CULTURE AND NATURE: THE EUROPEAN HERITAGE OF FARMING AND PASTORAL LIFE

TRADITIONAL TECHNOLOGIES OF PRODUCTION BASED ON SHEEP BREEDING

RESEARCH REPORT FOR

by Eleni Liva, Dr. Sotiris Chtouris

December 2011

The CANEPAL project is co-funded by the European Commission, Directorate General Education and Culture, CULTURE 2007-2013.Project no: 508090-CU-1-2010-1-HU-CULTURE-VOL11 This report reflects the authors’ view and the Commission is not liable for any use that may be made of the information contained herein 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

INTRODUCTION 3

SHEEP/ as a FOOD GIVER 4 a) Myths and history: the collective imaginary 4 b) Tradition: how the present reconstructs the past 6

SHEEP/GOAT as FOOD 11 a) The role of sheep breeding in the socio-economic life and nutritional habits of people (in , Hungary, Estonia, France, Greece, , UK) during the last century 11 b) Tracing the path: from raw material to food via traditional practices 18 c) The shifting status of the : from a god’s gift to a local or world market commodity 35 CONCLUSION 39

National origin hand in hand with European designation 39

NATIONALISM, PASTORALISM and the EUROPEAN VISION: an example from Greece 41

BIBLIOGRAPHY 43

2

INTRODUCTION The thematic on which we are going to work is Traditional Technologies of Food Production based on Sheep Breeding. What we are called to do as synthesis is to try and see, based on seven European national reports, a) what kind of food products people take from the sheep and/or goat and b) how they process the primary mater with an end result to market it as food stuff.

Given the fact that precise guidelines have been given to all partners in advance, so that the issues worked on would be more or less the same, it is interesting to observe that each one of the national reports chooses to focus on and develop quite different elements on the same thematic. This choice is not arbitrary. On the contrary, it reveals that both sheep breeding and processing techniques possess a different place in each national culture. Technology is inextricably linked with social processes, thus revealing the different angle from which different European people value sheep breeding, both in its physical and symbolic nature, together with all kinds of products that derive from this livestock. With the term technology we mean all these techniques that intend to transform raw material (meat, , or in some cases blood) to food products. Moreover, traditional conservation techniques were invented and developed, because of the need to preserve this foodstuff in a good condition, for the longest possible periods of time. Throughout the centuries, human beings were constantly on the search for new methods to transform simple raw material to an increasing complex range of foodstuff, giving proof of their inventiveness and creative spirit.

A useful tool to proceed in this task, namely to forge a synthesis of all these views, is content analysis. Our main concern is, initially, to highlight the main traditional practices in relation to sheep, and manufacturing of their products, as well as the way each one of the European partners values these practices, giving them a special meaning, and finally transfers them (as an agent of national culture) to the other partners. Finally, we hope to be able to highlight all common components of a long chain, which begins on the summer pastures of the European mountains and, after going through a lot of adversities, ends up on our festive or everyday table. This will, hopefully, help us to realize that despite our different traditional background, we all share a common European culture.

The European partners who have dealt with this thematic are the French, Bulgarians, Polish, Hungarians, Greeks, Estonians and British.

3

SHEEP/GOAT as a FOOD GIVER a) Myths and history: the collective imaginary The geographical, geomorphologic and climatic characteristics of Greece are particularly favourable to sheep farming. The mountainous terrain of the country, which proves difficult for other stock-raising, like bovine production, and the climatic conditions that allow for long periods of grazing have made sheep breeding a most important sector of animal husbandry in Greece since ancient times. In Greece, there are plenty of mythological references to the benevolent existence of the Goat and its divine gifts. According to ancient Greek mythology, Amaltheia (Fig 1) was the goat nurse of Zeus who suckled the infant-god in a in Cretan Mount Aigaion ("Goat Mountain").

(Fig 1)

Amaltheia and god Zeus being fed through her horn (Source:Wikipedia) When the god reached maturity he created his thunder-shield (aigis) from her hide (aiga is the greek word for goat) and the ‘horn of plenty’ (cornucopia) from her horn. Sheep breeding played an important role in ancient Greek economy as Homer and Hesiod testify in their writings. Indeed, during the Homeric age, meat was a staple food: lambs, goats, calves, giblets were charcoal grilled. Apart from meat, cheese making in Greece has also a centuries old tradition. Diodorus Sicilius (1rst century BC), the Greek historian from Sicily, wrote that Aristeus, son of Apollo and grandson of Zeus, who had learnt the art of cheese-making from his nannies, the nymphs, was sent by the Olympian gods to teach the Greeks how to make cheese. Given the value of cheese as a staple foodstuff, it is not surprising that ancient Greeks considered cheese as a divine invention and gift to the humans. The first written evidence we have on cheese and milk products is in the Homeric epic poems, more specifically in the Iliad (Rhapsody Λ: 637-641), where there is mention of a slave offering dry cheese to Patroclus, and in the Odyssey (Rhapsody I: 216-249), where Homer describes succinctly Polyphemus, a shepherd and a cheese maker of the 12th century BC, giving a full description of the cheese-making process of that time, which archaeological excavations have proved to have been in practice all over the Aegean islands.

4

Mythology and history become heritage in various ways. Myths and traditions become appropriated by particular ideologies and values, when they re-enact the past in present forms of production and technologies. These mythological and historical references are often projected by the Greek people in an effort to highlight their ancient heritage of sheep and goat breeding in Greece. Each society constructs its identity and negotiates its position in the wider world through references to its past. A characteristic example of this is the way the ancient Greek civilization is used as a most significant point of reference on the basis of which the contemporary Greek nation negotiates its position in the world system. The impulse to preserve the past is part of the impulse to preserve the self. The past is the foundation of individual and collective identity. The question is not whether or not we should preserve the past, but what kind of past we have chosen to preserve, and what that has done to our present. In this context, any references to the ancient Greek mythology and history are most useful when they come to validate the traditional way of the Greek cheese manufacturing as it is inherited to contemporary Greeks from their gods and ancestors. The cheese described by Homer is the ancestor of Feta and it has been the most popular cheese manufactured in Greece from ancient times till today. Indeed, in recent times, the Greek Feta cheese has been recognized as significant national cultural heritage.

Another legendary sheep product is the Scottish haggis. Haggis is a dish containing sheep's 'pluck' (heart, liver and lungs), minced with onion, oatmeal, suet, , and , mixed with stock, and traditionally simmered in the animal's stomach for some hours. It has a long history and it is one of the few dishes with special traditions attached to it. The haggis is a traditional Scottish dish memorialised as the of Scotland by Robert Burns' poem Address to a Haggis in 1787.

The need for the construction of a national identity finds its ways through many paths. A dish that embodies both nutritional values and traditional characteristics is exactly what people need in order to communicate through this with their national heritage.

An early printed recipe for haggis appears in 1615 in “The English Housewife” by Gervase Markham. It contains a section entitled Skill in Oate meale. It goes like this: “The use and vertues of these two severall kinds of Oate-meales in maintaining the Family, they are so many (according to the many customes of many Nations) that it is almost impossible to recken all”. And then proceeds to give a description of oatmeal: “Mixed with blood, and the Liver of either Sheepe, Calfe or Swine, maketh that pudding which is called the Haggas or Haggus, of whose goodnesse it is in vaine to boast, because there is hardly to be found a man that doth not affect them”. Maintaining the Nation and Family virtues, the quality of goodness and the extraordinary influence it exerts on every man –all these give the Haggis legendary properties and urges the scholars to look for further evidence in the long past. Food writer Alan Davidson goes back further, stating that the Ancient Romans were the first people known to have made products of the haggis type. Even earlier, a kind of primitive haggis is referred to in Homer's Odyssey, in book 20, (towards the end of the

5

eighth century BC) when Odysseus is compared to "a man before a great blazing fire turning swiftly this way and that a stomach full of fat and blood, very eager to have it roasted quickly".

Another legendary sheep product, one of the most famous European , is the French , a cheese which is ripened exclusively in the of Combalou and whose history has given rise to many legends. Some people in France believe it comes from ancient times. The historical fact is that in1411, Charles VII, by letter patents, prohibited seizing cheeses in the Roquefort caves. These documents show that right from the beginning the producers brought and deposited their cheeses in the caves in order to be salted and ripened for a price. The commercial function grew in importance and the cave owners started to sell the ripened cheeses on behalf of the producers, then later to purchase from the farms fresh cheese which they ripened and sold. Throughout the XVIIth and XVIIIth centuries, Roquefort enjoyed a great reputation with Parisian society, and in the XIXth century, trade and food guides wrote a lot about this cheese. From all the above, it is quite easy to understand that the Roquefort cheese is emblematic for France. This is, may be, the reason why, in the controversy that broke between France and the United States in 1999, the Confédération Paysanne protested against the decision of the World Trade Organisation to authorize American sanctions due to the refusal of the to import beef with growth hormones from the United States. When, in January 2009, the militant farmers destroyed the McDonald’s in Millau, in full view of the media, the George W. Bush administration threatened to tax Roquefort at 300%. b) Tradition: how the present reconstructs the past Traditional societies are progressively losing their “authenticity” as they are slowly but steadily incorporated in the globalization processes. Contemporary man revives past forms of cultural behaviors in an effort to give a new meaning to his social existence. In Bulgaria tradition exerts a very strong influence on the way contemporary people face pastoral life with its various components. The old religious feasts, as well as a lot of rituals which intervened in almost every activity in the pastoral framework (e.g. cheese was prepared for the first time on the day of Gergyovden, the consumption of milk being a taboo till that day of the year, dairy activities started on the day of Sts. Constantine and Helena, etc) have nowadays been transformed into numerous cultural events which express, as the Bulgarians themselves admit, reverence for pastoralism, animal flocks and milk. Contemporary local festivals, such as the “Path of Goat’s Milk”, in places traditionally associated with sheep breeding, seek to preserve traditions and protect the prestige of the .

