Climate Change and the Course of Global History: a Rough Journey John L

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-87164-8 - Climate Change and the Course of Global History: A Rough Journey John L. Brooke Index More information

Index

Achaimenids, 322 characteristics of development of, Acheulean tradition tools. See tools, stone 151–2 , 163 acid rain, 525 , 544 crop failures, 276 , 458 , 489–90 , 494 Adam, ancestral, 87 . See also Y-chromosome crop rotation and diversifi cation, 462 Adena culture, North America, 310 driven by climate, 156 Africa during Early Modern period, 420 AIDS, 537 ecological problems developing economic growth, 536 , 537 from, 163 land clearance emissions, 488 , 497 English Agricultural Revolution, 461–2 megadroughts, 78 , 86 , 87 , 91 , 92 environmental hazards of, 501–2 mitochondrial DNA, 84 , 91–2 and failure of the feudal/manorial population, 470 system, 428–9 rifts, 63 , 66 fertilizers and pesticides, 461–2 , 533 , shared genetics by all humans, 96 544 , 562 spread of crops, 152 fl ood-water farming, 147 spread of language, 162 future threats to, 566 survival of megafauna, 138–9 and globalization of food, 435–7 , 472 , 476 tectonic movement of, 58 and the Green Revolution, 532 See also human evolution ; specifi c hearths of, 126 countries, regions, and cultures and human mobility, 128–9 African Monsoon hybrid high-yield crops, 533 and desertifi cation of the Sahara, 211 during interglacial period, 6 during Holocene, 134 , 172–4 , 555 during Late Holocene, 276 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 155 , 174 , during Little Ice Age, 458 178 , 184 mechanization of, 505 during Younger Dryas, 133 during Medieval era, 373 , 376–8 at end of LGM, 132 and mortality and fertility rates, 226–8 mega-monsoons, 150 and NPP, 128 African Red Slip Ware, 333 , 344 origins of, 121 , 135–6 Afroasiatic languages, 161–2 plantation system, 430–1 , 436 Agassiz, Lake, 159 and population, 106 , 217 , 312–14 agrarian societies, 7 , 10 , 218 , 529 , 553 prerequisites for, 125–6 agriculture as response to stress, 143 annual biomass energy, 416 rise of agro-ecologies, 122–3 and B ø lling-Allerø d intervals, 143 and secondary products revolution, and calorie consumption, 127 , 191–2 , 416 191–4 , 287

593

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-87164-8 - Climate Change and the Course of Global History: A Rough Journey John L. Brooke Index More information

594 Index

agriculture (cont.) fertility rates, 239 and slavery, 430–1 during Little Ice Age, 371 spread of, 157–62 , 238–9 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 181 , 182 transition to, 128 , 150–2 during Preclassical Crisis, 308 , 309–10 in tropics, 152–3 and rise of the state, 189 , 190 warming effects of, 477 See also specifi c cultures See also domestication of animals ; Anderson, Greg, 188 domestication of plants ; horticulture ; anemia, 315 land clearance ; methane Angel, Lawrence, 335 , 338 AIDS/HIV, 532 , 537 , 545 , 563 Angola, 443 ‘Ain Ghazal, Anatolia, 159–60 , 198 animals Ainu culture, Japan, 327 , 474 animal labor, 202–3 , 319 , 420 , 462 , 492 air pollution, 524–8 , 554 . See also emissions, consumption of, 332 , 338 industrial secondary products revolution, 192 Akkadian empire, 281 , 289 , 293 and zoonotic diseases, 221–3 , 233–4 , 563 Akkadian event, 292–6 See also carnivores ; domestication of alarmists, 571–4 animals ; herbivores ; megafauna ; Alaska, 567 specifi c animals albedo, 68 , 69 , 477 , 498 Antarctica, 58 , 62 , 66 , 131 , 564 . See also ice alcohol, 223 , 436 , 464 cores, Greenland or Antarctic algae, 42 , 574 Anthropocene Algaze, Guillermo, 207 , 209 , 241 early modern-modern landuse emissions Allen, Harriet D., 275 and, 402 , 478–9 , 487 , 495–8 , 499 allopatric selection, 26 , 29 , 43 , 48 First Industrial Revolution emissions and, alpacas, 153 478 , 479 alphabets, 306 greenhouse effect in, 398 , 402 , 404 , 476–8 , Altai Mountains, Central Asia, 369 495 , 548–50 Alvarez, Walter, 27–8 , 50 Ruddiman early agriculture greenhouse America, colonial, 475 , 478 , 486 , 487 , 499 . thesis, 286–7 See also United States Ruddiman epidemic drawdown “American Century,” 534 greenhouse thesis, 396 , 440–2 Americas. See New World Second Industrial Revolution emissions Amerindians, 223 , 431–4 , 439–40 , 488 . and, 403 , 407 , 408 , 479 , 525–8 , See also disease, fi rst contact ; smallpox 546–52 amino acids and origins of life, 37 seven phases of, 408 , 553–8 Amorites, 293 See also climate and climate change ; anaerobic sediments, 159 Industrial Revolution ; Ruddiman, Anatolia William colonization of, 158 antibiotics, 563 during Bronze Age Crisis, 292 Antipater of Thessalonica, 339 during Classical Optimum, 325 Antiquity. See Classical Antiquity fl oods, 341 Antonine Plague, 343 , 344 Hittite kingdom, 290 apes, 62–3 , 64 during Little Ice Age, 449 Arab Spring, 569 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 159–60 Arabia, 90 , 92 , 94–5 during Preclassical Crisis, 299 Arabian Sea, 292 rise of Ottomans, 419 Aral Sea, 58 water mills, 320 archaeans, 38 , 40 Andaman Islands, 94 Archaic period Andean cultures in North America, 157 , 226 , 240 , 310 agriculture, 153 in South America, 183 during Classical Optimum, 327 See also Mesolithic period during Dark Ages, 354 Archean Eon, 38

Index 595

Archean/Paleo-Proterozoic crisis, 38–42 See also atmospheric pressure systems ; Arctic, 67 , 164 , 546 , 564 , 565 , 567 . El Ni ñ o/Southern Oscillation ; See also ice cores ; Laurentine monsoons ; North Atlantic Oscillation ; meltwater events thermohaline pump ; westerlies Arctic Oscillation (AO), 168–9 . atmospheric pressure systems See also North Atlantic Oscillation about, 167–8 Ardipithecus ramidus, 65 Azores High-Icelandic Low, 168–9 Arkwright, Richard, 484 Hawaiian High-Aleutian Low, 168 Arrhenius, Svante, 495 , 526 Siberian High-Tibetan Low, 168 arthritis, 221 See also Siberian Highs Asia, 417–19 , 429–30 , 536 . See also East Australia, 93 , 125 , 157 , 557 Asia ; South Asia ; Southeast Asia ; Australopithecus genus, 65 , 71–2 specifi c countries Austronesian languages, 162 Asian Monsoons automobiles, 510 , 522–3 , 524 , 574 during Anthropocene, 555–7 Axial Age, 306 during Bronze Age Crisis, 294 Aztec culture, 419 , 430 , 432 , 439 during Dark Ages, 351–4 at end of LGM, 132 Babylon, 299 , 304 and ENSO, 170–1 Badaran culture, Egypt, 185 during Holocene, 134 , 172–4 , 277 Bailey, Mark, 378 during Little Ice Age, 447 Balsas Valley, Mexico, 152–3 mega-monsoons, 150 bananas, 311 , 497 during Mid Pleistocene Revolution, 77 Bangladesh, 568 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 155 , 174 , banks and banking, 330 , 465 178 , 180 , 184 Bantu-speaking peoples, 162 , 312 and orbital cycles, 68 , 71 barbarians, 339–40 , 346 origins of, 58 Barbary states, 422 and Siberian Highs, 168–9 barley, 129 , 147 , 294 and West Pacifi c Warm Pool, 173 Barnosky, Anthony, 30 during Younger Dryas, 133 basalt provinces. See superplumes See also East Asian Monsoon ; South Asian Baten, Joerg, 378 [Indian] Monsoon beans, 435 Assyria, 299 , 304 , 322 Beijing, China, 418 , 445 asteroids, 52 Belgium, 421 , 494 , 504 , 511 , 516 , 527 Aterian tradition artifacts and tools, 92 , Benedictow, Ole, 387 , 389 , 427 93 , 107 Bengal famine, India, 471 Athens, 188 , 330 Bessemer furnaces, 509 Atlantic Ocean, 45 , 64 , 67 , 366 , 437–8 Bible, 206 , 298 , 299 atmosphere, 18 , 28 , 37 , 38–42 , 68 , 172–4 . Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, 573 See also emissions, industrial ; Binford, Lewis, 140 , 145 greenhouse gases Bintliff, John, 275 atmospheric circulation biomass energy, 416 , 422 , 436 , 549 during Early Holocene, 172–4 biome changes, 137–8 , 139 in Ferrell Cells, 167 , 168 , 171 , 172–4 , 277 biosphere, 28 , 38–42 in Hadley Cells, 132 , 167 , 170 , 171 , bipedalism, 65–6 , 69 , 75 . See also hominins ; 172–4 , 276 , 557 homo species and Intertropical Convergence Biraben, Jean No ë l, 323 , 360 , 414 Zone, 136 birth-control, 428 . See also fertility during Late Holocene, 166–71 black carbon/soot, 477 , 549 , 578 . at Mid-Holocene transition, 174–5 See also emissions, industrial ; during Pleistocene, 171 fossil fuels during Pliocene, 171 Black Death. See bubonic plague in Polar Cells, 166 , 171 Black Sea, 58 , 64 , 563

596 Index

Bloch, Marc, 373 , 423 Brenner thesis, 373 Bocquet-Appel, Jean-Pierre, 137 , 226–7 , British East India Company, 471 228 , 238–9 . See also Neolithic British Isles Demographic Transition (NDT) colonization of, 161 , 162 B ø lling-Aller ød, 131 , 136–43 , 172 during Bronze Age, 313 Bond, Gerard, 176 height, 336 , 361 , 378 Bond events. See ice-rafting during Iron Ages, 313 bones, human during Middle Ages, 374 Bronze Age, 312–14 during Preclassical Crisis, 302 and the bubonic plague, 379 , 385 See also England ; Great Britain ; United chemical signature of diet in, 135–6 Kingdom Classical Antiquity, 335–6 bronze, 319 , 483 Denisovan, 96 Bronze Age Iron Age, 312–14 climate, 553 Neolithic, 221 division of, 289 osteological paradox, 225 horses, 282 Roman Empire, 337 human health, 312–16 Boone, James, 228 , 269 metal weapons and tools, 282–3 Boserup, Ester, 4 , 105 , 192 and rise of the state, 10 Boserupian intensifi cation soil erosion following societal about, 4–5 , 105–6 collapse, 273–5 in agriculture, 192 , 391 trade and exchange, 289–91 , 297–9 , 304–5 in China, 472 , 473–4 See also Early, Middle and Late Bronze during Classical Antiquity, 264 Ages ; specifi c countries or cultures and future prospects for the world, 560 Bronze Age general crisis in Medieval Europe, 264 , 372–3 , 375–7 Early-Middle, 292–6 and rise of the state, 195 Late Bronze Age-Iron Age, 300–4 and the Second Industrial Revolution, 538 Middle-Late, 293 and the Secondary Products and Mid-Holocene Transition, 287 , 292–5 , Revolution, 191–4 297–8 shaping human history, 9–10 See also Hallstatt solar minima ; during Upper Paleolithic, 105–6 Preclassical Crisis ; Santorini eruption ; bottle gourds, 124–5 Siberian Highs bottlenecks, evolutionary Bronze Age Optimum, 288–300 about, 29 , 43 , 54 Brook, Timothy, 444 abrupt climate changes, 79 , 103–4 Brown, Peter, 350 Amerindian depopulation, 432–3 bubonic plague/Black Death during Little Ice Age, 450 about, 384–90 eccentricity-driven megadroughts, 60 , 62 , aftermath, 423–9 79 , 81 , 82 during Bronze Age Crisis, 298 experienced by all human populations, 97 in China, 358 , 360 genetic changes and dietary shifts, 224 during Early Modern period, 424–8 human dispersal, 90 in England, 379 , 425 , 454–7 impact of climate change, 570 and epidemiological transition, 514 Industrial Revolution food shortages, as fi rst contact disease, 432 489–90 impact of, 10 Pleistocene population growth, 106–7 Justinian Plagues, 343 , 345–6 technological, 488 during Little Ice Age, 258 , 457–8 See also Boserupian intensifi cation as Malthusian inevitability, 373 , 375 Boyle, Robert, 466 in Mediterranean, 360 BP Deep Horizon oil-well rupture, 562 origins of, 348–9 brain development, 72–3 , 87–9 , 124–5 and pandemic-driven cooling Brazil, 431 , 432 , 497 , 537 theory, 440–1

Index 597

as Schumpterian creative destruction, 380 carbon dioxide emissions See also East Smithfi eld Plague cemetery, during Anthropocene Epoch, 469 London coal burning, 478 , 495 burial (mortuary) rituals conversion to quicklime, 574 Hopewell culture, 310 during First Great Interruption, 553 of Late PrePottery during Neolithic B, and GDP, 577 149–50 historical data, 403 of Natufi an people, 145 , 147 , 199–200 and human economic activity, 286–7 , in North America, 153 549–51 of PPNB, 199–200 , 233 increase of since Late Neolithic and Bronze of Uruk people, 205 Ave, 286–7 Burma, 363 from land clearance, 487–8 , 495–7 , Burroughs, William, 102 553 , 565 burrowing worms, 43 during Second Great Interruption, 554 Byzantine Empire, 345 during Third Great Super-Cycle, 555 warming effects of, 477

C3 plants, 129 , 130 , 151–2 See also emissions, industrial cacao trade, 436 carbon-14 dating, 135 , 136 Cahokia culture, Illinois, 366–7 Carboniferous period, 45 , 48 calories, dietary, 127 , 191–2 , 416 , 435–6 , Cardial (Neolithic), 160 474 , 491 , 540 , 542 Cariaco Basin sediment, Venezuela, 278 , Cambrian period, 43 , 47 , 50 355–6 , 382 camelpox, 223 Caribbean region, 432 camels, 192 , 223 , 442 Caribbean Sea, 58 Campbell, Bruce, 377 , 380 , 384 , 388 , 458 caries. See teeth as health indicators canals, 484 , 488 Carnegie, Andrew, 509 Cann, Rebecca, 84 Carneiro, Robert, 188 , 195 . cap-and-trade systems, 576 , 577 See also ecological circumscription capitalism, 5 , 305–6 , 330 , 373 , 461 , 507 , 512 carnivores, 138–9 Capitalism and Slavery (Williams), 487 Carson, Rachel, 544 , 560 carbon, 43 , 532 . See also black carbon/soot Caspian-Crimean region, 387 , 388

carbon dioxide (CO2 ), atmospheric cassava/manioc, 152 , 156 , 435 and 1000 year eccentricity cycle, 77–8 Casting, James, 40

and C 3 plants, 129 , 151–2 Ç atalhö y ü k, Anatolia, 159–60 , 198 , 232 during Cenozoic epoch, 66 catastrophism, 6 current levels, 467 , 477 cattle and development of agriculture, 129 animal labor, 202–3 at end of LGM, 131 consumption of, 332 , 338 frozen in tundra, 565 domestication of, 149 , 156 during the Early Holocene, 150 among Halaf and Ubaid peoples, 202 and human evolution, 62–3 impact on energy resources, 237–8 Icehouse-Greenhouse cycles, 57 , 68 and lactose intolerance, 223–4 during LGM, 130–1 and methane emission, 477 during Little Ice Age, 396 , 440–2 , 477 milk and milk products, 236 and origins of life, 38 of nomadic peoples of the Sahel, 442 and origins of the earth, 37 origins of, 303–4 during Phanerozoic supercycles, 46 oxen, 205 , 373 and plant growth, 125 rinderpest-like disease, 384 , 388 during Pleistocene, 101–3 and secondary products revolution, 192 and reduction in emissions, 576–8 and sleeping sickness, 214 and superplumes, 35 , 39 and zoonatic diseases, 222 warming effects of, 477 Caucasus, 58 and weathering, 42 , 47 , 477 Caucasus Mountains, 160

