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Home , James Madison, Multiculturalism

Presidents and Their Attitudes, Beliefs, and Actions Surrounding Education and Multiculturalism

A Series of Research Studies in Educational Policy Fourth Installment: Examining Presidents George , James K. Polk, and Franklin D. Roosevelt

By H. Prentice Baptiste & Rebecca Sanchez

Introduction tions of , James K. Polk, we are seeking to use a multicultural lens and Franklin D. Roosevelt. to analyze and historicize in an effort to Understanding the Presidents of the There are several major consider- understand the power of history and his- , their actions, beliefs, and ations in terms of torical interpretation in shaping the be- contradictions, is constructive in under- that can be addressed through a presiden- liefs and attitudes of a people. standing our ’s complex societal is- tial study. First, the actions, policies, and sues. As a we inherit the problems, We often speak about American history administrative decisions of the presidents as if it were something real. But I do not challenges, and legacies of these leaders. have influenced and determined the fate believe in American history: I only be- Multicultural education and multicultural of the citizenry in terms of equality, rac- lieve in American histories…I object to education theory offer an alternative lens ism, , and attitudes about the way history has been constructed, from which to analyze and interpret the groups. Second, the historical legacy and sanitized, and glorified. (Saenz, p. 137) actions and inactions of the Presidents. glorification of these same men in educa- This sanitization effect is ever present This lens allows for additional recog- tional texts, and the failure to include the in our schooling regarding the presidents. nition of the roots of contemporary often-devastating significance of their ac- Do our textbooks ever really delve into the struggles. Geneva Gay describes a primary tions towards certain groups in historical aristocratic nature of Washington? The characteristic of multicultural education: accounts, has further distorted societal assimilistic desires of Polk? Or the neglect “Multicultural education is essentially an attitudes about multiculturalism in our of racial issues by F. D. Roosevelt? More- affective, humanistic, and transformative country. over, are students of history, in all grades, enterprise situated within the sociocul- James Banks argues that it is impera- encouraged to connect the personal at- tural, political, and historical contexts of tive that “…the curriculum is reconceptual- tributes of the presidents and executive the United States” (Gay, 2004, p. 39). ized to help students understand how decisions they made to the complex This historical component, which has knowledge is constructed and how it re- multicultural dilemmas of their time? been whitewashed to the advantage and flects human interests, ideology, and the A historical revisitation of our Presi- preservation of the dominant white , experiences of the people who create it” dents allows for scrutiny and deeper un- becomes increasingly important in order (Banks, p. 23). A strange paradox emerges. derstanding of their administrations thus to address the presidential administra- The same men that we look to as embodi- helping to situate and contextualize our ments of the ideals of , leadership, current racial, ethnic, and cultural dilem- H. Prentice Baptiste is a professor , and equality, are men, who in mas in education and society at large. of multicultural and education the cases of Washington, Polk, and F. D. Loewen, in his argument surrounding the and Rebecca Sanchez is a doctoral student Roosevelt, personally and publicly were acquisition of new historical knowledge in critical pedagogy, unable to live up to the values for which states, “Understanding our past is central both with the Department of Curriculum they are idolized. to our ability to understand ourselves and and Instruction Because of these inconsistencies, and the world around us. We need to know our at New University, the impact of their administrative policies history” (p. 13). The problem arises when Las Cruces, New Mexico. on all cultural groups in the United States,

FALL 2004 33 historical characters, such as the Presi- George Washington: dents, are over-glorified and over-simpli- fied, resulting in the furthering of the myth Setting the Example of President as infallible icon; this myth as First President undermines our historical understanding. It also makes the negative historical President Washington would not tell events, traumas, and tragedies appear to Congress that he thought wrong. have occurred in a vacuum. There is no cau- He declined to lend his name or his sality or responsibility, no burden of guilt office’s prestige at a time when the words of the Declaration of Independence (“all placed on our leadership even in historical men are created equal”) were still reso- representations to account for the misdeeds nate… (O’Reilly, 1995, p. 16) of the past. For example, “George Washing- ton has become so shrouded in legend that Social Currency it is difficult to retrieve the man behind the marble exterior” (Smith, 1993, p. 9). George Washington was greatly influ- The purpose of this article is to present enced by his upbringing among additional information about Presidents plantation owners. He was born in Virginia Washington, Polk, and F. D. Roosevelt so in 1732, his family owned large tracts of that their contributions, oversights, and si- land that would later become his. The lence regarding multicultural matters and power and status granted to southern plan- education during their presidential admin- tation farmers was profound during this istrations can be understood in a deeper time. Many plantation owners were able to amass so much wealth because they