Representation of old lifestyles, rituals, cultural events referring to tradition, all these share much in common: a repeated ritual, a religious (magical) purpose, the imaginary connection with a social group.

6

Ancient ritual methods of purification, like dropping a silver coin into the vessel, or the milk with morning dew collected in the meadows before sunrise on St. George’s day, or actions to ensure apotropaic and symbolic protection, like hanging on the bucket on the first day of milking, always found ways to penetrate the contemporary era transformed into ideas and practices which are expressed in modern terms: “purity”, “higher quality”, “authenticity”, signifying the modern equivalent to describe foodstuff distinguished for purity and quality, as well as authenticity of technology. These beliefs are deeply embodied in the contemporary Bulgarian culture and find their place in modern movements, feasts and institutions like the Wildlife Fund Conservation Organization which organized tasting of from farmlands “with high natural value” -an event which praised the Bulgarian sheep and goat dairy products and took place in front of the National Theatre House in Sofia. (Fig 2) Through similar actions we observe that pastoralism is put on the stage of public life having been removed from its traditional setting to a contemporary cultural space –for example, the space in front of the National Theatre House in the capital of the country.

(Fig 2)

Spring Festival "Green Days", April 2011 Eco sheep and goats dairy products Tents in front of the National Theatre in Sofia. (Photo: Mira Dikova) (Photo: Mira Dikova)

In Poland, in the Podhale region, in the Tatra Mountains, pastoralism was traditionally flourishing. One of the most needed, useful animals for the inhabitants of the Tatras was the sheep. (Fig 3) The problem was that the increasing number of sheep caused overgrazing and a consequent redemption of the pastures. Thus, in order to protect the wild nature, measures were taken which aimed to turn out the sheep from the Tatras’ pasture lands to the Pieniny mountains. In 1980’s the shepherds themselves claimed that it was their tradition and they were obliged to practice shepherding in the name of the land they came from. As a result of their mobilization, it was decided that the pasturage of sheep should be reintroduced to the Tatras.

It is more than evident that the government’s measures did not erase from local memory nor eliminated the recall of that memory, rendering less meaningful the 7

communication of that heritage to a new generation. The shepherds protested against the destruction of the tangible manifestations of their identity, against the condemnation of the way of life which had been practiced there.

(Fig 3)

Pasturelands in the Tatra National Park, The Kościeliska Valley. Poland 2011. (Photo: Diana Woch)

West Tatras. Poland, 1960 (Photo: Z. Kamykowski)

Thus, the so called cultural pasturage, came into being under the name Tatra National Park. According to the regulation of the Tatra National Park, the shepherd signs an agreement with the management of the TNP and from then on his activities are strictly monitored by it. The agreement determines the number of sheep (up to 1500), the place of pasturage, the shepherd’s clothes and the technical and aesthetic condition of his hut. (Fig 4) For example, a shepherd who is running the sheep pasturage in the territory of the Tatra National Park, an area where trees, plants and landscape are under strict protection, is obliged to cultivate the agricultural pasture. This means keeping the traditions regarding the sheep pasture: manufacturing of dairy products, traditional way of managing the herds, wearing a traditional outfit and speaking the Podhale dialect.

8

(Fig 4)

(Left Photo) The leader of the shepherds “baca” Józef Słodyczka (Podhale). Poland (Phot. Barbara Woch, 2011) (Right Photo) Clothes on Podhale shepherd. (Phot. Stanisław Piotr Makara, 2011) The main goal of this cultural pasturage is the re-establishment of the former natural balance in the Tatras landscape and the continuation of customs, as well as rich tradition connected with pastoralism.

In the framework of this initiative, namely the Tatra Agency for Development, Promotion and Culture, “The Route” was created. This is a kind of tourist route that enriches the cultural heritage of this specific region and shows 31 huts that are located in the , county, , Sucha county, Nowy Sącz county; it constitutes an excellent guidance for a tourist (Fig 5) who wants to try the real oscypek. Oscypek is the traditional Polish cheese and it has been recognized as national cultural heritage.

(Fig 5)

Sheep pasturage routes and tourist routes, Podhale, Poland. (Photo: Barbara Woch, 2011)

9

Reviewing the attitudes of the above mentioned countries, as far as tradition management is concerned, we notice a similar pattern, namely an attempt of the people to reconnect with their past. Linking the past with the present creates a sense of continuity. In times of danger we become deeply conscious of our heritage. This heritage represents some form of security, a point of reference, a refuge perhaps, something visible and tangible which, within a troubled world, seems stable and unchangeable.

And the story continues to include even more cultural groups. In , Greece, in the mountain area of Gyftokambos, at a height of 1200 m, the Cultural Association “Fraternity of Epirotes Sarakatsani in Athens” built a representation of a Sarakatsani ‘Stani’, as it was in operation till the middle of the 20th century. This Sarakatsani ‘Stani’ is a faithful representation of seasonal settlement of the Sarakatsani shepherds. (Fig 6) It is a fenced area of 16 acres inside the forest where “konakia” are built (huts, the “trade mark” of the Sarakatsani culture, which are made of twigs and straw and were used as houses or cellαrs), as well as the greki -a pen where the animals were kept. Depending on use, each konaki is equipped with the objects of everyday life –beds, cookware, a loom and equipment for cheese making. The Sarakatsani have tried to depict their nomadic lifestyle. The installation can be visited free of charge throughout the day. The Fraternity of Sarakatsani created and maintains this representation of traditional life, together with a nearby traditional tavern. Furthermore, every year in the beginning of August, a Pan-Hellenic Gathering of all its members is organized along with cultural activities and a camping for guests.

(Fig 6)

A Sarakatsani “stani” at Gyftokambos, Epirus, Greece (Source: [email protected]) Reviewing critically these attempts to revive past traditions and valorise its main characteristics, we could say that this kind of ‘theme parks’, namely these heritage sites, do not really preserve the past, they just represent it. The reconstruction of the past through collective representations is most useful for the preservation of the national, political and cultural identity of a society or a social group. Identity construction through historical representation brings to the forefront the issue of memory. Indeed, it is through memory that we perceive the present taking shape. Identity formation is directly linked to selection mechanisms on the level of memory.

10

What is recorded as collective memory is exactly that which a given culture perceives as significant. And what is significant, and therefore memorable, as history, is defined in terms of the present.

The “Path of Goat’s Milk”, “The Oscypek Route”, the “Sakatsani Stani”, all these consist collective representations which not only reflect but also shape social life. Memory is stored in the common imaginary people share. These representations bring the past into the present as a transforming force. They are effective as long as they function as narratives that liberate, deconstruct and reconstruct the essence of the “myth”, opening passages in space and time. The representations shift “things” from a specific time and space to another. This re-distribution of past elements abolishes the idea of the present as a closed continuum and calls into question contrasts such as past/present, traditional/modern, rural/urban. What strikes the visitor of such places most forcefully is the dissolution of space and time. Following the “Path of Goat’s Milk”, the “Oscypek Route” and the Sarakatsani Stani, the visitor crosses a bridge and finds him/herself in the 19th century pasture lands of . Thus, one is offered the opportunity to become a momentary immigrant from the pressure of contemporary space and time. Nevertheless, such representations that re-enact the past, have often been targets of harsh criticism. They have been charged with “staged authenticity” which makes use of dramaturgical and other presentational devices to “simulate” real life for tourists. The critique argues furthermore that modernity destroys traditional crafts only to restage them as objects of display in the heritage industry.

SHEEP and GOAT as FOOD a) The role of sheep breeding in the socio-economic life and nutritional habits of people (in Poland, Hungary, Estonia, France, Greece, Bulgaria, UK) during the last century Sheep and goat, as such, occupy a completely different position in the consciousness of each one of the seven nationalities. This is evident, as we have already observed, in the ways this consiousness emerges, in relation to each country’s mythology, history and tradition. Indeed, people living in countries with a rich relief, low annual rainfall, mild temperatures, as well as scarcity of arable lands, use their mountainous and hilly areas for raising sheep and goats. Consequently, national beliefs, views and evaluations arise and develop on the basis of this close affinity between people and their livestock. It is true that humanity has never been involved in a relationship with any other creature that was more pivotal to its development and ultimate success than the one it shares with sheep.

