DOCSLIB.ORG

From Frontiers to Borders the Origins and Consequences of Linear Borders in International Politics

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
From Frontiers to Borders the Origins and Consequences of Linear Borders in International Politics The London School of Economics & Political Science From Frontiers to Borders The Origins and Consequences of Linear Borders in International Politics Kerry Goettlich A Thesis Submitted to the Department of International Relations of the London School of Economics & Political Science for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy London, January 2019 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 99,883 words. Statement of Inclusion of Previous Work I can confirm that sections of chapters 2 and 3 are published in Kerry Goettlich, ‘The rise of linear borders in world politics’, European Journal of International Relations, advance online publication, doi:10.1177/1354066118760991, first published March 16, 2018. 2 Abstract This thesis offers a theoretical analysis of the process by which borders have come to be precise, fixed, mappable, and infinitely thin lines traced over the surface of the earth. I argue that accounts of global modernity should understand the linearization of borders as a process related to, but relatively autonomous from processes of state formation and other structures and processes typically associated with global modernity. In other words, linear borders have their own causes and consequences, which the thesis aims to unpack. The contribution of the thesis lies within debates on the historical origins of modern international relations which often overlook the history of borders through a focus on sovereignty. The thesis theorizes modern linear borders as an outcome of ‘survey rationality’, drawing on theories of rationalization. Survey rationality is a mode of territorial governance which conceives of the location of predefined borders as a technical and non-political question, and therefore susceptible to measurement and calculation through surveys and other technologies. The central argument of the thesis is that survey rationality on its own is not a natural or necessary part of territorial rule, but must be articulated with other historically particular rationalities in order to be effective in practice. I illustrate this argument historically by examining two such historically particular rationalities: first, the logic of agrarian capitalism in the English colonies of North America, and secondly, the logic of the civilizing mission in the ‘Scramble for Africa’. Finally, I show how international politics are different in a world of formally linearized borders. Linear borders underpin hierarchies by altering the distribution of geographical knowledge resources, for example at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, and they contribute to a modular pattern of territorial partition, from Mysore and Poland in the 18th century to Vietnam and Korea in the 20th. 3 Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................... 5 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 6 THE THESIS AND ITS OUTLINE................................................................................................................... 15 2. DEFINING THE PROBLEM: THE RELATIVE AUTONOMY OF BORDERS ................................................ 21 TERRITORY IN IR, SEEN THROUGH LEFEBVRE’S TRIAD ..................................................................................... 22 THE TROUBLE WITH ‘TERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNTY’ ......................................................................................... 29 THE LINEARIZATION OF BORDERS AS AN AUTONOMOUS PROCESS: CONCEPTUAL OVERVIEW AND TIMELINE................. 36 3. SURVEY RATIONALITY AND ITS ARTICULATIONS .............................................................................. 44 THE LINEARIZATION OF BORDERS AS RATIONALIZATION .................................................................................. 44 THE CORE ARGUMENT: MULTIPLE RATIONALITIES, ARTICULATION, AND CHANGE ................................................. 58 THE CONSEQUENCES OF SPATIAL RATIONALIZATION ...................................................................................... 68 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................... 75 4. AGRARIAN CAPITALISM AND THE SURVEYOR .................................................................................. 77 THE ORIGINS OF MODERN TERRITORIALITY: METROPOLITAN OR COLONIAL? ....................................................... 79 FROM GEOMETRIC COSMOLOGY TO SURVEY RATIONALITY .............................................................................. 82 SURVEY RATIONALITY IN THE ENGLISH ENCLOSURE MOVEMENT ....................................................................... 87 SURVEY RATIONALITY AND ANGLO-AMERICAN SETTLER SOCIETY ...................................................................... 96 LINEAR BOUNDARIES: THE COLONIAL INFLECTION OF ENCLOSURE ................................................................... 103 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................... 