general, concrete things are more an “arms race”. help of an accelerator, thanks to the easily communicated than abstrac- A metaphor can also help to provide transformation of energy into mat- tions. For this reason, as soon as it an interpretation of the topic. In a ter: here you can show how is possible, examples should be television story on physiology and Einstein’s famous formula works, provided: a prediction of Etna’s pathology in different age groups, E=mc2. You ask the public for a eruption helps to understand how a sexual organs were compared to an small act of faith, because nobody volcano is monitored. A demonstra- all-terrain vehicle (youth), a salon car ever notices this type of transforma- tive case makes it possible, in fact, (adults) and a vintage car (the elder- tion in their daily life; but to be sure to “see” a general concept, that you ly), to explain how they do their job no doubts remain you remind them come to or return to, by extrapola- over a lifetime, highlighting however, that the inverse transformation is the tions, similarities or differences. their changing ability to face surpri- one which occurs during the explo- Multiple cases can help, but be ses. sion of an atomic bomb. careful: one example explains, two The power of a metaphor lies in its divide, three contextualise, but four ability to provide an image: it is more Terms and concepts are already an inventory list. natural than an abstraction and makes it possible to achieve the clo- Technical terms should be avoided Dimensions sest possible idea of something. In whenever possible. Any communi- general, metaphors are extremely cation, in fact, must use shared In science often such large or such important social representations codes. The terms coined to allow small dimensions are used that it is because, like bridges, they make it specialists to communicate more difficult for our mind to conceive of possible to insert new ideas into the quickly and “economically” are use- them. Two hundred million years, 1 cognitive world of society; for this ful to them and those training to nanometre, 10 megapascals, are reason they have even won a place become like them, for example, uni- almost abstractions for a person even inside mainstream science versity students. Yet, in general, who is not used to these units of (just consider “The hypothesis of the they are only obstacles that cause measurement. If you put two or Red Queen” or the “selfish gene” in

CHAPTER IV - 51 evolutionary biology). As such, they public to put themselves in the Maxwell’s little devil. They make it are, however, very frequently scientist’s shoes so they understand possible to observe an invisible phe- responsible for the distortion or tri- the way (s)he works and thinks, but nomenon from a privileged point of vialization of the facts of reality. most importantly it gets them invol- view, concrete and without the Therefore, after it has been used to ved. ambiguities of metaphor. introduce a subject, a metaphor Thus, the discovery of something should be dismantled thoroughly, stimulates a trust in their own abili- Controls cleaning it up and refining it, in order ties to understand, and helps them to attain (or at least get closer to) a to learn to stop waiting for others to Verifying the effectiveness of an more correct explanation. Thus, give solutions. In addition, since the explanation is usually, for a resear- atoms stop being little balls and public must use the information that cher, more difficult that judging whe- genes lose every moral connotation. they are given each time, it beco- ther (s)he has successfully descri- mes easier for them to digest and bed the topic or persuaded the Discoveries remember it. audience. There is a tendency, when you speak or write on a subject that A particularly effective strategy, Experiments you know very well, to assume that which is easily combined with narra- others know what you know about tion, is to take the public through the When something hard to believe is the topic. Furthermore you do not phases leading up to a discovery. In at stake an experiment can be a have the experience with “lay” pro- order to explain that matter is made useful resource; it can be real or only blems that journalists have. up of atoms and molecules you can mental. Nothing is more important in this start with Dalton and end up at the In the first case a real experience is case than knowing how to put your- atoms “photographed” by the tun- provided: for instance, Scientific self in somebody else’s shoes and nel effect microscope, using American ran an article on hypnosis, checking your work again to see if Einstein’s explanation of Brownian supplementing the experiment with there are any grey areas. Nothing motion. In this case the author is a the story and photos (and a video should be taken for granted. It is “facilitator” who provides the right on the web site) of a session of hyp- necessary to review your work, elements, one by one, so the public nosis that some magazine editorial trying to foresee any problems the can reach their conclusions by staff members participated in. public might find, and trying to be themselves. In the second case the experiments still clearer. This tool is very effective for various are mental, similar to Einstein’s lift reasons. First of all it induces the experiment, Schrödinger’s cat or

The text: short, clear and effective The less we know, the longer our explanations are. Ezra Pound

Whatever the medium you use, the contents naturally and has a distinct it at all. As a rule, the probability for quality of the text is always extreme- “personality”, for it establishes a any document to be read and ly important. A poorly written text relationship with the reader. understood is directly proportional can, in fact, thwart all the energy to its brevity. poured into the work. Ever since the Here below we summarise a few Today, most spaces and formats expression “knowledge-based general rules for good writing that call for brevity, reflecting the public’s society and economy” stopped we all know but do not always new habits. being a slogan and turned into a remember to use. The fact that every communication true description of reality, all sectors becomes faster can penalise the of communication have begun to Brevity exposition of complex topics like appreciate this, and consequently scientific topics, but brevity and professional writing has become a The longer a text is, the more it abu- concentration also force the author subject taught in universities. ses of a scarce resource, the reade- to be clear, pruning the text of r’s time, lowering the odds that the excess words and digressions that A good text does not uselessly over- latter will read it all the way through, might hide or confuse the messa- work the reader, it provides its but also that (s)he will begin reading ges. During revision you should not

52 - CHAPTER IV hesitate to cut: most texts improve - One piece of information for mind. This is the first way to after a good trimming. each paragraph. The paragraph write it. The other side of the coin is that, is more incisive if the first senten- contrary to what you might think, ce states the information, and - Give your text a real “voice”, the effort needed to write (like the those that follow explain it. lively and clearly identifiable. need for good planning and a good Whoever is reading must have outline) is inversely proportional to - The rhythm of a text is largely the impression that you are the space available. created by varying sentence speaking to them directly, with a length. Long sentences carry the language (s)he recognises. To be Clarity reader more quickly to its com- sure, re-read it aloud. prehension and for this reason Just as for an explanation, the first they must be perfect in readabili- - Talk, whenever possible, in the secret of clarity is simplicity: when ty, fluency and clarity. Brief sen- first person (do not use imperso- choosing between two expressions, tences create pauses. nal forms), perhaps using the it is better to choose the simpler “we” to eliminate the distinction one, the one that uses fewer words, - When the subject and the line of between the reader and author, discarding the longer and more reasoning become complicated, put yourself in their place. involved ones. short words and paragraphs Here are a few suggestions for sim- should help. A sentence that - Always choose verbs rather plifying a text. most people can read easily has than nouns, use them in the acti- at most twenty five words. ve voice and include lots of - Begin sentences with the subject Slowing down the rhythm of the gerunds and infinitives, filled and verb and leave the subordina- information, in fact, helps com- with power, action and energy. te clauses to the right side. A clear prehension. If the sentence is sentence can also be very long, as short, the reader will read more - Be careful with adverbs, that long as the subject and verb slowly and will take the time very often dilute the meaning of announce the theme and meaning necessary to think, digest, com- the verb and prevent it from immediately. pare and learn. expressing its strength completely. - Observe the “rule of closeness”: - The presentation is also impor- keep together subject, verb and tant: avoid long and monotonous ß Check punctuation, which direct object; the noun and the texts and provide visual variety to organises the text and gives it adjective; the preposition and its the page. Use as many titles, sub- meaning: listen to what you are object. Do not separate them with titles, paragraphs and lists as writing and check how it sounds. useless parentheses, forcing the possible: breaking up the text reader to go up and down to put helps the reader. - Try to play with words, even in the sentence together. If there is a very serious texts and articles. lot of information to give, do not try - Choose words and expressions Choose common, everyday to use just one sentence. Put carefully: always select words words for contexts where they parenthetical clauses at the ope- and expressions that are short, are not usually used. This is a ning or closing, or break up the precise, concrete, familiar to the good rule of thumb especially sentence using adverbs to tie the reader, avoiding jargon, incom- when writing in and for sectors sentences together. prehensible abbreviations and characterised by jargon and pointless foreign words. technical words, like science - Avoid clusters of relative clauses. and technology to be precise. There should never be two “that” Effectiveness or “which” in the same sentence: A text is effective if it adheres to the - Avoid clichés and overused use a nice full stop and begin a contents naturally, and successfully expressions, like “from the infini- new sentence. engages the reader or listener tely large to the infinitely small”. directly and personally. For this rea- As the English writer George - More emphasis is given to the son, in addition to practice, empa- Orwell suggested, do not ever beginning and the end of a senten- thy with the reader or the listener is use a metaphor, a simile or ano- ce. Thus, place the most important particularly valuable. Thus, here are ther rhetorical figure that is ordi- things you have to say there. a few suggestions: narily found in publishing. The reader feels as if (s)he has alrea- - Repetition of key words helps to - While you are still thinking dy read or heard it and therefore attract attention to the most rele- about your text, try to “portray it” pays less attention, when (s)he vant elements. as a story and put it on in your does not stop reading entirely.