In Poland, in the Podhale region, there was a popular saying, “Whoever has sheep has whatever he wants”. Indeed, pastoralism and all sheep products constituted a very important branch of the economy in the Tatras region, where adverse climate conditions and a less fertile land limited the abilities of agricultural life for the local 11

community. In one of the oldest Ethnographic Monographs about the Podhale Region, L. Kamiński refers to sheep as the animal that is the most needed and useful for the people of the region. This is quite valid as maintenance costs were low and benefits so abundant, namely food, clothes and income. The specific characteristics of pastoralism in the Tatras Mountains, as well as legal regulations in relation to milk products, gave to the whole technological process, together with local transport arrangements, a unique local character. More specifically, products were transported from the milk production place (pasture land) to szałas (a wooden hut located on a pasture land) where they were processed.

In the interwar period there were approximately a few thousands sheep grazing in the Polish Tatras mountains. After the Second World War, in 1946, the number increased to 30,000 sheep. As a result of constant growth, a debate was launched concerning the destructive role of pastoralism on the environment of the Tatras region. Thus, in order to protect the pristine environment measures were taken aiming at removing sheep and goats from the Tatras pasture lands altogether; the Pieniny mountains were allocated to shepherds for raising their flocks. This process was known as the Great Redyk. (Fig 7) However, in the 1980s, a new policy was decided, namely to reintroduce sheep grazing to the Tatras. The main justification for this change was the shepherds’ claim that tradition pushed them to practice shepherding in the land they originally came from. Moreover, there were many environmental factors that were in favour of the reintroduction of grazing in the Tatras region, as it was noticed that the absence of sheep in pasture lands had an adverse impact on local flora – pasture lands started to overgrow, some plants species disappeared, as they had been introduced to pasture lands because of sheep grazing. As a result, it was decided that sheep should be reintroduced to the Tatras. In the Tatras Mountains shepherds mainly produce cottage and . Using sheep milk one can produce oscypek, redykołki, , and żentyca.

Nowadays, in Poland there are 250 000 sheep (during the 1960-1980 period there were 5 million sheep), 60 000 of them being ‘milk sheep’ in the southern part of Poland. It is assumed that one shepherd can look after 100 sheep (the determining factor is sheep milking capacity).

12

(Fig 7)

Transhumance in Biały Dunajec. Podhale, Poland. (Phot. W. Werner, 50s Twentieth century, Collections Tatra Museum in ) In Bulgaria, a country with a lot of mountainous areas, the highlanders (the Rhodopean people, people in the Berkovitza region and the regions of Stara, Planina and Pirin) seem to value a lot their sheep and goats and claim that the local sheep breeds’ milk is very tasty and nutritious.

Archaeological evidence from the Chalcolitic era – plenty of osteological material from domesticated sheep - testifies that the tradition of raising sheep for their meat, milk and wool in this region goes back to . Old Slavic tribes during their migration and settlement in the Balkan Peninsula raised sheep extensively. Proto-Bulgarians were a nomadic people and their diet was based on meat and milk. In the more recent past, Bulgarian highlanders involved in large-scale sheep and goat raising, produced considerable amounts of milk, which was usually placed in vats with capacity of ca 100 liters for processing into cheese. These containers in the Pirin region held 150 kg but their capacity in some places reached up to 500 and 1000 kg. Concerning sheep meat, the traditional peasant family very rarely slaughtered an animal for consumption. Sheep and goat breeders relied mainly on sheep milk and wool – but not on meat. An animal was slaughtered and its meat was consumed only during religious festivals, family celebrations, birth and wedding celebrations, funerals, ritual offerings and name-day celebrations. Lamb was traditionally slaughtered mainly during Gergyovden and Easter celebrations. Rams, and rarely sheep (only if they are barren) were slaughtered for sacrifice offerings (kurban). In autumn, one of the aged animals (male or female) was slaughtered and processed into meat products that could cover the family’s needs during the long winter months. Up to mid-twentieth century, shepherds in Southern Bulgaria usually slaughtered 1-2 animals for “pastarma” and “sazdarma”. Sheep milk is consumed as sour milk, cheese and . A well known traditional drink is taken after the extraction of . Shepherds and their families used to enjoy

13

drinking this , especially during hot summer days, as they toiled in the fields; it is still is very popular nowadays. Butter was one of the most durable basic sheep dairy products in the past. It was an important product for trade during the 15th–19th centuries. Today, butter production is not considered profitable any more. White brine sheep cheese is the most popular product, as well as , curds, yoghurt and (yellow cheese). It is considered that in Bulgarian lands people made yellow cheese since ancient times.

In Hungary, in the Great Hungarian Plain and the Transdunabia, breeding was more important than sheep breeding. The great plains of this country always favored cattle breeding and the Hungarian people always believed that sheep milk was by no means as important as cow milk. Sheep dairy products did not play an important role in local people’s diet. However, in the regions north and east of the Great Hungarian Plain, in the middle mountain areas, near the sheep breeding areas of the Carpathians, sheep milk processing and consumption was more important. Among the eastern Palócs, sheep breeding was quite typical, and milk processing was very similar to that of the region. However, generally speaking, sheep milk was never as important a product among the eastern Palócs and in the whole Hungarian speaking area, as was wool or meat. Before the introduction of the merino breed, Hungarian sheep were raised primarily for their meat, even though they gave more milk than the merino. Later on, with the dominance of the merino breed, milk production was abandoned as profit could be made mainly from the merino wool. In fact, the whole system of Hungarian sheep breeding changed with the introduction of the western merino breeds in the 18th century and their expansion – due to wool prosperity – in the first half of the 19th century.

Another important income source was sheep meat; indeed, in Hungary, 150 years ago, sheep and cattle meat played a much more important role in Hungarian people’s diet than today, when pork meat consumption is prevalent. People in villages and urban centers alike showed a predilection for sheep meat, especially in social occasions such as engagements, weddings or baptisms. Apart from wool and meat, milk is the next most important product of sheep breeding. Sheep farming dedicated to milk production had been a well formed system since the 18th century, in Greater and Lesser Cumania regions. Sheep flocks were so important that they could graze on best quality pastures, and, more often than not, they were even allowed to graze in arable lands and, sometimes, in forbidden pastures. As arable land surface expanded in the following decades, the number of sheep suddenly fell and, by 1890, their number was halved, compared to 20 years earlier. Moreover, cattle breeding became more profitable than sheep breeding, therefore quality pastures were dedicated to cattle. It is worth noting that lamb consumption in Hungary is far below poultry, pork or beef consumption, so that sheep breeding does not generate satisfactory income anymore.

In Estonia, until the beginning of the 19th century, they used to breed sheep with thick fur for the production of pelts and wool. In 1863, it was decided to import foreign breeds

14

in order to improve local sheep breeds and soon Merinos were replacing local wool sheep. In 1890s, in all the Baltic states, livestock consisted of one million sheep. In1916, Estonia had a livestock of 620,000 sheep. However, in 1925, sheep numbers started to decrease due to a host of reasons, namely the economic crisis of the time, the decision to give priority to dairy cattle, several wet summers and a of parasitic diseases. The lowest number of sheep was in 1930, when only 467,200 sheep were counted. At the beginning of the 1990s, the number of sheep in Estonia was approximately 140,000 and it decreased below 30,000 over the course of the next ten years; mutton was no longer available for sale.

In Estonia sheep milk is rarely consumed. People tend to believe that sheep milk tastes of filth and sweat. There is scarce evidence on sheep milking. Only goat milking is mentioned, as it was used for medicinal purposes as well as for making porridge; milking sheep and goats was generally rather frowned upon. The only place in Estonia where sheep milking and the use of sheep milk has been recorded at all is in the Pakri islands, where Estonian Swedes lived. Nowadays, is one of the most distinctive features of the Pakri islands’ local cuisine. Sheep cheese is given as a gift to guests and is in great demand among tourists. In Estonia it is only sheep meat and fat that is being processed. Although, generally speaking, a cuisine based on sheep farming consists in mutton, milk and dairy products, only mutton has been used in . Almost every part of sheep is used in cooking: meat, most of the internal organs and also blood. Traditionally, on the day a sheep was slaughtered, its blood was made into blood pudding, blood cake or blood bread and blood sausages (this is a traditional Christmas dish even in today’s Estonia). Another popular dish is meat jelly (sheep head and legs usually boiled) as well as pâté from sheep liver. Sheep meat is usually consumed in autumn and winter. At the beginning of autumn – usually on Mihklipäev (St. Michael’s day, 29.09), a sheep would be slaughtered, usually a ram or an old sheep.