598 Index

celiac disease (glutin intolerance), 223 energy consumption, 541 , 551 Cenozoic Icehouse, 20 , 56–7 fertility, 472 , 532 Central America, 162 . See also specifi c fl oods, 195–6 , 206 , 295 , 557 countries and cultures and foods from the New World, 472 Central Asia, 304 , 369–70 . See also specifi c health, 313 countries and cultures during Holocene Optimum, 195 ceramics. See pottery and Homo erectus, 75 cereals, 122–3 , 125 , 144–52 human settlement in, 143 Ceylon/Sri Lanka, 430 , 518 , 531 industrial emission, 555 CFCs. See chlorofl ourcarbons (CFCs) during Iron Age, 313 , 318–20 Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, 366 land clearance emissions, 496 , 526 Chalcolithic Halaf. See Halaf culture during Little Ice Age, 439 , 444–6 , 472–3 Chamberlain, Thomas C., 26 and Malthusian crisis, 499 Champa culture, Vietnam, 363 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 367–9 Charlemagne and the Carolingian during Mesolithic, 140 Empire, 358 methane emissions from rice paddies, 286 , Charles II (England), 465 477 , 478 , 495 , 553 Charv á t, Petr, 202 , 205 monsoons and political change, 308–9 , Chaucerian anomaly, 458 326 , 357–8 , 367–9 , 444–5 Chavin culture, 183 , 309–10 mortality, 519 cheetahs, 214 during Neolithic, 150–2 , 186 , 195 , chemical pollution, 510 , 545–6 , 563 238 , 295 chenopod domestication, 153 origins of agriculture, 122 , 150–2 Chernobyl, Russia, 545 population Cheyette, Fredric, 341 Anthropocene Epoch, 470 Chicago, IL, 505 , 506 Classical Antiquity, 322–3 chicken-pox, 222 Dark Ages, 353 Chicxulub crater, 50 Early Modern period, 415 , 436 , 475 Childe, V. Gordon, 121 , 145 end of Little Ice Age, 470 childhood diseases, 234 , 241 , 280 , 426 , 515 . Han dynasty, 335 See also specifi c diseases Little Ice Age, 472–4 children, 88 , 226–7 , 235–6 , 337 , 390 , 491 , Medieval Climate Anomaly, 370 492 . See also fertility ; infant mortality Neolithic, 238 Chile, 537 predictions, 542 chimpanzees, 64 during Preclassical Crisis, 307 , 308–9 Chimu empire, Peru, 371 rebellions, 326 , 444 , 472–3 , 494 China and rise of the state, 186 , 189 , 190 , during Anthropocene, 557 249 , 252 during Bronze Age, 288 , 295 , 313 rising sea levels, 568 bubonic plague in, 386 , 472 spices and tea, 430 , 436 during Classical Antiquity, 322–3 successful civilizations of, 194–6 during Classical Optimum, 326 volcanic ash, 348 and climate change, 249 , 252 water supply, 568 coal production and use, 544 See also specifi c cultures and dynasties colonization of, 161 chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 546 as colonizers, 162 chlorofl uorocarbons (CFCs), 545–6 , competition for rare minerals, 570 549 , 554 during Dark Ages, 352 , 357–8 , 360 chocolate, 436 , 464 droughts, 439, 498 Choga Mami. See Samarra during Early Modern period, 415 cholera, 337 , 506 economic growth, 367–8 , 470 , 480 , 482 , Christian, David, 263 536 , 540–1 Christianity, 346–7 , 361 , 426–7 empire building, 472 Cimmerians, 304

Index 599

cities, 503–4 , 506–7 , 508 . CO 2 . See carbon dioxide See also urbanization ; specifi c cities coal production and use city governments, 506–7 and acid rain, 544 city-states, 209 , 305 in China, 367

civilization stress, 220–4 CO2 emissions from burning, 478 , 495 Clark, Grahame, 85 coal deposits, 48 Clark, Gregory, 377 , 455 coke, 483 , 488 Classical Antiquity consumption, historical, 409 and Boserupian intensifi cation, 264 demand for, 466 and climate change, 267 , 276–9 during Early Modern period, 416 and disease, 267 , 280–1 English tax policy, 466 ecologically robust situations, 266–7 environmental impact of, 524 , 543 , 544 economic intensifi cation, 264 and industrial emissions, 495 , 526 effl orescence and crisis, 264–5 during Industrial Revolution, 484 , 492–3 and empire building, 322–3 during Little Ice Age, 460–1 endogenous degradation model, 265–6 post World War II use, 535 exogenous rough world model, 267 and science, 466 iron and coal, 284 and urbanization, 504 Malthusian trap or Smithian U.S. usage, 522 growth, 261–2 cocoa, 497 population, 269–70 cocoliztli fevers, 432 , 440 , 441 as punctuated equilibrium, 285–7 coffee trade, 436 , 464 , 497 Schumpeterian growth, 318 coffeehouses, 437 , 464 stagnation model of, 261–2 Cohen, Mark Nathan, 140 technological, governmental and economic Cohn, Samuel, 425 innovations, 284–5 , 321 coke, 483 , 488 See also Han dynasty, China ; Roman Empire Collard, Mark, 88 Classical Optimum, 323–4 , 325–7 , 335–9 , collective identity, 199 347–9 , 355 colonizers. See human dispersal clay seals, 201 , 281 Columbia (or Nuna), 41 , 44 Clean Air Act (U.S.), 544 Columbus, Christopher, 430 , 435 climate and climate change commercialization model of Medieval abrupt climate change, 79 , 194 , 103–4 , economy, 372–3 , 374 190 , 211 , 233–4 , 267 communal violence, 144 evidence for, 2 , 546–8 , 564–5 communications, 510 , 539 historical data, 250 , 251 , 398 communism, 507 , 520 , 535 overview of human causes, 476–7 Compton, Samuel, 484 See also Anthropocene ; Archean/Paleo- computers, 482 , 539 Proterozoic crisis ; atmospheric concurbita squash, 152 circulation ; atmospheric pressure Congo, 570 systems ; Bø lling-Aller ø d ; Cenozoic conservation movement, U.S., 508 Icehouse ; Early Holocene ; Icehouse- Constantinople, 419 Greenhouse cycles ; Late Holocene ; constitutional monarchy, 465 Mid-Holocene Transition ; consumer products, demand for, 453 , Neoproterozoic crisis ; Oligocene 479–80 , 481–2 , 487 , 511 , 512 , 534 epoch ; Pleistocene epoch ; Pliocene continental drift, 27 epoch ; snowball earth events ; Coolidge, Frederick, 88 Younger Dryas Coppen, Yves, 64 climate change deniers, 571 copper, 199 , 305 , 309 , 311 climate change pessimists, 571–2 coral reefs, 565 climate change pragmatists, 572–4 core drilling. See ice cores climate science, 134–5 Corn Laws (England), 486 , 489 , clover, 462 505 , 507

600 Index

corn/maize cultivation of plants. See agriculture ; and Amerindians, 434 horticulture ; specifi c plants or places and corn-syrup, 540 cultural ecology, 99–101 domestication of, 129 , 152–3 culture and technology, 97 , 104–5 , 287 during Neolithic Demographic Transition, currents, ocean. See oceans and currents 239–40 Cuyahoga River, OH, 543 globalization of, 435 , 472 cyclones, 566 Maiz de Ocho variety, 365 Cyprian’s Plague, 343 , 344 in Mesoamerica, 310 Cyprus, 158 , 304 in Peru, 308 slash-and-burn agriculture, 156 D” layer, 39 , 52 cornucopianism, 560 , 571 Dalton Minimum, 469 , 471 , 486 Corrupting Sea, The (Horden and Dansgaard-Oeschger events (D-O cycles), Purcell), 274 102–3 , 130 , 141–2 Cort, Henry, 484 , 489 Danube River Valley, 160 Cort és, Hern á n, 430 , 439 Darby, Abraham, 483 , 488 cosmic rays, 53 , 176 Dark Ages, 271–2 , 323–4 , 336 , 347 , 350–8 , cottage industries, 484 , 486 360–2 , 440–1 . See also Medieval era cotton agriculture, 497 Darwin, Charles, 3–4 , 26 , 29 Cotton Pre-Ceramic culture, 183 , 308 date palm orchards, 202 Court Jester hypothesis, 30–1 , 54 , 58 . Davis, Mike, 472 , 498 See also bottlenecks, evolutionary Davis, Robert C., 422 Cox, Allan, 27 Dawkins, Richard, 30 Crafts, Nicholas, 452 , 484 DDT usage, 531 , 544 creative destruction. See Schumpeterian de Vries, Jan, 417 growth Dead Sea (Israel), 82 , 302 Cretaceous period, 47 Deep Horizon oil-well rupture, BP, 562 Crete, 158 , 198 , 290 , 297 , 304 , 315 deforestation, 196 , 477 , 478 , 563 , 565 , 568 . Crick, Francis, 4 , 26 See also land clearance crisis mortality degenerative diseases, 426 of cities, 503 demand for consumer products, 480 , 481–2 , and demand for consumer products, 480 487 , 511 , 512 , 534 and disease, 100–1 , 241 demography and eccentricity-driven megadroughts, 101 demographic convergence, 532 , 542–3 fi rst order, 456 Demographic Revolution, 470 , during Little Ice Age and Early Modern 513–18 , 530–3 period, 455–6 and economy, 411 mitigated by language development, 108 See also crisis mortality ; epidemiological mortality and fertility rates, 228–9 transitions ; fertility ; mortality ; in New World, 431–4 Neolithic Demographic Transition during Paleolithic, 99–101 , 269 (NDT) ; population and predictability of controlled food dendrochronological data. See tree-ring production, 219–20 temperature estimates second order, 456 dengue fever, 432 , 567 and social hierarchy, 234–5 Denisovans, 96 of World War I, 518 Denmark, 313 , 335 , 361 , 389–90 See also bubonic plague/Black Death ; food Dennett, Daniel, 30 shortages and famines dental structure, 65 Cronon, William, 505 deserts, 123 . See also Sahara desert crop failures, 276 , 458 , 489–90 , 494 . developed world. See First World ; less See also food shortages developed world ; Second World and famines Devonian period, 45 , 48 , 49 Crystal Palace Exhibition, England, 494 DeWitte, Sharon, 390

Index 601

diabetes, 540 , 563 domestic goods. See consumer products Diamond, Jared, 8 , 126 , 266 domestication of animals, 122–3 , 149–50 , diesel, 510 156 , 214 , 221–3 , 287 . See also specifi c diet and nutrition animals or places of Amerindians, 433 , 434 domestication of plants, 10 , 129 , 135–6 , chemical signature in bones, 135–6 144–53 , 287 . See also specifi c plants and corn-syrup, 540 or places of Homo habilis, 73 Dongge Cave sediment, China, 382 in Medieval Europe, 378 donkeys, 192 , 202–3 in Roman Empire, 333 Dorians, 303 dinosaurs, 27–8 , 48 droughts disease during Bronze Age Crisis, 292–5 childhood diseases, 234 , 241 , 280 , during Dark Ages, 354–6 426 , 515 and emergence of Goths and Huns, 348 and climate change, 233–4 , 241–2 , during First Great Interruption, 556 388–9 , 396 during Industrial Revolution, 488 and crisis mortality, 100–1 and La Ni ñ a, 170 , 175 , 182 , 308 , 344 , and decline of the Roman Empire, 343–9 358 , 365 disease confl uences, 280 , 298–9 , 337 , 343 , during Little Ice Age, 444 , 445–6 , 448 , 346 , 348–9 , 391–2 449 , 471 domestication of, 279 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, epidemics, 279–81 , 298–9 , 343–9 363–7 , 369 epidemiological transitions, 410 , 416 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 184 , 211 fi rst contact diseases, 431–4 and migration, 303–4 future threat of, 566 and rise of Arab Islam, 364 globalization of, 545 , 563 and rise of the state, 190 and human agency, 2–3 secondary products revolution, 201 , 207 and human dispersal, 214–15 since during Industrial Revolution, 498 innovation and research, 516 world-wide effects of climate change, 568 and mice, 348 See also eccentricity-driven megadroughts ; of Natufi an peoples, 233–4 megadroughts ; specifi c countries, origins of, 122–3 , 241–2 cultures, or regions of PPNB peoples, 233–4 Duffy negativity, 215 and sustainability of society, 267 dust layers, 70 , 75 , 77 , 196 , 292 and trade, 280 , 298–9 , 337 , 343 , 348–9 Dutch. See Netherlands and war, 280 , 346 , 391–2 Dyer, Christopher, 378 zoonotic diseases, 221–3 dispersal. See human dispersal Early Bronze Age, 184 , 195 , 223 , 239 , 289 , Disunity era, China, 357 293 , 292–3 , 476 . See also Bronze Age DNA, 26 , 33–4 , 84 , 87 , 90 , 91–2 Early Holocene climates Dobyns, Henry, 433 about, 133 , 147 , 152–3 , 166 , 172–4 , dogs, 141 , 151 175 , 279 domestic architecture in the Americas, 112 and climate change, 304 , 315 in China, 116 , 195 conical houses of Halaf, 201 and disease, 222 and electricity, 522 ecological impact of, 137–8 of Hassuna and Samarra, 200–1 and emergence of agriculture, 156 during Little Ice Age and Early Modern ending of, 155 , 276 , 277 period, 459–60 and ENSO, 182 long-houses, 160 historical data, 116 of Natufi an and PPNB, 199–200 in the Levant, 230–1 rectangular houses, 148 and population, 158 round huts, 145 , 147 in South Asia and East Asia, 114

602 Index

Early Holocene climates (cont.) during Little Ice Age, 452–3 in Southwest Asia and Northern and electrical consumption, 560–1 Africa, 113 global economic dysfunction, 536 Early Horizon, Peru, 309 and industrial emissions, 501 Early Intermediate, Peru, 310 , 327 , 354 during Industrial Revolution, 480 , Early Modern period 484–5 , 521–4 and bubonic plague, 423–9 inequities of, 480 , 539–40 , 542 and empire building, 430–1 linked with government and technological growth and divergence, 417–22 development, 509 , 523 , 538 and the Little Ice Age, 438–44 long waves model of economic swings, 482 and militarized states, 418–19 during Medieval Europe, 372–8 overview of, 416–17 parallels between Asian and European, population, 414–16 417–19 , 420–1 terminology of, 413 post World War II, 534–43 Early Neolithic China, 150 and protectionist economic policies, 535–6 earth (planet) of Roman Empire, 329–35 and evolution of life, 18 , 25 , 37–8 See also Schumpeterian growth ; Smithian gradualist model of history and growth ; super-cycles of modern evolution, 26 economic growth magnetic fi eld, 35 , 52 , 566 economy, world, 328 , 411 , 523 origins of, 37–8 ecosystems, defi nition of, 123 punctuated equilibrium model of history Ecuador, 152 , 153 , 182 and evolution, 6–8 , 26 , 29–34 Edison, Thomas, 511 See also climate and climate change ; orbital education and literacy, 531 cycles ; solar cycles ; tectonics Eemian interglacial [MIS 5], 91 , 92 , 106 , Earth Day, 544 124 , 126 earthquakes, 300 , 520 , 566 effective population size, 97–9 earth-systems approach, 27 , 28 Egypt East Africa, 59–60 , 71 , 79 , 82–3 and Antonine Plague, 344 East Asia, 114 , 186 , 223 , 480 , 539 and Bronze Age kingdoms, 289 East Asian Monsoon, 150 , 179 , 186 , 295 and bubonic plague, 428 East Smithfi eld Plague cemetery, London, early human settlements, 143 379 , 385 , 389 health in Bronze and Iron Ages, 312 , 313 Eastern Europe, 537 , 541 , 542 Intermediate Periods, 292 , 297 eccentricity. See orbital cycles kings, 185 , 304–5 eccentricity-driven megadroughts, 59–60 , during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 363–4 70–2 , 75 , 79 , 82–3 , 86–7 , 101 during Preclassical Crisis, 299 , 303 ecological circumscription, 139 , 143 , 188–90 , and rise of the state, 185 , 189 , 190 195 , 205–6 , 207–9 , 210 successful civilizations of, 194–5 economic growth urban populations, 241 2008 global crisis, 540 , 542 See also Classical Antiquity ; West Nile period during Dark Ages, 362 Ehrlich, Paul, 560 , 571 during Early Modern period, 437–8 , El Chichon volcano, Mexico, 382 453–4 , 464–5 El Ni ñ o pattern effl orescences of (premodern) during Anthropocene era, 555–8 about, 264 , 285 , 317 and Bronze Age Crisis, 294 after technological and organizational and climate change, 564 innovation, 269 , 281 , 284 during Dark Ages, 351–4 during Bronze and Iron Ages, 317–18 and increased emissions, 498 during Classical Antiquity and Medieval during Industrial Revolution, 488 era, 264–5 , 414 during Little Ice Age, 383 , 439 and ecological resilience, 267 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 155 , 157

