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Are We There Yet? Tracking the Development of New Model Systems Review Are we there yet? Tracking the development of new model systems Arhat Abzhanov1, Cassandra G. Extavour1, Andrew Groover2,3, Scott A. Hodges4, Hopi E. Hoekstra1, Elena M. Kramer1 and Antonia Monteiro5 1 Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA 2 Department of Plant Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA 3 USDA Forest Service, Institute of Forest Genetics, Davis, CA 95616, USA 4 Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA 5 Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA It is increasingly clear that additional ‘model’ systems However, because there are often few surviving inter- are needed to elucidate the genetic and developmental mediate species and genetic crosses are not feasible, basis of organismal diversity. Whereas model system the precise molecular mechanisms responsible for these development previously required enormous investment, phenotypic transitions are usually more difficult to recent advances including the decreasing cost of DNA pinpoint. sequencing and the power of reverse genetics to study Regardless of our individual preferences in sampling the gene function are greatly facilitating the process. In this tree of life, a clearer picture of organismal evolution will review, we consider two aspects of the development of emerge only as we study more taxa. In addition, many of us new genetic model systems: first, the types of questions want to understand evolutionary processes at the molecular being advanced using these new models; and second, and/or developmental level, processes that are at work in the essential characteristics and molecular tools for new natural populations. Although traditional models can be models, depending on the research focus. We hope that studied in the wild (see below), some researchers are moving researchers will be inspired to explore this array of away from existing laboratory systems (e.g. Drosophila emerging models and even consider developing new melanogaster, Caenorhabditis elegans, Mus musculus, Ara- molecular tools for their own favorite organism. bidopsis thaliana) and are developing new genomic resources and tools for organisms at diverse branches of The need for new genetic model systems the tree of life [1,2]. Determining how and why the diversity of complex life forms that surround us originated is a major question in biology. Given the millions of species on our planet, un- Glossary derstanding the evolution of organismal form, physiology Adaptation: the process by which natural selection favors those individuals or behavior will require a sustained effort to expand the with heritable morphological, physiological or behavioral traits that increase currently small set of experimental model organisms to fitness in a particular environment. Crown group: a group or clade of organisms defined by only extant species. It include many others at key branches of the tree of life. includes the last common ancestor of a given clade as well as all living Investigators, however, are interested in addressing descendents of that ancestor. many different questions about organismal diversity. Developmental evolution (Evo-Devo): a field of study that integrates traditional research on organismal evolutionary biology (systematics, paleontology, and Some of us want to understand the evolutionary process comparative anatomy) with molecular embryology, genetics and genomics atthetwigsofthetreeoflife–inthelastfewmillionyears with the goal of understanding how changes in developmental genetic of evolution – and focus on the genetic, developmental and programs produce morphological diversity. Expressed sequence tag (EST): a short sequence of transcribed RNA that is ecological changes that underlie differentiation of closely produced by random sequencing of cloned cDNA pools. related species. Others are more interested in the changes Genotype  environment interactions: differential developmental or physiolo- gical responses of certain genotypes in different environments; these might that evolved hundreds of millions of years ago and now reflect varying degrees of phenotypic plasticity. are only found in representatives of surviving crown Hybridization: the interbreeding of distinct species. groups (see Glossary). There are advantages and chal- Macroevolution: evolutionary changes that are studied above the level of species, often associated with differences between families or phyla. lenges to working on both evolutionary time scales. When Microevolution: the process of allele frequency change over many generations, sampling the twigs on a single branch, we are often able to usually measured at the species level or below. Microevolutionary processes identify the genetic basis of phenotypic variation because are also often studied among closely related, often interfertile, species. Near isogenic lines (NILs): a genotype, generally derived by repeated we can take advantage of the ability to cross closely backcrossing, which differs from another genotype by only one genetic region. related species; however, these recent transitions often Phenotypic plasticity: the ability of an organism of a given genotype to alter its involve relatively small changes in phenotype. By con- phenotype in response to environmental conditions. Quantitative trait loci mapping: quantitative traits are aspects of a phenotype trast, when sampling single twigs in different branches, that are controlled by more than one locus and often vary continuously. The we can study major phenotypic transitions (e.g. changes genomic localization of these loci is conducted by statistical analysis of in body plan) that represent major evolutionary changes. the segregation of multiple genetic markers and variation in the phenotypic trait(s) of interest. Speciation: the evolutionary process by which new species are formed. Corresponding author: Kramer, E.M. ([email protected]). 0168-9525/$ – see front matter ß 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2008.04.002 353 Review Trends in Genetics Vol.24 No.7 The development of new model systems, however, is not Box 1. Models and tools for macroevolutionary studies trivial and requires a significant investment of money and Phylogenetic position is an important consideration in choosing time; thus, it is crucial to make careful choices about the models for macroevolutionary studies. New models, which repre- most appropriate organism to study. As most research sent undersampled lineages, are useful in investigating the today is hypothesis driven, it is also important to evaluate complement of genetic pathways present in the last common whether the specific questions cannot be better addressed ancestor of a given clade. This type of question can be asked at many phylogenetic levels, and systems such as the Crustacean in traditional systems. Notably, some of the most success- Parhyale are helping us to understand how deeply conserved ful recently developed systems are not actually ‘new’ but particular genetic programs are. Crucial components of this have been the subjects of ecological and evolutionary study research include established expression protocols and reverse for decades (e.g. cichlids, sticklebacks, deer mice, butter- genetics, which allow candidate genes to be functionally assessed flies, Darwin’s finches and monkey flowers). What is new is at many different levels [12,65]. Another important goal in macro- evolution is to understand the mechanisms by which morphological our ability to apply advanced molecular tools to these novelties arise. Morphological innovation can be recognized ecologically well-characterized species. throughout the tree of life but, in some cases, these evolutionary The goals of this review are twofold. First, we provide an events have occurred recently enough to offer the chance to fully overview of the diverse array of questions that newly tease apart their evolution. In the butterfly Bicyclus, as well as in emerging model systems can help to elucidate, including other Lepidopterans, researchers are drawing on a wealth of natural variation, combined with comparative gene expression and elegant the genetic basis of speciation and adaptation, the evol- transgenic techniques, to understand how the genetic pathways ution of morphological and ecological novelty and the controlling eyespots evolved [52,66,67]. In this example we see an nature of the metazoan genetic toolkit. Second, we outline important new trend: the bridging of micro- and macroevolutionary the fundamental characteristics and tools that are essen- scales to inform one another. Choosing macroevolutionary models tial for the development of new model systems. Whereas with this information in mind (e.g. taxa with tractable genome sizes and natural variation) will greatly improve the overall utility of the the former serves to highlight the important contributions system. already being made by new model systems, the latter might guide researchers who are considering the develop- ment of new tools for their own study organisms. (Aquilegia), a novel fifth floral organ, the staminodium, evolved within the last 12–15 million years [3]. One type of Research questions for new model systems floral organ identity gene, APETALA3 (AP3), has three The growing number of species for which significant paralogs, one of which is specific to the novel staminodium, genetic resources are available is sparking a new era of suggesting
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