GOVERNANCE AND VULNERABILITY IN SMALL ISLAND STATES By Ahmed Shukry Hussain A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Development Studies Victoria University of Wellington 2008 I runga i te kī He aha I tem ea nui He tangata, he tangata, he tangata Nā konei te wero Kaua e hangai he ture I pērē i te kupenga ika He here hopo Engari, i pērē me te nekeneke tai he ārahi What is most important? It is people, people, people We should not create policies that are Like the fishing net That snares and strangles But like the surging tide That uplifts and carries forward (Communities and Government – Political for Partnership, Whakatopu Whakaaro, May 2001, the Community Policy Team, Ministry of Social Policy, New Zealand) Abstract In general, communities in Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are socio- economically and environmentally vulnerable due to their geographical and ecological conditions. Small archipelagic states are even more vulnerable in terms of natural and human-induced disasters because of their fragmentation, isolation and smallness. Good governance is a vital precondition to reduce the vulnerability of these states. This study examines these two correlated phenomena, governance and vulnerability, their inter-related implications and complications, and the role of governance in reducing vulnerability of SIDS and their island communities. It also proposes some practical remedies for the challenges of these communities. Qualitative research using multiple methods, secondary data collection, informal semi-structured interviews, open-ended discussions, informal conversational interviews and direct observations, was carried out through case studies of two archipelagos, the republics of Maldives and Vanuatu. In addition, the New Zealand local government model with a focus on Bay of Plenty Region was also studied in order to seek policy models and best practices from a developed state. The field inquiry revealed that an effective local governance system is vitally important to address socio-economic and environmental vulnerability of these archipelagic communities. Neither a rigid centralised system, like the Maldives, nor a decentralised system, as in the case of Vanuatu, was found to be appropriate and effective unless certain functions are delegated and local authorities are made self- reliant, financially and functionally self-sufficient and aware of their responsibilities through education, while community members are empowered by providing more socio-economic opportunities. Based on the research findings, the thesis highlights four key causes of increasing vulnerability in these communities: absence of a reliable outreach mechanism for emergency management, lack of a strong local governance system, scarcity of socio- economic resources and opportunities, and inadequate socio-economic infrastructures. The thesis suggests possible ways forward by proposing a four tier cluster approach with a decentralised emergency management system and local governance model. The transient vulnerability (natural or weather related disasters) of these archipelagic communities cannot be addressed unless their chronic vulnerability, lack of socio-economic opportunities, is addressed through sound local governance. i Acknowledgement Many factors drew me to pursue this study and key amongst them are that I overheard my father saying to someone once, “You know! One day, I want to see my children achieving the highest level of education”. Since my father is a fisherman and mason from a small island with eight children, his dream has inspired my ongoing concern to understand the social problems associated with vulnerability of the island communities. I am indebted to many people who have contributed to what I have achieved today in my study. This long intellectual journey would have been impossible without their financial and inspirational support. My sincere thanks and gratefulness are due to NZAID, the government of New Zealand and its generous people for supporting me and my family in all means and providing all comforts during our stay in New Zealand. My appreciations are due to Victoria University of Wellington, especially the Faculty of Science and School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences, Victoria International team, Library, Victoria Early Childhood Services, Victoria Accommodation Services and Student Finance Scheme, and their staff for their great support in every possible way to make my study success and to give all comforts during our stay in New Zealand. My study would not have been successful without generous intellectual and kind inspirational support and empathy of my supervisors Dr. Teresia Teaiwa, Professors John Overton, John McKinnon and Vijay Naidu. In fact, their critical comments and suggestions are the strengths of my research and the thesis. They have also been kindly supportive beyond my academic life and