Index 603

during Pleistocene, 171 overview of, 524–8 and Polynesian colonizers, 162 post World War II, 556 during Preclassical Crisis, 301 , 307 , 309 reduction of, 576–8 and rise of the state, 183–4 during Second Great Super-Cycle, 554 and Siberian Highs, 278 during Third Great Super-Cycle, 555 El Ni ño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) world emissions, 407 about, 169–71 See also carbon dioxide ; methane ; sulfur during Anthropocene Epoch, 469 dioxide and climate change, 498 , 564 empire building during Dark Ages, 351–4 during Bronze Age, 290 and glaciation, 171 during Classical Antiquity, 322–3 historical data, 253 during Classical Optimum, 326 Indo-Pacifi c and Atlantic tropics, 306–12 during Early Modern period, during Late Holocene, 276–7 418–19 , 430–1 during Little Ice Age, 371–2 , 439 , 471 and economic waves, 482 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 364–7 and global markets, 497 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 174–5 , and rise of manufacturing, 487–8 182 , 211 stages of, 422 and South American Monsoon, 173 and transition to modernity, 10 Elamo-Dravidian languages, 161–2 See also specifi c countries Eldridge, Niles, 6 , 29–34 , 391 . enclosure movement, 454 , 461 See also punctuated equilibrium endogenous model, 8 , 265–6 , 268 , 272–5 electricity, consumption and production energy and economic waves, 482 annual biomass, 416 effi ciency gains, 537–8 benefi ts of technological innovations, 265 electric lighting, 510 , 513 effi ciency, 282–3 , 550 electric motors, 512 energy capture of food, 124 , 129 “electrical revolution,” 522 energy supplies and post World War II hydro-electricity, 523 economic growth, 535 innovation and research, 509–10 globalization of food, 435 post World War II, 535 , 537 historical data, 400 and Second Industrial impact of cattle and milk, 237–8 Revolution, 481 post World War II consumption of, in the tropics, 560–1 541 , 550–1 elements, sorting of, 37 prime and second-order sources of, 37 Elizabeth I (England), 463 role in natural species and ecosystems, Ellenbaum, Ronnie, 364 123–30 Eller, Elise, 98 and rotary power, 284 emergence (evolutionary) Second Industrial Revolution Gould and, 32–3 consumption, 512 and heat shock proteins, 43 shift from animal to mechanical, 513 vs. natural selection, 31–2 slavery, 285 and punctuational stress, 60 , 104 solar and wind, 574 See also punctuated equilibrium model urban energy defi cit, 490–3 emigration, 463 , 490 use of animal power, 192 emissions, industrial world consumption, 406 and climate change, 545–52 See also coal; First Industrial Revolution ; and coal, 495 , 544 natural gas ; nuclear technology ; oil during First Great Super-Cycle, 524–8 energy revolutions, 194 . early Industrial Age, 553 See also domestication of animals ; and economic growth, 501 domestication of plants ; state and historical data, 402 , 403 state institutions

604 Index

Engels, Friedrich, 5 , 507 See also specifi c diseases England epidemiological transitions Bank of England, 465 and bubonic plague, 424–5 , 514 Board of Trade, 465 during Early Modern period, 416 , 456–7 and bubonic plague, 379 , 425 , 454–7 historical, 410 coal burning, 478 , 524 , 543 and human agency, 2–3 during Early Modern period, 423 , 453–4 during Industrial Revolution, 485 economic growth, 421 , 453–4 during the Neolithic, 220–4 empire building, 422 , 430 , 451–2 , 464–5 smallpox, 515 Glorious Revolution (1688), 450 , 465 stages of, 414 , 426 , 514–15 height, 491 epigenetics, 32–3 , 219–20 . Hundred Years War, 423 See also emergence (evolutionary) during Industrial Revolution, 488 Epipaleolithic period (Southwest Asia). and the Industrial Revolution, 480 , See Mesolithic period 481 , 483–4 Epstein, Stephen, 418 during Little Ice Age, 450 , 452–3 , 459–66 equatorial seaways, 47–8 , 58 , 67 , 69 and Malthusian crisis, 499 equinoxes, precession of, 68 markets during Early Modern period, 464–5 Eritrea (Red Sea), 92 New World settlements, 432 Erlitou, China, 186 , 308 . See also Xia political crises, 450 , 465 state, China Poor Laws (1601), 457 , 507 escalations. See evolution population, 423 , 453 , 454–7 , 488 Essay on the Principles of Population Royal Society, 466 (Malthus), 475 tax policy for coal, 466 Ethiopia, 302 temperatures, historical data, 547 Etruscans, 303 textile industry, 488 eukaryote cells, 28 , 33–4 , 38 , 40 Wars of the Roses, 423 Eurasia, 82–3 , 94 , 138–9 , 152 , 447 See also British Isles ; Great Britain ; United Europe Kingdom during Bronze Age, 312–13 English Agricultural Revolution, 461–2 and the bubonic plague, 423–9 enhanced working memory, 88 coal production and use, 544 ENSO. See El Ni ñ o/Southern Oscillation during Dark Ages, 360–1 environmental hazards and impacts, 501–2, demand for domestic goods, 464–5 524–8 , 543–6 , 562 . See also emissions, demand for U.S. grain, 505 industrial ; greenhouse gases ; during Early Modern period, 417–19 , radioactive waste 437–8 environmental movements, 508 Eastern Europe, 537 , 541 , 542 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 544 economic growth, 417–19 , 421 , 534 environmental punctuation. See punctuated electricity and automobiles, 522–3 equilibrium emergence of, 419–20 Eocene epoch, 57 empire building, 419 , 437–8 epidemics energy consumption, 541 during Bronze Age, 298–9 , 314–15 fi nancial regulations, 521 cattle, 384 , 388 food shortages and famines, 276 , 375 , dynamics of, 279–81 379 , 458–9 fi rst contact diseases, 431–4 foods from the New World, 435–6 during Industrial Revolution, 488 health, 312–13 , 378–80 , 449–50 during Iron Age, 314–15 heat waves, 568 during Little Ice Age, 370 , 454–7 height, 335–9 , 360–1 , 378–80 and pandemic-driven cooling industrial emissions, 526–7 theory, 440–2 during Industrial Revolution, 480 , 494–5 during Roman Empire, 343–9 during Iron Age, 312–13 Spanish Infl uenza, 518–19 and lactose intolerance, 223

Index 605

during Little Ice Age, 372–80 , recolonization model, 98–101 449–50 , 458–9 and sea level changes, 51 during Medieval era, 378–80 supercontinent cycles, 44 , 49–52 mortality rates, 515–16 and superplumes, 51–3 mountain building, 58 See also impactor theory multiregional evolution, 83–4 extraterrestrial impacts, 26 population Anthropocene Epoch, 470 family units, 199 , 200–1 , 234 , 361 B ølling-Aller ød interval, 137 famine. See food shortages and famines Classical Antiquity, 323 Federal Reserve (United States), 521 Dark Ages, 353 , 362 Ferdinand and Isabella (Spain), 424 Early Modern, 415 , 436 Ferrell Cells. See atmospheric circulation Little Ice Age, 372 , 470 Fertile Crescent, 126 , 141–2 , 158 , 159–61 . Paleolithic period, 137 See also Southwest Asia Roman Empire, 333 fertility spread of agriculture, 160 and Demographic Revolution, 516–17 and spread of the wheel and plow, 208–9 during Industrial Revolution, 486 spread zones, 238–9 and intensive agriculture, 237 trade with Asia, 429–30 during Neolithic, 218–20 , 225–41 See also Upper Paleolithic ; specifi c during Paleolithic, 218–20 countries, empires, and eras post World War II, 531–2 Eve, mitochondrial, 87 . See also birth-control ; Neolithic See also mitochondrial DNA Demographic Transition (NDT) ; evolution population ; specifi c countries or biological, 27 , 33 cultures emergence vs. natural selection, 31–2 fertilizers and pesticides, 533, 544 , 562 escalations of, 44 , 49 Findley, David, 375 of life, 25 Finland, 220 and punctuated equilibrium, 29–34 , 105 Finley, Moses, 329 saltation, 32–3 fi re, 76 , 80 , 483 , 506 See also emergence (evolutionary) ; First Industrial Revolution, 479 , 481 , hominins ; human evolution 483–95 , 502 , 543–6 exogenous model First World about, 8–9 and climate change, 551–2 , 566–7 during Classical Antiquity and Medieval economic growth, 534 era, 267 genocide against global south, 570 and collapse of civilizations, 391 population, 530 and end of the during Middle Ages, 380–1 and responsibility for environmental mediated by war, 391–2 mitigation, 543–4 not an actor in China’s population Flannery, Kent, 140 , 188 crisis, 473–4 fl eas, 385 , 458 and world-systems model, 268 fl ints, 135 , 291 , 305 See also climate and climate change ; disease fl ood basalts, 46 , 47 , 52 , 58 . exploration, voyages of, 422 , 429–30 , 445 See also superplumes extinctions fl oods after major geologic events, 6 during Anthropocene Epoch, 557 after rifting and subsidence, 51 during Bronze Age Crisis, 295 of dinosaurs, 27–8 destruction of natural water control of human societies, 97 systems, 562 Jurassic period, 49 during Little Ice Age, 384 mass extinctions, 49–52 during Preclassical Crisis, 324 megafauna, 138–9 and rise of the state, 186 , 190 mitigated by language development, 108 in Roman Empire, 341

606 Index

fl oods (cont.) population, 423 , 504 secondary products revolution, 206–7 and public welfare, 520 during West Nile period, 140–1 See also World Wars I and II See also specifi c countries Frank, Andre G., 421 fl y ash, 525 Franklin, Benjamin, 3 , 475 Fogel, Robert, 269 Franklin, Rosalind, 26 folate regulation, 215 French Revolution, 471 food intolerances, origins of, 223–4 fuel crisis, 367–8 , 460 food production, 124–5 , 219–20 . Fukushima nuclear facility, Japan, 560 , 562 See also agriculture ; domestication of fungi, 42 animals ; domestication of plants food shortages and famines Gaia-earth systems hypothesis, 26 , 28 , 35 , during Bronze Age, 309 40 . See also Lovelock, James during Dark Ages, 271 garbage and sewage disposal, 506 , 513 , 562 and fertility, 220 Garnsey, Peter, 330 and global depression, 542 gasoline, 510 , 544 . See also petroleum and the Green Revolution, 532 GDP (Gross Domestic Product), 474 , 484 , during Industrial Revolution, 489–90 511 , 540–1 , 577 . See also economic during Little Ice Age, 381 , 384 , 388 , 445–6 growth during Medieval era, 276, 375 , 379 genetics mitigation by political institutions, and domestication of plants, 136 281–2 , 425 genetic assimilation, 95–6 and smaller phenotypical size, 101 and language skills, 88–9 World Wars I and II, 519 mitochondrial DNA, 84 , 87 , 90 , 91–2 See also specifi c countries or cultures population expansion, 136 foraging societies, 129 , 139 , 163 , 227–8 shared African genetics, 96 Ford, Henry, 511 , 512 and single-point migration, 90 Ford Foundation, 573 and wave of diffusion (hybridization forests, 48 , 123 , 139 . See also deforestation ; account), 98 land clearance Y-chromosome, 87 , 90 , 91–2 Formative period See also epigenetics ; human evolution Early Formative, 239 , 310 Genghis Khan, 369 Late Formative, 327 geo-engineering interventions, 574 fossil fuels, 5 , 10 , 477 , 549 , 551 , 561 . geographical isolation. See allopatric See also carbon dioxide ; coal ; natural selection gas ; oil ; petroleum geomagnetic fi eld, 35 , 566 fossil record, 29 , 60–1 , 65–6 , 72–3 , 79 , 89–90 geosphere, 28 , 38–42 founder crops. See barley ; corn/maize ; millet ; Germany rice ; wheat economic leadership, 480 Four Asian Tigers. See Hong Kong ; foods from the New World, 435 Singapore ; South Korea ; Taiwan GDP, 511 France industrial emissions, 527 bubonic plague, 425 and the Industrial Revolution, 494–5 colonization of, 160 innovation and research, 510 Cyprian’s Plague, 344 Keynesian economics, 521 fertility, 516 military-industrial complex, 538 fl oods, 341 mortality rates, 516 GDP, 511 and public welfare, 520 and the Hundred Years War, 423 and the Thirty Year’s War, 449 and the Industrial Revolution, 481 , 494–5 urban population, 504 mortality rates, 516 See also Prussia ; World Wars I and II nuclear power, 535 Gibbon, Edward, 339

Index 607

Gilgamesh Epic, 211–12 gradualist model of history glaciation about, 26 41K year eccentricity cycle, 70–2 and China’s population, 370 100K year eccentricity cycle, 77–9 and decline of the Roman Empire, 339–47 and agriculture, 125 and economic growth during Industrial Antarctic, 62 Revolution, 484–5 , 521–4 and cosmic rays, 53 and England Little Ice Age, 452–3 and crisis mortality, 101 Malthus and Darwin, 4 eccentricity-driven megadroughts, 70–2 , and rise and fall of civilizations, 391 77–9 , 82–3 , 86–7 , 101–3 grain, demand for, 505 and ENSO, 171 Grand Canal, China, 418 , 446 and human evolution, 59 , 62–3 grasslands. See steppe/grasslands interruption of cycle, 546 Great Britain on Kenorland, 40 during Early Modern period, 437–8 , 475 melting of, 564 , 568 empire building, 437–8 during Neoproterozoic era, 42 environmental mitigation, 543 North Atlantic continental, 69 GDP, 511 orbital theory of, 67 during Industrial Revolution, 485 during Pleistocene, 130–1 investment in steam power, 511 during Pliocene epoch, 67 mortality and fertility, 516 , 517 polar, 68 mortality rate, 515 , 516 during Preclassical Crisis, 309 , 324 population, 475 , 485 and synthesizing vitamin D, 216 and public welfare, 520 See also Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) ; See also British Isles ; England ; United oxygen isotopes Kingdom ; World Wars I and II global warming. See climate and climate Great Depression, 520 , 523 , 527 change ; emissions, industrial Great Famine, 375 , 384 globalization “great interruptions,” “great expansions.” of disease, 545 , 563 See super-cycles of modern economic erosion of biotic complexity, 563 growth of food, 435–7 , 476 Great Oxidization Event, 40 global economy, 468 , 497 Great Wall, China, 326 , 418 , 445 See also economic growth Greece, 160 , 312 , 322 , 329 . See also Classical Glorious Revolution of 1688 (England), 465 Antiquity glutin intolerance, 223 Green Revolution, 532 , 560 , 562 GNP (Gross National Product), 500–1 , 504 Greene, Kevin, 321 goats, 147 , 149 , 192 Greenhouse. See Icehouse-Greenhouse cycles Gobelki Tepe temple, Anatolia, 148 greenhouse gases and greenhouse effect, Godzilla, 544 38 , 42 , 68 , 477 , 501 , 548 , 554 , gold, 309 573–4 , 576 . See also carbon dioxide ; Golden Horde (Mongols), 387 , 388 chlorofl ourcarbons ; Icehouse- Goldschmidt, Richard, 27 Greenhouse cycles ; methane ; nitrous Goldstone, Jack, 255–65 , oxide ; ozone 267 , 317–18 , 450–51 Greenland, 359 , 384 Gondwanaland, 49 grinding implements, 135 , 150 Goody, Jack, 193 Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 474 , 484 , Gopher, Avi, 231 511 , 540–1 , 577 . See also economic Gore, Al, 546 growth gorillas, 64 Gross National Product (GNP), 500–1 , 504 Goths, 347 , 348 groundnuts, 311 Gould, Stephen Jay, 6 , 29–34 , 391 . Grove, A.T., 274 See also punctuated equilibrium guinea pigs, 153