CHAPTER IV - 53 - Do not be afraid to use repeti- a coherent and convincing dis- helps readers understand how a tions intelligently but sparingly to course. discourse is arranged. emphasise your messages and increase their impact. Repetition - Telling is not enough, it is also Control can cause monotony, but if it is necessary to show. The “ladder of dosed correctly it is an important abstraction” should be climbed To revise a text means exchanging tool for strengthening and high- quickly upwards and downwards: the writer’s for the editor’s hat: the lighting key words at key points. at the bottom there are objects text is usually read aloud. Your and things; at the top, ideas and ears, in fact, are more sensitive - The reader must feel as if (s)he concepts. than your eyes to contorted or dis- is sliding naturally from sentence connected transitions, a pace that to sentence. Make sure, then, - When the subject is serious use a is too slow or too quick, errors, that one sentence flows into the light tone, or if possible, humour. misplaced words, excessively long next. Connectors and transitional When it is not, go ahead and exag- sentences and irritating repetitions. phrases – despite, and yet, but, in gerate especially when talking The text should be re-read at least the same way, however, then, about science, which is usually twice, the first time immediately thus, in fact, therefore – are what associated with heavy ideas. after writing it, and the second join your sentences together and time after letting the text sit for a function as signs which show us - Never underestimate the useful- while, which also helps to overco- where we are going; they are ness of titles, subtitles and hea- me any aversion you may feel what makes a group of sentences ders; this so called “paratext” towards picking it up again.

The use of pictures A photographic image is a message with no code. Roland Barthes

The fact that ours is a “civilization of cate, their use must follow technological excellence, the video images” is not simply a cliché. There various rules and requires special communicated the idea, counter- is an ever increasing number of pic- attention. Unlike written langua- productive and damaging to the tures, fixed or moving, requested for ge, a picture does not tie the company’s image, that in that facto- every type of science communica- speaker to the listener with well ry dangerous material was being tion, so that at times the pictures codified meanings. In other handled. themselves become the opportunity words, it can be ambiguous. to talk about a subject. Pictures communicate without any In the video of a microchip manu- mediation, and do so always and Pictures attract attention and stir facturing company, for example, you in any case by stimulating our emotions instantly; they can help to can see technicians at work in a interpretation. The outcome of this tell and explain why with less des- white room and wearing suits that interpretation depends, however, cription or even hold a metaphoric even cover their heads, hands and on who, when, where and in what value, creating synergy with the feet. Yet it is never said that those context it is observed. Before written text. For this reason it is true clothes protect the chips from using pictures, then, it is important that “a picture is worth a thousand human contamination, and not vice to reflect not only on their beauty, words”. versa. For a lay person those suits effectiveness and comprehensibili- evoke the need of protection from ty, but also on the meanings that Even if a picture may hold something harmful: as a result, the public you are addressing extraordinary power to communi- instead of transmitting the idea of might attribute to them.

54 - CHAPTER IV CHAPTER V USING JOURNALISTS

Journalists and scientists: two different cultures Journalists are ignorant? If we were scholars we certainly would not be doing this job. Natalia Aspesi

To be in the media people, but they are also in the Scientists vs. journalists arena where most of the social In April 1992 NASA’s satellite CoBE negotiation of knowledge and opi- Journalists are your way into the (Cosmic Background Explorer), nions takes place. In fact, it is in media. Not only do they know how practically unknown to the general the newspaper or on the radio and to pick out the right words and public, sent pictures to Earth of television that public images, arguments, but their professional small irregularities in the cosmic consensus and credibility of experience has also made them background radiation dating back to various social groups – science experts at listening to society, and the Big Bang. These represent the included - is made or destroyed. consequently identifying its inter- earliest signs of the future organiza- ests, opinions, moods and values. tion of the galaxies in the universe Contact with business and political For this very reason they should be and a long awaited confirmation that and interest group stakeholders is considered as potential, extraordi- the universe began with a Big Bang. made through the media as well. nary allies, rather than intermedia- Despite its scientific value, there For politicians, in particular, scien- ries that must be put up with, or was little hope that this news might ce-related themes, discoveries or even worse simple targets of cut- make its way into the media. problems become “real” only when ting remarks. Even if it is not always George Smoot, a researcher from they appear in a newspaper, easy to work with them. Berkeley, did something that per- because they develop into a haps none of his colleagues were potential subject of political debate Scientists generally view journalists willing to do. Talking to journalists, to be used for or against them. as people who do not understand Smoot declared that watching the the nature and value of science and images transmitted by CoBE was Gaining space in the media is not for this reason they do not dedicate “like observing the face of God”. He always easy and in general requi- their attention to it, or they distort it, sensed that a catchy phrase would res investments in terms of time, normally in an attempt to make it be able to speak to the imagination effort and resources that cannot more sensational. of all those who might otherwise not be ignored. The return on these be able to understand the news, investments is often long term and From their point of view, journalists and he won over the global scene. almost always difficult to measure. accuse scientists of not being clear, An English journalist even wrote that The simplest way to access the and often they do not believe that “The annoying thing is that besides media is the press review, but it is scientists or their work might be of being one of the greatest astrophy- also important to know how to interest to readers or viewers. cists he’s also modest, charming, evaluate the effectiveness of the funny and nice. Worse still, he’s articles published or the radio-tele- It is necessary to learn to accept handsome.” vision coverage aired, not only the journalists for what they are and find quantity. acceptable compromises with their If you want to communicate with way of seeing things. Journalists society, you have to be in the media, The point is not to communicate also have good reasons for what first of all in newspapers, on the with the media, but to use the media they do. radio and television. Not only are the to communicate with certain cate- media extraordinarily effective in rea- gories of people: the media are the To do this successfully it is impor- ching an extremely large number of means, not the end. tant to clearly understand how the

CHAPTER V - 55 interests, goals, values and routines - Journalists love writing about or minutes in a transmission, and of researchers and journalists differ. single scientists that have made in any case they have to bring a a revolutionary discovery, while result home. On the contrary, - Journalists, like public opinion, scientists see science as a scientists work at the rate impo- expect science to give answers cumulative and co-operative sed by the nature of the research, and certainties, while science enterprise. Even Newton admit- that can have (and often has) chiefly produces doubts and ted standing “on the shoulders of negative outcomes. questions that it tries to answer. giants”. The main aim scientists have is to - The first thing journalists look - Journalists look for controver- produce new knowledge about the for in a story is an emotion, while sy; scientists, consensus. While natural world, and their success is scientists attempt to see things the latter think that being precise measured by the approval they as neutrally as possible. At times means speaking with just one receive from other scientists. what the scientist sees as sensa- authoritative voice, journalists The main aim journalists have is, tionalism is really sensationalism, think that diverse voices (even on the contrary, to entertain and at others it is only the spices nee- better is they disagree) give a inform, and their success is predo- ded “to sell” the story. more complete picture, and are, minantly measured by the number in fact, used to reporting opi- of copies sold or audience share. - Journalists look for results, nions that they do not agree with. even if they are only partial or The media, in fact, are above all temporary and at least potential- - Journalists are always in a hurry economic enterprises, and the ly sensational. Scientists, on the because they have very tight news they report is what sells the other hand, rarely leave the labo- deadlines and have to remain most. ratory shouting “Eureka!” and within the space given to them, prefer to tread carefully. whether they are words in a text