114 5. THE LOGIC OF ‘CIVILIZATION’ ......................................................................................................... 117 BRITISH INDIA .................................................................................................................................... 120 THE LINEARIZATION OF BORDERS IN WEST AFRICA ...................................................................................... 128 ‘CIVILIZED’ LAND-APPROPRIATION: SOCIAL THEORY AND THE EMERGING INTERNATIONAL LEGAL PROFESSION ........... 135 COLONIAL TREATIES: NECESSARY BUT NO LONGER SUFFICIENT ...................................................................... 145 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................... 153 6. THE TECHNO-POLITICS OF TERRITORY............................................................................................ 155 THE COLONIAL ORIGINS OF THE SCIENTIFIC FRONTIER .................................................................................. 157 THOMAS HOLDICH AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE SCIENTIFIC FRONTIER THROUGH SURVEY PRACTICES ............. 159 FROM REASON OF STATE TO REASON OF SCIENCE: THE POLITICS OF SCIENTIFIC GEOGRAPHY ................................. 165 COLONIAL REFLECTION: SCIENTIFIC FRONTIERS AT THE PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE .............................................. 173 ITALY’S SCIENTIFIC FRONTIERS................................................................................................................ 179 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................... 188 7. A GENEALOGY OF PARTITION ........................................................................................................ 191 PARTITIONS OF COOPERATIVE TERRITORIAL EXPANSION, 1772-1904 ............................................................. 193 PARTITION, 1905-1948: DIVIDE AND FEDERATE ....................................................................................... 203 THE COLD WAR PARTITIONS: GERMANY, KOREA, VIETNAM .......................................................................... 216 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................... 229 8. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 231 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................. 244 4 Acknowledgements First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor, Tarak Barkawi, who is an inexhaustible source of scholarly advice and support of all kinds. I want to thank him for relentlessly, but still somehow barely perceptively, pushing me to take on big questions I might not have otherwise dared to ask. This thesis would look very different if not for him. I have been lucky to be part of an exceptional research community at the LSE IR Department. Successive years of the International Theory Workshop have made for a rich environment through which to enter the academic profession, and I owe thanks to my co-editors at Millennium, Sarah Bertrand and Chris Murray for being ideal teammates. Thanks to them and my other fellow students, the PhD has hardly seemed an isolating experience, whether socially or intellectually: Kelly-Jo Bluen, Ilaria Carrozza, Mia Certo, Ida Danewid, Nicola Degli Esposti, Scott Hamilton, Marnie Howlett, Marissa Kemp, Joe Leigh, Jackie Majnemer, Gustav Meibauer, Aaron McKeil,
Load more

Recommended publications
  • American Organic Law and Government. Form #11.217
    American Organic Law By: Freddy Freeman American Organic Law 1 of 247 Copyright Sovereignty Education and Defense Ministry, http://sedm.org Form #11.217, Rev. 12/12/2017 EXHIBIT:___________ Revisions Notes Updates to this release include the following: 1) Added a new section titled “From Colonies to Sovereign States.” 2) Improved the analysis on Declaration of Independence, which now covers the last half of the document. 3) Improved the section titled “Citizens Under the Articles of Confederation” 4) Improved the section titled “Art. I:8:17 – Grant of Power to Exercise Exclusive Legislation.” This new and improved write-up presents proof that the States of the United States Union were created under Article I Section 8 Clause 17 and consist exclusively of territory owned by the United States of America. 5) Improved the section titled “Citizenship in the United States of America Confederacy.” 6) Added the section titled “Constitution versus Statutory citizens of the United States.” 7) Rewrote and renamed the section titled “Erroneous Interpretations of the 14th Amendment Citizens of the United States.” This updated section proves why it is erroneous to interpret the 14th Amendment “citizens of the United States” as being a citizenry which in not domiciled on federal land. 8) Added a new section titled “the States, State Constitutions, and State Governments.” This new section includes a detailed analysis of the 1849 Constitution of the State of California. Much of this analysis applies to all of the State Constitutions. American Organic Law 3 of 247 Copyright Sovereignty Education and Defense Ministry, http://sedm.org Form #11.217, Rev.
    [Show full text]
  • How Bad Were the Official Records of the Federal Convention?