In France there are regions that have developed a sheep rearing tradition. Sheep husbandry is mainly present in territories where the land is not particularly fertile, or it is hilly, while lush meadows are usually reserved for cattle rearing. The distribution of sheep is primarily determined by physical geography. The Midi-Pyrénées region is the foremost sheep farming region in France. One distinguishes there the Roquefort production area where production of lamb meat is merely incidental to cheese making; there are other areas where sheep flocks are specialized in meat production, particularly suckling lambs.

On a European level, the French stand in 5th place, in relation to sheep meat consumption per inhabitant. Whereas French households purchase more than 20% of lamb in traditional butchers’ shops, sheep meat consumed in France is essentially imported mainly frozen from New Zealand and fresh from the British Isles. Sheep rearing is largely practiced by small and medium sized farms; breeders have difficulty surviving economically and facing up to market fluctuations, despite actions taken to

15

add value to these products. Traditionally, lamb meat is appreciated in festive occasions, during important rituals (baptisms or Communions) or religious festivals. Lamb is sometimes consumed at Christmas and it remains the typical food of Easter celebration. In the Paris region, leg of lamb cooked in the oven and accompanied by flageolet beans, is the archetypical Sunday family lunch and is still a great classic of French home cooking.

A particular predilection for sheep meat, namely for its taste, goes back to the XVIIIth century. At the time, numerous written documents are devoted to the quality of sheep meat, appreciating its taste and tenderness, but also products from ewes, especially cheese. Even more so than sheep-meat production, the geography of ewe’s milk cheese production is concentrated in the south of France with the Midi-Pyrénées region and its famous Roquefort cheese but also whose livestock farming is mainly sheep farming.

French people are obviously very proud of their cheese production. As General de Gaulle once famously said, “How can you govern a country which has more than three hundred different cheeses?” In fact it seems that there are more than five hundred varieties, especially as new cheeses are constantly being introduced to the market. For the French people, cheese is not just food, product, commodity or gift: It is part of the national identity. Today, France remains basically the country of cheese.

Sheep have been a major farm animal in the UK for hundreds of years. Food from sheep has been and remains common in British and . In general meat from sheep (lamb and mutton) is the main product and sheep milk is hardly used except in a very small way. The lack of milk production and the absence of milk and milk products made from sheep reflects the historical emphasis on meat and wool and the way the breeds were developed to favour these characteristics as well as the fact the dairy farming using cattle is another large-scale agricultural practice so that almost all the necessary dairy products come from cow’s milk.

Greece ranks seventh in global production (5, 2%) and second among European Union countries (28, 1% of total goat milk production in the EU). Greece also raises 47, 7% of goats in the EU. These two sectors of animal production (sheep and goat) are of paramount importance not only for economic reasons, but because they also have social repercussions, especially in mountainous and hilly regions of Greece, as they help sustain the social fabric of local societies. In Greece, there are approximately 250.000 families who are active as animal farmers or work in the processing sector. Thus, the sheep and goat sector is rightly considered as the ‘backbone’ of Greek animal farming. Greek people consume big quantities of sheep and goat meat, as well as their dairy products. In Greece the average consumption of sheep and goat meat is four times higher than the European average; according to 2004 data, 86% of the market is covered by local production. As far as dietary preferences are concerned, mainland Greece favours sheep meat consumption, while insular regions, mainly in the Aegean Sea, favour goat meat.

16

Almost every region in Greece had and continues to have a sheep rearing tradition. In and – with their high mountains, big plains, long rivers and big lakes- nomadic people, like the Sarakatsani and the Vlachs, being exclusively nomadic shepherds till the ‘60s, contributed significantly in establishing a thriving dairy and meat production in these regions. Moreover, the Epirus mountainous region has been the privileged living space for nomadic and semi-nomadic livestock farmers, practicing transhumance between lowlands and mountains. (Fig 8) During the Ottoman Empire, the absence of national borders in a vast geographical region facilitated herd movement from this mountain range to the and Macedonian plains. Two local sheep breeds, ‘boutsiko’ and ‘vlach’, highly resistant to cold and constant movement, as well as goats of the Greek breed ‘common goat’, were mostly raised by shepherds to produce high quality dairy products (i.e. the PDO cheese batzo), as well as excellent meat. On Thessaly’s mountains we have Vlachs, Sarakatsani, Chasiotes and Antichasiotes, who are mainly livestock farmers and shepherds. Each one of these population groups preserves each own cultural and dietary habits, which are passed on from one generation to the other.

(Fig 8)

Towards to Neohori Paramithias. Epirus, Greece 1963 (Source: Fraternity of Epirotes Sarakatsani in Athens) Farming and animal breeding always provided local raw material that eventually shaped the region’s identity. Farmers involved in livestock breeding supplied the region with meat, usually consumed only on Sundays or festive days. They mainly produced milk and dairy products that covered their daily nutritional needs. Sterea Hellas, in central mainland Greece, is characterized by high mountains and great plains. Its economy is based on farming and animal breeding. On its mountains there is seasonal pastoralism, in summer, (Fig 9) while during wintertime pastoralists move their flocks to the plains. However, this kind of livestock farming loses gradually its nomadic character, becoming increasingly semi nomadic. The islands are barren, hilly and mountainous with limited farming land. Animal farming, especially sheep and goat, was highly developed, since there were no pastures for big cattle. There are big numbers of goats roaming on each island, supplying meat and milk to the local population all year through. 17

(Fig 9)

Livestock farm in the Aegean island of . “Taistra” is a long, wooden manger for animal feed, namely wheat (in the morning) and barley (in the afternoon), as well as vetch and clover. (Photo: Malama Rentari, 2011)

A simple manger has been constructed out of a piece of wide water pipe and a couple of board pieces for supplementary feeding. Estonia. (Photo: K. Tali, 2011)

On the island of , animal farming mainly involves sheep and goat, as the island has the 16% and 15% of the total sheep and goat population of Greece respectively (there are more than 1.200.000 sheep and goats). Out of the total animal population, 70% is located on the mountains, 20% on hilly areas and 10% in lowland areas. Sheep and goats are free range, grazing freely upon the Cretan flora, namely a wide range of plants, aromatic and shrubs.

Greek people appreciate a lot sheep and goat dairy products: Today numerous traditional cheeses are made throughout Greece, twenty of them having been recognized as PDO. In fact cheese for Greeks is an indispensable companion to their daily lunch and dinner. b) Tracing the path: from raw material to food stuff via traditional practices

With reference to the seven European reports on sheep/goat meat and milk processing techniques, we are in a relative position to trace the path -through different contexts- of these products from the moment of their birth (animal slaughtering, milk harvesting) till the moment they are ready for human consumption. 18

Tracing the path of sheep meat, we visit Estonia where sheep are bred only for their meat and fat (in old times for their blood too) and not for their milk. Following the path of the slaughtered animal, we find the sheep, at the very beginning of this production chain, waiting for the fatal moment which is planned following the lunar phases (full or new moon), as well as the wind direction. The animal is slaughtered at home (Fig 10) either by the owner or by a butcher invited from the village and is consumed by the family.

(Fig 10)

Slaughter at home Slaughtering bench to keep the sheep still (Photo: U. Lett 2011-11-21) (Photo: V. Kala 1962)

Following the animal’s slaughtering, the first “thing” to be processed ιs the animal’s blood. Sheep blood is rarely used nowadays, as the tradition of preparing food at home from the animal’s blood has been abandoned. In the old days, animal blood was let out to flow into a vessel. A blood mixer (a girl, in earlier times a male) kept stirring the blood with a wooden spoon or a whisk to prevent it from congealing. Water or snow was added for cooling purposes. Salt, fat and onions were added and it was consumed right away. (Fig 11) The blood container itself was stored and preserved at the coldest place of the premises.

(Fig 11)

Blood sousage. The blood sausage dough was made of sheep blood, fat, water, barley or wheat flour. The dough was stuffed into pig intestines. (Photo: 1973)

19

Another “commodity” taken from the slaughtered animal, was its fat which was chopped into small pieces and then mixed with salt and scooped into a barrel that was covered on top. In some places the animal’s fat was put into a barrel together with meat, then it was taken out, after some time, and left to dry in smoke. People used to hang these pieces of fat and cut portions from them, as necessary. Apart from blood and fat, sheep meat is very much appreciated in Estonia and there are a lot of preservation techniques. Traditionally, sheep meat is either preserved with salting techniques (covered with brine), or wind-drying, dry-curing, (above a heater, in the chimney or in the sauna), or it is sent to a meat processing plant. (Fig 12)Today there is a slaughterhouse in every county, as well as one official organic slaughterhouse that accepts sheep. There are also a few licensed private slaughterhouses.