What is a “good” piece of news? We expect some new disaster with each newspaper we read. Abraham Lincoln

Scientists and journalists often quake tremor in Sicily” does not a problem that the general public have very different opinions on make for much news, while does not know or understand; it how important a fact is. If you want “Thousands of people seek safety has no impact on their life, and to communicate through the from an earthquake in Sicily” is a litt- perhaps contrasts with their reli- media, then, you should identify le better. gious convictions. A title like what might make a news item Where journalists tend to magnify, “Cellular phone waves are hazar- valuable to a journalist. In the scientists tend to tone down: this is dous to your health” responds to newsroom, much is based on the fine for academic environments, but the requirements: it refers to perception or “instinct” developed it does not help with the media. something very familiar, raises a with experience and handed down problem that concerns owners of from generation to generation, but Meaningfulness, relevance, cellular phones, thus all of us, and some studies have attempted to and consonance is in tune with the climate of identify the components of a suspicion surrounding new tech- “good” piece of news more preci- To the public, good news also has nologies. But “Chocolate stimula- sely. Here are the main ones: meaningfulness, relevance and tes because it contains anti- consonance. It must have a mea- depressive substances” also Threshold ning in relation to what they know; works well. The journalist’s slant it must be pertinent and possibly on the applications or consequen- First of all, there is a size threshold. not contradict what they already ces of a discovery is what will Something “big” must really be big, know or think. A new measure of make a particular piece of news or at least look so. “A small earth- Hubble’s constant, for example, is relevant.

56 - CHAPTER V Co-option Competition The power of fame

The co-option is a tie between a The opportunity of reporting news One last important component in piece of news and an important event exclusively, thus reporting a scoop, “good” news is the fact that it can of the moment. Political disagree- is cause for professional pride in a be linked to an important or ments between Europe and the newsroom, but scientists and famous place or a person, a cele- United States can transform the race scientific institutions are not brity. For this reason the awarding between American and European accustomed to providing exclusive of Nobel prizes always makes the scientists to find a vaccine against news (or they are not yet, since it is news, even if the research the AIDS, or the technological challenges beginning to be required by some prize is awarded for usually dates of the new Galileo satellite navigation large scientific magazines). back to many years before. system, into news. Even news of a natural clonation in the animal or plant Nothing is better Many factors come into world can secure a short article, since than bad news play in deciding what Dolly the sheep has brought the makes the news. theme of clonation into the limelight. In a newsroom very good news is welcome (“a wonder drug against The most important have to do Frequency, unexpectedness colon cancer found”), but even with public demand, rather than the and continuity more so is very bad news (“the desires, advantages, or the possi- Earth was skimmed by a large ble ignorance of journalists. Another value appreciated by jour- asteroid”). The most common Before contacting a journalist it is nalists is frequency, which allows scientific news, unfortunately, is important, then, to consider careful- them to prepare themselves to cover moderately good. ly how to present your news, trying an event beforehand– just as they do to make the most of it using the cri- with sports every Monday. This hap- Reliability teria listed above. In other words, it pens rarely in scientific fields: by defi- is a matter of adding a bit of spin, nition, discoveries are not predicta- Fortunately, however, scientific something that can attract attention ble. In the same way, the possible news is very often reliable. to it. If an interplanetary probe is continuity of a news item is appre- Journalists only need, in fact, to cite exploring Europe, Jupiter’s famous ciated; meaning that it will be dis- the fact that the news was publis- moon, it is better to underline that cussed for a while. An example hed in Nature or the New England there is water there, and therefore might be the so-called “mad cow Journal of Medicine, or that it was there could also be life. disease” or climatic changes. Thus, announced by this scientist or that for the journalist it is worth investing university, to have a clear conscien- time to collect more information or ce. This is a real advantage compa- find the right contacts. red to other fields.

Not all journalists are alike Being a journalist is always better than working. Luigi Barzini

There are science reputations in the scientific community are natural allies and feel as if they are journalists… and are more willing to invest time and “on science’s side”. effort to study their topic and avoid How easy it is to overcome the cultu- errors. They usually have more time to Science journalists are the ideal chan- ral gap depends on the type of journa- complete an assignment. Therefore, nel for routine communication with list you are working with. In fact, two they can research the subject, think society. Working with them is easier, categories of information professionals about it, check what they have written but if (as often happens) they work for work on science and technology. or have it checked. Since they often specialized magazines, pages or have a science degree and sometimes shows, they may also be of limited The first are science journalists. In a brief experience in research, they use. With rare exceptions, they are addition to knowing more science, speak the same language and share not the ones, in fact, who have they are more concerned about their the same values as the scientist. They access to the most influential media.

CHAPTER V - 57 … plain journalist… howler to smile at. At times, however, the difference of opinion sells better. a science-based story becomes so Working with plain journalists is more The second category includes new- important that it captures the front difficult because the cultural gap is spaper reporters, editors or editors- page of daily newspapers and the wider, but it is very important: getting in-chief who normally work on other opening of the TV news. This is the to know each other and gaining types of news, like the daily news, case, for example, of debates on the mutual support and respect in times politics or foreign news, but occa- use of embryonic stem cells or “mad of “peace” can be precious in a crisis sionally have to deal with scientific cow” disease. situation. topics. They are people who work in When this happens, science journa- a hurry, with very little time for lists are often brushed aside, and the … and the journalists research or controls, especially if story is handed to other reporters, that really count they are employed in press agencies may oversimplify the issue and trans- and daily newspapers. They almost form it into a controversy between Finally, there is a particularly valuable never have a scientific background two opposite points of view, giving category of directors and editoria- and they feel like foreigners in the the scientific community’s opinions lists, whose voices are extremely world of science, or can even be the same weight as minority or other well-liked and accepted (whether suspicious of it. stakeholders’ opinionsThey are inside or out of the headlines): In normal situations, the result might convinced that this is the way to give access to them is the Holy Grail of be the simple publication of some a more balanced view or simply that communication through journalists.

How to access the media Wooing the press is an exercise roughly akin to picnicking with a tiger. You might enjoy the meal, but the tiger always eats last. Maureen Dowd

If the media are the means and not second reaches a more limited release is inexpensive but also of limi- the end, the first step is to choose public, but is useful to hone your ted value. Newsrooms, in fact, are the right ones, namely, the most skills for more ambitious goals. flooded with press releases of every popular and listened to by the type and the competition for the public you want to address. They Before making a move of any kind it attention of a journalist, who may should be the most suitable for is a good idea to read papers or have only a handful of seconds for transmitting your message. The magazines, watch television pro- each news item, is ferocious. second is understanding which grammes and listen to the radio. ones are most accessible. Generally What are the topics they like dealing A press release must convince the speaking, in fact, there are two with? How are they presented? journalist that your piece of news is large categories of media: those in Who works on them? What are their important, and to do so you have which competition for the space opinions? At this point you can ask twenty to thirty lines available to you. available is high (influential press, yourself how a story is “sold”. Actually you have fewer: usually, if the the radio and above all television) first paragraph does not grab their and those that never know how to The press release attention, the press release ends up fill their spaces (thematic television in the waste paper basket, and the channels or news channels, Internet If you do not have a contact with a journalist will move on to the next. sites, local newspapers and specia- journalist yet, or if you want to publish lized periodicals). The first group your news widely, the first tool is a For this reason, how you arrange the reaches large numbers of people, press release, a brief presentation of information in a press release is but is difficult to access. The the news sent by fax or email. A press exactly the opposite of what you do in