608 Index

Gulf of Mexico, 562 during Iron Age, 312–16 Gulf Stream, 169 , 359 , 382 during Little Ice Age, 449–50 , 454–7 Gupta Empire, India, 353 during Medieval era, 378–80 Guttians, 293 during Natufi an period, 230 during Neolithic, 220–4 , 238 , 240–1 habitat tracking, 124 during Paleolithic, 99–101 , 213–16 , 229 Habsburg Empire, 419 and societal prosperity, 2 Hadean eon, 37 See also environmental hazards ; height, Hadley Cells. See atmospheric circulation human ; public health programs ; hairlessness, 215 specifi c countries Hakluyts, Richard, Sr. and Jr., 463 hearth-based industries. See cottage Halaf culture, 198 , 201–4 , 234 , 235–8 industries Hallam, Anthony, 51 hearths of agriculture. See China ; Fertile Hallam-Wignall supercontinent-hiccup Crescent ; Mesoamerica ; Sahel theory, 51 heat shock proteins (HSP), 33–4 , 43 . Hallstatt solar minima See also emergence ; epigenetics about, 115 , 154 , 176 , 177 , 277–8 heat waves, 567 effects obscured during warm Early Heather, Peter, 340 Holocene, 177 Hebrews, 297 , 298 . See also Israelite future, 566 communities Little Ice Age, 277–8 , 324 , 382 , 414 , height, human 416 , 447 during Classical Antiquity, 335–9 Mid-Holocene, 180 , 248 , 277–8 , 301 , 382 during Dark Ages, 360–1 Preclassical, 248 , 277–8 , 288 , 301 , 307 , and health, 221 , 314–15 323 , 324 , 382 , 413 , 415 , 439 historical data, 117 , 254 , 400 See also Little Ice Age ; Mid-Holocene during Industrial Revolution, 491 Transition ; Preclassical Crisis ; Siberian during Iron Age, 314–15 Highs ; solar cycles during Medieval era, 378–80 halocarbons, 477 during Mesolithic, 221 Han dynasty, China, 309 , 319 , 322 , 326 , during Neolithic, 221 335 , 357 during Paleolithic, 216, 221 Han language, 162 and standards of living, 458 Hansen, James, 549 , 578 and urbanization, 401 Hapsburg Empire, 449 See also health, human ; specifi c countries Harappan culture, 185 , 190 , 296 , 307 , 313 Heinrich events, 102 , 103 , 130 Hargreaves, James, 484 Hekla (volcano), Iceland, 302 Harlan, Jack, 152 Henry VII (England), 424 Harley, Knick, 452 , 484 Henry VIII (England), 457 Harris lines. See teeth as health indicators herbivores, 138–9 Hassuna Tell, 197–201 , 234 , 235–8 herding economy, 156 Hatcher, John, 378 Herlihy, David, 376 , 454 Hawaii, 162 , 188 Herodotus, 303 Hayami, Akira, 417 Hershkovitz, Israel, 231 hazardous wastes, 544 , 545 , 562 . Herto (Ethiopia), 87 See also industrial wastes Hess, Harry, 26 health, human Hierakonopolis, Egypt, 241 during Bronze Age, 312–16 hierarchical mode of society. during Classical Optimum, 335–9 See stratifi cation, social during Dark Ages, 360–2 High Andes, 153 and education and literacy, 531 Himalayas, 58 , 63 , 66 general environmental crisis of cities, Hindu kingdoms, 371 504 , 506–7 Hinduism, 311 impact of poverty, 219–20 historical crises and optimums, 278–9 during Industrial Revolution, 485 , 491 Hitler, Adolf, 471 , 519

Index 609

Hittite kingdom, 290 , 297 , 298 emigration, 463 , 490 HIV/AIDS, 532 , 537 , 545 , 563 to Eurasia, 94 Hoffman, Paul, 43 and evolutionary bottlenecks, 90 Hole, Frank, 207 and exposure to disease, 214–15 Holland. See Netherlands of Homo antecessor, 95–6 Holmes, Arthur, 26 of Homo erectus, 95–6 Holocaust, 519 to Horn of Africa, 90 , 92 Holocene epoch and human physiology, 215 and climate change, 6 , 102 , 112 , 116 , 555–8 immigration, 505 , 516–17 and the ITCZ, 172–4 to Indian subcontinent, 93 , 94–5 and modern interglacial, 172 Late Natufi an period, 147 and origins of agriculture, 121 , 126 , 150 to the Levant, 92–3 , 107 population, 216–20 and megadroughts, 78 , 87 , 91 and tropical domestications, 152–3 during Middle Stone Age, 92–3 See also Early Holocene climates ; Late migration, 90 , 303–4 , 310 , 569 Holocene climates ; Mid-Holocene and mitochondrial DNA, 90 , 91–2 Transition multiple dispersal model, 89–90 Holocene Optimum/Holocene Megathermal. northward dispersal, 82–3 , 90 See Early Holocene climates ; Late to Oceana, 94 Holocene climates out-of-Africa, 89–96 Homer, 299 to Persian Gulf, 92 , 94–5 Homeric minimum, 301 , 324 Recent African origins hypothesis, 83–104 hominins, 64 , 65–6 , 69 , 71 single-point migration, 90 Homo antecessor, 80 , 81 , 82 , 95–6 to South Africa, 107–8 Homo erectus, 74 , 75–6 , 79 , 83 , 95–6 , 215 to South Asia, 90 , 93 Homo fl oresiensis, 76 to Southeast Asia, 90 , 93 Homo habilis, 59 , 72–4 and spread of agriculture, 157–62 Homo heidelbergensis, 80–1 , 82–3 , 86 , 95–6 and Y-chromosome, 90 , 91–2 Homo neanderthalensis, 83 , 94 , 95–6 , 103 See also human settlement Homo sapiens, 79 , 83–104 human evolution Hong Kong, 536 , 540 B ø lling-Aller ø d interval, 136–43 Hongshan culture (Neolithic), China, 186 brain development, 72–3 , 87–9 Hooke, Robert, 466 driven by climate change, 7 , 58–60 , 62–3 Hopewell culture, North America, 310 fossil record of, 72–3 Hopkins, Keith, 330 , 334 genetics research on, 61 , 87 Horden, Peregrine, 274 and glaciation, 59 , 62–3 Horn of Africa, 90 , 92 interglacial periods, 79 , 86–7 horses, 192 , 282 , 319 , 373 , 377 , 442 , 492 and mitochondrial DNA, 84 , 87 , 90 , 91–2 horticulture, 122–3 , 140–3 , 163 , 227–8 . from Old World apes, 62–3 , 64 See also agriculture origins debate, 97–104 houses. See domestic architecture during Pleistocene, 10 , 22 , 140 Howiesons Poort, South Africa, 107–8 during Pliocene, 10 Huari culture, Peru, 354 and punctuational stress, 104 Hubbert, M. King, 537 savannah hypothesis, 58–9 Hughes, Donald, 273 Y-chromosome, 87 , 90 , 91–2 Hughes, Thomas, 488 See also emergence ; hominins ; Homo Huguang Maar lake, China, 357 species Huleh Lake, Israel, 146 , 149 , 159 , 196 human genome, 61 human agency, 3 human resilience, 7–8 human dispersal human settlement, 143 . See also human to the Americas, 94 dispersal to Arabia, 90 , 92 , 94–5 human stature. See height, human to Australia, 93 Hundred Years War, 423 , 455 and climate change, 90–1 Hungary, 517

610 Index

Huns, 347 , 348 , 353 asteroids, 52 hunter-gatherers, 99–101 , 129 , 199 , 230 and D” layer, 39 Hurrians, 297 and extinction, 27–8 hurricanes, 557 , 562 , 564 , 566 extraterrestrial impacts, 26 huts. See domestic architecture Hadean bombardment, 37 Hutton, James, 26 periodicity of, 50 hydraulic fracturing, 561 , 562 and second-order source of energy, 37 hydro-electricity, 523 Sudbury and Vredfort meteor impacts, 41 hyenas, 214 during Younger Dryas impact, 138 Hyskos, 297 Inca culture, 183 , 419 , 430 , 432 Inconvenient Truth, An (Gore), 546 ice cores, Greenland or Antarctic India about, 61 2012 electricity blackout, 561

CO 2 levels, 527 during Classical Antiquity, 322–3 evidence of glaciation, 67 droughts, 448 , 471 , 498 and Little Ice Age, 383 , 439 during Early Modern period, 415 and Mid-Holocene Transition, 159 , 180 economic growth and leadership, 480 , 536 and pandemic-driven cooling theory, 440 famine, 257 , 448 , 519 and Pleistocene, 101–2 and high-tech industrialization, 540 polar, 134 during Little Ice Age, 371 , 439 , 447–8 pollution from Roman Empire, 331–2 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, potassium, 177 353 , 362–3 and sulfate aerosols, 525 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 185 sulphur traces, 175 population, 322–3 , 415 , 448 icebergs, 180 , 359 . See also ice-rafting during Preclassical Crisis, 310 Icehouse-Greenhouse cycles as source of epidemics, 343 Cenozoic, 56–7 textiles and textile industry, 488 and climate change, 20 , 56–7 water shortages, 533

and CO2 , 57 , 68 See also Indian subcontinent and extinctions, 49 Indian Monsoon. See South Asian [Indian] and human emergence, 55–7 Monsoon Mesozoic Greenhouse, 57 Indian Ocean, 58 , 296 , 445 and NPP, 123 Indian subcontinent, 58 , 93 , 94–5 , 158 , 161 , overview, 6 189 . See also India ; specifi c cultures Phanerozoic supercycles, 46–8 Indo-European languages, 161–2 Iceland, 302 , 359 , 384 Indonesia Iceman, the (Tyrolean), 180 Homo erectus, 75 , 76 ice-rafting Mt. Tambora eruption, 470–1 and decline of the Roman Empire, 341 Mt. Toba eruption, 90 , 93 , 103 during Bronze Age, 294 seaways, 58 , 69 during Dark Ages, 323 , 325 , 351–4 tectonic uplift of, 67 and end of Classical Optimum, 347 Indus Valley, India, 185 , 189 , 190 during Holocene Crisis, 159 industrial emissions. See emissions, industrial during Late Holocene, 277–8 Industrial Revolution during Little Ice Age, 439 about, 480–3 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 358–60 demand as driver for, 479–80 , 481–2 during Mid-Holocene Transition, and economic waves, 482 158 , 176–7 environmental hazards and impacts, during Preclassical Crisis, 301 502 , 524–8 Ilopango (volcano), El Salvador, 348 in Europe, 494–5 immigration, 505 , 516–17 food shortages, 489–90 impactor theory impact of, 5 about, 35 , 50 population growth, 488

Index 611

as Schumpeterian growth, 475 Inuit culture, 567 See also First Industrial Revolution ; Second invasive species, 545 , 563 , 565 Industrial Revolution ; Third Industrial inventions. See research and innovation Revolution IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel on industrial wastes, 544 , 545–6 Climate Change industrialization, 409 , 501–2 , 504 Iran, 158 , 312 , 364 , 536 industrious revolution, 417 , 472 , 474 , 475 Iraq, 364 , 569 infant mortality, 218 , 229 , 426 , 490 , Ireland, 223 , 292 , 302 , 435 , 463 , 489–90 , 494 515 , 531 iridium layer, 27 , 50–1 infanticide, 472 , 474 Iron Age infl uenza, 222 , 518–19 , 545 , 563 dating of, 283–4 Inikori, Joseph, 487 emergence of, 304–6 Initial Neolithic (China), 150 health, 312–16 Initial Period, Peru, 308 , 309 height, 337 innovation and research. See research and population, 322–3 innovation and rise of capitalism, 305–6 insects, 545 , 563 rise of the state, 10 insolation, 68 , 130–1 , 154 , 174–5 , 276 , 301 Schumpeterian growth, 318 intensive agriculture, 228 , 234–5 , 237 slavery, 285 interaction sphere, 148 , 153 technological developments, 321 interglacial periods See also specifi c countries or cultures crisis mortality in East Africa, 101 iron and iron defi ciencies, 216 , 221 and current global climate, 172 iron and iron technologies and eccentricity-driven megadrought, 78 in China, 319 , 367 Eemian interglacial, 91–3 , 96 , 107 , during Early Modern period, 420 , 455 124 , 126 emergence of, 304–5 and human evolution, 79 , 86–7 and Indian migrations, 311 northern dispersal of species, 82–3 , 90 innovations, 488–9 See also Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) in Medieval Europe, 373 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as prime mover, 483 (IPCC), 348 , 550 , 575–7 weapons and tools, 283–4 internal combustion engine, 481 , 482 , in West Africa, 311 510 , 512 wrought-iron, 481 , 488–9 International Monetary Fund, 573 irrigated agriculture, 185 , 201–4 , 284 , 291 , international trade, 464–5 , 487 . 308 , 309 , 320 See also trade and exchange Islam, 348 , 349 , 353–4 , 364 , 426 , 428 internet, 539 Israel, 82 , 302 , 536 , 569 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) Israelite communities, 299 , 314 . about, 166–7 See also Hebrews during Anthropocene era, 555–8 Issyk-Kul, Kyrgyzstan, 389 during Dark Ages, 351–4 Italy during Holocene, 134 , 150 , 172–4 and bubonic plague, 424 Indo-Pacifi c and Atlantic tropics, 306–12 Cyprian’s Plague, 344 during Late Holocene, 276–7 during Classical Optimum, 325 during LGM, 130 , 132 drought, 364 during Little Ice Age, 439 during Early Modern period, 421 , 424 , 438 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 358–60 and economic waves, 482 during Mid-Holocene Transition, fl oods, 341 155 , 174–5 height, 336 during Preclassical Crisis, 301–2 infant mortality and fertility, 517 and Siberian Highs, 278 Keynesian economics, 521 and solar variations, 176–7 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 364 See also atmospheric circulation spread of agriculture, 160