    How Bad Were the Official Records of the Federal Convention? Mary Sarah Bilder* ABSTRACT The official records of the ConstitutionalConvention of 1787 have been neglected and dismissed by scholars for the last century, largely to due to Max Farrand'scriticisms of both the records and the man responsible for keeping them-Secretary of the Convention William Jackson. This Article disagrees with Farrand'sconclusion that the Convention records were bad, and aims to resurrect the records and Jackson's reputation. The Article suggests that the endurance of Farrand'scritique arises in part from misinterpretationsof cer- tain proceduralcomponents of the Convention and failure to appreciate the significance of others, understandable consideringthe inaccessibility of the of- ficial records. The Article also describes the story of the records after the Con- vention but before they were published, including the physical limbo of the records in the aftermath of the Convention and the eventual deposit of the records in March 1796 amidst the rapid development of disagreements over constitutional interpretation. Finally, the Article offers a few cautionary re- flections about the lessons to be drawn from the official records. Particularly, it recommends using caution with Max Farrand's records, paying increased attention to the procedural context of the Convention, and recognizing that Constitutionalinterpretation postdated the Constitution. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ................................................... 1621 A NOTE ON THE RECORDS .....................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Evolution from a Legislative Toward a Judicial Model of Payment, 45 La
    Louisiana Law Review Volume 45 | Number 3 The 1984 Revision of the Louisiana Civil Code's Articles on Obligations - A Student Symposium January 1985 The iH story of Claims Against the United States: The volutE ion from a Legislative Toward a Judicial Model of Payment Floyd D. Shimomura Repository Citation Floyd D. Shimomura, The History of Claims Against the United States: The Evolution from a Legislative Toward a Judicial Model of Payment, 45 La. L. Rev. (1985) Available at: https://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/lalrev/vol45/iss3/1 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Law Reviews and Journals at LSU Law Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Louisiana Law Review by an authorized editor of LSU Law Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE HISTORY OF CLAIMS AGAINST THE UNITED STATES: THE EVOLUTION FROM A LEGISLATIVE TOWARD A JUDICIAL MODEL OF PAYMENT Floyd D. Shimomura* TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION ......................................... 626 I. THE "LEGISLATIVE MODEL" (Colonial Period-Civil W ar) ............................................. 627 A. Development-The Colonial Legislative Tradition 627 1. The Seventeenth Century ................... 627 2. The Eighteenth Century .................... 630 3. Articles of Confederation (1781-1789) ....... 634 B. Triumph-Congress over Court in the Early R epublic ..................................... 637 1. Early Struggle (1789-1794) .................. 637 2. Congressional Adjudication (1794-1838) ...... 643 C. Decline-Inundation of Congress by Claims ..... 648 1. Dissatisfaction (1838-1855) .................. 648 2. Advisory Court (1855-1860) ................. 651 It. THE "HYBRID MODEL" (Civil War-World War 653 II). ................................. ............. A. Development-Congress Seeks Court Assistance.. 654 1. Congressional Request (1860-1863) .........
    [Show full text]
  • Idaho Room Books by Date
    Boise Public Library - Idaho Room Books 2020 Trails of the Frank Church-River of No Return Wilderness Fuller, Margaret, 1935- 2020 Skiing Sun Valley : a history from Union Pacific to the Holdings Lundin John W. 2020 Sky Ranch : living on a remote ranch in Idaho Phelps, Bobbi, author. 2020 Tales and tails : a story runs through it : anthologies and previously Kleffner, Flip, author. 2020 little known fishing facts Symbols signs and songs Just, Rick, author. 2020 Sun Valley, Ketchum, and the Wood River Valley Lundin, John W. 2020 Anything Will Be Easy after This : A Western Identity Crisis Maile, Bethany, author. 2020 The Boise bucket list : 101 ways to explore the City of Trees DeJesus, Diana C, author. 2020 An eye for injustice : Robert C. Sims and Minidoka 2020 Betty the Washwoman : 2021 calendar. 2020 Best easy day hikes, Boise Bartley, Natalie L. 2020 The Castlewood Laboratory at Libuyu School : a team joins together O'Hara, Rich, author. 2020 Apple : writers in the attic Writers in the Attic (Contest) (2020), 2020 author. The flows : hidden wonders of Craters of the Moon National Boe, Roger, photographer. 2020 Monument and Preserve Educating : a memoir Westover, LaRee, author. 2020 Ghosts of Coeur d'Alene and the Silver Valley Cuyle, Deborah. 2020 Eat what we sow cook book 2020 5 kids on wild trails : a memoir Fuller, Margaret, 1935- 2020 Good time girls of the Rocky Mountains : a red-light history of Collins, Jan MacKell, 1962- 2020 Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming 100 Treasure Valley pollinator plants. 2020 A hundred little pieces on the end of the world Rember, John, author.