had way. Furthermore, “Critical multicultural- George Washintgon ists in all domains must reunite memory ready access to education, political office, and public position. Economic dependence and history in order to address the ideo- of slave labor offered the oppor- on England was also a defining feature of logical distortions that daily confront us tunity of economic prosperity to a greater colonial society (Smith, 1993). in various expressions…” (Kincheloe & portion of the public than the colonists were The southern states had remained Steinberg, 1997, p. 241). used to in (McDonald, 1974). Wash- largely agricultural and rural by the time Why the presidency and why these ington and his contemporaries were well Washington was born. Although cities in presidents? The president is the embodi- schooled in gentility and civility. This or- the north were quickly becoming more cos- ment of leadership in this country. Because dered lifestyle dictated controlled re- mopolitan and refined, the south was of the ambiguity of the in re- sponses, personal manners, and public be- based on agriculture (Wills, 2003). What lation to the chief executive, the president haviors (Ferling, 1988, McDonald, 1974). has the power to frame, implement, and separated the farmers of the south from homestead or substance farmers was the transform (Schlesinger, 2002; Societal Values and Background Baptiste & Sanchez 2003). Washington, desire to farm large tracts of land. Such Polk, and F. D. Roosevelt were chosen be- large farms or plantations relied on the Early American society was likely re- cause these three presidents all served use of slave labor to function and prosper covering from shock at the whirlwind of during periods of tremendous growth, lit- economically (Hirshfeld, 1997). Slavery change that occurred in a short time. The erally and ideologically; the ideas of Mani- was a dominant force in the lives of plan- Declaration of Independence, the Ameri- fest Destiny and surfaced dur- tation farmers like the Washingtons. can , the Articles of Confedera- ing all three administrations. Yet all three George Washington became a slave tion, and the Constitutional Convention remained stunted in terms of creating poli- owner at age 11 when he “inherited ten had imbedded certain values into the new cies affecting groups of color such as Na- slaves” upon his father’s death (Hirshfeld, America (McDonald, 1974; Smith 1993; tive , African-Americans, Mexi- 1997, p.11). The practice of slavery was Ferling, 1988; Brookhiser 1996). Economic can Americans, and Japanese Americans further protected since “the Constitution autonomy, personal independence, self- (Wiencek, 2003; Ferling 1988; Bergeron, expressly provided for the continuations of governance, individual ambition, and fear 1987; Zinn, 1997; O’Reilly, 1995; Freidel, that practice” (McDonald, 1974). George of tyranny were some of the resulting val- 1990; McJimsey, 2000; Warren, 1999). Washington inherited his family estate in ues of the period. Historical understanding is a complex 1752, nearly 37 years before he would as- The Constitutional Convention and endeavor. The goal of this article is not to sume the presidency. His upbringing among the subsequent adoption of a Constitution simplify and deduce an argument about slaves and his own economic tenacity and were profound in shaping the values of early multiculturalism or regarding the greed would render him dependent on slave American society. The delegates to the con- presidents that is not contextual. Rather, labor for the remainder of his life. vention had painstakingly outlined the we are attempting to introduce the factors The seemingly endless amounts of powers of the legislative branch of govern- associated with race, , and land available for farming also shaped the ment (McDonald, 1974). This process had multiculturalism that added to the com- American psyche during this period. In secured the fate of representative govern- plexity of the office and in turn, to the politi- Europe, the agricultural system had per- ment. cal and social climate of the nation. With petuated a certain hopelessness and feel- The role of the Executive was also be- multicultural education theory in mind, the ing of drudgery for working the land ing questioned and scrutinized. Many were goal is to offer educators additional infor- (McDonald, 1974). The bounty of rich farm- concerned that the President would acquire mation that will help them teach a more ing land in the new country presented a too much power and become tyrannical like insightful and connected history. world of possibility for settlers and farm- a monarch. Early colonial government did ers. Large amounts of land coupled with the not even include an executive because of

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 34 the dislike of the actions of British rule the exact role and purpose of the president. with the aforementioned boundaries to be (McDonald, 1974). “Executive power had The colonies had been operating under a the property of the Seneka nation…’” (Zinn, been the object of distrust in America for a congressional system of government for 1997, p. 386). Treaties such as this one long time” (McDonald, 1974, p. 2). some time, but the presidency, on the other demonstrate that sometimes Washington The continued fear of a strong ex- hand, had no history or similar example did designate some land to the Native ecutive affected Washington insofar as he (Brookhiser, 1996). Washington was influ- Americans, but to give land that the Euro- too had been exposed to the tyranny of a ential in modeling how a chief executive peans had unlawfully obtained was a mini- domineering leader (McDonald, 1974). His could use, supervise, direct, and work with mal colonialist gesture. actions would be cautious, and largely sym- a cabinet of individuals who could help with Slavery was still a major force in po- bolic, during his presidential terms in spite important affairs. “In day-to-day practice, litical and economic life in the . In of the fact that constitutionally the presi- Washington supervised the activities of his his role as President, Washington was re- dent had a great deal of power, equal to that department heads closely” (McDonald, luctant to voice any opposition to slavery of the legislative and judicial branches. 