612 Index

Italy (cont.) Kenyanthropus species, 65 , 72 urban population, 504 Keynes, John Maynard, 521 See also Classical Antiquity ; World Wars Keynesian economics, 521 , 523–4 , 540 I and II Keys, David, 348–9 ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone). Khmer culture, Cambodia, 363 , 371 See Intertropical Convergence Zone Kilimanjaro, Mount, Kenya, 179 , 180 , 207 , 292 , 302 James II (England), 465 kings and kingship, 185 , 211–12 , 288 , 291–2 , James River, Virginia, 439 304–5 , 318 , 319 Japan knowledge revolution. See Third Great during Anthropocene Epoch, 470 Super-Cycle Expansion during Classical Optimum, 326–7 Koch, Robert, 516 during Dark Ages, 360 Koepke, Nikola, 378 during Early Modern period, 415 , 427 Komlos, John, 375 economic growth, 480 , 534 , 535 , 536 Kondratiev, Nikolai, 5 , 482 , 501 empire building, 519 Korolenko, Yevgraf, 26 environmental mitigation, 544 K-T (Cretaceous-Tertiary) boundary, 27–8 , fi nancial regulations, 521 49 , 50–1 , 52 food shortages and famines, 447 Kublai Khan, 370 Fukushima and tsunami, 560 , 562 !Kung bushmen, 100 isolation, 427 Kyoto Protocol, 576 Japanese language, 327 during Little Ice Age, 446–7 , 474 La Nada pattern, 170 mortality, 518 La Ni ña pattern, 169–71 , 173 , 175 , 182 , 359 , population, 327 , 415 , 427 , 446 , 470 , 474 363–7 , 564 , 567 . See also El Ni ñ o/ Tokagawa shogunate, 417 , 427 Southern Oscillation See also Jomon culture ; World Wars I and II labor, 210 , 338–9 , 377 , 474 , 490–1 , 512 , jaw muscles, 72 536 . See also peasants Jemdet Nasr period, Mesopotamia, 184 lactose intolerance, 223–4 , 237 jet streams, 167 laissez faire economic policies, 507 Jevons, William Stanley, 495 , 508 Laki Craters, Iceland, 470 Jews, 426 , 519 . See also Hebrews ; Israelite Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste and communities Lamarckianism, 32–3 Jin dynasty, China, 357 land clearance Joachim of Fiore, 426 and albedo, 477 , 498

Jomon culture, Japan, 186 , 295 , 326–7 CO2 emissions from, 478 , 487–8 , 495–7 , Jones, David, 433 526 , 553 , 565 Jones, Eric, 264 , 317 , 374 and population growth, 532 Jones, Richard, 322 , 344 post World War II, 550 Jongman, Willem, 333 , 344 warming effects of, 477 Jordan, 569 land ownership, 428–9 Jordan, William, 379 land shortages, 561 Jurassic period, 47 , 49 language, 80 , 84–5 , 88–9 , 107 , 108 , 157–8 , Jurchen tribal nomads, 369 161–2 . See also specifi c languages Justinian Plagues, 343 , 345–6 , 348–9 , 386 Larsen, Clark, 433 Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) [MIS Kaffa, Siege of, 387 2], 130–1 Kassites, 297 Late Antiquity, 350 Katrina, Hurricane, 562 Late Bronze Age, 289 , 290–1 , 296–7 , Kay, John, 483 298–304 , 314–15 , 322 , 444 . Kebaran peoples, 141 , 149 See also Bronze Age Keckler, Charles, 100 Late Holocene climates, 116 , 155 , 166 , 182 , Kenorland, 39 , 40 , 44 211 , 276–9 , 296 , 306–12 , 478

Index 613

Late Middle Ages, 413 climate of, 250 , 251 , 252 , 277–8 , 369–72 , Late Neolithic, 186 , 192–3 , 194–7 , 199–200 , 380–4 , 415–16 , 439–40 203 , 206 , 229 , 234–41 climatic stages of (Proto, I, II), 370 , 383–4 , Latin America, 497 , 532 , 533 , 536 . 396 , 438–9 , 442–3 See also specifi c countries or cultures and Early Modern period, 415–16 , 438–44 Latvian plains, 313 end of, 468–9 , 471 Laurentine meltwater events, 133 , 154 , 159 , and English Energy Revolution, 459–66 172 , 178 , 201 and epidemic drawdown greenhouse thesis Law Dome, Antarctica. See ice cores, (Ruddiman), 396 , 440–2 Greenland or Antarctic impact of, 10 , 347–9 , 442–3 , 444 , 446 , lead, 339 , 544 447 , 449 , 451 , 458 Leakey family, 60 as millennial Siberian Highs/Hallstatt legal systems, 328 , 374 Epoch, 278–9 , 316 , 324 , 381–2 , 416 , leprosy, 215 , 223 439 , 444 , 447 , 470 , 555 less developed world, 531 , 533 political crises, 450 Levallois method tools [Mode 3], 85–6 population, 270–1 , 415–16 Levant (Eastern Mediterranean) as Schumpterian creative communal violence, 144 destruction, 380 cultivation of wild plants, 147–8 and slave trade, 442–3 droughts, 196 , 449 transition from Medieval Climate human dispersal, 89–90 , 92–3 , 107 Anomaly, 366–7 , 369–72 , 380–4 , 431 human settlement in, 143 and witchcraft accusations, 451 Late PrePottery Neolithic B, 149–50 See also Hallstatt solar minima ; Medieval during Little Ice Age, 449 era ; Siberian High during Mid-Holocene Transition, Livi-Baci, Massimo, 101 178 , 181 llamas, 153 , 309 origins of agriculture, 122 London, England, 460 , 461 , 524 plant food collection, 141–2 “long waves” model of economic swings, during Preclassical Crisis, 299 482 , 501 , 538 PrePottery Neolithic A settlements, 147–8 Longshan culture (Neolithic), China, 186 , soil erosion following societal 195 , 238 , 295 collapse, 274 Louis XI (France), 424 during Younger Dryas, 145 Lovelock, James, 28 , 40 , 571 Lewis, M.J.T., 339 Lower Paleolithic (or Early Stone Liangzhu culture (Neolithic), China, 186 Age), 85 Libyans, 303 Lundhal, Mats, 375 lice, 215 Ly dynasty, Vietnam, 363 Lieberman, Victor, 263 , 350 , 419 life, evolution of, 18 , 25 , 28 , 37–8 . Madagascar, 162 See also extinction Maddison, Angus, 420 , 460 , 484 life expectancy, 506 , 517 , 531 magma. See fl ood basalts ; superplumes lifespan. See mortality maize. See corn/maize Limits to Growth (Club of Rome), 560 malaria Linear-Band-Keramik (LBK) (Neolithic), Duffy negativity, 215 160 , 223 as fi rst contact disease, 432 lions, 214 future threat of, 567 literacy, 531 immunity to, 162 Little Ice Age during Iron Age, 316 about, 324 , 370–2 reduction of, 531 atmospheric greenhouse gas levels during, in Roman Empire, 337 467 , 469 , 477 spread of, 222 and bubonic plague, 258 , 388–9 , in the U.S., 506 457–8 Mali, 442

614 Index

malnutrition, 219–20 , 221 . See also food Marwick, Ben, 88 shortages and famines ; teeth as health Marx, Karl, 5 , 9 , 507 indicators mass extinctions. See extinctions Malthus, Thomas, 3–4 Maudlay, Henry, 489 Essay on the Principles of Population, 475 Mauna Loa, HI, 551 Malthusian theory of technological limits Maunder Minimum, 176 , 382 , 439 , 451 and Boserupian intensifi cation, 192 , 265 maxima, solar. See solar maxima and minima during Bronze and Iron Ages, 317 Mayan culture, Mesoamerica, 239 , 327 , in China, 472–4 355–6 , 440 during Classical Antiquity and Medieval Mayr, Ernst, 26 , 29 societies, 261–2 McCormick, Michael, 362 crisis of sustainability, 266 McEvedy, Colin, 322 , 344 and decline of the Roman Empire, 340–1 McKibben, William, 570 during Industrial Revolution, 10 , 499 McNeil, John R., 263 , 274 in Japan, 474 McNeil, William H., 241 , 263 , 279 , 280 , 343 , during Little Ice Age, 474 349 , 368 in Medieval Europe, 373 , 374–5 measles, 222 , 343 , 344 , 360 , 432 pending population crisis, 559–61 mechanization and assembly lines, 512 and Second Industrial Revolution, 538 Medes, 322 shaping human history, 9 medicine and medical care, 425 , 480 , 481 , Mamluks, 428 485 , 510 , 539 . See also public health mammals, 48 , 63 . See also animals programs Manchu-Qing dynasty, China, 445 , 446 , Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) 472 , 473 about, 323–4 , 352 , 358–60 , 550 , 564 Manhattan Project, 538 effects on societies, 362–70 , 442 , manioc. See cassava/manioc 447 , 567 manufacturing, 512 , 534 , 536 , 539 . transition to Little Ice Age, 366–7 , 369–72 , See also emissions, industrial ; 383–4 , 431 , 555–6 mechanization and assembly lines Medieval era Marcus, Joyce, 188 and abrupt climate change, 267 Margulis, Lynn, 28 and Boserupian intensifi cation, 264 Marib Dam, 348 and crisis of sustainability/endogenous Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) degradation model, 266 MIS 2 [Last Glacial Maximum], 130–1 and disease, 267 , 280–1 MIS 3, 91 ecologically robust situations, 266–7 MIS 4, 86 , 93 economic intensifi cation, 264 MIS 5 [Eemian], 91 , 92 , 106 , 124 , 126 effl orescence and crisis, 264–5 MIS 6, 93 endogenous degradation model, 265–6 MIS 7, 86 , 87 , 124 exogenous rough world model, 267 MIS 8 [Saale], 85 , 86 , 87 during Late Holocene climates MIS 9, 86 change, 276–9 MIS 13, 82 Malthusian trap or Smithian MIS 15, 82 growth, 261–2 MIS 19, 82 and Medieval Climate Anomaly, 358–60 MIS 21, 82 population, 269–70 , 374–5 MIS 22, 81 as punctuated equilibrium, 285–7 MIS 25, 82 Schumpeterian growth, 318 marine transgression, 51 , 206 . stagnation model of, 261–2 See also sea level See also Dark Ages ; Little Ice Age marmots and bubonic plague, 386 , 388 , 389 Medieval Warm Period. See Medieval marriage, 378 , 472 , 474 Climate Anomaly marsh elder, 153 Mediterranean region Martin, Paul S., 138 during Bronze age, 289–91

Index 615

bubonic plague, 349 metal and metallurgy, 199 , 282–3 , 318 , during Classical Antiquity, 321 , 322–3 561 . See also iron and iron during Classical Optimum, 325 technologies Cyprian’s Plague, 37 , 344 , 346 metapopulation, 98 Older and Younger Fill, 274 meteors. See impactor theory population, 322–3 , 333 methane rotary mills, 320 from agriculture (mostly rice-paddies), shipwrecks, 331 , 333 286 , 477 , 478–9 , 495 , 553 slave trade, 422 during Anthropocene Epoch, 469 soil erosion following societal and archaeans, 38 collapse, 273–5 current levels, 477 trade and exchange, 289–91 and eccentricity cycle, 77–8 Mediterranean Sea, 58 , 64 , 155 , 159 , 160 , at end of LGM, 131 173 , 178 and evidence of climate change, 548 megadroughts and greenhouse cycles, 68 eccentricity-driven megadroughts, 59–60 , during Holocene, 150 70–2 , 75 , 79 , 82–3 , 86–7 , 101 and human activity, 286–7 , 549–51 and human dispersal, 78 , 87 , 91 increase of since Late Neolithic and Bronze during Little Ice Age, 439–40 Ave, 286–7 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, and land clearance, 532 364–7 during LGM, 130–1 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 174–5 during Little Ice Age, 477 in North America, 364–7 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 154 and the Sahara, 92 and prokaryotes, 38 , 40 and technological breakthroughs, 86 reduction of, 578 megafauna, 138–9 release of tundra and seabed, 565 mega-monsoons, 150 , 155 , 172–4 Second Industrial Revolution, 528 Melanesians, 96 warming effects of, 477 meltwater events during Younger Dryas, 133 Laurentine Crisis, 133 , 154 , 159 , 172 , Meuse Valley, Belgium, 524 178 , 201 Mexico during Pleistocene ice-sheets, 175 Balsas Valley, 152–3 Preboreal Oscillation, 133 colonization of, 162 during Younger Dryas, 133 during Dark Ages, 354 Mendel, Gregor, 4 , 26 development of villages, 153 Mesoamerica, 310 , 327 , 355–6 domestication of corn, 152–3 Mesolithic period, 140–3 , 221 droughts, 439–40 Mesopotamia epidemics, 488 during Bronze age, 289–90 fi rst contact diseases, 432 during Bronze Age Crisis, 293–4 during Industrial Revolution, 488 dynastic emergence, 211 during Little Ice Age, 439–40 fl oods, 206–7 mortality and fertility, 239 , 518 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 181 and rise of the state, 188 population, 329 soil erosion following societal during Preclassical Crisis, 299 collapse, 274 and rise of the state, 184 , 189 , 190 , 211 See also specifi c cultures salinization of, 293–4 Miao culture, China, 472 during secondary products mice, 348 revolution, 206–7 microbes, 563 trade and exchange among Uruk, 207–9 Middle Ages, terminology, 350–1 , 413 . village agriculture in, 196 See also Little Ice Age ; Medieval era Mesozoic Greenhouse, 57 Middle Bronze Age, 289 , 290 , 292–7 . Messinian salinity crisis, 64 See also Bronze Age

616 Index

Middle East, 428 , 533 , 569 . See also Levant Mokyr, Joel, 287 , 483 (Eastern Mediterranean) ; specifi c molecular biology, 33–4 country or culture money supply, 454 Middle Horizon cultures, Peru, 354 Mongolia, 472 Middle Kingdom, Egypt, 289 , 297 , 312 , 313 Mongols Middle Neolithic, China, 186 , 195 Golden Horde, 387 , 388 Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Stone Age), 85 , invasions of China, 369–70 , 418–19 , 445 92–3 , 105 , 125 invasions of India, 371 , 418–19 Middle Paleolithic Revolution, 10 monsoons middle-class, 533 . See also stratifi cation, during Anthropocene era, 555–6 social fl orescence of cultures in South and Mid-Holocene Transition Southeast Asia, 363 and climate change, 154–62 , 174–5 , 179 , global, 167 181 , 211 and political change in China, 308–9 , 326 , followed by Bronze Age, 287 357–8 , 367–9 , 444–5 in the Levant, 178 , 196 See also mega-monsoons ; specifi c as millennial Siberian High/Hallstatt monsoons Epoch, 155 , 159 , 177 , 278–9 , 416 Montreal Protocol, 546 , 563 , 576 and rise of the state, 183–91 moon, formation of, 37 and soil erosion, 275 Morris, Ian, 263 See also Hallstatt solar minima ; mortality Siberian Highs during Industrial Revolution England, 485 Mid-Pleistocene Revolution, 77 and intensive agriculture, 237 migration, 90 , 303–4 , 310 , 569 . among Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic See also emigration ; immigration cultures, 235–8 Milankovitch, Milutin, 67 during Little Ice Age and Early Modern militarized states, 418–19 period, 455–6 military-industrial complex, 518 , 538–9 of Natufi an peoples, 230 , 231–2 milk and milk products, 135 , 202 , 223–4 , during Neolithic, 218–20 , 225–41 236 , 338 during Paleolithic, 218–20 Milky Way, 53 and pandemic-driven cooling millenarianism, 426 theory, 440–1 millennial Siberian Highs. See Siberian Highs during Pleistocene, 106–7 millennialism, 418 and population growth, 514–15 millet, 129 , 150 , 156 , 195 , 238 of PPNB, 231–4 Millet, Paul, 332 and temperature, 457–8 minerals, 570 of World Wars, 518–19 Miner’s Friend, The (Savery), 466 See also crisis mortality ; disease ; wars ; Ming drought, 439 , 444 specifi c countries or cultures Ming dynasty, China, 370 , 418–19 , 444–6 mortuary rituals. See burial (mortuary) rituals minima, solar. See solar maxima and minima mosquito control, 531 Minoan culture, 290 , 297 Mozambique, 125 Miocene epoch, 21 , 57 , 62–4 , 66 Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines, 549 , 554 MIS. See Marine Isotope Stages Mt. St. Helens, 554 Mississippi River valley, U.S., 365–6 , 520 Mt. Tambora (Indonesia) eruption, 470–1 Mississippian culture, North America, 366 Mt. Toba (Indonesia) eruption, 90 , 93 , 103 mitochondrial DNA, 84 , 90 , 91–2 Mughal conquest of India, 448 , 471 mitochondrial Eve, 87 Muir, John, 508 mobility, 128–9 , 211 , 429 Muller, Richard, 50 , 52 Moche culture, Peru, 183 , 310 , 327 , 354 multiregional evolution hypothesis, modern synthesis. See punctuated equilibrium 97–9 . See also human dispersal ; recent modernity, 475 , 476 , 501–2 African origins hypothesis Mohammed, 348 mumps, 432