    [Show full text]
  • Geopolitics, Education, and Empire: the Political Life of Sir Halford Mackinder, 1895-1925
    Geopolitics, Education, and Empire: The Political Life of Sir Halford Mackinder, 1895-1925 Simone Pelizza Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds, School of History Submitted March 2013 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. ©2013 The University of Leeds and Simone Pelizza i Acknowledgements During the last three years I have received the kind assistance of many people, who made the writing of this thesis much more enjoyable than previously believed. First of all, I would like to thank my former supervisors at the University of Leeds, Professor Andrew Thompson and Dr Chris Prior, for their invaluable help in understanding the complex field of British imperial history and for their insightful advice on the early structure of the document. Then my deepest gratitude goes to my current supervisor, Professor Richard Whiting, who inherited me from Chris and Andrew two years ago, driving often my work toward profitable and unexplored directions. Of course, the final product is all my own, including possible flaws and shortcomings, but several of its parts really owe something to Richard’s brilliant suggestions and observations. Last but not least, I am very grateful to Pascal Venier, Vincent Hiribarren, and Chris Phillips, with whom I had frequent interesting exchanges on Mackinder’s geopolitical thought and its subtle influences over twentieth century international affairs.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 1 America’S Foundations
    iCitizen Chapter 1 America’s Foundations When the United States broke away from Great Britain and formed its own government, our country was unique among na- tions. This chapter will introduce you to the purpose of government and the most common types of gov- ernmental structures, giving you a basis for understanding how and why the founders of America craft- Photo: Comstock.com Comstock.com Photo: ed our government the way they did. Then the intentionality behind our governing documents should become astonishingly clear. Section 1.1 An Introduction to Government For the purposes of this course, we define government as an institution or political body that has the power to make and enforce laws over a certain group of people, territory, or collection of property. It places certain limits on man’s actions for the sake of everyone’s well-being, rewarding those who do good and punishing those who do wrong. Why Does Man Need Government? Before we can examine the specifics of how government works, we must first understand government’s purpose. Think back to when you were younger, and wanted to do something your parents would not allow you to do. Did you ever wonder why you couldn’t just do as you pleased? Why couldn’t you be your own boss? These questions—although they may sound silly to you now—actually get at the heart of our study of civics and patriotism. What is the purpose of government? Why does man need government anyway? iCitizen: Civic Literacy for Young Americans Man needs government because he is sinful.
    [Show full text]
  • Lessons on the Constitution: Supplements to High School Courses in American Government and American History
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 235 096 SO 015 026 AUTHOR Patrick, John J.; Remy, Richard C. TITLE Lessons on the COnstitution: Supplements to High School Courses in American Government and American History. INSTITUTION Indiana Univ., Bloomington. Social Studies Development Center.; Ohio State Univ., Columbus. Mershon Center. SPONS AGENCY American Historical Association, Washington, D.C.; American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C.; National Endowment for the Humanities (NFAH), Washington, D.C. PUB DATE Jun 82 NOTE 601p.; Prepared for "Project '87." PUB TYPE' Guides - Classroom Use - Guides (For Teachers) (052) EDRS PRICE MF03/PC25 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Case Studies; Change Strategies; *Constitutional History; Constitutional Law; Court Litigationi Decision Making Skills; High Schools; Lesson Plans; Primary Sources; Reading Materials; *United States Government (Course); *United States History; Units of Study IDENTIFIERS Constitutional Processes; Supreme Court ABSTRACT Designed to be used in combination with standard high school textbooks in U.S. history and government, these lessonson the U.S. Constitution can be used singly or in varying combinations and most can be completed in one or two class meetings. Thereare five chapters. Chapter Iis an introduction for teachers. Chapter II includes lessons about the origins andpurposes of the U.S. Constitution. The third chapter contains lessons about principles of governmental organization and power in the Constitution. ChapterIV has lessons that feature formal and informalmeans of constitutional change. The fifth chapter contains 20 digests of landmark Supreme Court cases. Worksheets containing questions to help'students analyze the cases are provid d. Students are expected to read andanswer questions regardinghe lesson selections, which include short readings, case studi s, and primary source materials.