1974, p. 40). though he had “spoken privately about the The new country had many challenges; evils of slavery ” (Ferling, 1988, p. 474). In Educational Background one of those had to do with national fi- 1793 Washington advanced one law regard- nances and banking. Alexander ing slavery. The Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 George Washington was born into a had been active in many of the early deci- granted permission to slaveowners to prosperous Virginia family. This stature sions of the new country. Hamilton de- “cross state lines in order ‘to seize or ar- allowed him the luxury of both formal and signed the financial structures to guide the rest’ runaway slaves” (Ferling, 1988, p. informal educational opportunities. His for- new country, and Washington allowed him 475). This law was a public display by mal education included studies in reading, to do so. These financial policies included Washington favoring the of slave writing, (specifically geom- the creation of a national bank and a tax owners. etry), poetry, and the social graces neces- on whiskey, which would prove to be very In another important decision regard- sary to a person in his social strata (Ferling, unpopular with citizens (Brookhiser, 1996; ing slavery, Washington, along with his po- 1988). He received formal education as a McDonald, 1974; Ferling 1988). litical cronies and student in private academies and he was “Finally, the nationalistic implica- , secured the site for the also tutored privately (Ferling, 1988). tions of Hamilton’s program appealed to nation’s capital with slavery in mind He was also taught about farming and Washington far more than its anti-agrar- (Wills, 2003). Early American political life planting by his family. Among his family ian implications might have upset him” had centered in . However, by he also learned about the government and (McDonald, 1974, p. 65). This acceptance the time Washington became president, parish life. “George was literally schooled of the Hamilton proposal demonstrated many Quakers and abolitionists were liv- in the mechanics of government and plan- Washington’s strong desire to unite and ing in the north, especially in Pennsylva- tation management in his early teen strengthen the national government. How- nia (Randall, 1997). During the Constitu- years…His exercise book from that period ever, Washington agreed to many of the tional convention these groups had advo- survives, containing… ‘forms’ all of which policies without thinking about the far- cated against the use of slavery but they were legal or financial documents of one reaching, long-lasting implications. In his were outnumbered (Wiencek, 2003). kind or another” (Wiencek, 2003, p. 26). second term he was left to deal with the Washington, supported by Jefferson George Washington was self-taught in fallout from the economic policies of the and Madison, decided that a location in a the area of gentility. He constantly worked first term (Brookhiser, 1996). more isolated and southern position would to polish his mannerisms and behaviors. George Washington was also chal- help secure slavery and the culture of sla- George studied the desirable traits by read- lenged to develop a Native American policy. very for other plantation operators such as ing, and he “Copied them (axioms for be- He felt it would be better for all if the Na- themselves. This insulated position would havior) from a book called The Rules of Ci- tive Americans assimilated into the domi- protect the interests of the slave owning vility & Decent Behaviour in Company and nant culture. Washington hoped that West- . Conversation” (Wiencek, 2003, p. 37). He ward expansion would occur at a slow pace studied conversation and expression by But Washington (the capital) was placed so that the Native Americans could assimi- reading books on the subject and by ob- where a diverse cultural life would pose late into the agricultural farming system serving his fashionable and elegant broth- no challenge to its sleepy southern folk- of the Euro-Americans (Ferling, 1988). In ers. His desire to imitate the grandeur of ways. No professors from a major uni- an effort to protect the Native Americans versity, no benevolent Quaker mer- his brothers prompted him to study music from Westward frontiersman, Washington chants, no sophisticated financial opera- and fencing (Ferling, 1988). developed a policy to police the boundaries tives would rub up against the His extensive study of geometry pre- with the military (Ferling, 1988). and Virginia slaveholding natives. No pared him as a surveyor. As a member of a Washington ended up protecting the major harbor would give a cosmopolitan surveyor team, George Washington had the air to the place. (Wills, 2003, p. 213) frontiersman, despite his knowledge that opportunity to travel and learn about the they were unduly provoking the Native geography of the new western areas (Smith This act was loaded with implications Americans and encroaching on their land 1993; Ferling 1988). Serving in the Revo- for a new government. It allowed slavery (Ferling, 1988). His policy developed into lutionary War was influential in Washing- to continue without the intense scrutiny one of containment, by allowing the mili- ton establishing himself as a leader that would have occurred had the capital tary to use force in Native American is- (Jones, 2002; Smith, 1993; Ferling 1988). been placed in or another sues and disputes. In State, for northern cosmopolitan city. This act also example, “during Washington’s adminis- Actions, Policies, and Political Decisions demonstrated that Washington was will- tration a treaty was signed with the ing to use his power as president to per- The early part of Washington’s presi- Iroquois of New York: [stating that] ‘The petuate the oppressive, racist, and prob- dential career was devoted to carving out United States acknowledge all the land lematic institution of slavery. From a le-