Index 617

Munro, Natalie, 143 , 145 , 146 in East Asia, 114 Muslim Rebellion, China, 472 height, 221 mutations, 29 , 33–4 , 215 , 216 , 222 . and human health, 220–4 , 225–41 See also bottlenecks, evolutionary and Mid-Holocene Transition, 183–91 Mycenae, 290 , 297 , 299 , 303 mortality and fertility, 218–20 , 225–41 in North Africa, 113 NAO. See North Atlantic Oscillation population, 216–20 , 240–1 , 514 Napoleon and Napoleonic wars, 471 , 486 slavery, 285 Naqada culture, Egypt, 184 , 185 , 186 in South Asia, 114 Nasca culture, Peru, 310 , 327 , 354 in Southwest Asia, 113 Native Americans. See Amerindians See also Natufi an, Prepottery Neolithic, Natufi an culture (Mesolithic), Levant Pottery Neolithic, Woodland, Early, 141–2 , 145–8 , 149 , 230 , Formative, Cardial, Linear-Bank- 231–2 , 233–4 Keramik, and Late Neolithic Late, 145–8 , 149 , 230 , 231–2 , 233–4 cultures See also Mesolithic Neolithic Revolution. See agriculture, natural gas, 510 , 527 , 535 origins of natural selection, 4 , 6 , 26 , 31–3 Neoproterozoic crisis, 42–3 , 53 nature, human relationship with Nesbitt, Mark, 146 culture and technology, 97 net primary productivity (NPP), 123 , 126–7 , deforestation and over-grazing, 196 128 , 138 , 139 , 189 , 561 , 565 and dynastic change in China, 308–9 Netherlands ecological problems developing from economic growth, 421 agriculture, 163 empire building, 422 , 430 , 451–2 environmental hazards created by energy production, 461 man, 501 foods from the New World, 435 and Gilgamesh Epic, 212 New World settlements, 432 and human health, 213–16 struggle with Spanish Hapsburgs, 449 not an actor in China’s population urban population, 504 crisis, 473–4 New Deal (U.S.), 520 and slow emergence of Medieval world, 349 New Guinea, 125 See also Anthropocene ; greenhouse gases New Kingdom (Egypt), 289 , 290 , 297 , 303 Nature of Mediterranean Europe, The, 274 New Orleans, LA, 562 Nazi Germany, 519 New World NDT (Neolithic Demographic Transition), droughts, 439–40 160 , 216–20 , 226–7 , 235–6 , economic consequences of discovery 238–40 . See also Secondary Products of, 265 Revolution fi rst contact diseases, 432–3 Neanderthals. See Homo neanderthalensis and globalization of food, 435–7 , 474 Near East, 349 . See also Levant ; Southwest human dispersal, 94 Asia ; specifi c countries or cultures megafaunal extinctions, 138–9 necessity as prerequisite for agricultural migration to, 463 development, 126 origins of agriculture, 142 Needham, Joseph, 321 plantation system, 436 Nefedon, Sergey, 375 population, 415 Nemesis, 50 silver from, 422 Neolithic Demographic Transition (NDT), and spread of crops, 152 , 472 160 , 216–20 , 226–7 , 235–6 , unsuccessful civilizations of, 194 238–40 . See also Secondary Products See also Latin America ; North America ; Revolution South America ; specifi c countries or Neolithic period cultures agricultural dispersal, 162–3 New York, NY, 506 , 562 , 567 in China, 150–2 , 186 , 195 , 238, 295 Newcomen, Thomas, 466 , 483

618 Index

Nile River Valley, Egypt during Preclassical Crisis, 301–2 as bread basket, 330 secondary products revolution, during Bronze Age Crisis, 292 197–8 , 201 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 363–4 and solar variations, 176–7 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 181 See also atmospheric circulation during Preclassical Crisis, 302 North Atlantic thermohaline pump. resource war evidence, 144 See thermohaline pump, North and rise of the state, 185 , 189 Atlantic spread of agriculture, 160 Norway, 515 , 517 , 523 West Nile period, 140–1 NPP. See net primary productivity nitrates, 510 nuclear power, 535 , 545 , 560 , 562 nitrogen, 565 nuclear technology, 538 nitrous oxide, 548 , 549 , 563 nuclear weapons, 538 , 544 , 545 nomadism Nuna (or Columbia), 41 , 44 during Bronze Age, 290 , 291 , 293 , 297 , 299 , 304 oak trees, 178 , 179 , 206 , 292 , 302 . during the Dark Ages, 348 See also pollen analysis ; tree-ring tem- during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 364 , perature estimates 369 , 370 , 442 oats, 462 during the Preclassical Crisis, 309 , Oaxaca Valley, Mexico, 188 324 , 325 obesity, 540 , 563 and environmental circumscription obliquity. See orbital cycles model, 188 oceans and currents during Mid-Holocene Transition, 185 equatorial seaways, 47–8 , 58 , 67 , 69 Norse (Vikings), 349 , 359 North Atlantic currents, 67 North, Douglass, 374 Oligocene, 57–8 “North, temperate.” See First World Phanerozoic supercycles, 47–8 North Africa, 82–3 , 113 , 161 , 323 , 415 , 426 placidity of, 565 North America during Pleistocene, 102–3 colonization of, 162 polar seaways, 58 , 66 droughts, 439–40 seabed methane, 565 epidemics, 488 See also sea level ; thermohaline pump, during Little Ice Age, 371 , 439–40 , 442–8 North Atlantic during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 364–7 oil, supplies, production and use during Mid-Holocene Transition, 157 BP Deep Horizon oil-well rupture, 562 population, 432–3 , 441–3 , 470 competition for, 570 during Preclassical Crisis, 310 corruption and misappropriation of spread zones, 239–40 revenues, 536–7 transition to agriculture, 153 creation of, 48 , 58 See also New World discovery and uses of, 510 North American Monsoon, 150 embargoes, 536 North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) as post World War II stress, 537 during Anthropocene Epoch, 557–8 post World War II use, 535 during Classical Optimum, 325 and Second Industrial Revolution, 481 during Dark Ages, 325 , 352 supply and demand, 543 , 561 and decline of the Roman Empire, 341 and World Wars I and II, 519–20 during Little Ice Age, 449 See also petroleum during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 358–60 oil palms, 311 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 181 , 211 Old Kingdom (Egypt), 185 , 289 and modern world, 568 Older Dryas interval, 132 North Atlantic Oscillation/Arctic Older Fill, 274 Oscillation (NAO/AO), 168–9 , 174–5 , Oldowan tradition. See tools, stone 179 , 276–7 Oligocene epoch, 57–8 , 62 , 66

Index 619

olive orchards, 202 Pangea, 44–5 , 46 , 49 Olmec culture, 310 Pannotia, 43 , 44 , 46 Oman, 92 , 278 , 302 Pan’s Travail (Hughes), 274 Omo-Kibish region (Ethiopia), 87 Papin, Denis, 466 Oort Cloud, 50 Papua New Guinea, 96 orbital cycles Paranthropus species, 72 and climate change, 63–4 , 67–9 , Parker, Geoffrey, 436–7 , 424 71 , 130–1 Parthia, 329 cooling effects of, 477 Pasteur, Louis, 516 eccentricity cycles, 67–8 , 77–8 PCBs (chlorinated biphenyls), 546 , 563 equinoxes, precession of, 68 peanuts, globalization of, 435 and glaciation, 67 peasants during Mid Pleistocene Revolution, 77 during Bronze Age, 291 Milankovitch and, 67 during Dark Ages, 361 and modern interglacial period, 172 Egyptian, 428 obliquity cycles, 67 , 71 , 131–2 , 172 , 276 and failure of the feudal/manorial precession cycles, 68 , 71 , 131–2 , 154 , 276 system, 428–9 See also eccentricity-driven megadroughts in Medieval Europe, 376–8 Ordovician-Silurian extinction, 49 and Mongol invasion, 370 Orrorin tugenensis, 65 in Mughal India, 448 osteological paradox, 225 in Roman Empire, 335 , 338 Othalo II site, 141–2 , 230 See also labor Ottoman Empire, 419 , 425 , 428 , 449 peat, 461 over-grazing, 196 Pegtoushan site (Neolithic), China, 151 overkill hypothesis, 138 penicillin, 531 , 538 Overton, Mark, 377 Pennsylvanian subperiod, 45 Owen, Robert, 507 Permian period, 49 oxen, 202 , 205 , 373 Permian-Triassic crisis, 52 oxygen, 42 . See also eukaryote cells ; Persian Gulf, 92 , 94–5 , 201 , 206–7 prokaryotes pertussis, 222 oxygen isotopes, 63 , 69 , 77 , 81 , 101–2 , Peru, 371 . See also Andean cultures 131 , 180 pesticides and fertilizers, 533 , 544 , 562 ozone, 477 , 546 , 549 , 554 , 563 petroleum, 510 , 527 . See also gasoline ; oil, supplies, production and use Pacifi c Ocean, 58 , 67 Phanerozoic epoch, 19 , 44–8 , 49–52 , 53 pack ice, 567 Philippines, 557 , 568 packing threshold, 139 Philistines, 299 Pagan kingdom, Burma, 363 , 371 photosynthesis, 123 Painted Gray Ware culture, 311 physiology, human, 215 , 216 . See also bones, Pakistan, 533 , 557 , 568 human ; health, human palace economies, 304–5 , 318 , 319 phytoliths, 135 , 140 , 144 paleo-biomass, 416 pigs, 149 , 151 , 192 , 202 , 222 , 332 , 338 Paleoindian Clovis point tradition, 138 pilgrimages, 148 Paleolithic period Pirenne, Henri, 372 , 373 and climate change, 103–4 “Plague Orders” (England), 457 health, human, 99–101 , 213–16 , 221 , 229 Plagues and Peoples (McNeil), 241 , mortality and fertility, 218–20 , 269 280 , 343 population, 99–101 , 137 plantation system, 430–1 , 436 terminology of, 85 plants, 128 , 140–3 , 545 , 565 . See also Lower, Middle and Upper See also agriculture ; domestication of Paleolithic periods plants ; specifi c plants Paleozoic era, 49 , 53 Plasmodium falciparum. See malaria Panama, 58 , 67 , 69 , 152 plate tectonics. See tectonics

620 Index

Pleistocene epoch population climate changes, 57 , 101–3 , 130–4 20th century, 470 and ENSO, 171 and agriculture, 217 , 237 , 312–14 human emergence, 22 during Anthropocene Epoch, 470 human evolution, 10 B ø lling-Aller ø d interval, 137 population extinctions, 98 of cities, 503–4 population growth, 106–7 during Classical Antiquity, 269–70 thermohaline pump, 102–3 and climate change, 246 , 398 , 408 , 470–3 and transition to agriculture, 129–30 and competition for resources, 3–4 Pliocene epoch, 10 , 21 , 57 , 66 , 99 , 171 current levels, 467 plows, 192–3 , 205 , 208–9 , 373 , 420 during Dark Ages, 353 , 360–2 pluralistic evolution. See punctuated decrease and rise of the state, 190 , 191 equilibrium and demand for consumer products, 480 Plutarch, 314 Demographic Revolution, 513–18 , 530–3 pneumonia, 337 , 515 driven by Third World energy pneumonic plague, 385 consumption, 541–2 Polar Cells. See atmospheric circulation as driver for Industrial Revolutions, 481–2 polar ice fi elds, 123 during Early Modern period, 435 polar seaways, 58 , 66 effective population size, 97–9 polis, Greek, 305 and endogenous degradation, 265–6 political institutions future predictions of, 542 aftermath of bubonic plague, 423–9 genetics research on expansion, 136 city governments, 506–7 global estimates, 247 , 414–16 climate change and regime change, and globalization of food, 435 308–9 , 326 , 357–8 , 367–9 , 444–5 , growth, 270–1 , 514 450 , 569 historical data, 398 , 399 crises during Little Ice Age, 450 during Holocene, 216–20 as drivers of solutions, 579 impact of increased natural disasters, 558 and economic growth, 480 during Industrial Revolution, 488 fi nancial regulations, 520–1 during Iron Age, 322–3 linked with technological and economic during Little Ice Age, 450 , 453 , development, 509 , 523 , 538 454–8 , 462–4 and mitigation of environmental during Medieval Climate Anomaly, hazards, 543–4 367–9 , 370 national and international, 575–6 during Medieval era, 269–70 , 372 , 374–5 and public welfare, 520–1 during Mesolithic, 140–1 response to bubonic plague, 425–7 metapopulation, 98 See also city governments ; kings and during Neolithic, 191–4 , 216–20 , kingship ; palace economies ; public 238 , 240–1 health programs ; state and state during Paleolithic, 99–101 , 137 institutions and pandemic-driven cooling pollen analysis theory, 440–2 archaeological analysis of, 135 during Pleistocene, 106–7 decline in oak pollen, 196 post World War II stresses, 537 and domestication of cereals, 146 as response to Industrial Revolution, 485 Huleh, 159 sustainability of, 11 oak, 178 , 198 , 201 and transition to agriculture, 129 and Younger Dryas, 133 See also demography ; epidemiological pollution. See air pollution ; emissions, transitions ; specifi c countries or industrial cultures Polynesians, 162 , 308 , 371 Portugal, 160 , 422 , 429 , 430 Pomeranz, Kenneth, 418 , 421 , 464 Postan, Michael M., 374 Poor Laws (England), 457 , 507 potassium, 177