58 - CHAPTER V a scientific paper. First comes the show) because time is a scarce the people or figures they want to conclusion, namely, the news with all resource for journalists as well. speak with. (S)he should not be, the essential information, beginning then, a spokesperson, because with the most important, then the If you do not have truly big news in journalists may hold that (s)he is not aim of the research and finally the hand, or it is difficult to explain its sufficiently knowledgeable on the results and implications. Separately, importance clearly beforehand, it topic or not qualified for an interview at the bottom, you can put in infor- would be a good idea to at least think or a comment; in other words, that mation that may be useful to unders- of an experience you could offer jour- (s)he is not a substitute for the real tanding the context of the topic. nalists: the opportunity to interview an thing, the scientist. important person, a visit to a labora- The text should be arranged in tory with really special instruments, an Materials for the media paragraphs and blocks, and each outing to a volcano, an excursion on one should discuss one point, an oceanography ship, a glimpse Once you have managed to attract using graphics that make for quick through a telescope. What is impor- a journalist’s attention, you must be easy reading (titles in capital let- tant is that you do not invite them to ready to give them more. The sec- ters, short synopses in italics, key see or hear something that might ret is “make his work as easy as words in bold). interest a scientist but which holds possible” by collecting or preparing little interest for them. Be careful, specially made materials which will The text must be concrete and then, with congresses: they are so help to evaluate a topic and then to specific with no flights of the ima- boring for non specialists that an invi- write the piece or prepare the gination, because the journalist will tation might well backfire. report. You should include details, see to that. arguments, and simple effective Press agent examples, well written articles for The embargo, the date before which non peer audiences, press reviews, the news cannot be published, Working with the press requires a lot photographs with captions, ready to should go at the top of the press of time, effort and many many tele- use Video News Releases or unedi- release, while at the bottom you phone calls and emails, in addition ted footage (B-rolls).The scientist must not forget to put your own to a particular talent that not all should of course be willing to be address, telephone number and scientists can be expected to have. interviewed. email and possibly a web site where For this reason, this task is left more more detailed information can be and more often to a press agent, or found. a public relations officer. Having a person responsible for media rela- An email or a telephone call can help tions has many advantages: econo- to prepare the interest and attention my of scale on time and resources, of a journalist you are particularly continuous attention and a coherent interested in. media strategy, construction of a laboratory “brand”, creation of a In some countries the scientific com- media relations network, greater munity has created programmes for visibility on the outside for all lines of scientific news based on the web, research, not only those led by the with daily releases. The most famous most media savvy people. is Eurekalert (www.eurekalert.org) managed by the American The success of this professional Association for the Advancement of figure depends on the person’s Science. competency and quality, naturally, but also on the constraints (s)he has Face to face meetings been given.

At times it is better not to remain A press agent is, in fact, useful when behind an anonymous press release acting as a “facilitator” and not as a and to organize a meeting. It can take censor (as sometimes happens) of place in a café or a bar, or at a press the relationships between journalists conference or during a visit to the and scientists. Their role, in addition laboratory. A meeting is an opportu- to producing and distributing press nity to establish a personal relations- releases and other material for the hip, but it is necessary to have some- press, is to identify the most promi- thing really important to say (and/or sing stories and guide journalists to

CHAPTER V - 59 How to answer the media’s requests Facing the press is more difficult than bathing a leper. Mother Teresa of Calcutta

Scientists are often contacted by Be prepared Help the journalist journalists with requests for expla- to help you nations, comments, or interviews. Even if you are the world’s highest authority on the subject, take time Just as you need to convince the A journalist’s request is an opportunity, to prepare for the interview. When journalist about the importance of not a bother: remember that you are the journalist calls, try to unders- a news piece, the journalist needs not doing them a favour, but you are tand their approach to the topic to convince their director or editor- using the media to reach the public. and what questions you will be in-chief of the same thing. They are asked. Then think about how to the people who decide. Help the If that telephone call is to turn into present the results of your journalist, then, to grasp the heart an article, a report or at least an research. What is new or unexpec- and meaning of the news, because interview, and hopefully a good ted? What impact might this have this is what (s)he will need in the long-term personal relationship, a on this particular public? What are newsroom. few tricks can be useful. the wider implications of your work, for example, from an ethical Be careful with Always keep the door open point of view? Can you offer any verbatim quotes strange, funny, and perhaps per- Always be ready for every type of sonal anecdotes? There usually is not enough time to request, even impromptus. An inter- go over a piece before it is printed view is usually made by telephone, Work within or aired, but you can insist on but if you think it is more appropria- their time constraints checking your answers that are te, invite the journalist for a personal reported as quotes, especially if meeting. Journalists always have little time. If this has been made clear from the they say they have an hour to finish very beginning. Are you the right person? a piece, it is usually true. Try then to A request for your opinion on answer their requests as soon as somebody else’s work or any other If you have been contacted by a possible, putting aside other possi- delicate question should be ans- journalist, be sure you are the right ble commitments. If you offer to find wered “off the records” or “with the person to answer their questions information, make sure you can get recorder off”, and only for journa- based on your competency and it for the journalist in time. lists that you know and trust. not on your position in your institu- Generally speaking it is better not tion’s hierarchy. If you are not the Keep it simple to give a journalist a “no comment” right person, suggest the name of answer, but you should not feel a more competent colleague. The journalist and their readers pro- obliged to give an answer you Often, however, journalists do not bably know very little about your might be sorry about later, either. have much time to close a news field. Explain your work, or com- item: if you can be of help, clarify ment on the work of others as sim- your position, but help them. ply as possible and with the easiest Expect errors words you can use, as if you were Who is the journalist? with a friend. If you must use a tech- You are just going to have to nical term, explain its meaning. Also accept it: journalists often make When you are contacted, get infor- try to use as few numbers and sta- mistakes. We all make them, so mation on the publication (s)he tistics as possible. The more you just imagine those who are not works for and try to understand if use, the more likely you will be mis- very familiar with the subject. If it is this will influence the way your understood, badly cited or not a matter of minor mistakes, you work or comments will be presen- understood at all. In these cases, can let them go. In other cases it is ted. If necessary, consult your col- even if it means being less precise, it worthwhile explaining them, as leagues. is better to use a good analogy. politely as possible. A few errors in

60 - CHAPTER V good faith should not, then, com- has no control over what appears in do not be surprised. The journalist promise your relationship with a the newspaper. It is the editor-in-chief knows much better than you how journalist. If they were deliberate, who decides on the paging, possible many details the readers or viewers however, it would be a good idea cuts, pictures and title. Perhaps (s)he are able to digest. The journalist to avoid this journalist and publica- did not understand it well or decided wants your ideas, not your data. tion in the future. to give it a little bit more “life” to make it more appealing to the readers. Afterwards, Understand always say thank you the journalist’s constraints Trust their judgement After the article or report has come Do not get upset with the journalist if To write ten, a good journalist needs out, always thank the journalist and, the title of the piece you worked on to know one hundred. If you do not unless it was a disaster, pay them your together has got little to do with the find all the details you explained and compliments. Just like ascientist, (s)he contents. In fact, the author of a piece held essential in the piece or report, too puts their best into their work.