FALL 2004 35 gal standpoint, Washington failed to make Washington was aware of his political any political decisions during his presi- clout. He was also aware of the tremen- dency that would benefit the slaves, or dis- dous amount of public support he held as a courage the institution. The few times he “…national leader and a prominent world did enact policy with regard to the slaves figure…” (Hirshfeld, 1997, p. 236). With it was to their determent, as in the Fugi- this in mind he had to be aware that his tive Slave Act and in the placement of the own political and private acts regarding capital to insure slave practices. slavery would be an open encouragement Privately, Washington made sure that of slavery. Washington modeled the role of his own slaves were never in a free state president as silent bystander “in the name long enough to be granted freedom (Ferling, of order and stablility” (O’Reilly, 1995, p. 1988). When one slave did escape, “Wash- 17) though personally his moral objections ington would not even advertise for an es- to slavery existed. His objections were caped slave” (Wills, 2003, p. 209). Wash- demonstrated when he wrote in his will ington’s reluctance to actively and visibly that his personal slaves were to be freed search in the North for escaped slaves was upon his wife’s death (Dusinberre, 2003). a demonstration of his personal admission Washington’s attitude about Native of the ethical problems of slavery. Americans was based on their assimila- tion. He wanted them to adopt the prac- Multicultural Perspectives and Impacts tices of the new Americans. When he real- ized that his own citizens were not going to Throughout his life, from his work as allow for or encourage assimilation, he a landowner and a farmer, to his Presiden- caved and allowed for the forceful submis- tial years, Washington operated within the sion of the Native Americans to the fron- James K. Polk privileged and racist system of the day. tiersman (Ferling, 1988). While Washington might have struggled with some of the moral aspects of slavery, tics in his favor. At the 1844 Democratic even to the extent of willing his slaves free James K. Polk: Party convention, Polk attended to support after his wife’s death, his political and pub- Manifest Destiny President candidate for president. lic acts exacerbated, excused, and even en- As a supporter of the annexation of Texas, couraged slavery in the new country If the president of the United States Polk was able to gain the party’s nomina- (Hirshfeld, 1997, Smith, 1993,p343). Wash- was spending every spare penny of tion (Bergeron, 1988). His family’s status ington is proposed by some authors to have his plantation profits in buying chil- had prepared him for political maneuvers been a deeply religious Christian who de- dren as young as ten years old….so that led to his power. He also understood plored slavery; however, this did not exalt that he could amass a substantial how to take the issues of the day, such as force of enslaved laborers to support him to publicly speak out against the in- the annexation of Texas, conflicts with himself in gentlemanly style during Mexico, and slavery, and turn them into po- stitution of slavery (Marshall & Manuel, his retirement, this fact must be hid- litical bargaining tools (Bergeron, 1988; 1977, 1986). den from the public. (Dusinberre, Dusinberre 2003, Seigenthaler, 2003). His silence on the slavery question was 2003, p. 171). strategic, believing as he did that sla- very was a cancer on the politic of Social Currency Societal Values and Background America that could not at present be In the mid 1800s a new expansionist removed without killing the patient. The James K. Polk was born into a landowning family, and a slaveholding fam- was beginning to develop in the intriguing question is whether Washing- United States. The desire for westward ton could project an American future ily. His parents moved to Tennessee from expansion into the territories was quickly after slavery that included the African- , where they were able to American population as prospective become wealthy. His father was in the busi- becoming a political, economic, and social members of the American citizenry. For ness of “land speculation, managing slave issue. This movement, known as Manifest almost all the leading members of the plantations, selling merchandise, running Destiny, was significant in that the gen- , the answer was clear banks, and developing transportation eral citizenry began to feel and believe that and negative. Even those like Jeffer-son the country had a divine right to acquire and Madison, who looked forward to the projects” (Dusinberre, 2003, p. 13). James Polk was afforded the luxuries and develop the country westward to the eventual end of slavery, also presumed Pacific Ocean. that all freed Blacks must be transported of education, which contributed to his suc- This movement set a precedent of the elsewhere. cess in politics. Coming from a land-owning Washington never endorsed that con- family was important in other ways. “Polk government masking its conquering of new clusion. Nor did he ever embrace the ra- was acculturated by a lifelong reliance on lands by “the presumed altruistic notion cial argument for black inferiority that slave labor in a racist agrarian society” of extending and freedom (Ameri- Jefferson advanced