    [Show full text]
  • HUBERT H. HUMPHREY PAPERS an Inventory of His 1968 Presidential Campaign Files
    MINNESOTA HISTORICAL SOCIETY Manuscript Collections HUBERT H. HUMPHREY PAPERS An Inventory of His 1968 Presidential Campaign Files OVERVIEW Creator: Humphrey, Hubert H. (Hubert Horatio), 1911-1978. Title: 1968 Presidential campaign files. Dates: 1949-1969 (bulk 1968). Abstract: Files created by and/or relating to the organization and administration of Humphrey's 1968 campaign for the Presidency of the United States. They are an amalgam of files produced by many individuals and organizations, on the local, state, and national levels. Quantity: 122.0 cu. ft. Location: See Detailed Description section for box locations. HISTORICAL SKETCH Nineteen sixty-eight was not a normal election year. Ordinarily, an incumbent president would have an easy path to his party's nomination for a second term, and much better than even odds at re-election Lyndon Johnson and Hubert Humphrey had won the 1964 election in a landslide. By 1968, however, opposition to the war in Vietnam was growing, racial tensions building, the economy stalling, and a desire for real change brewing. While many discontented voters listened to independent candidate George Wallace, and Republican Richard Nixon returned from political exile, most young people looked to the Democratic Party as offering the best chance for significant change in 1968. That meant that Johnson would receive more than token challenges to his re-nomination. Minnesota senator Eugene McCarthy became the first candidate to question the morality and legality of the Vietnam War as well as its military and political objectives. College students flocked to his campaign and canvassed door to door in his behalf in the first Democratic presidential primary on March 12 in New Hampshire.
    [Show full text]
  • The Constitutional Text-Book
    THE CONSTITUTIONAL TEXT-BOOK: A PRACTICAL AND FAlllILIAR EXPOSITION OF THE COlSTITUTIOl OF THE UXITED STATES, AND OF PORTIONS OF TIIE PUBLICJ A:'\'D ADlfL-,,'ISTRATIVE LAW OF THE ' FEDERAL GOVElli~lfENT. DESIGNED CHIEFLY FOR THll: USE OF SCHOOLS, ACADEIDES, AND COLLEGES. BY FURMAN SHEPPARD, . "IT is of infinite moment that you should properly estimate the immense value ofyour National Union to your collective and individual happiness: that you should cherish & cordial, habitual, and immovable attachment to It: accustoming yourselves to think and speak of It as of the palladium of your political safety and prosperity.'' WASHINGTo~'s Farewell .Address to the Peop/£ qfthe UniUd Stu.ta. PHILADELPHIA: CHILDS & PETERSON, 124 ARCH ST. 1855. Entered according t.o Act of Congress, In the year 1855, by FURMAN SIIEPPARD, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of Penm~ylvania. PREFACE. IT is almost impossible to exaggerate the importance of a thorough study of the Constitution of the United States by the pupils in our schools. It is, nevertheless, a study which has' hitherto been sadly neglected, chiefly, as teachers are aware, for want of a plain, practical, and thorough work upon the subject. It is true there are several text-books which have been used to a greater or less extent; but however meritorious they are in many respects, in others they seem objectionable. Some of them, in aiming at simplicity and brevity, have become trivial and meagre; others are composed chiefly of disquisitions and gene­ ralities, which cannot be made the proper subject.matter of reci­ tation in the school-room; there are still others containing partisan or sectional views, or assuming a controversial air in the discussion of unsettled constitutional questions.