Working together If you have an apple and I have an apple and we exchange these apples then you and I will still each have one apple. But if you have an idea and I have an idea and we exchange these ideas, then each of us will have two ideas. George Bernard Shaw

Two complementary figures contrary, the researcher must Few things can improve how scien- accept the journalist’s way of arran- ce is covered and portrayed in the Science communication can be par- ging the work and agree to introdu- media as routine working partners- ticularly effective if the scientist and ce changes only for the sake of hips between single scientists and the journalist manage to overcome greater accuracy. journalists who know and trust each their mutual distrust and the cultural other. barriers that divide them, and co- The easiest formula for co-operating operate. is a final review of texts, to assure A good personal relationship deve- that factual errors have not been lops out of shared interests first, and Their competencies are, in fact, per- overlooked. A good journalist then from the fact that you get fectly complementary, as long as should always agree to this: content along. Let us take a look, then, at there is mutual respect for each accuracy is the last effort (s)he public communication of science other’s role. The scientist should be needs to make, but it is the first obli- from a journalist’s point of view. responsible for the contents and the gation (s)he has to their reader or journalist the communication’s for- viewer. The world of science, even just in mat, while the selection of the the more popular sectors, is too contents and the choice of the mes- The importance large for journalists, even speciali- sage can be made together. Of of personal relationships zed journalists, to figure out by course, this is more easily said than themselves. Covering science is done. Co-operation will be much greater much more difficult than covering and more productive if you work sports, politics or the daily news. The journalist must accept the role together from the very beginning. Journalists are always looking for of the amateur and give up a bit of For this to happen it is necessary to new interesting stories, details, control over the texts. On the have a good personal relationship. checks and opinions. Even if the

CHAPTER V - 61 Internet facilitates their work, they need an “honest” person who overall image of scientific enterprise often have to look for the classic knows how to see things from their almost always has something to gain needle in the haystack, and nothing point of view as well. from them. can substitute a person’s answer to a specific question, that begins per- Thus, many journalists look for Consequently, contact with journa- haps with a very particular point of scientists in wide disciplinary sectors lists needs to be cultivated by offe- view or requires a value judgement. whom they can consult when neces- ring the help requested and infor- Asking a scientist is much more sim- sary. This science consultant is the ming them of new developments in ple, useful and gratifying than ques- person who journalists can call advance. There also need to be per- tioning a database. Often it is actual- directly because they know them, iodic meetings, however, and you ly irreplaceable. they know that their judgement is need to keep track of their work, reliable and (s)he is on their side. trying to understand their interests The right scientist can solve a jour- and necessities, by understanding nalists’ problem in a few moments. In exchange for this privileged posi- how they work. This all requires time, That is why a network of contacts in tion a scientist’s work or sector will because each one has a great deal the world of research is one of every receive greater visibility, and (s)he is to learn. science journalist’s professional given the opportunity to influence assets. the way certain topics are reported In addition to being useful, working or to express their opinion during an together can also be very gratifying On the other hand, and rightly so, emergency. for both, and at times it represents journalists do not want to be told the beginning of a researcher’s what to write, because they have no As long as they do not act like une- career as a science communica- intention of becoming a tool in thical know-it-alls, colleagues who tor.(S)he may turn into a writer or a someone else’s hands, nor do they become media experts are not journalist, but sometimes (s)he may know what to do with the scientist necessarily motivated by personal even take on the very valuable role point of view as it is. Journalists vanity or guilty of grandstanding. The of columnist.

62 - CHAPTER V CHAPTER VI KNOWING THE MEDIA Choosing the right medium The medium is the message. Marshall McLuhan

When, in 1624, Galileo decided to set larly popular among children; web in a museum, experiences and fee- out his reasons and began writing the sites reach small tribes of people with lings. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief very specific interests. Television is Communication times also vary. A World Systems he was aware of the watched by almost everyone, and press agency or a web site run a piece problems that this work might cause even a science programme can talk to of news in just a few minutes; a wee- him with the Church. However, he did a few million viewers, while it might be kly, in a few days; an exhibition, in a not have to choose which means of expected that a book, at best, be read few months; and a museum, a few communication to use, nor fear that by a few thousand people. On the years. his message might go unnoticed. The other hand, if we examine the quanti- few hundred copies of the book ty of information transmitted, the rela- Other differences? published by Ladini, a typographer in tionship between books and TV is Florence, assured that this purpose inverted, while on the web the number Functions and values in the public was achieved remarkably well. of details can be chosen by the user. arena differ from one medium to another. TV news and daily newspapers But, what about today? Is an interview Different languages are used for diffe- influence public opinion, while web with the Corriere della Sera (or Le rent media. The radio, for example, sites and conferences make it possi- Monde, Frankfurter Allegemeine, El uses only words, while an exhibition ble to feel it out. It is a lot more simple Pais, or The Times) better than an arti- speaks mainly through its objects. to appear in a popular science maga- cle in Scientific American? Should you This explains why, among other zine than on television, while the choose a television story or a book? things, each medium lends itself more Internet is infinitely more accessible The cover of an important weekly to certain topics and less to others. It than the cinema (but Carl Sagan magazine or an exhibition in a science is much easier to talk about ethology managed to do even that!). museum? A press agency take or an on television than on an Internet site, A television interview takes much less article on a most popular webzine? The and the opposite can be said about personal time and energy than writing news on the morning radio show or a human genetics. It is much more a book, while updating a web site press conference with a related event? straightforward to show the personali- requires greater continual effort than a ty of a scientist on the radio than in a lecture given every once in a while. On In any case, this question constitutes museum, while a simple experiment the other hand, not everyone is gifted the first step forward. The contents from classic physics is better with the same personal abilities. A are often given so much attention that demonstrated by a museum exhibit. beautiful voice is helpful on the radio; the choice of the medium is neglec- What influences the choice of sub- on television, a captivating face; for a ted, and yet this choice represents a jects is also the size of the public. On daily newspaper or a non peer maga- key decision. television you deal with subjects that zine, a brilliant writing style. can really interest everyone, while on Finally, costs vary from one medium to The media are much more than sim- the web you can talk about any topic, another. It is very different to give an ple technologies for the transmission even if there are only a few people in interview, distribute an electronic of information. There is no need to the whole world interested in it. newsletter or publish a house organ. It bother Marshall McLuhan, the famous is very different to call a journalist- Canadian media expert who main- In selecting a medium time beco- friend or have a press office work for tains that every message becomes mes an important factor as well as you. There is a big difference between something different depending on the the way it is used. The radio is liste- writing a book or setting up an exhibit. medium used. Just glance around ned to in the morning and television There is a big difference between hos- and you will realize the profound diffe- is watched in the evening. Daily ting a television crew in the laboratory rences between one medium and newspapers are skimmed and read or producing a video on your own. another. quickly, specialized periodicals are If the media are means and not ends, give more time and attention. On before using them it is necessary to be Daily newspapers reach an adult television, entertainment is the main familiar with at least their main cha- public. Science museums are particu- objective; on the web, information; racteristics.

CHAPTER VI - 63 Television Television – unlike other communication tools that preceded it – destroys more knowledge and more understanding than it transmits. Giovanni Sartori

Television is the only means which the topic. This leaves the mind little canoes and space exploration do can potentially speak to everyone. time to understand and absorb, dis- well, while chemistry, molecular biolo- In an era in which the media tend to courages the repetition of concepts gy or nanotechnologies do badly. Do follow the tastes and interests of and rarely includes an introduction not even mention mathematics! increasingly narrow segments of to the topic or background informa- Unfortunately, a good part of contem- the public, television has, in fact, tion. Television also has short time porary science cannot be made remained a truly generalist medium. periods and an increasingly fast directly visible because it deals with It is the only one that can bring pace, and it is not possible to go invisible things. Computer graphics science closer to those that do not back if something is missed, as you can help, but they are expensive, know it, and therefore, would not would when reading a book or a become boring quickly and may not go looking for it elsewhere. This is newspaper article. Furthermore, vie- really be helpful. especially true for each one of wers are often distracted: a family those citizens for whom it repre- member’s remark can be enough to Even if well represented, the synthe- sents the only means of access to sidetrack their attention so they sis of proteins or crashes between the world and culture. miss something forever. particles, for example, do not speak for themselves. Even pictures of This medium, however, has distinc- In addition, television is used and laboratories all look alike these days, tive characteristics that do not perceived essentially as a form of and they do not make for a great always mix well with science. entertainment, and the audience’s show. willingness to apply themselves and Television uses more images than follow a rather complex explanation Thus, before suggesting a topic it is words to communicate, because is usually very limited. necessary to make sure that it can the former tend to prevail over the be made visible, perhaps by getting latter. Contrary to words, which can In fact, science on television is limi- pictures directly or through your net- be put together and taken apart as ted to explaining only a few funda- work of international contacts. one likes, giving them the exact mentals and the meaning of the meaning desired, images can be topic. You do not learn from televi- The second restriction is that on tele- very strong and carry different sion, at least in the full meaning of vision you usually can talk about meanings for different people, and the word. On the other hand, televi- things which naturally interest a wide they are not always tailor-made. sion can be extraordinarily effective audience, while it is unlikely that you Thus, because it is so dependant in stimulating interests and the desi- will find space for niche subjects. upon images, television lends itself re to learn, directing the public Television production requires, in fact, to telling facts, more than explai- towards other means like magazi- large resources and the programme ning concepts. nes or books. can generate large incomes through commercials, proportional to the This is not all. On television very few The lion’s share in science television number of viewers. Thus competition words can be used: in five minutes, programming is dedicated, naturally, with other types of programming is the average length of a report on a to natural history and health, and very high. This means that the topics specialized programme, you can this leads us to television’s great dealt with and the level of explanation use the same number or words that constraints. must appeal to a wide number of you would use in a brief newspaper people: television always looks for the article. The length of a TV news spot The first is the constraint set by pictu- least common denominator among is actually measured in tens of res: no pictures, no story, as they say its potential viewers. seconds. in America. Even if a bit of creativity can work miracles, on television you Television is one of the most difficult Television communication also usually have to talk about what you means to access, if for no other rea- tends to be elusive. The limited can see and that possibly also has a son than the very limited number of number of words available requires good visual presentation. spaces available: there are only a an extremely succinct synthesis of Consequently animal behaviour, vol- few hours of programming a week,