in Notes on the State (Seigenthaler, 2003, p. 85). Polk continued can style, of course)” (Bergeron, 1987, p. 4). of Virginia. He tended to regard the con- Transportation and industry development dition of the Black population as a prod- in the farming practices of his family and he relied heavily on slave labor to reap the were the industrial advancements that uct of nuture rather than nature—that aided and abetted the expansion into the is he saw slavery as the culprit, prevent- greatest profits (Dusinberre, 2003). territories (Bergeron, 1987). ing the development of diligence and re- The government of the United States sponsibility that would emerge gradually at the time was burgeoning with party poli- was also creating a “nativist” feeling in the and naturally after emancipation. tics and, as a young politician, Polk was able country. Many new immigrants were Roman (Ellis,2000, p.158) to use the competing interests of party poli- Catholics. Immigrants during this period

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 36 (1840s) were arriving by the 100,000s each 1987, McCoy, 1960). Polk has been de- 2004, p.. 265). The Mexicanos did resist. year. A result of this influx was the desire scribed as “favoring the acquisition of ter- Many were vehemently opposed to the by some in the country to preserve tradi- ritory for the sole purpose of acquiring a domination of the United States. tions and morals (Bergeron, 1987). renewed basis for slavery” (McCoy, 1960, Increasing tensions over slavery also p. 155). Polk began his Presidential term Multicultural Perspectives and Impacts marked this pre-Civil War period. The in 1845. One of his first major actions was The multicultural implications of Polk southern states were retreating into their to allow Texas into the Union. Texas came as a slavemaster are similar to those cre- own region, while the northern states were into the union as a slave state. This mea- ated by Washington. Polk’s continued use gaining opponents on the issue (Bergeron, sure had been planned before Polk officially and support of slavery both personally and 1987). Opposition to slavery was becom- took office, but it was a party issue that he publicly upheld the practice and dehuman- ing more organized and vocal because of inherited (Seigenthaler, 2003, O’Reilly, ized slaves in the process. Polk used his anti-slavery associations. Above all, the 1995; Sellars,1966; Brown, 1980). power as president to secure slavery. “He anti-slavery movement wanted slavery In other areas of United States expan- claimed that the federal government had completely abolished. During this time, sion, Polk worked to arrange for a treaty no power to touch slavery, not even in the since that goal seemed unattainable, the with Great Britain regarding control of the District of Columbia or the territories” movement worked to prevent the spread of Oregon Territories. The result was that Or- (Dusinberre, 2003). slavery in the territories (Bergeron, 1987). egon became under the official control of Slavery was so ingrained in the minds the United States. Positioned on the West of the people that it greatly influenced Coast, Oregon became a symbolic and real Educational Background Polk’s policy of Manifest Destiny. If more example of Manifest Destiny (Bergeron, James Polk was born in North Caro- land could be acquired as slave-owning 1987; Morrison, 1967; Foos, 2002). In 1846 lina and moved to Tennessee during his land, the institution would continue and the treaty was signed and it was agreed childhood. There he studied both formally its future would be secured (Zinn, 1997, that the United States would control Or- and informally in the care of his family. McCoy, 1960, Dusinberre, 2003). egon up to the Canadian boundary. Polk was allowed to attend a local religious Manifest Destiny not only pertained Early in the administration, Polk’s op- school to pursue his formal studies. He to acquisition of land, in addition racial ponents offered up a piece of legislation then moved on to study at an academy. Manifest Destiny was also at work. The that would limit slavery in all acquired These schools instilled the virtues of Cal- power elite felt that in obtaining New lands from Mexico. The Wilmot Proviso vinism into Polk. He believed that with Mexico and California, the ideals of free- sought to prohibit the expansion of slavery, hard work he would be able to attain any dom and democracy could be spread. “This and northern Democrats were eager to pro- of his goals (Bergeron, 1987). was intermingled with ideas of racial su- tect the territory (Morrison, 1967). This Because of his academic potential and periority, longings for the beautiful lands Proviso was never fully accepted. With the the status and financial standing of his of New Mexico and California, and wheels of Manifest Destiny turning, Polk family, Polk was fortunate to have the op- thoughts of commercial enterprise across continued to aggressively pursue the ac- portunity to study at the University of the Pacific” (Zinn, 1997, p. 116). quisition of more Western territory (Zinn, North Carolina. At the University Polk It was also an example of the spread 1997; Foos, 2002). worked to polish his public speaking skills. of United States imperialism and domi- Polk first tried to buy California and He was a student leader and an excellent nation to people of color. The people who New Mexico for $20,000,000. This offer was student (Bergeron, 1987). After graduation lived in these regions, the Mexicans and insulting not only because of the amount he began a law apprenticeship in Tennes- Indians, would be civilized by the domina- offered and the location of the land, but it see (Dusinberre, 2003; Bergeron, 1987). tion of the United States (Zinn, 1997). The would have been a political disaster for Polk was only in his mid-twenties when he historical legacy of this