a consoling source in all difficult times. My heartfelt respect, gratitude and best wishes are due to all of them. I am also grateful to my past teachers, lecturers and supervisors at home and abroad for their contributions in my success in what I am today. The writing of the thesis also would not have been in the final form without continuous support of Dr. Deborah Laurs, from the Student Learning Centre of the VUW, who read and reread my entire work during my study starting from my working proposal to the thesis and helped to make my writing readable and sensible. In fact, she has been filling no less than a supervisory role. Her encouraging words and advice have always been stimulus for my study. My sincere thanks and appreciations are to her and other people in the Centre. I am also thankful to Dr. Deborah for her kind help in proof reading my thesis. My thanks are due to the ministries, government agencies, councils and atoll offices in the Maldives, Vanuatu and New Zealand for their support and providing me with the data I required for my research. My heartfelt and sincere thanks are due to the members of Island Development Committees, Island Women Development Committees, NGOs, Island and Atoll Chiefs, Offices in the island and atoll offices in the Maldives for their kind assistance during my fieldwork, organising and arranging the meetings and providing me and my family with all comforts. ii I am also grateful to every one who supported my fieldwork in the Maldives, especially Mr. Saud Abdullah (then the Atoll chief of the Raa atoll), who was so generous to me and my family during our stay in the atoll and all other staff of the atoll office. My thanks are due to the UNDP, Malé Office, for its support during my fieldwork in Raa atoll and providing me two assistants, Mr. Rasheed and Ms. Arfa. Thanks for the two for their team work, logistics, coordination and keen to learn. I am also thankful to Mr. Mahir (then the Atoll chief of Shviyani) for his support. My thanks are also due to Mr. Farook (then the Assistant Director General of the Ministry of Atolls Development) and others, especially my colleagues in the G. Section of the ministry. My sincere gratitude goes to Mr. Ibrahim Rasheed (Ibbe) of the Ministry of Planning and National Development, who provided me with some logistical and technical support and information materials. My thanks are due to my cousin, Mr. Abdurrazzague, and his family who provided me and my family with accommodation and arranged transportation and acted as the captain and crew of our hired boat for my field trips in Shaviayni atoll. I am also thankful to Mr. Mohmed (Bodey), Mr. Hakeem and Mr. Thaufeeque who were part of our team on these trips. I am indebted to many people in Vanuatu, especially Mr. John Niroa and his secretary Ms. Moriel Saimon from the Ministry of Education, who arranged the research permit, all the meetings in Port Vila and Tanna and provided transportation and logistical support in Tanna. My sincere appreciations are due to Ms. Nancy, an education officer in Tanna, who was with me during all the meetings with locals, as a guide, helper and sometimes acted as a translator. I would also like to give my sincere thanks and appreciations to Jean-Pierre, Professor John Lynch and other staff of USP on Emalus Campus for their kind assistance and helping me feel at home during my three weeks stay in Port Vila. I am also grateful to Ms. Anne, the devoted librarian at the National Library of Vanuatu, who supported me by locating all the required resources about Vanuatu and made all the photocopies I needed. My sincere thanks are due to Ms. Kesaia Paulo, Professors Ron Duncan and Robert Robertson and Dr. Mahendra Reddy at University of South Pacific for their kind assistance and all others who supported during my stay in Suva and I am grateful to the USP, Fiji, permitting me to have access to its library’s Pacific collection and other resources and facilities. I am grateful to my friend Hannalinne Nalau Ilo and her family whom I first met at Australian National University, Canberra, for her kind support during my stay in Vanuatu and her continuous support in providing me with new information material whenever I needed. I am also grateful to her for reading the final draft chapters, five and six, providing valuable comments and corrections of some factual errors. My thanks are due to Bryan Riesterer (then the deputy chairman of Environment Bay of Plenty) and John Forbes (Mayor of Opotiki) for their kind support when I was in iii the Bay of Plenty Region and others including those with whom I had appointments but could not meet because of my sickness due to bad hay-fever. I also would like to thank Mr. Mike Reid, Manager Governance of Local Government New Zealand, for providing me with his insights on the local government system and also reading my draft chapters, seven and eight, for his very encouraging critical comments.