64 - CHAPTER VI at least in the free-to-air channels. brief interview it requires personal controversial (s)he might even Many more spaces are opening up talents (having a natural screen choose to set a researcher against on satellite theme television chan- presence) that are not particularly a real quack as if they had the nels which are gaining ground. The common. Before you go on air, it same qualifications. problem is that compared to the would be a good idea to try and free-to-air channels, which are more understand what type of program- Answers on television are always popular and financed by commer- me it is and what objectives it has very brief, just long enough to high- cials, they have less money availa- set. A science programme and a light a few key points. Therefore, it is ble, and just like specialized periodi- talk show are two completely diffe- better to be prepared and not open cals they are not meant for everyo- rent situations. And, is the interview up the discussion. In front of the ne, but only for people who are live or recorded? What questions television camera, finally, you must already interested in the topic. will be asked? Who are the other move as little as possible, speak guests? Usually the host wants to slowly and avoid technical termino- Appearing on television may be inti- keep the tension high during the logy, extremely complex concepts midating, and if you do more than a programme, and if the subject is and numbers, as much as possible.

The radio An equal must talk to an equal, a free citizen to a free citizen, a thinking brain to a thinking brain. The radio contributor must not present himself as a teacher to the radio listener, nor as a pedagogue, much less a judge or a prophet, but as an informer, a pleasant interlocutor, a friend. Carlo Emilio Gadda

In contrast to television, radio is the and because it does not interfere with with the host and listeners, rather kingdom of the pure word, not cove- other activities, like driving, but it pro- than a simple explanation of the topic. red by music or background noises, vides a background. but highlighted. As for topics, the radio allows for a Researchers almost always have much wider choice than television, access to the radio through inter- Radio communication is direct, hot, because words are much more ver- views; at times it is the newsroom stimulating, and if necessary also in- satile than pictures. Certainly, visually that asks for the interview, at others it depth. The radio evokes, stimulates spectacular topics, like tigers and is the researcher who sends in a pro- the imagination, induces listeners to typhoons, inevitably loose something posal or calls directly. listen more closely. It is also a medium of their appeal, but in return it can that uses few intermediaries between also deal with more conceptual sub- A radio interview is simpler compared the scientist and the public. People jects, without having to refer to some to a television interview because it is come out directly: the opportunity for “fact”. usually on the phone, and it requires personal and direct contact makes fewer personal talents since it is the radio the best place to show who Even if the choice of news must satis- easier to speak on the phone from you really are and disprove the fy the normal journalistic criteria, there home or the laboratory than in front of stereotypes of the scientist that gets is also room for slightly niche areas. a camera. on a high horse and starts explaining Since it costs less and is less profita- the “arcane worlds” to the ignorant, ble, radio is influenced less by the A nice voice is important, but not too and of the crazy scientist, a genius number of listeners and it is possible much. Rather, it is useful to be syn- but basically a bit pathetic. to fly higher, satisfy particular groups thetic, appear spontaneous and of listeners or carry out experiments know how to transmit your own pas- Television’s younger sister, the radio is that are prohibited on TV. Of course, sion for the topic. In general, it is bet- often underestimated. In the newspa- the topics have to be interesting. If ter to speak off the cuff, guided by the pers, for example, you never read one distinctive criterion exists for host’s questions, possibly just prepa- about it, but it is really listened to fre- choosing the news, it is the need for ring a starter to break the ice with the quently, especially by young people, something to discuss or reflect on host and listeners. The opening

CHAPTER VI - 65 should be clear and captivating, state have to take it himself) for another ce the words clearly. Uncertainties and synthetically what you will talk about question. Since the listener’s attention small slips of the tongue, if corrected and then throw out some problematic may be discontinuous, perhaps well, can, in any case, add to the spon- element or mystery that will be develo- because (s)he may be doing some- taneity of the interview. The important ped during the interview. thing else, you should repeat the most thing is not to mumble, or worse, important points more than once. remain silent: five seconds of silence Each time you talk, you should be brief, and listeners will think their radio is bro- at most 20 to 30 seconds, then give In front of a microphone (or the tele- ken. the floor to the host (who will otherwise phone receiver) you need to pronoun-

The generalist press To be completely frank, despite my horror for the press, I would really like to rise out of my tomb every ten years or so and go buy a few newspapers. Luis Buñuel

To talk about the press means talking quent figure is the desk-reporter who people the importance and even the about a boundless world, diversified re-writes the news provided by agen- interest of the news often count less and not sufficiently studied. Even if cies or press releases. This news is than page layout, the type of topic to true investigations on the subject are then selected by a hierarchical orga- run and especially the reader profile lacking, it is not far from the truth to nization of managing editors, feature which can be sold to advertisers, the say that the generalist press deals directors, assistant directors that are real clients in the publishing business. with science infrequently and badly. It usually just as badly informed in sec- Insurance advertisers, for example, is also very difficult to access. toral knowledge. typically want the newspaper to talk about health. But who might be inter- This can be explained by the evolution Not only is there less available kno- ested in mathematics, biodiversity or of editorial processes developed over wledge provided by specialists, fundamental physics? the last fifteen to twenty years. Since science included, but specialist voi- In short, it is very difficult to access the use of wired news, and fax or ces are also disappearing from the daily newspapers and generalist email for the transmission of press selection process. Specialised jour- magazines if you can only count on releases, newspapers no longer look nalists, like science journalists, are your efforts, for example sending a for the news but the news pours in on now almost completely external press release. It is hard to guess what them, and there are increasingly more figures who depend on the deci- might interest a journalist, it is difficult pieces to choose from. sions made by those who work insi- to get a hold of them, and even if you de the newspaper. do, it is difficult to strike the right note. The first consequence is that scientific Things improve in less popular press, news has to face strong competition. In this way the normal criteria for like local newspapers. In large newspapers, in fact, there can selection are biased, and emotions be thousands of number of news and a herd mentality tend to prevail. In practice, in order to appear in the items to choose from every day, bet- If yesterday a newspaper asked most important newspapers it is ween wired news and press releases. “what have the others not written?”; almost indispensable to have a press today the first question risks being office in the hands of good professio- The second consequence is that “what have the others written about nals. It is these people’s job to know newspapers have a diminishing num- that we have not?”. what is behind the choices made by ber of internal experts, such as the various newspapers and to nurse the science editors who had the Furthermore, recently the influence contacts with key people inside the contacts and knowledge to find and marketing has on a newspaper’s newsrooms. Today, in fact, the institu- judge the news. Today the most fre- orientation has grown. For marketing tions present in the most influential