(Fig 12)

Mutton was usually smoked in a sauna in order to preserve it. Sipe village, Estonia. (Photo: R. Viidebaum, 1933)

Modern smoke sauna for smoking meat. Muhu island, Estonia. (Photo: Kadri Kask, 2011)

20

In the UK, also, only meat is important for consumption. A very good example of traditional processing of sheep products is the haggis –a type of sausage stuffed with sheep offal. (Fig 13) Following its path, we witness the thorough cleaning of the sheep stomach, the soaking in salted water and the stuffing of it with minced lungs, heart, liver of the lamb. The stomach is sewn and then cooked in a pan of boiling water. In old times, haggis was a popular dish for the poor, as it was made from the sheep’s leftovers. Today, its pathway ends in the super markets where it is sold packed in artificial casings rather than stomachs. Some of them are sold in tins or a container which can be oven baked.

(Fig 13)

Haggis. (Photo made by the MacSween company) In Hungary the path of sheep meat starts right with the examination of the animal’s hoof and teeth, on the 8th of September (a religious feast), the day that traditionally shepherds selected sheep for selling and slaughtering. The slaughtering took place by sticking a sharp knife under the chin and waiting until the blood of the animal run out; the animal was hung up, its skin was flayed and its meat was processed. Before the slicing, the sheep’s intestines and tallow had to be removed. According to traditional processing and preparation methods almost every part of the sheep was used. There were two widespread methods of preserving meat in the past. It was either smoked or fried and then preserved in its own fat. Among the eastern Palócs and the Hungarian language areas, mutton was also usually fried and preserved in a leather bottle or wooden cup. The sheep leg was prepared as ham and was smoked together with the rack and the ribs. In winter, shepherds froze the meat by hanging it up on a branch. Mutton was usually consumed freshly cooked and it was preserved only if there were no other possibilities. Nowadays, mutton is stored in refrigerators for short periods and in freezers for longer periods in raw or processed condition. In the past, the end of the path for sheep meat took place in the sheep markets. It was in markets and fairs, during summer and autumn months, that farmers of the nearby villages drove their most healthy and fattened livestock. In Kunmadaras, the sheep-markets of St. Demeter’s day (26th of October) were famous; customers were farmers, butchers or dealers, but also Czech and Austrian traders, contractors and other types of merchants as well. Today, the customer contacts the owner or the breeder and chooses the livestock there. Selling the sheep as meat is often done through wholesalers.

21

The information about sheep meat we receive from Bulgaria is limited because the traditional peasant family very rarely slaughtered an animal for consumption. Sheep were slaughtered as “kurban” (sacrifice offering) on Gergyovden (St. George’s day) and Easter. Sheep meat was consumed only on feasts, family celebrations, birth and wedding celebrations, funerals and name-days. The path of the meat really begins from the moment the peasant family decides to preserve it for the long winter months. “Pastarma” is produced through salting the meat of feeble animals. Sheep is cut into 3 or 4 parts with the bones, sprinkled with coarse salt and left in a wooden container for 2 weeks. Then it is hung to dry in an airy place. “Sazdarma” follows a different path. The meat, chopped in small pieces, is cooked in salt and water till soft so that bones can be easily removed. After de- boning, it is put to boil again until water entirely evaporates. The experienced cooks process the fat separately – they fry it to melt and remove the meat bits. This fat is added to the meat when cooked. Slightly cooled, the ready sazdarma is poured into a sheep stomach. They sew the hole, press under weight and keep in a cold place. In the Rhodope Mountains, the sazdarma is put into plates to harden and then suspended from the ceiling to dry in a well-ventilated place. At the end of the path, the sazdarma is on the market as a of mutton, cooked in the traditional way, but wrapped in polyethylene casing instead of in the traditional cleaned intestine or stomach. Plenty of spices are used in its preparation and it is eaten cold or warm, as a spicy appetizer to accompany wine. Tracing the path of the sheep milk, there are two reports, one from Greece and the other from France, which give an idea of what cornucopia could mean, in terms of the most precious : cheese. (Fig 14 and 15) The from both countries seems endless: cheese in brine, hard cheese, semi-hard cheese, soft cheese, . Most of them originate from the mountainous areas of the two countries: Corsica and the Pyrenean mountain range in France, the Pindos mountain range, Epirus, Macedonia, Thrace and Crete in Greece. The majority of both French and Greek cheeses trace their origin in antiquity. Cheese production in the Pyrenees- Orientales dates back to the Middle Ages. The same holds true for the Jonchee cheese from the Poitou-Charentes. Rabelais, in 1546, quotes the Caillebotte cheese in his ‘Tiers Livre’. Last but not least, Roquefort has given rise to many legends, as some experts believe it comes from antiquity. In Greece, there are references in ancient texts which verify the manufacturing of cheese as old as 5.400 BC.

22

(Fig 14) GREEK CHEESES

Cheese in brine: Batzos Hard cheese: Hard cheese: Hard cheese: Ladotyri

Semi hard cheese: Cheese in brine: Feta Cheese in brine: Kalathaki of Lemnos Soft cheese: Anevato

Source: Anifantakis E.M. 1991. Greek Cheeses. A Tradition of Centuries. Greek National Committee of International Dairy Federation. Athens

(Fig 15) FRENCH CHEESES

Brebis du Lochois Brousse du Var Venacu cheese Tome d'Arles Centre region Alpes Côte d’Azur Corsica island Alpes Côte d’Azur

Barousse Ossau-Iraty Mamia cheese Pigouille Midi-Pyrénées Midi-Pyrénées Corsica island Poitou-Charentes

23

Having traced its course, through the seven European reports, we observe that cheese, on the European continent, follows a standard path - in order to be consumed at our table. In all seven countries, from the very beginning till almost the end, the process of milk transformation into cheese is in most cases similar or even identical. All cheese varieties owe their different characteristics to a wide range of techniques applied at the last phase of ripening and preservation.

We shall now trace this path starting our journey from Greece where, traditionally, cheese-making started right after the religious festival of St. George, on April 23d, a date that coincided with the settlement of the semi nomadic flocks around the summer pastures. The same happened in Bulgaria, as Gergyovden (St. George) was celebrated in May, while in Hungary the same event was celebrated on Pentecost, right after the sheep shearing season. Till that day, at least for the Bulgarians, there was a ritual taboo prohibiting milk consumption. This is the starting point, in relation to both time and place, of a long path. On that symbolic day, the day of the patron saint of the shepherds, all over Europe, where double transhumance takes place, the first step was to transform milk into cheese. High mountain valleys and high altitude plateaus on the Pyrenean mountain range in France, the mountain pastures in Pindos mountain range in Greece, the Rhodopes Mountain in Bulgaria, the Tatra Mountains in Poland, the Great Cumania regions in Hungary are the loci of birth of one of the most valuable foodstuff, known to man from prehistoric times: milk and cheese. The first documented evidence of milk consumption goes back to 5400BC, as it was shown by chemical analysis of Prehistoric jars, in Central Macedonia, containing food remains. It is the oldest recorded milk use that has been found on the European territory. The Greek word for cheese, tyros appears on Mycenaean Linear B inscriptions, at the ancient palace of Pylos, circa 1200BC, and it refers to a ceremonial banquet offered in honor of the god Poseidon.

As we mentioned earlier, the first day of the sheep milking is the first nodal point of this long path. (Fig 16) In the traditional context, in most regions in Europe, sheep/goat milking took place near the shepherds’ residential huts, on the summer pastures. In Poland, the barracks were enclosures of a size depending on the number of sheep in a herd. Most often the barracks consisted of two parts –the one was used to drive the sheep for milking and the latter to house the sheep at nights. In Hungary, milking shepherds lived with their flocks out in the pastures from spring to autumn, where the milking-pen was set up and also their own shelter, namely a hut and a milk kitchen. Milk was processed in the milk kitchen, which was built next to the shepherd’s shelter and was made of reeds. The milk cellar was a pit covered with reeds, weeds or grass, sprinkled daily to keep the stored milk cool. In Greece, in summer pastures, the semi- nomadic flocks were not penned for the night. They were milked in the strounga, which consisted of an outdoor enclosure, where the flock was gathered before milking, and in a seasonal shelter, leaning on poles and covered with oak branches.

24

(Fig 16)

Milking the sheep: Central Rhodopes, Bulgaria. (Photo of Krapcheva N. –photographer of the Ethnographic Institute and Museum, Field researches in 1983 – 1984)

Milking the sheep: Pakri, Suurküla, Estonia. (G. Ränga’s photographs from Pakri islands 30.3.40–1.4.1940)

Milking the sheep: Mitsikeli Mountain, Epirus, Greece. (Photo: Carsten Hoeg, 1922. Source: Fraternity of Epirotes Sarakatsani in Athens).

25

Milking sheep in Hala Pięciu Stawów, Poland (Photo: Z. Kamykowski, 50s the twentieth century (The collection Tatra Museum in Zakopane) In each of the aforementioned places and elsewhere of course, from St. George’s to St. Demetrius’ day, from spring to autumn, early in the morning, the shepherd grabbed the sheep from the wool, pulled it to himself and held its udder with his left hand using his right hand to squeeze the milk out, directing it straight into the wooden bucket.