Index 621

potatoes, 129 , 153 , 435 , 472 , 489–90 proto-humans. See Homo species ; human Potter, David, 553 evolution pottery proto-Villanovan culture, 325 in China, 151 Prussia, 481 Late Neolithic, 318 public health programs, 3 , 426 , 457 , 480 , lead, 339 485 , 531 . See also medicine and milk residue on sherds, 135 , 202 medical care in Peru, 308 public welfare, 507–8 , 520–1 as prime mover, 483 Pueblo culture, North America, 365 in Roman Empire, 331 , 333 , 344 punctuated equilibrium model in Southwest Asia, 198–9 about, 6–8 , 26 , 29–34 Uruk, 204 during Classical Antiquity and Medieval Pottery Neolithic, Levant, 149 , 160 , 197–201 era, 285–7 Potts, Richard, 60 , 79 of climate and human history, 351 poultry, 222 and Dark Ages, 271–2 poverty and emergence, 33 and bubonic plague, 389–90 geological events, 40–1 in developing world, 533 and “human revolution,” 105 and economic inequity, 523 , 533 , and rise of the state, 188 539–40 , 542 Second Industrial Revolution as, 509 and global depression, 542 shaping human history, 9–10 . See also and human health, 2 , 219–20 , 234–5 Eldridge, Niles ; Gould, Stephen Jay mitigation of, 573 Purcell, Nicholas, 274 and urban energy defi cit, 490–3 PPNB. See PrePottery Neolithic, Levant Qadan hunter-gatherers, 141 , 144 Preboreal Oscillation, 133 Qin dynasty, China, 309 , 326 Precambrian epoch, 41 Qing dynasty, China. See Manchu-Qing precession. See orbital cycles dynasty, China precipitation, 498 , 557–8 , 564 , 566 . Quakers, 516 See also fl oods ; monsoons quarantines, 425 , 457 , 514–15 Pre-Classic Mayan culture, Quelccaaya glacier, Peru, 181 Mesoamerica, 355 querns, rotary, 284 , 320 , 483 Preclassical Crisis, 278–9 , 299–304 , 306–12 , quicklime, 574 315–16 , 323 . See also Bronze age ; quinua, 153 Hallstatt solar minima ; Siberian Highs Rackham, Oliver, 274 predators, humans as, 124 radioactive waste, 544 premodernity, 7–8 , 261–2 railroads, 409 , 481, 482 , 492 , 494 , PrePottery Neolithic, Levant 504–5 , 535 human dispersal, 158 rain forests, tropical, 123 PrePottery Neolithic A (PPNA), 147 , Ramses V, 299 148 , 149 rats, 298 , 348 , 458 . See also rodents PrePottery Neolithic B (PPNB), 149–50 , Raup, David, 49 , 50 159–60 , 199–200 , 230–4 Reagan, Ronald, 540 , 545 priesthood, 205 , 207 Recent African origins hypothesis, 83–104 . prime mover, defi nition of, 37 , 482 See also human dispersal private property ownership, 374 recolonization (after extinction) model, Progressive movement, 508 98–101 prokaryotes, 28 , 38 , 40 Red Eyebrow peasant rebellion, China jjj, 326 protectionist economic policies, 535–6 Red Queen’s hypothesis, 30–1 , 54 Proterozic eon, 38–42 reforestation, 440–2 Protestant Reformation, 426 reform movements, 507–8 , 512 , 573 Proto-Hassuna period, 160 , 197 refugees, 207 , 210 , 211 , 303–4

622 Index

regime capacity, 417 Russian Revolution, 519 Reid, Robert, 32 rye, 147 religion, 306 , 309–10 , 311 , 507 . See also specifi c religions Saale glaciation [MIS 8], 85 , 86 , 87 reproductive women, effective population Saba, kingdom of, 348 of, 97–8 Sagan, Carl, 38 research and innovation, 480 , 509 . Sahara desert, 64 , 92 , 107 , 155 , 156 , See also science, applied and 211 , 442–3 experimental ; technological Sahel, 126 , 156 , 311 , 442–3 , 557 development Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 65 resilience theory, 267–8 Saito, Asamu, 447 resource depletion, 495 salients, 488 resource stress, 159–60 saline density, 166–9 . resource wars, 144 , 423 See also thermohaline pump respiratory disease, 426 salinity crisis, Messinian, 64 Rethelford, John, 98 salinization of Mesopotamia, 293–4 rice and rice farming Saller, Richard, 333 domestication of, 129 , 144 saltation, 32–3 methane emissions, 286 , 477 , 478 , 495 , 553 Samarra culture, 197–201 , 234 , 235–8 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 156 San Francisco, CA, 506 , 520 paddy-rice cultivation, 286 , 327 , 367 sanitation, 230 . See also public health programs and village agriculture, 195 Santa Barbara oil spill, CA, 543 wild rice harvesting, 140 Santorini Eruption, 296 rickets, 216 sapropel condition, 173 . See also anaerobic rifting and subsidence, 27 , 39 , 51 , 57 , 63 , 64 , sediments 66–7 . See also superplumes saqiya, 320 Rockefeller Foundation, 573 SARS, 545 , 563 rodents, 223 , 348 , 440 . savannah See also marmots ; rats creation of, 62–3 , 70 , 75 , 78 , 83 Rodinia, 41 , 42–3 , 44 and evolution, 60 , 72 , 73 Roman Empire and exposure to disease, 214–15 and climate change, 341–2 and human physiology, 215 economic growth, 329–35 Savannah hypothesis, 58–9 economy as intensifi cation of earlier Savery, Thomas, 466 , 470 , 481 innovations, 321 Scandinavia, 378 , 515 effects of epidemics and wars, 423 scavenging, 73 fall of, 339–47 Scheidel, Walter, 333 food shortages and famines, 330 schistosomatic parasites, 222 population, 328–9 , 333 Schreiber, Katherina, 188 rise of, 322 , 325 , 328–39 Schumpeter, Joseph, 5 , 318 , 482 Rome, ancient, 269 , 285 . See also Classical Schumpeterian growth Antiquity about, 5 , 262 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 520 during Ancient and Medieval Ages, 318 Roosevelt, Theodore, 508 of industrial revolution, 475 Rosenstein, Nathan, 328 Industrial Revolutions as, 484 , 509 Rostow, Walter, 481 , 511 , 534 during Iron Age, 318 rotary power, 284 , 319 , 320 , 339 , 483 , 484 shaping human history, 7–8 , 9–10 Royal Society, 466 See also economic growth ; Smithian rubber, 497 , 510 , 538 growth ; super-cycles of modern Ruddiman, William, 286–7 , 440–2, 476 , 478 , economic growth 546 , 558 science, applied and experimental, 10 , Russia, 161 , 304 , 435 , 470 , 515 , 537 , 545 . 465–6 , 481 , 538 . See also Industrial See also World War I Revolution ; research and innovation

Index 623

Scythians, 304 , 324 and winter weather patterns, 168 sea level See also atmospheric pressure systems ; and 1000 year eccentricity cycle, 77–8 Hallstatt solar minima ; Little Ice Age ; and extinctions, 51 Mid-Holocene Transition ; Preclassical lowering of, 64 Crisis post-glacial rise, 206–7 sickle-cell trait, 222 rising, 564 , 565 , 566 , 567 sickles, fl int, 291 , 305 and soil erosion, 275 Silent Spring (Carson), 544 , 560 Sea Peoples, 299 , 303 Silk Route and bubonic plague, 387 Second Industrial Revolution Silurian period, 47 about, 481 , 509–13 silver mining and production, 309 , 332 , 422, and climate change, 553 429 , 430 , 454 as economic super-cycle, 500 , 538 , 550 Simiand, Fran ç ois, 264 , 501 emissions, 403 , 407 , 408 , 479 , 525–8 , Simon, Julian, 560 , 571 546–52 Singapore, 531 , 536 , 540 environmental impact of, 524–8 , 543–6 single-point migration, 90 as punctuated equilibrium, 509 skin color, 215 , 216 as super-cycle of economic growth, 509 slash-and-burn agriculture, 156 temperatures, 555 slave trade, 362 , 415 , 422 , 430–1 , 442–4 , 487 and urbanization, 479 slavery, 285 , 328 , 335 , 430–1 , 436 , 497 , 505 Second World, 535 , 536–7 , 541 , 542 , 550 sleeping sickness, 214 Secondary Products Revolution, 191–4 , 201 , smallpox 228–9 , 287 , 318 , 514 Antonine Plague, 343 , 344 sedentarization, 201–3 Cyprian’s Plague, 343 , 344 seeds, 135 , 148 , 149 , 151–2 , 533 . during Dark Ages, 360 See also domestication of plants as fi rst contact disease, 432 Seleucid Empire, 329 during Industrial Revolution, 488 semi-conductors, 539 inoculations, 426 , 485 , 515 Sepkoski, John, 49 , 50 origins of, 223 septisemic plague, 385 Ramses V, 299 Seventeenth Century Crisis. See Little smelting and casting, 199 Ice Age Smil, Vaclav, 482 shaduf, 291 Smith, Adam, 3 , 4–5 , 265 , 507 shale gas, 561 Smith, Bruce, 128 , 191 Shang dynasty, China, 308 , 309 Smithian growth sheep, 147 , 149 , 192 , 202–3 , 222 , 332 , 338 about, 4–5 Shennan, Stephen, 104 , 269 during Bronze Age, 318 Sherratt, Andrew, 191 , 205 , 208 during Classical Antiquity and Medieval Shindell, Drew, 578 era, 261–2 , 264 shipwrecks, 331 , 333 of industrious revolution, 261–62 , 264 , Siberian Highs 351 , 363 , 367 , 475 at 6700–6000 BC (First), 154–5 , 278–9 of the Roman Empire, 332–4 about, 168 secondary products revolution, 192 , at end of LGM, 131 203 , 237 during Little Ice Age (Fourth), 278–9 , shaping human history, 7–8 381–2 , 439 , 447 , 470 world wide during Early Modern period, during Mid-Holocene Transition (Second), 417–19 155 , 159 , 278–9 , 416 See also economic growth ; Schumpeterian millennial, 155 , 177 , 180 , 181 , 277–9 growth ; super-cycles of modern during Pleistocene, 131 , 171 economic growth during Preclassical Crisis (Third), smog, 524 , 543 , 563 278–9 , 301 smoke-stack source emissions. See emissions, upcoming, 566 industrial

624 Index

Snooks, Graeme, 374 , 420 during Preclassical Crisis, 307 snowball earth events, 40 , 42 , 53 . and rise of the state, 185 . See also specifi c See also Archean/Paleo-Proterozoic countries or cultures crisis ; glaciation ; Neoproterozoic South Asian [Indian] Monsoon crisis decline of, 196 Social Security System, 521 during Dark Ages, 353 social skills, 73 , 104–5 , 107 during Little Ice Age, 371–2 social stratifi cation. See stratifi cation, social during Medieval era, 439 society, reorganization of, 193 , 199 , during Mid-Holocene Transition, 178 , 179 , 346–7 , 365–7 , 436–7 , 464–5 . 180 , 184 , 211 See also Christianity ; stratifi cation, origins of, 71 social ; urbanization retreat from Levant, 206 soil erosion or depletion, 273–5 , 341 , 374 South Korea, 536 , 540 solar cycles, 115 , 154 , 175–6 , 250 , 252 , South Pacifi c, 162 258 , 276, 408 . See also Hallstatt Southeast America, 433 solar minima ; orbital cycles ; solar Southeast Asia irradiance ; solar maxima and minima during Bronze Age, 289–91 solar irradiance, 179 , 277 , 550 , 553 , 554 , colonization of, 162 556 , 575 during Early Modern period, 415 solar maxima and minima human dispersal, 90 , 93 Dalton Minimum, 469 , 486 land clearance, 496 , 497 , 532 and droughts and fl oods, 324 population, 415 during Little Ice Age, 439 rising sea levels, 568 and Little Ice Age, 381–2 trade and exchange, 289–91 , 436 . Maunder Minimum, 176 , 451 See also specifi c countries or cultures during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 358–60 Southwest Asia during Mid-Holocene Transition, 180 during Anthropocene Epoch, 470 See also Hallstatt solar minima ; specifi c bubonic plague, 426 maxima or minima during Classical Antiquity, 323 Solomon Islands, 125 during Early Modern period, 415 , 426 solstices, 68 lactose intolerance, 237 Song dynasty, China, 367–9 during Little Ice Age, 449 Songhay empire, 442 during Neolithic period, 113 soot. See black carbon/soot population, 323 , 415 , 470 Soreq Cave, Israel, 142 , 180 successful civilizations of, 194–5 , 196–212 sorghum, 129 , 156 tuberculosis in, 237 “South, tropical.” See Third World See also Levant ; Middle East ; Ottoman South Africa, 107–8 Empire ; specifi c cultures South America, 157 , 183–4 , 309–10 , 568 , Soviet Bloc, 537 , 541 , 542 , 550 , 554 570 . See also specifi c countries or Spain, 344 , 422 , 430 , 432 , 438 , 504 , 517 cultures ; specifi c cultures or countries species dispersal South American Monsoon, 173 , 174 , 364–7 of Homo erectus, 83 South Asia interglacial periods, 82 , 83 climate and famine, 257 mammals, 63 and glacial melt, 568 northward movement of, 82–3 , 90 Homo erectus, 75 and single-point migration, 90 human dispersal, 90 , 93 See also human dispersal ; multiregional land clearance, 496 , 532 evolution during Little Ice Age, 371–2 speleothems, 134 , 142 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 363 spice trade, 422 , 430 , 436 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 157 Spier, Fred, 263 during Neolithic period, 114 Spö rer Minimum, 382

Index 625

spread zones, 238–40 stone tools. See tools, stone squash, domestication of, 152 , 153 storms, 557–8 , 562 , 564 , 565 , 566 . Sri Lanka/Ceylon, 430 , 518 , 531 See also hurricanes ; monsoons stagnation model, 261–2 Straits of Gibraltar, 64 standard of living, 11 , 264 , 453 , 480 , 490–3 “strange parallels,” 263 , 279 , 324 , 350 Stanley, Steven, 55 stratifi cation, social starch granules, 125 , 135 during Bronze Age, 283 , 288 , 314 stasis. See punctuated equilibrium in China, 335 state and state institutions and crisis mortality, 219–20 , 234–5 and Boserupian intensifi cation, 195 development of, 199 during Bronze Age, 10 and economic inequity, 533 , 539–40 , 542 and bureaucratic administration, 281–2 and failure of the feudal/manorial climactic or environmental triggers, 190 system, 428–9 and climate change, 165–6 , 248 , 249 , 252 and health, 314 during Early Modern period, during Iron Age, 314 418–19 , 424–5 during Roman Empire, 328 , 334–5 , 345 during Iron Age, 10 stratifi cation of Uruk, 205 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 183–91 stress and ecological circumscription, 188–90 , 195 culture and technology as response to, epidemiological transition, 424–5 73 , 104–5 militarized states, 418–19 and the development of agriculture, 143 origins of, 122–3 , 183–91 , 199 of high eccentricity cycles, 71–2 and population decrease, 190 , 191 and human emergence, 60 , 104 and population growth, 270 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 159–60 as punctuational event, 188 of population in post World War II See also city-states ; political institutions ; era, 537 specifi c countries or cultures and punctuated equilibrium, 33–4 steam power resource stress, 159–60 as driver for First Industrial during Roman Empire, 340–1 Revolution, 481 on Song China, 369 and economic waves, 482 during Younger Dryas, 145–8 Great Britain’s investment in, 492–3 , 511 See also civilization stress ; disease ; poverty Newcomen engine, 483 stromatolites, 41 as prime mover, 482 Sub-Saharan Africa, 138 , 215 , 415 , 498 , Savery’s steam-engine, 466 , 470, 481 532 , 570 steam turbines, 509–10 Sudbury meteor impact, 41 steamboats, 492 sugar, 464 Watts’ condenser and double acting sugar trade, 422 , 430–1 , 436 engine, 484 Sui dynasty, China, 357 steel production and technological sulfate aerosols development, 283 , 305 , 482 , 509 from fossil fuel burning, 525 steppe/grasslands as negative temperature forcing, 549 during Dark Ages, 389 post World War II, 551–2 , 556 and end of Classical Optimum, 347 , 348 during Second Great Interruption, 554 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 185 during Second Great Super-Cycle, 554 nomadic warriors, 304 during Second Industrial Revolution, 553 Sahara as, 134 simulation of volcanic eruptions, 575 shaped by temperature and moisture, 123 during Third Great Super-Cycle, 555 transition to forests, 138 , 139 See also fossil fuels ; volcanoes and volcanic Stern, Nicholas, 577 eruptions Still Bay, South Africa, 107–8 sulfur, 43 Stone Age. See Paleolithic period sulfur dioxide, 525 , 544 , 549 , 551–2