    [Show full text]
  • Discoveries in Southern Tibet
    Discoveries in Southern Tibet: Discussion Author(s): Clements Markham, Thomas Holdich, Colonel Godwin-Austen, Henry Trotter, Martin Conway, Douglas Freshfield, Captain Rawling, T. G. Longstaff, Major Lenox- Conyngham and Sven Hedin Source: The Geographical Journal, Vol. 33, No. 4 (Apr., 1909), pp. 416-434 Published by: geographicalj Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1777214 Accessed: 11-05-2016 03:50 UTC Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://about.jstor.org/terms JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers), Wiley are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Geographical Journal This content downloaded from 143.89.105.150 on Wed, 11 May 2016 03:50:28 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 416 JOURNEYS IN TIBET, 1906-1908-DISCUSSION. this white patch, on which only one single word had been perfectly correct, namely, the word Unexplored. The following communications from Sir Clements Markham and Sir Thomas Holdich were read :- Sir CLEMENTS MARKHAM: No one can read Dr. Sven Hedin's paper on " Discoveries in Southern Tibet" without being struck by the exhaustive character of his researches. In combining this essential part of an explorer's equipment with his qualifications as a surveyor and observer, I look upon Sven Hedin as the beau ideal of a Victoria Medallist, most fully complying with all the conditions laid down in the Council Minute by which it was instituted.
    [Show full text]
  • A More Perfect Union: American Independence and the Constitution CHOICES for the 21St Century Education Program August 2005
    Copyright and Permissions This document is licensed for single-teacher use. The purchase of this curriculum unit includes permission to make copies of the Student Text and appropriate student handouts from the Teacher Resource Book for use in your own classroom. Duplication of this document for the purpose of resale or other distribution is prohibited. Permission is not granted to post this document for use online. Our eText Classroom Editions are designed to allow you to post individual readings, study guides, graphic organizers, and handouts to a learning management system or other password protected site. Visit http://www.choices.edu/resources/e-text.php for more details. The Choices Program curriculum units are protected by copyright. If you would like to use material from a Choices unit in your own work, please contact us for permission. THE CHOICES PROGRAM ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ WWW.CHOICES.EDU www.choices.edu THE CHOICES PROGRAM ■ WATSON INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, BROWN UNIVERSITY ■ WWW.CHOICES.EDU A More Perfect Union: American Independence and the Constitution CHOICES for the 21st Century Education Program August 2005 Director Susan Graseck Curriculum Developer Andy Blackadar Curriculum Writer Sarah Kreckel International Education Intern Daniela Bailey Office Assistant Dan Devine Outreach Coordinator Bill Bordac Professional Development Coordinator Lucy Mueller Program Coordinator for Capitol Forum Barbara Shema Staff Associate Anne Campau Prout The Choices for the 21st Century Education Program develops curricula on current and historical Acknowledgments international issues and offers workshops, institutes, and A More Perfect Union: American Independence and the in-service programs for high Constitution was developed by the Choices Program with the school teachers.
    [Show full text]
  • Empowering the Confederation: a Counterfactual Model John P. Kaminski in Any Counterfactual Model, Suspension of Belief Is Imper
    Empowering the Confederation: A Counterfactual Model John P. Kaminski In any counterfactual model, suspension of belief is imperative. If we steadfastly adhere to what actually happened, we can imagine only with great difficulty what might have been. Monday-morning quarterbacks always have 20/20 vision. For counterfactual history to be effectual, we need the same optical maladies possessed by the actual participants in events. Few had a clear vision of the future; most had blurred vision; while others were blind. Let’s start out with certain key assumptions held by most Americans in the mid 1780s. 1. Congress under the Articles of Confederation was too weak. 2. The Union should be maintained and Congress strengthened. 3. The Articles should be amended—not abandoned in favor of a radical new untried system of government that rested on a variety of new philosophical assumptions that contradicted the accepted political theories of the day. 4. The Confederation government was in a state of flux. Gradually since 1774 it had changed dramatically, and more changes were expected in an evolutionary adjustment to new circumstances. 5. Most American favored a republican form of government with a bicameral legislature. Originally Congress was run by a system of committees chaired by and composed of members of Congress. The president of Congress was the most powerful figure. When 2 Congress was not in session, a committee of the states governed. (This happened but once.) The committee consisted of one delegate from every state and could act only with the vote of at least nine delegates. Congress soon discovered that it was incapable of running its primary committees, consequently Congress established permanent departments staffed and chaired by non-delegates to Congress.
    [Show full text]