At that very moment, if we could imagine ourselves in a balloon flying above the mountainous regions of Europe, we would have seen, in so many different contexts, the same movements, the same tools, the same rush, the same worries, and finally the same expectation over wooden pots, mugs, churns, buckets (Fig 17) containing the primary substance that the animal world offers to us human beings: milk. It is at the very moment that milk, through its human agents –shepherds all over Europe- starts a new journey: its transformation into cheese.

(Fig 17)

“Kardara” is a container for the milk that has been harvested; milking takes place in a special area of the pen called ‘strounga’. The kardara is made of tin. Lemnos, Greece. (Photo: Malama Rentari, 20011)

26

Wooden milking pail for milking the sheep. A vessel for processing cheese, Poland (Hungarian Open Air Museum). (Photo: Andrzej Rychlewski)

Milking stool. Dairy utensils Regional historical museum, Smolyan, (Hungarian Open Air Museum) Bulgaria. (Photo: Vladimir Kiryakov) In general, migrating shepherds were responsible for cheese making in the mountain regions, whereas sedentary shepherds were not involved with milking or cheese production, this was a woman’s task.

After filtering the milk through a silk or linen cloth into a pottery – to remove impurities – (Fig 18) there comes the 3 nodal points of the transformative process.

(Fig 18)

Straining the milk through a cloth. Poland, 1960 (Photo: Z. Kamykowski)

27

Milk is poured into a cauldron and heating starts. As it is heated a transforming substance is added: the . (Fig 19) This substance was traditionally taken from the dried stomach of a suckling goat. In rare occasions, rennet was made from sour fruit juice.

(Fig 19)

Photo by László K. Kovács, ethnographer and photographer. Transylvania, Csomafája, , 1941

Through this alchemical initiation the milk starts curdling. As soon as the milk starts curdling the cheese-maker begins stirring it continuously with some intermediary pauses. Following the stirring process a large part of the butter becomes separated from the and remains in the whey. (Fig 20)

(Fig 20)

Making cheese, at the Mitsikeli Mt, Epirus, Greece, 1953. (Source: Fraternity of Epirotes Sarakatsani in Athens).

28

The cauldrons for warming the milk. Central Rhodopes, Bulgaria (Photo of Krapcheva N. –photographer of the Ethnographic Institute and Museum, Field researches in 1983 – 1984)

/ (Left) Cheese production in the pastoral family hut Miętus, Zakopane, Poland, 1922 (Phot. Tadeusz Zwoliński, 1922 r. Zbiory Muzeum Tatrzańskiego w Zakopanem) (Right) Cooking milk in the boiler. Podhale, Poland, 50s (Phot. Zbigniew Kamykowski, lata 50. XX w. Zbiory Muzeum Tatrzańskiego w Zakopanem)

Thus, cheese having been effectively separated from the whey, it is then put in a loose woven cloth, tightly tied around the cheese, (Fig 21) so that whey drains. In order for the draining to be more effective, the cheese would be traditionally hung from the wooden ceiling beams for 24 hours.

(Fig 21)

The curds were put inside the “tsantila” to drain off the liquid. Sarakatsani, Epirus, Greece (Photo: Pavlos Katris)

29

The draining of the cheese in the Tatras, Poland. (Photo: Tatrzańska Agencja)

The draining of the cheese. Archives of the Ethnographic Museum, Bulgaria At this moment we are obliged to open a parenthesis and make a reference to the dispute that has divided, for years, not only cheese fans but also cheese manufacturers: the issue of using raw as opposed to pasteurized milk. Traditionally, all over Europe, cheese was made from raw milk. Since cheese making took place close to milk production facilities, milk was of good quality and cheese was made directly on the spot, without fear of becoming rancid. Raw milk cheese is made exclusively with milk heated to the maximum temperature required to make whey, in practice between 15°C and 40°C. Raw milk cheese has a rich and characteristic taste. However, nowadays, in order to satisfy increased cheese demand and to reduce production costs, cheese is frequently made in large industrial plants using milk from different origins that must be transported over long distances or it is collected from milk farms every 3 or 4 days. During transportation and storage, milk bacteria multiply and contamination may occur. This entails the need to pasteurize milk by heating it to 72°C for 20 to 30 seconds in order to destroy germs. Cheese made from pasteurized milk has a taste which goes from neutral to sweet and it is not at all characteristic. Regulations stipulate that only certain cheeses may be produced using raw milk, close to where they are produced. Nowadays, this applies for some French as well as some Greek cheeses.

30

We now return to the phase when the cheese-curd has been gathered, drained through the cheese cloth and transferred to special moulds in order to eliminate the excess whey. In the European countries we studied, we have traced a variety of such moulds. For instance, for the manufacturing of the Greek cheese Ladotyri, in the Aegean island of Lesvos, as well as the Kalathaki cheese, in the Aegean island of Limnos, traditionally these moulds were baskets made of reeds. For the Greek semi-hard cheese Kasseri, wooden baskets are used as moulds and for the Feta cheese the moulds are nowadays cylindrical perforated containers with a lid, made of stainless steel or plastic. In Poland, moulds, where the Polish national cheese, Oscypek, is put, have interior carvings. At the end of the whole process, the Oscypek is put into a mould and tightly squeezed. The inside walls of the mould are carved, thus Oscypek has patterns that give it a characteristic look. (Fig 22) In Hungary, cheese was put into a wooden pot (which was pressed with a screw), and was covered with a peanut leaf, left pressed for ripening.

(Fig 22)

In Poland the cheeses were given various shapes with a use of special forms made from wood that were characteristic for a particular region. (Photo: Barbara Woch, 2011)

Except for the commonly known spindle shape of “oscypek” (smoked cheese from sheep milk), there are also moulds with the shape of a heart or of an animal (fawn, ducks, lambs).

Moulds with the shape of an animal (Photo: Adam-Brzoza.com)

31

Heart-shaped moulds

For the manufacturing of the Greek cheese Ladotyri, in the Aegean island of Lesvos, as well as the Kalathaki cheese, in the Aegean island of Lemnos, traditionally the moulds were baskets made of reeds. (Photo: Malama Rentari, 2012)

The next (4th) nodal point of this process is ripening which goes hand in hand with preservation. This stage involves a number of methods, all of them being the outcome of long observation and deep inquiry in an extremely acute problem, namely how to be in a position to have dairy products, all year long, while milk harvest lasts approximately two hundred days per year only. In Europe, from one edge to the other, we discover similar techniques for some groups of cheese and quite exceptional for some others –all with the same purpose: successful ripening and effective preservation of the newly born cheese. Salting is the first step. Salting completes the draining process; it acts directly or through the cheese’s water content on the development of microorganisms and on the enzyme activity during the ripening process. It brings its characteristic taste and possesses the property of bringing out the flavors of certain substances developed during the ripening process. Almost all cheeses are salted. Salting can be done either inside the or on the surface of the cheese -dry salting. It can also be applied on the cheese table or inside the barrels. Cheeses which are preserved and ripened until consumption in brine (salt solution containing 7-8% NaCl) -like the Greek cheeses Feta, Batzos, Kalathaki of Limnos, Sfela, the Bulgarian imansaz peynir, yahliya, etc- are stored in wooden barrels or tins. (Fig 23)

32

(Fig 23)

Cheese in brine (Sfela). Greece Cheese in brine (Feta). Greece Cheese in brine. Bulgaria (Source:Anifantakis, 1991) (Photo: Leonora Boneva, 2011) Ripening is a most crucial stage of this long alchemical journey. Ripening methods usually differ from cheese to cheese. The duration is different, as well as the conditions under which a cheese spends its last phase before coming out in the world of consumption. For example, the famous French cheese Roquefort is ripened exclusively in the ripening caves of the Combalou. Another French cheese, la Tome d’ Arles, from the Provence-Alpes-Cote-d’Azur region, is covered by a laurel leaf in order to ripen properly and it is preserved, according to local tradition, in jute sacks.

Ripening time varies from some days to some months. Most Greek cheeses, as well as the Bulgarian , need 2-3 months for ripening. The Greek hard cheese Graviera needs 4-5 months to mature. The Corsican cheese Venacu needs more than 6 months of ripening in order to be used as grated cheese.

Traditional preservation techniques vary a lot: The Greek cheese from Lesvos, Ladotyri, is preserved in , (Fig 24) as indicated by its name (ladi=oil, tyri=cheese). An ancient method, practiced all over Europe for was smoking.

(Fig 24)

“Ladotyri” preserved in olive oil Smoked sheep cheese “oscypek (Photo:Agencja Source: Anifantakis, 1991 Tatrzańska) On the Landes border of the Pyrenees-Atlantiques, the cheese Fume de Bardos was smoked because it was believed that in this way it would be protected from harmful insects. In Lesser Cumania, in Hungary, in the old times, cheese was smoked in smoky attics of houses, but after the introduction of chimneys a special smoking house was built for this purpose. In the Tatra Mountains, in Poland, the traditional cheese 33

Oscypek, after being soaked in brine, is smoked in the smoke of a bonfire. In Estonia, in the Pakri Islands, after the cheese was removed from the mould, it was placed in a smoke kitchen, to dry in nettle and alder smoke. The drying process lasted from 2 to 3 days, during which the cheese was often turned to keep it from being flattened. Dried cheese was stored in grain, where it could be preserved for years. In Bulgaria, in the past, another traditional preservation technique was practiced: packing the cheese in lambskin bags. (Fig 25) These bags were well washed and cropped, hair turned inside. The ripened cheese was stuffed tightly into the lambskins. The aim was to remove the excess air and to eliminate the process of subsequent fermentation. The same technique (cheese preservation in goat-skins) applies also in the case of the Greek cheese Galotyri, a soft traditional cheese, which is usually produced for family’s consumption.