66 - CHAPTER VI The specialized press A true journalist explains what (s)he does not know very well. Leo Longanesi

media are those which are equipped Nineties in several countries. The rea- Ample space is available in these maga- with a good press office. ders are prevalently male and young, zines, and since almost only science with variations depending on the dif- and technology are discussed competi- Deciding whether it is worthwhile or ferent publications. Usually they are tion with other news is not as high. not to invest in such an office essen- read carefully and thoroughly, unlike Thus it is realistic to consider sending tially depends on your objectives. daily newspapers. press releases or true proposals to Being in the large daily newspapers the newsroom without resorting to and national weeklies makes you The criteria for topic selection are professional intermediaries. In fact, more visible to policy makers, both similar to those used for daily new- various researchers write regularly for public and private; they receive the spapers, magazines and television, some of these publications, but they press reviews. If you have other objec- but the choice is broader and more must obviously abide by the editorial tives, for example creating a relations- “relaxed”, with a minority share also policy and norms. More often the hip with a local community or making for the hard sciences, often comple- scientist acts as a consultant or the citizens more aware of a certain topic, tely absent in other media. Being illus- interviewed expert. Perhaps this role other routes may be simpler. trated monthlies, one important crite- offers less personal satisfaction, but it Magazines with wide circulation dedi- rion for selection is the availability of is surely simpler and less tiring. cated to scientific dissemination are a eye-catching pictures, both photo- phenomenon that exploded in the graphs and drawings.

Books All of the books in the world contain no more information than is broadcast as video in a single large American city in a single year. Not all bits have equal value. Carl Sagan

Obviously there is no need to pre- time (including evenings, weekends, extremely difficult to emerge from, sent the book, which from way back vacations) and self-discipline. The and in which it is easy to perish, has been the least short-lived, and moments of doubt and discourage- even if only due to an oversight. In the most influential means for kno- ment cannot be counted. And such a fact, publishers have resources to wledge dissemination. It is also the large effort is rarely rewarded with a promote only a small number of the most suitable for passing on infor- similar size result. books they publish. The others are mation and lines of reasoning. It can handed over to fate. Competition also lead to medium to long term Books talk to a minority of people; a also takes place within a sales cir- visibility, especially as opposed to minority that surely counts, but it is cuit, usually in small bookstores. the other media. usually very small. Even if science essays have a long Books are also very difficult to promote. shelf life, a book can remain in dis- It is no coincidence that it is the first tribution for a few weeks only, and means of communications to come Among novelties and re-publica- then it is gone. If the publisher, the to mind. The decision to write a book tions, tens of thousands of titles are holder of the rights, believes that a must, however, be well thought out. It published every year in a typical new edition is not reasonable, the involves an enormous investment of western country, a mass which it is author’s work is literally nullified.

CHAPTER VI - 67 Naturally, these caveats are not If the outcome of these examina- has accepted the proposal and meant to discourage an author, but tions is positive, you can prepare a believes in it, then (s)he should be only to make them think well before proposal for the publisher. First of all willing to invest in the idea, and it making the crucial decision. this includes a concept, or rather might be possible to reduce the the development of the idea from an work by sharing the writing with a The first question to ask, then, is if editorial point of view, with a discus- professional writer, usually a journa- the topic is worth a book. Is it sion of the topic, the approach and list, who takes over writing the draft. important? Does it deal with a parti- the public interested in the book, A four-handed book (not always all cularly active frontier in research like which demonstrates the opportuni- printed on the cover), is fairly astrophysics or human genetics? ties it represents. A good concept widespread in the Anglo Saxon Does it examine the areas at the manages to reduce the book’s topic world, and allows each of the two centre of public debate like stem and reason of being to a simple and authors to take advantage of their cells or hereditary intelligence? Is clear idea. Moreover, the story and own competencies, but requires the subject of personal interest, like characters need to be identified (a team spirit and good mutual psychology or medicine? Are there book for dissemination is not a understanding. If mutual understan- captivating stories of people to tell, manual!), and a summary and pos- ding and trust are not created, the to bring the discussion alive? And sibly even a sample chapter should job might well end with a quarrel. above all, is there really something be included. new to say? Finally, when the book is comple- Before convincing the publisher, the ted, it is necessary to be ready to If the answer is yes, are there proposal is useful to the author, so promote it with presentations, inter- already other similar books? (s)he can begin to understand the views, calling all possible contacts Bookshelves and catalogues are size of the undertaking and tho- in the media. Without this final full of duplicates, so it is better to roughly verify whether it is truly what effort, the book may end up in pre- make a market survey first. (s)he wants to do. If the publisher mature oblivion.

Science museums and exhibitions If the young people themselves see science as something for children, it is not surprising if puberty seems to be the main enemy of the Public Understanding of Science. Science centres, made to encourage and involve people in science, might actually lay the foundation for a total and deliberate rejection of science by young people as soon as they find out about more attractive choices. Neil Cossons

Over the last twenty years more were spent. This infatuation, howe- people and exhibited (to celebrate science museums have been ope- ver, has struck the entire western them) almost exclusively the impor- ned worldwide than ever before, world. In an era of indirect or even tant industrial inventions like the including these so called science virtual experiences, citizens are locomotive engine, airplanes, turbi- centres.These are collections of increasingly hungry for the direct, nes or reconstructions of mines. interactive exhibits that illustrate the concrete, personal and “special” basic principles and mechanisms of experiences that only these places The turning point was marked by science and technology, and unlike or events seem able to provide. the inauguration, in 1969, of the other museums they have little or no Exploratorium in San Francisco, room for the conservation of objects Although some large historic institu- which opened the era of the science from the past. In the United States, tions still show signs of the past, centre. Over time, museums also for example, from 1970 to 2000 six science museums have come a adapted to the new hands-on philo- hundred museums and science long way since the end of the sophy, and many different media centres were opened, and in the Nineteenth century, set up as uni- can be found there: objects to look nineties alone five billion dollars versal fairs that brought in millions of at, interactive exhibits, films, theatri-

68 - CHAPTER VI cal productions, projections, labora- years on the relationship between doing it on your own, because they tories, animation and most impor- science and society. In this regard it are complex and sophisticated tantly, activities, from lectures to role is surprising to note the difference objects from all points of view, from playing. between the subjects which are the planning to the realization. Even most successfully dealt with in if the ideas often come from and are In short, for each subject the most museums and the subjects which guided by scientists, the collabora- suitable means is used. dominate the pages of newspapers tion of specific professionals is and popular magazines and televi- absolutely indispensable. During this development, however, sion programmes dedicated to these organizations basically lost science. Why then are museums and science the adult public. Today, between 80 centres so successful? The main and 90% of the visitors are made up The reason for all this can be found reason is that the visit provides a of school children and families with in the medium’s strong constraints. strong emotional experience, chiefly children. On average, 44%, almost An exhibition must speak through its meant to provide a mental map of half of the visitors is under fourteen objects, not through words. “Three the topic and stimulate interest in it. years of age. More specifically dimensional books”, with dozens of The true function of science in an science museums and science cen- pages on wall panels and objects exhibition is to fascinate, and there- tres are having enormous problems that substitute photographs, are of fore to direct people towards other attracting teenagers and adults no use, although some museums media, such as books, or a greater without children. In terms of its still use them. personal commitment to studying contents, a museum or an exhibit science at school. poses still more restrictions than Visitors do not necessarily enjoy television. intellectually gratifying or emotional experiences. Young visitors walk An examination of which subjects through these places, packed with are dealt with in science museums information and experiences quickly, and science centres confirms the like adults reading a daily newspa- impression of any visitor: in these per. And they will stop at an exhibit places the great majority of exhibi- for reasons which are often very dif- tion space is dedicated to classical ferent from those imagined by the physics or a selection of a few person who planned the exhibition. technological areas. A few projects are offered on astronomy, earth If and when they stop to look at science, perception psychology, in something more carefully, it is usual- addition of course to natural histo- ly for about thirty seconds. Half their ry collections. time is typically spent at the café, restaurant and bookshop. Perhaps what is missing is more noticeable than what there is. Little In addition, it is extremely difficult to or nothing deals with the most assess how educationally effective important advances in science and museums and exhibitions are. technology from the last one hund- Generally, except for guided tours, red years. Very few exhibits are few facts and theories are learned in dedicated to nuclear physics, mole- these places. cular biology or cosmology, just to cite a few examples in the pure Finally, access barriers to these pla- sciences. If we look at technologies, ces are very high. A museum, a it is difficult not to note the absence science centre or an exhibition are of (except for, as usual, a few rare very expensive and need to involve exceptions) microelectronics and public administrations, foundations recombinant DNA, telecommunica- or large private sponsors. You have tion systems, industrial agriculture to pay for the use of the building and new materials technologies. space, the display, but in particular, the management . Because of the Furthermore, at least in terms of maintenance and activity expenses, exhibitions, there are problems in management costs tend to increase presenting the major debates that with the number of visitors. It is have emerged over the last hundred important to resist the temptation of