administration lies Mexican leaders to accept the proposal. began practicing law (Dusinberre 2003). in the of groups and the as- Polk sent troops to the Rio Grande area, As a young professional, Polk’s educa- sumption of racial assimilation through supervised by General , to tion continued through his work as a law- the power of racial Manifest Destiny. pressure the Mexicans. This act initiated yer. He got an early start in politics when “The idea of everyman as conqueror the Mexican American War (Zinn, 1997; he received a job as a Senate clerk. Polk pressured volunteers from the lower and Foos, 2002). The War was declared by Con- also served in Congress for 14 years, dur- middling classes to look for a new social gress even though it did not have the full ing which time he focused on advocating order which would extend to them the full support of the United States. The Mexi- for the needs of the people of Tennessee privileges of herrenvolk, that is, personal cans eventually lost the war. The Treaty of (Bergeron, 1987). These professional work dominance over ‘inferiors’” (Foos, 2002, p. Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed into law. experiences were valuable in educating 58). Thus, the expansionist mentality man- As a result of this treaty Mexico lost half Polk about the nature of politics. He also aged to transform into power roles that of their territory to the United States for learned the art of persuasion. His work would encourage whites from different so- the price of $15,000,000 (Zinn, 1997). ethic, which had been influenced early on cial classes to assume a position of superi- All of these events did not come about by his Calvinist teachers, aided in his quick ority (Foos, 2002). without resistance from the Mexican ascension from law clerk to Congressman Americans who had established them- (Dusinberre, 2003; Bergeron, 1987). selves throughout the Southwest. “One of Franklin Delano Roosevelt: the persistent myths of American West- Silent on Race ern historiography has been that Actions, Policies, and Political Decisions Mexicanos happily greeted American sol- The question asked by a black reporter Polk was a territorial expansionist diers, offered little resistance to their domi- had to do with segregation in the Army; working under the ideology of Manifest nation, and allowed the conquest to occur the president’s response could be applied Destiny (Dusinberre, 2003; Bergeron, without spilling a drop of blood” (Gutierrez, to any race issue in that he concluded

FALL 2004 37 the problem was intractable not because stitutionality of Roosevelt’s legislation. of his administration’s reluctance to con- The Supreme Court deemed some of his front it head on but because racism was programs unconstitutional (McJimsey, too ingrained in too many Americans. 2000; Gallagher, 1999; Davis, 2000). (O’Reilly, 1995, p. 143) Roosevelt also enacted New Deal legisla- tion pertaining specifically to Native Social Currency Americans. “Indian New Deal” allowed Franklin Delano Roosevelt did not tribal peoples to organize as have to deal with the issues of slavery, as long as they were representative govern- Washington and Polk had. However, be- ments, modeling “representative democ- cause of his aristocratic background, he had racy” (Snipp, 2004, p. 324). Such policies, lived a life insulated from African-Ameri- while granting some autonomy to Native cans and other people of color (McJimsey, Peoples were based on assimilation, domi- 2000). As an aristocrat, families that had nation, and control. In this case the deter- acquired wealth in mining, technology, and ministic policy disregarded the Native industry surrounded Franklin. “His world American’s utilization of theocracies for was filled with people who were used to governance (Snipp, 2004). getting their way” (McJimsey, 2000, p. 9). World War II held it’s own challenges Franklin Roosevelt was confined to a for the President. The United States had wheelchair because of an illness suffered been in an isolationist mood after World during his youth. Because of his physical War I and before World War II. The United limitations, Roosevelt also had to battle States sold weapons to European forces to public opinion about his . People try and combat the Axis powers that were who were confined to wheelchairs were not Franklin D. Roosevelt fighting in Europe. The United States did common as leaders of countries. Some of not officially enter the war until the At- Roosevelt’s own personal power may have to learn about politics as a presidential tack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. However, stemmed from his interaction with the appointee to the post of Assistant Secre- before the attack Roosevelt had been in- world as a man with a disability (Davis, tary to the Navy. His term as Governor of creasing the military budget in an effort to 2000; Gallagher, 1999). New York in 1928 enabled him to learn to prepare for war (McJimsey, 2000; manage party politics and become a char- Gallagher, 1999; Davis, 2000). Societal Values and Background ismatic leader (McJimsey, 2000; Gal- Roosevelt ordered assistance to the British for their military supply needs and The Great Depression had set in be- lagher, 1999). small operations. The United States also fore Franklin D. became president. Banks launched small attacks from the ocean. The nationwide had closed. The stock market Actions, Policies, and Political Decisions United States involvement in World War had crashed. The financial structures of the Most of F. D. Roosevelt’s policies and II established a new world order, one in country were in disarray and the unemploy- political decisions stemmed from two ma- which the United States would assume a ment rate was skyrocketing. Homeless- jor events. The first was the Great Depres- more powerful position, yet remain rela- ness, hunger, and lack of personal savings