(Fig 25)

All over the Epirus Mountains and lowland pastures, both the Sarakatsani and the Vlachs, used to preserve cheese as well as butter in goat skin bags. (Source: [email protected]) For the ripening process to be completed successfully, most cheeses are transferred in wooden barrels, tins or clay pots, at the appropriate time, and then to cold chambers for storage. (Fig26)

34

(Fig 26)

Chamber for the ripening of Kashkaval: Chamber for the ripening of Graviera: Dairy in Central Rhodopes, Bulgaria Dairy in Ag. Ioannis Kynourias, , (Photo by Staritsky, from the EIM) Greece (Phot.Fouli Papageorgiou) c) The shifting status of the cheese: from god’s gift to local or world market commodity Through this long and laborious journey we have witnessed several shifts in the status of cheese. A god’s gift at the very beginning of its existence, a most precious, often ritualized, food product for the mountainous people all over Europe subsequently, a contemporary symbol for some countries and, finally, its status peaks to reach that of a world commodity.

We shall now concentrate on the final phase of a cheese’s existence, namely its circulation in the local or world market and finally its consumption. Nowadays cheese production is carried out in modern dairies many of them still using traditional methods in the sense that the processing is not fully automated but a large part of it passes through human hands. (Fig 27)

(Fig 27)

MODERN DAIRIES USING TRADITIONAL METHODS

The manufacturing of Kashkaval: Borino village, Central Rhodopes, Bulgaria,late 20th century. (Photo of Krapcheva N. –photographer of the Ethnographic Institute and Museum, Field researches in 1983 – 1984) 35

Cheese production, Podhale, Poland, 2006 (Phot. Barbara Woch, 2011 r.)

Modern dairy in Agios Ioannis Kynourias, Peloponnese, Greece. (Phot. Fouli Papageorgiou, 2010) Most cheese producing countries try to promote their cheeses either by attracting tourists to consume them in situ or by promoting them to the world market.

In this way, there are cheeses which are traded abroad under the name of the region where they are manufactured (e.g. in Greece, Kefalotyri or Graviera cheese from Crete, , Thessaly, Cephalonia and Epirus, and cheese from Bocognano, Fiumorbo, Nebio, Niolo in Corsica, France). There are also cheeses which are sold exclusively at their production location. A characteristic example of the second case is the Polish cheese Oscypek . This kind of direct selling is allowed according to some rules that privilege traditional products. It can also be sold beyond the production

36

location (up to 80 kilometres), according to the Regulation of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. In direct selling, milk products are sold directly to tourists who visit the bacówka (traditional huts). Tourist promotion has helped a lot and, as a result, sheep milk products are very popular nowadays – especially Oscypek, which during holidays is produced on a large scale but there is still not enough for everybody. Sheep milk is not abundant and demand is really high. Long-term promotion activities undertaken by the District Office in Zakopane, and later on by the Tatra Agency for Development, Promotion and Culture, as well as efforts to grant the quality label – European Union certificate – made the Oscypek the “king” of Polish cheeses and led to its world wide recognition. Oscypek is not only a delicacy, but also a regional product whose origin, shape, smell, colour and taste represent the mountainous region, and, in the final analysis, Poland itself. Τhe Polish organization responsible for the implementation of this promotion plan has gone even further. In June 2011 the Association of the Oscypek Route (initiated by Tatra Agency for Development, Promotion and Culture) was established. The association gathers baca (a kind of shepherds) that have European Union certificates of quality. A number of measures taken in this framework aim at the promotion of traditional products, fostering of local traditions, support of regional culture, promotion of healthy lifestyle and support from national and European funds for the realization of the statutory goals.

In Hungary, in most regions, cattle breeding was more important than sheep breeding and sheep dairy products did not play a significant role in the local people’s diet. Consequently, trade that developed there has always been local. Sheep milk dairy products did not play a significant role in relation to 18th and 19th century trade development. However, across the Great Hungarian Plain cheese was used as currency. In the past, sheep, just like any other animal, used to be sold in local and regional markets. Τhe sheep-markets of Demeter’s day (26th of October) were famous. Today, the customer contacts the owner or the breeder and chooses the animals there.

In Bulgaria great emphasis is now given to the promotion of famous of white brined sheep cheese, sheep yoghurt and Kashkaval with European quality certificate. Bulgarian economy gives also emphasis to the production of bio-cheese and organic food products following modern market trends. The Bulgarians feel it is reasonable to hope that the development of a new consumer culture, focused on organic foods and the subsequent market demand for these products, will naturally stimulate the production of sheep and goat milk and strengthen sheep and goat farming as an important sector of Bulgarian agricultural economy.

Greece, as well as France, has a rich past and a very fruitful present in relation to cheese-manufacturing. Greece, despite its small territory, ranks seventh in global goat milk production (5, 2%) and second among European Union countries (28, 1% of total goat milk production in the EU). Greece also raises 47, 7% of goats in the EU. One differentiating element from the rest of the European countries is the fact that in Greece sheep and goats are raised for milk production rather than meat, leather or wool

37

(MRDF, 2007, Christodoulou, 1999). From this, 90% of sheep and 80% of goat’s milk is used in cheese-making, especially for the production of Feta and other traditional Greek cheeses, but also for the production of .The reasons for this differentiation are the land’s relief, the dispersion of the small sized animal farms on the mountains and the domestic sheep breeds which are well adapted to the local climate and produce milk rich in protein and fat content that gives high yields for cheese production. The sheep and goat sector is considered as the ‘backbone’ of the Greek animal farming sector. The produced sheep and goat milk is sufficient to cover the national market, with a minimum of imports not affecting the market.

Lately, the European Union supports local products and traditional techniques and technologies. Numerous traditional cheeses are made throughout Greece today. Twenty of them have been recognized as PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) cheeses and there are others about to be recognized as such. In fact cheese for the Greeks is much more than the indispensable companion on the daily table. It is also the symbol of a very ancient heritage. (Fig 28)

(Fig 28)

Greek Feta cheese (PDO)

What can one say about France’s cheeses? A large number of French cheeses have been recognized as AOC (Appellation d’Origine Contrôlée or Registered Designation of Origin). The Roquefort cheese (Fig 29) has the oldest AOC decree (since 1925).

(Fig 29)

Roquefort cheese Midi-Pyrénées region (AOC)

38

Over the last twenty years, many new products have blossomed, soft and hard cheeses, with trademarks which recall or use geographical denomination. In Corsica, where cheese-making history is linked to the island’s mountainous relief, manufactured products, which are often of good quality, take two-thirds of the island’s ewe’s milk production and a small part of the goat’s milk production. They represent an economic sector with its main outlets being the tourist market, in summer, as well as exports to the continent.

The cheese Petit Ossau-Iraty brebis-Pyrénées has also a registered designation of origin (AOC) and is produced in the Béarn and Basque mountains from ewe’s milk. The production is carried out by some 60 farm producers and 7 industrial creameries which represent more than 90% of total volume. In 1995, 2000 t were produced which equates to 30% of all traditional ewe’s milk cheeses. The area covers the Pyrénées- Atlantiques and three communes of the Hautes-Pyrenées. Pyrenean ewe’s milk cheese production is approximately 4000 t and many breeders are profitably employed in the sector.

The list is endless and out of the scope of this study. The undisputed fact is that France holds a leading role in cheese manufacturing, protecting and defending the sector, as it represents an integral part of its national identity. For France, cheese making tradition is an Arc of knowledge and experience, transferred through centuries to contemporary society. In essence, cheese-making tradition has existed since time immemorial, beyond ethnicities and national borders. It is the tradition of the close relationship between man and the sheep, as a food giver, the relationship of man with nature itself and this is the reason we owe respect to it.

39

CONCLUSION

National origin - European designation In the 1992 Regulation 2081/92, the European Union first adopted the proposal for the Protection of Geographical Indications and Designations of Origin for agricultural products and foodstuffs and in Regulation 2082/92 certificates of specific character for agricultural and food products.

Lately, the EU supports local products and traditional technologies. “Typical” foods are considered as safer and healthier by the consumer and “typicality” has been established as a recent way to recognize a product’s quality. Once a product has been recognized as PDO, it is prohibited to give another product even a similar name, as the one of the protected traditional product. In order for a product to be recognized as a Protected Designation of Origin, it must meet the following requirements:

Α. It must be produced and ripened within a strictly defined geographical area.