CHAPTER VI - 69 The Internet I had (and still have) a dream that the web could be less of a television channel and more of an interactive sea of shared knowledge. I imagine it immersing us as a warm, friendly environment made of the things we and our friends have seen, heard, believe or have figured out. I would like it to bring our friends and colleagues closer, in that by working on this knowledge together we can come to better understandings. Tim Berners-Lee

The last to arrive, and not yet the for the moment is still rather rudi- are almost exclusively for internal most popular, the Internet is, howe- mental – limited to searching for use only. An extremely precious ver, the most quickly growing information, games or sex – in the channel of communication with medium in importance. This is true future it will become more widesp- society is therefore not being used. because it is a ripening means, and read and sophisticated just like Just take a look on the web and you we are probably far from having other communication technologies will see that in the United States all explored all the opportunities it has did in the past. these institutions offer their citizens to offer. every type of useful resource, upda- The problem is that being on the ted and certified. For any health pro- It seems to have everything required web is not enough in itself to be blem, for example, you can consult to become the paradise of commu- seen. Most sites are, in fact, visited the site offered by the National nication, without most of the restric- by very few people, or just once in a Institutes of Health, for questions on tions set by traditional media. while, perhaps by chance. Mortality the weather the site by the National Everyone can publish on it, thanks on the web is very high. A site must Oceanic and Atmospheric to its technical simplicity, the low be well made and constantly upda- Administration, just for curiosity cost of the hardware, the zero cost ted, offer interesting contents or about space, NASA’s site. Similar distribution and printing, and becau- useful services, but most important- services, although on a smaller se there is space for everyone. ly it must be linked to other sites. scale, are also offered by smaller The higher the distance is in terms organizations. There are probably Its contents can remain in the archi- of intermediary links to the most fre- few more effective ways and that ves. Today’s newspaper will be used quently visited sites – that 25% of are easily available, to make yourself to wrap up fish in 24 hours, while a sites that makes up the super- heard by society, for routine com- document on the Internet can connected heart of the web globally munications that we have seen are remain available for as long as you – the lower the probability that the basis for a good relationship. want it to. In the same way, the someone will end up there. Despite Finally, for those people who are Internet is accessible to everyone, all these considerations, the poten- more interested and request it, there as long as they are connected to the tial is truly enormous. At the is the plain and simple newsletter, a web. It is not necessary to go out moment, science on the Internet bit more than an email sent periodi- and look for it or buy it somewhere, means various things. The main cally to the addressee: the simplest because it arrives directly at home uses are online versions of paper and most economic way to keep or the office. Moreover, most of the newspapers, free or subscription, people informed. contents is free. the webzine (magazines only online) and institutional sites for research For these reasons it works well institutes and newsletters. The last when you want to reach many peo- two instruments are the most ple or small communities united by important for a researcher. the same interest. Every university, research institute or Family access to the Internet, also large company now has a web site. with broad-band connection, is Too often, however, at least in already very high. Although its use Europe, its contents and services

70 - CHAPTER VI TO WORK!

AS THE SAYING GOES, THERE’S MANY A SLIP ‘TWIXT THE CUP AND THE LIP’. READING A BRIEF MANUAL WILL CERTAINLY NOT BE ENOUGH TO TURN A SCIENTIST INTO A SCIENCE COMMUNICATOR, BUT I HOPE THAT I MANAGED AT LEAST TO PROVIDE THE MAIN STEPS: WHY TO MAKE THIS CHANGE, WHICH CHANGES TO MAKE IN YOUR HABITUAL WAY OF THINKING AND DOING, HOW TO PLAN YOUR COMMUNICATION, HOW TO DO IT AS AN AUTHOR OR WITH A JOURNALIST, HOW TO CHOOSE THE MOST SUITABLE MEDIUM. NOW YOU HAVE TO GET TO KNOW AND ANALYSE THE BEST EXAMPLES, TRY AND TRY AGAIN, AND THEN EVALUATE WHAT YOU HAVE DONE, AND SEE IF IT REALLY WORKS. AS WITH ANYTHING ELSE. IF, HOWEVER, THERE IS ONE SECRET, IN THIS JOB, IT IS TO CULTIVATE THE HABIT OF PUTTING YOURSELF IN YOUR AUDIENCE’S SHOES, EVEN WITH YOUR IMAGINA- TION. HOW? BY LEARNING TO SEE THROUGH THEIR EYES, REASONING WITH THEIR HEAD, BELIEVING OR DOUBTING WITH THEIR JUDGEMENT, FLYING WITH THEIR IMAGINATION. COMMUNICATING, I WOULD LIKE TO RECALL JUST ONCE MORE, IS ESTABLISHING A RELATIONSHIP. YOU CANNOT DO WELL IF YOU DO NOT LET YOURSELF BECOME INVOLVED. IN THIS, COMMUNICATING IS DIFFERENT FROM ANYTHING ELSE. EVEN FROM SCIENCE. SUGGESTED READING Solid bases

Jane Gregory e Steve Miller, Science in Public: Communication, Culture and Credibility, Basic Books, 1998

Deborah Blum, Mary Knudson, A Field Guide for Science Writers, Oxford University Press, 1997

Online Resources

Office of Science and Technology, Going Public, An Introduction to Communicating Science, Engineering and Technology http://www.dti.gov.uk/ost/ostbusiness/puset/g_public.htm

English Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, Communicating with the Public: http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/tools/download/communicating_notes/ Welcome.html

Lars Lindberg Christensen A Hands-On Guide to Science Communication, aimed at public information officers, 2003 http://www.eso.org/~lchriste/scicomm/

People Science & Policy Ltd e Taylor Nelson Sofres Research Councils UK, Dialogue with the Public: Practical Guidelines, 2002 http://www.rcuk.ac.uk/guidelines/dialogue/

The Royal Society, Scientists and the Media, Guidelines for Scientists Working with the Media, 2000 www.royalsoc.ac.uk/files/statfiles/document-105.pdf

European Commission, European Research, A Guide to Successful Communications, 2004 http://europa.eu.int/comm/research/science-society/sciencecommunication/ index_en.htm

To Know Science is to Love it? Observations from Public Understanding of Science Research http://www.copus.org.uk/pubs_guides_toknowscience.html

Now for the Science Bit! Concentrate Communicating science: http://www.riverpath.com/library/science/science_bit.asp

An e-Guide to Science Communication: http://www.scidev.net/ms/sci_comm/

Communicating Science News. A Guide for Public Information Officers, Scientists and Physicians http://www.nasw.org/csn/

To keep updated

Public Understanding of Science, the main international academic publication dedicated to the relationships between science and society and the communication of science: http://pus.sagepub.com/

The international portal dedicated to resources on every aspect of communications between science and society: http://psci-com.org.uk/ European Commission

Communicating science - A scientist’s survival kit

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