sion which led to the creation of economic tively peaceful at home (McJimsey, 2000; compounded the effects of the depression aid measures meant to stimulate the Gallagher, 1999; Davis, 2000). for millions of citizens. These economic economy. The second event was World War hard times resulted in feelings of despera- II. Because F. D. Roosevelt served four con- Multicultural Perspectives and Impacts tion and hopelessness among the citizens secutive terms as President, his impact (McJimsey, 2000, Davis, 2000). Private and was profound and long-lasting (McJimsey, F. D. Roosevelt’s primary concerns dur- public charities tried to offer assistance to 2000; Gallagher, 1999; Davis, 2000). ing his administration dealt with economic as many people as possible. Many of his economic policies are leg- recovery and, later, the war effort. He was endary. The New Deal consisted of a legis- a champion of the working poor and he of- Educational Background lation package that Roosevelt began im- fered a great deal of attention to their needs during the Great Depression (Mc Jimsey, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born mediately upon his presidency. Included in 2000). When it came to issues of equality into a wealthy New York family that was this package were programs to create jobs and desegregation, his was a policy of si- able to offer him boundless formal educa- for out of work citizens, to develop agricul- lence (O’Reilly, 1995). The press, including tion opportunities. He attended a presti- tural subsidies, and to develop a domestic the more liberal news reporting agencies, gious academy called Groton Academy as infrastructure (McJimsey, 2000; Gallagher, did not assign responsibility to President an adolescent (McJimsey, 2000; Jenkins, 1999; Davis, 2000). “Roosevelt also favored Roosevelt for the blatantly racist policies 2003). He later studied at Harvard. After plans to spur the economy over the short of his administration for fear of compro- his marriage to Anna Eleanor, Franklin term, especially plans that rejected gov- mising the war effort (Warren, 1999). decided to continue his education. Franklin ernment spending to restore prosperity” The liberal press during this time re- chose another prestigious university to con- (McJimsey, 2000, p. 43). A greater desire ported on civil rights, civil , and tinue his studies. He chose to study law at of the economic plan was “…to reorganize they often cited as a (McJimsey, 2000). ” so that the economy would re- stain on democracy in America, however, Like Polk and Washington, F. D. gain stability (Zinn, 1997, p. 285). These they did not implicate Roosevelt as the Roosevelt also received years of education economic plans were also valuable in main- President (Warren, 1999) Failing to assign on the job as a politician. He served in the taining public order. responsibility to the negative policies of New York State Senate. He also continued Another domestic issue was the con-

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 38 presidential administrations has continued cated to the camps. Incidentally, over two in Washington’s case most students will to be a problem. Roosevelt’s lack of atten- thirds of these people were United States recall him as hero, first tion to issues of race were noticeable even citizens (Freidel, 1990). President, man of many morals. This same in major issues like “voting rights” (O’Reilly, man stood silent while hundreds of people The consequence was to benefit certain 1995, p. 123). He did not privately or pub- white business and interests at the ex- under his own personal power and tens of licly speak out against . It pense of suffering American citizens thousands of people under his political was not until his last year in office that who had never been charged with any power were enslaved (Ferling, 1988, Smith, Roosevelt allowed African-American report- crime or act of disloyalty. (McJimsey, 1993, Hirshfeld, 1997). In a discussion of ers to be invited to his press conferences 2000, p. 219) James Polk’s presidential decisions, (O’Reilly, 1995). Dusinberre makes a poignant statement. Roosevelt was suspicious of other Roosevelt did make token appoint- groups of color as well. He established an We modern Americans like to distance ments of African-American leaders to gov- office to investigate conflicts among ourselves from James Polk’s world by ernmental posts. At the same time groups of color. This office served as a “ra- naming it a slave society and ours a free Roosevelt remained silent as the cial intelligence clearinghouse” (O’Reilly, society. We repudiate the slave system of African-Americans was reported on a that was so important to our ancestors, 1997, p. 140). This office believed that regular basis. Eventually Roosevelt did but we are slower to repudiate the poli- Eleanor Roosevelt was encouraging and approve of a committee to investigate the tics that walked arm in arm with that conspiring with African-Americans. They but he was cautious about social system. (Dusinberre, 2003, p. 174) were never able to acquire any intelligence implementing actual legislation or policy of significance. Slowest of all is our reaction to im- in that area (Freidel, 1990). plicate the leaders that perpetuated a sys- The following passage describes the Multicultural Education, tem of oppression, injustice and dehu- sentiments of many African-Americans manization. Multicultural education al- during this time “As for the Blacks and Teacher Education, lows for a dialogue of truth and liberation workers, many deplored the failure of and the Presidents to transform education realities and un- Roosevelt to go further…” (Freidel, 1990, realities. If we ask our students the ques- pg. 248). Many historical representations A goal in our work as teacher educa- tion, “Under what circumstances would champion Roosevlet as a leader in the area