Β. Its raw material must be also produced within the same geographical area. C. No chemical additives are used in its production.

D. It is produced using traditional techniques under natural conditions.

It is worth noting that in all the above mentioned national reports we have witnessed a most clear reference to national traditions and cultural heritage, both mythological and historical. Furthermore, in all these countries, there have established ways to revive these traditions today and highlight practices, tools, products and performances as carriers of a new modern identity.

There is the Oscypek, the ‘king’ of Polish cheeses, a regional product that represents Poland beyond its national boundaries. There is also the Feta cheese, an ancient heritage since the Homeric era, the Roquefort and so many other cheeses that make France to be the country of cheese, and in Bulgaria there are cultural events that foster the prestige of sheep milk in Bulgaria and abroad. In the meantime, we also witness efforts deployed by almost every country to achieve for its products a quality distinction from Europe, such as the PDO, the AOC, the European quality certificate, etc. Indeed, Europe functions as a safeguarding mechanism ensuring the quality of local products. It is as if each one of these countries aspires to overcome national boundaries and through its traditional processing techniques to achieve larger scale advantages. In essence, though, on a symbolic level, this aspiration reveals a need for obtaining advantages that ensure participation in a wider community and finally a wider identity –the European one.

40

NATIONALISM, PASTORALISM and the EUROPEAN VISION: an example from Greece In Greece, this vivid concern for a close relationship with Europe has been articulated many times in the past, even in the most peculiar occasions and contexts. There follows an example dating so long ago as the year 1938.

This is a Greek advertisement from a New Year Calendar of the year 1938. The advertisement goes like this:

ONLY WITH THE EUROPEAN DRUG APIZOL YOU WILL SAVE YOUR SHEEP FROM “KLAPATSA” (Leech). ONLY ONE CAPSULE IS SUFFICIENT TO SAVE EVERY ANIMAL And it goes on, in smaller letters:

THANKS TO THE 4th AUGUST GOVERNMENT, THE YEAR 1938 FINDS GREECE UNITED, STRONG AND MARCHING TOWARDS PROGRESS.|

And at the top of the calendar, in red capital letters: HAPPY NEW YEAR 1938.

An advertisement is a vehicle of potent symbolic meanings. What we see here is the interwoven discourses of Nationalism, Pastoralism, Health, Strength and European aspiration.

A young, beautiful, healthy shepherd girl bearing on her shoulders a sheep, in front of an idyllic pastoral landscape, is looking at us with a smile full of promises. Next to her the New Year calendar unfolds.

Behind the mountains of a typically Greek landscape, there emerges the political message from the nationalist government -on August 4th 1936, a dictatorship was

41

established in Greece- to remind the Greeks of its existence as a wish-fulfilling agent. The regime reminds the citizens of the successful implementation of its promises for political and social unity, strength and progress. At the same time it states explicitly its support for rural population providing them with a product which is most valid and reliable (one small particle of it makes the miracle) because it is simply European. The rhetoric of power is embodied in the “concern” for a healthy population.

The textual discourses, both visual and verbal, are located in the advertisement in such a way as to depict clearly the status of each message: The word ONLY appears twice, both referring to European quality and effectiveness –“only the European drug”, “only one capsule”.

Right below the European product’s promotion, there lays the message from the nationalist regime: “Thanks to” it, our country is safe both domestically, as well as in its pathway towards “progress”, which, it is implied, comes through a good and trustful relationship with Europe. In this context, the European medicine is a material signifier of progress as well as a means through which the image of a state-benefactor is enacted.

42

BIBLIOGRAPHY Marcus George, “Ethnography in/of the world system: The emergence of Multi-Sited Ethnography”, in the Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 1995

Hall Stuart, “Culture, Community, Nation”, in the Representing the Nation: History, Heritage and museums, Routledge 1999 Hobsbawm Eric, Mass-Producing Traditions: Europe, in the Representing the Nation: History, Heritage and museums, Routledge 1999 [email protected] Moatsou Golfo, Govaris Alexandros, “White-brined Cheese: a diachronic exploitation of small ruminants milk in Greece”, Small Ruminant Research (2011), article in press

Anifantakis, E.M., “Greek Cheeses” in: “Α Τradition of Centuries”, National Dairy Committee of Greece, Athens 1998

Anifantakis, E.M., “Greek Traditional products from Goat milk”, in International Goat Association, National Milk Committee, Athens 2004 International Seminar on “Production and Processing of Sheep and Goat Milk”, International Milk Federation, Athens 1985

Bintsis Thomas – Papademos Fotis, “Cheese (milk technology –cheese-making - cheese presentation), Psichalos editions

Litopoulou-Tzanetaki, E., Tzanetakis N., “Microbiological characteristics of Greek Traditional Cheeses”. Small Ruminant Research (2011), article in press Zygouris, N.P., “Milk Industry”, Ministry of Agriculture, Athens 1956

Kandarakis, I.G., “Traditional Whey Cheeses”. Bulletin of the International Dairy Federation 202, Athens 1986 Training Seminars on Dairy Production (presentations), Athens 1983

Georgiopoulou Tania, “Cheese making: a promising craft”, Kathimerini newspaper, 22/10/2011

Hellenic Ministry of Agriculture, Athens, Greece

Training Seminars on Cheese making, Educational material, Athens 1983

Philippopoulos Charalabos and Papadakis Marios, “Current trends in whey processing and utilization in Greece”, Society of Dairy Technology, Athens 2001

Karamanes Evangelos, “The Kopatsarika villages of Grevena: Space organization, production techniques and local identity”, Hellenic Folklore Research Center, publication vol. 25, Athens 2011.

Iván BALASSA (main editor)

1997. Magyar Néprajz IV. Budapest

43

Tibor BELLON

1996 Beklen. A nagykunsági mezővárosok állattartó gazdálkodása a XVIII – XIX. században. Karcag

Mihály FAZEKAS

2009 Kunmadaras juhászata. Karcag Gyula ORTUTAY (main editor)

1977 – 1982 Magyar Néprajzi Lexikon. Budapest

Attila PALÁDI – KOVÁCS A keleti palócok pásztorkodása. In: Műveltség és Hagyomány VII. Debrecen

Attila PALÁDI – KOVÁCS (main editor)

2001 Magyar Néprajz II. Budapest István TÁLASI

1936 A Kiskunság népi állattartása. In: Néprajzi Füzetek 6.

L’Inventaire du Patrimoine Culinaire de la France [par région] : Produits du Terroir et recettes traditionnelles, Albin Michel, Conseil National des Arts Culinaires. Alsace (418 p., 1999), Aquitaine (386 p., 1997), Bourgogne (118 p., 1993), Champagne-Ardenne (258 p., 2000), Corse (338 p., 1996), Ile-de-France (338 p., 1993), Languedoc- Roussillon (408 p., 1998), Limousin (224 p., 1998), Lorraine (312 p., 1998), Midi- Pyrénées (338 p., 1996), Normandie (400 p., 2003), Picardie (226 p., 1999), Provence- Alpes-Côte-d’Azur (498 p., 1995), Rhône-Alpes (578 p., 1995). Website of the Institut National de l’Origine et de la Qualité (INAO): http://www.inao.gouv.fr

Website of the cheese producer Androuet (Paris) : http://androuet.com/ Website of the Institut National de Recherche Agronomique (INRA), production of cheese : http://www.inra.fr/la_science_et_vous/apprendre_experimenter/aliments_fermentes/le_ fromage

MML Survey “Sheep-related Legacy in Estonia” in manuscript, 2011

ERM Survey “Traditions of sheep breeding in collections of Estonian National Museum” in manuscript, 2011

Aliise Moora Eesti talurahva vanem toit, 2007

Дечов, В. Среднородопско овчарство. СбНУ, т.ХІХ, кн.І, С. 1903

Етнография на България. Т. ІІ, С., 1983

Маринов, Д., Избрани произведения. Т. ІІ, С., 1984

44

Маркова, М., Традиционна технология на българското кисело мляко. – Минало, 2006/2 Вакарелски, Хр., Етнография на България, С., 2007

Вакарелски, Хр., Бит и език на тракийските и малоазийските българи. Част І Бит., С., 1935 Радева, Л., Храна и хранене. – Пловдивски край, С., 1986

Радева, Л., Храна и хранене. – Пирински край, С., 1980

Радева, Л., Храна и хранене. – Ловешки край, С., 1999 Кръстева, Г., Храна и хранене. – Капанци, С.,

Кръстева, Г., Народна храна и хранене. – Добруджа, С., 1974

Алексиев, Б., Храната на каракачаните в България: производство на хранителни продукти и хранене. – Български фолклор, 2010/1

Маринов, В., Животновъдство. – Пловдивски край, С., 1986

Колев, Н., Животновъдство. – Пирински край, С., 1980 Примовски, Ан., Бит и култура на родопските българи. – СбНУ, Т. LІV, С., 1973.

45