tors specializing in multicultural educa- the enslavement of humans be accept- of Civil Rights. For example, a Presiden- tion and critical pedagogy is to engage with able?” how will they reply? There is not a tial anthology describes, “No president students in the multifarious issues sur- circumstance that makes such an act ac- since Lincoln was so widely admired among rounding diversity and equity. Exploring ceptable. It is evident then, that Wash- as was Franklin the presidents and their actions enables ington and subsequent presidents such as Roosevelt” (Kunhardt, P., Kunhardt, P., us to fill in the gaps of our historical un- Polk and F. D. Roosevelt should not be Kunhardt, P. 1999, p. 192). However, this derstanding. Multicultural education protected because of a romantic notion of view is not supported by the policies made theory empowers learning and in the case historical unity. during his administration. of the presidents, it should focus on expo- It is also not supported by an inter- sition so the real power structures that There is much pain and loss in our na- view of one of the author’s father who served inform social and racial policy in this coun- tional history, which contains powerful in the United States Navy during World echoes of the pain and loss many of us try are contextualized and described. feel in our daily lives. For Blacks there is War II. He states that “African American the pain of slavery and the continual loss men in the Navy were relegated to segre- The surface harmony heralded by the media, the government and education is of dignity that accompanies our treat- gated quarters and only received assign- merely an image in the minds of those ment as nonstandard citizens. (Wilkins, ments as cooks and custodians” (H. P. individuals who are shielded by privilege 2002, p. 6) Baptiste, personal communication, Janu- from the injustice experienced by domi- ary 18, 2004). nated peoples. Such a pseudo-harmony Wilkins’ sentiment brings attention to At the urging of his wife, Eleanor, idealizes the future as it covers up the the racial tensions and feelings by Afri- Roosevelt did manage to meet with some historical forces that have structured the can-Americans in our country, and he con- African-American rights activists, but present disharmony that it denies. nects those feelings to the history and the during these meetings the President paid (Kincheloe & Steinberg, 1997, pp.230) historical figures that have contributed to the oppression of a group. little attention to the problems presented When students in our education As educators, especially in a diverse (O’Reilly, 1995; Freidel, 1990). The deseg- courses are exposed to new information society it should be known that our his- regation of the army was another source about the presidents there are mixed reac- torical investigations will not always be of contention. Roosevelt was reluctant to tions. We are often told that in exposing comfortable. We must challenge our notions allow for a desegregated military. Even the facts of Washington’s slave polices and of historical figures so that the complexi- more disturbing was that Roosevelt, “al- practices, for example, we are taking cer- ties of race, culture, and policy can have a lowed his favorite service, the U.S. Navy, tain parts of his life out of context. Out of new meaning for students. Kincheloe and to remain almost completely white.” context? Solely learning the heroic deeds Steinberg describe, (Jenkins, 2003, pp. 140). of a person’s life as we do with our presi- F. D. Roosevelt also removed Japanese dents, is indeed actually taking portions …it [critical multiculturalism] reveals Americans from their homes and had them of a person’s life out of context. historically how race, class and gender placed in camps (McJimsey, When we inaccurately present histori- make a difference in the lives of indi- 2000; Warren, 1999; Freidel, 1990). This cal figures by only focusing on the positive viduals and how racism, class and have played a central role in shap- racist act violated the of the contributions and their legendary accom- ing Western . (1997, p. 41) Japanese citizens. Approximately 120,000 plishments we are failing to address the persons of Japanese ancestry were relo- needs of a diverse population. For instance, The presidential administrations of

FALL 2004 39 George Washington, James K. Polk, and sive disablitiy—and the intense efforts to McDonald, F. (1974). The Presidency of George Franklin Delano Roosevelt serve as small conceal it from the public. Arlington, VA: Washington. Lawrence, KS: The Univer- pieces of the historical puzzle that encour- Vandamere Press. sity of Kansas Press. ages the contextualization of contemporary Gay, G. (2004). Curriculum theory and O’Reilly, K. (1995). Nixon’s Piano: Presidents multicultural education. In Handbook of and from Washington to struggles to occur. research on multicultural education, sec- Clinton. New York: The Free Press. ond edition. J. Banks & C. Banks (Eds.) Quaife, M. (Ed.). (1970). The Diary of James References San Franscisco: Jossey-Bass. K. Polk during his presidency, 1845 to 1849. Gutierrez, R. (2004). Ethnic Mexicans in his- New York: Kraus Reprint Company. Banks, J. (2004). Multicultural education: his- torical and social science scholarship. In Randall, W. (1997). 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Previous installments in this series of articles on Presidents of the United States and multicultural education appeared in the following issues of Multicultural Education: Winter 2003 issue: Presidents James Madison, Rutherford B. Hayes, and John F. Kennedy. Spring 2004 issue: Presidents , , and Dwight D. Eisenhower. Summer 2004 issue: Presidents , , and Harry S. Truman. Look for additional installments in future issues of Multicultural Education.

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