626 Index

sulfuric acid, 525 African rift, 63 , 66 sulphur, 175 , 449 Eocene epoch, 57 Sumeria, 289 , 293–4 and extinctions, 51–3 sun geomagnetic synthesis, 52

eleven year sun-spot cycle, 175 , 276 and release of CO 2 , 35 , 39 insolation and albedo, 68 , 69 role of, 35 and origins of life, 38 as second-order source of energy, 37 as prime mover, 37 supercontinent cycles, 41 , 44–8 solar activity and D-O cycles, 102–3 See also rifting and subsidence ; solar radiation and global temperature, supercontinents 548 , 550 supply. See demand for consumer solar variations and climate change, products 175–7 , 553 sustainability, 11 , 503 sunlight and volcanic-winter extinctions, swamps, drainage of, 461 52 , 90 sweat glands, 215 and synthesizing vitamin D, 216 Sweden, 516 , 517 , 523 See also albedo ; insolation ; orbital cycles ; swine fl u, 563 solar cycles ; solar maxima and Switzerland, 523 minima syphilis, 434 sunfl owers, 153 Syria, 569 Sung dynasty, China, 368 , 482 supercontinents Taiping Rebellion, China, 472–3 , 494 Columbia (or Nuna), 41 , 44 Taiwan, 518 , 531 , 536 , 540 formation of, 39 Tang dynasty, China, 357–8 Gondwanaland, 49 tapeworms, 214 , 222 Hallam-Wignall supercontinent-hiccup taxation, 424 , 448 , 466 theory, 51 Taylor Dome. See ice cores Kenorland, 39 , 40 , 44 tea, 436 , 437 , 464 , 497 Pangea, 44–5 , 46 , 49 Tecer Lake, Turkey, 180 , 302 Pannotia, 43 , 44 , 46 technological development Rodinia, 41 , 42–3 , 44 competition for rare minerals, 570 superplume-supercontinent cycles, during Classical Antiquity, 284–5 , 321 41 , 44–8 as driver for Industrial Revolutions, 481 Vendia, 44 electrical generation and effi ciency, 537–8 super-cycles (geological). See Icehouse- energy benefi ts of, 265 Greenhouse cycles ; supercontinents and the First Industrial Revolution, 483–4 super-cycles of modern economic growth following climate change, 287 about, 500–1 , 528 and GDP, 511 First Great Interruption, 528 , 551 , during Iron Age, 321 553 , 555–6 linked with government and economic First Great Super-Cycle Expansion, 553 , 555 growth, 509 , 523 , 538 Second Great Interruption, 554 in Medieval Europe, 373 , 374 Second Great Super-Cycle Expansion to mitigate climate change, 573–4 (Post World War II era), 500 , 534–5 , and the reform movement, 512 550 , 554 as response to stress, 73 , 104–5 Second Industrial Revolution and, 500 , and societal growth, 391 509 , 538 and technology lag, 493–4 Third Great Super-Cycle Expansion, of Third Super-Cycle, 542 539–40 , 555 and trade and exchange, 281–2 See also economic growth ; Schumpeterian for wars, 424 growth See also research and innovation superplumes tectonic punctuational model, 40–1 , 66–7 , about, 6 69 . See also superplumes

Index 627

tectonics at end of LGM, 131 and biological evolution, 27 during Holocene, 150 discovery of, 26 , 27 during Little Ice Age, 382–3 during Early Modern period, 420 and Little Ice Age, 439 geologist-plumbers on, 35 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 358–60 Oligocene epoch, 57–8 and Mid-Holocene Transition, 154 Proterozoic eon, 38–9 during Mid-Holocene Transition, 180 as second-order source of energy, 37 during Younger Dryas, 133 tectonic forcings, 40–1 , 66–7 , 69 and Youngest Dryas prediction, 566 teeth as health indicators, 221 , 230 , 235 , Third Great Super-Cycle Expansion, 312–14 , 315 , 336 , 385 539–40 , 555 Tell abu Hureyra, Syria, 235 Third Industrial Revolution, 481 , 523 , Tell es Sawwan, Iraq, 236 538–9 , 559–61 Tell Hammoukar, Syria, 209 Third World Tell Hassuna, Iraq, 197–201 , 234 , 235–8 and climate change, 566–7 “temperate North.” See First World corruption and misappropriation of temperature, global revenues, 536–7 cooling trend since during Industrial energy consumption, 541–2 Revolution, 498 genocide by global north, 570 evidence for climate change, 2 , and mitigation of poverty, 573 546–8 , 564–5 origins of, 498 during First Great Interruption, 528 , 551 , population predictions, 542 553 , 555–6 post World War II population, 530–1 and human action, 477–8 Thirty Year’s War, 449 , 458 and industrial emissions, 528 Thomas, Brinley, 488 and man-made forcings, 549–51 Thomas, Robert Paul, 374 and natural forcings, 548–9 Thoreau, Henry David, 508 and oxygen isotopes, 81 Thule culture, Greenland, 384 paradoxical nature of, 551–2 Tibet, 472 , 570 during Second Great Interruption, 554 Tigris and Euphrates rivers, Mesopotamia, during Second Industrial Revolution, 555 184 , 197–201 , 206–7 , 292 , 302 , 568 shaping of global biomes, 123 Tikal, 327 See also tree-ring temperature timbering, 497 estimates Timur (Tamerlane), 418 temple complexes, 205 , 207 , 355 , 366 tin, 305 Teotihuacan culture, Mexico, 327 , 354 titanium. See Cariaco Basin sediment Terrenato, 325 Tiwanaku culture, Peru, 310 , 354 Tethys Sea, 58 , 64 , 66 tobacco trade, 436 , 464 textiles and textile industry Tokagawa shogunate, 427 , 446 , 474 Chinese, 368 tomatoes, 435 cotton, 465 tools, metal, 282–4 during Early Modern period, 421 , 455 tools, stone English, 453–4 , 492 Acheulean tradition [Mode 2], 75 , 82 , 85 fi ber revolution among Uruk, 208 Aterian tradition, 92 , 93 Indian, 465 Levallois method [Mode 3], 85–6 during Industrial Revolution, 488 , 492 microlithic [Mode 4], 107 innovations, 483 , 484 Oldowan tradition [Mode 1], 72 , 85 mechanization of, 481 Paleoindian Clovis point tradition, 138 Than dynasty, Vietnam, 363 as prime mover, 483 Thatcher, Margaret, 540 starch granules, 125 Thera culture, 296 use in Bronze Abe, 291 , 305 thermohaline pump, North Atlantic tornadoes, 557 about, 102–3 , 169 towns. See urbanization

628 Index

toxic metals, 562 tularemia, 298 trade and exchange tundra, 123 , 565 among Halaf and Ubaid, 201 , 203 Turkestan, 472 during Bronze Age, 289–91 , 297–9 , 304–6 Turkey, 312 , 569 in China, 367–8 Turkmenistan, 160 China’s explorations, 445 turnips, 462 and demand for consumer goods, 487 turnover pulse hypothesis, 59 and disease confl uences, 280 , 298–9 , 337 , Tuscany, 303 343 , 348–9 typhoid, 337 , 515 between Europe and Asia, 429–30 typhoons, 564 globalization of food, 435–7 typhus, 432 international trade, 464–5 , 487 , 497 during Iron Age, 304–6 Ubaid culture, Mesopotamia, 186 , 198 , during Neolithic A, 148 201–4 , 206 , 234 , 235–8 in North America, 153 , 310 Uighur autonomous region, 570 during Preclassical Crisis, 310 Ultimate Resource, The (Simon), 560 Roman Empire, 328 , 329–35 Umbgrove, Johannes, 26 slave trade, 362 underdeveloped world. See less developed technological and organizational world ; Third World innovations, 281–2 United Kingdom, 400 , 504 , 523 , 527 , 539 . Uruk, 207–9 See also British Isles ; England ; Great trains. See railroads Britain transcendentalism, 508 United Nations, 573 , 575 transportation, 208 , 512 , 513 , 535 . United States See also automobiles ; internal and the “American Century,” 534 combustion engine ; railroads Civil War, 494 TRB “Funnel Beaker” peoples, 223 climate change impacts, 567 tree-ring temperature estimates climate change legislation, 576 and Bronze Age Crisis, 292 coal production and use, 504 , 522 and Carbon-14 recalibration, 135 droughts in, 567 from China and Mongolia, 357 economic growth, 511–12 , 523–4 , 534 and end of Classical Optimum, 348 energy consumption, 405 , 535 , 541 , 550–1 and industrial emissions, 528 environmental mitigation, 543–4 from Ireland, 180 escape from Malthusian crisis, 499 and Little Ice Age, 383 , 388 European demand for U.S. grain, 505 and Preclassical Crisis, 302 fertility, 516–17 from Roman Empire, 331 fi nancial regulations, 520–1 trees, 545 . See also deforestation ; land GDP, 511 clearance and global markets, 497 Trevithick, Richard, 492 health and height, 401 , 505–6 , 540 triggers, climactic or environmental. heat waves, 567 See bottlenecks, evolutionary immigration to, 516–17 trip-hammers, 321 industrial emissions, 526–7 , 555 “tropical South.” See Third World during Industrial Revolution, 480 , 481 , tropics, equatorial, 130 , 306–12 , 430–1 , 496 , 511–12 , 523–4 497 , 526 , 560–1 knowledge-based economies, 539–40 Troy and the Trojan War, 299 , 303 land clearance emissions, 495–6 trypanosomes, 214 military-industrial complex, 538–9 tsetse fl ies, 214 , 442 mortality rate, 515 tsunamis, 296 , 309 , 560 , 566 population, 475 tuberculosis, 214–15 , 222 , 233 , 237 , 315 , public welfare, 520–1 337 , 516 railroads and urbanization, 504–5

Index 629

and two-tier economy, 539–40 variability hypothesis, 60 , 66 , 79 . urban population, 504 See also eccentricity-driven See also America, colonial ; World Wars I megadrought and II Vendia (or Pannotia), 44 Universities, 509 . See also research and Venezuela, 518 innovation Vermeij, Geerat, 30 Upper Paleolithic Vernadsky, Vladimir, 26 African Late Stone Age, 85 vertical oscillations, 166–9 Boserupian intensifi cation, 105–6 , 192 Vietnam, 313 , 363 fl orescence of culture, 104 Vikings (Norse), 349 , 384 human dispersal, 125 villages human emergence, 86 in the Americas, 153 human evolution, 140 in China, 150 , 151 , 186 , 195 human physiology, 216 and climate change, 165–6 and megafaunal extinctions, 138–9 of Hassuna, Samarra and Halaf Mode 4 tools, 107 cultures, 198 mortality and fertility rates, 229 of Kebaran and Natufi an peoples, 141 population, 137 Late PrePottery Neolithic B period, 149–50 terminology, 85 Mesopotamian, 196 Upper Paleolithic Revolution, 84 village agriculture, 195 , 196 , 198 Ur, Mesopotamia, 206 , 211 , 293 See also state and state urbanization institutions during Bronze Age Crisis, 296 violence, 144 , 328 , 569 . See also wars and disease, 241–2 , 280 Virginia, US, 439 , 463 during Early Modern period, 429 , 438 Visigoths, 347 and economic growth, 373 Vita-Finzi, Claudio, 273 and empire building, 438 vitamin D, synthesizing of, 216 environmental hazards of, 501–2 , 508 volcanoes and volcanic eruptions and health and height, 401 , 505–6 AD 536 Eruption, 279 historical data, 400 AD 1258 Eruption, 250 , 253 , 279 , in India, 296 325 , 342 , 348–9 , 371 , 382 , 383 during Industrial Revolution, 489 and Bronze Age Crisis, 296–7 and Industrial Revolution, 479 , 481 and climate change, 175 of less developed world, 533 cooling infl uence of, 477 , 549 , 550 , in Medieval Europe, 373 551 , 553 and natural water control systems, 562 , 565 and crop failures, 276 in the Netherlands, 461 during Dark Ages, 352 rise along with industrialization and and end of Classical Optimum, 348 GNP, 504 during First Great Interruption, 553 Uruk, 207 . See also city-states ; specifi c towns future threats of, 566 and cities Hekla, 302 Uruk culture, Mesopotamia, 184 , Ilopango, El Salvador, 348 204–12 , 241 Laki Craters, 470 U.S.S.R., 520 , 537 , 554 . See also Russia ; during Little Ice Age, 439 , 449 , 451 , 470–1 World War I and Little Ice Age, 381–2 Mt. Tambora, 470–1 Vaalbara, 38 Mt. Toba, 90 , 93 , 103 Valdiva culture, 153 Phanerozoic supercycles, 46–8 Van Andel, Tjeerd, 274 during Pleistocene, 103 Van Lake, Turkey, 179 , 198 , 302 Santorini Eruption, 296 Van Valen, Leigh, 30 during Second Great Interruption, 554 Vandal Solar Minimum, 352 simulation of, 575

630 Index

volcanoes and volcanic eruptions (cont.) during Preclassical Crisis, 311–12 sulfur dioxide as negative temperature slave trade, 415 , 422 , 430–1 , 442–4 forcing, 549 See also specifi c cultures or countries volcanic ash, 296–7 West Indies, 463 volcanic winter, 90 West Nile Fever, 545 , 567 Vrba, Elizabeth, 29 , 31 , 59 West Nile period, 140–1 Vredfort meteor impact, 41 West Pacifi c Warm Pool, 169–71 , 172 , 173 , 276 , 352 , 358–60 , 555–8 . See also El wages, 484 , 486 , 490–1 Ni ñ o/Southern Oscillation ; monsoons Walker Circulation, 170 , 171 , 276 , 278 , 359 . westerlies (Atlantic/winter) See also El Ni ño/Southern Oscillation during Classical Optimum, 325 Wallerstein, Immanuel, 209 , 424 during Dark Ages, 325 , 352 Wang Mang interregnum, China, 309 , 326 and decline of the Roman Empire, 341 War of the Roses, 423 , 455 during Late Holocene, 277 Ward-Perkins, Bryan, 340 during Little Ice Age, 369 , 389 Warring States period, China, 319 , 326 during Medieval Climate Anomaly, 364 wars during Mid-Holocene Transition, 179 , civil wars, 569 196 , 197–8 and disease confl uences, 280 , 346 , 391–2 and NAO, 168 , 174 and economic growth, 334 during Preclassical Crisis, 302 , 324 English 18th and 19th century, 486 and secondary products revolution, 197–8 , following climate change, 144 , 196 201 , 206 Hundred Years War, 423 , 455 and Siberian Highs, 278 Indian, 494 during Younger Dryas, 145 during Late Bronze Age, 290 , 297–8 wetlands, 139 of Roman Empire, 328–9 , 334 wheat, 129 , 147 War of the Roses, 423 . See also empire wheel, 192–3 , 208–9 , 483 . building ; specifi c wars or confl icts See also rotary power water White, Lynn, 373 , 374 environmental hazards to, 562 whooping cough (pertussis), 222 , 515 fertilizers, 562 Wignall, Paul B., 51 natural water control systems, 562 , 565 Williams, Eric, 487 shortages, 533 , 561 Wilson, E.O., 570 and Uruk culture, 205–6 wind-blown dust, 70 , 75 , 77 world-wide effects of climate change, 568 . witchcraft accusations, 451 See also droughts ; fl oods Wolf Solar Minimum, 371 , 382 , 439 water power, 373 , 492 . See also rotary power women Watson, James, 4 , 26 demand for domestic goods, 464 Watt, James, 466 , 484 , 492 education and fertility, 531 wave of diffusion (hybridization account), 98 education and health, 531 Waxman-Markey Clean Energy and Security effective population of reproductive Act, 576 women, 97–8 wealth, 219–20 , 234–5 . labor during Industrial Revolution, 491 See also stratifi cation, social marriage rates, 463 Wealth of Nations, The (Smith), 265 , 507 in Roman Empire, 338–9 weapons, 282–4 in the workforce, 453 weathering, chemical, 38 , 40 , 42 , 47 Wong, R. Bin, 418 Wegener, Alfred, 26 wood, fuel, 460 welfare state. See public welfare Woodland (Neolithic), North America West Africa Early, 310 droughts, 442–3, 556 Late, 240 , 366 during First Great Interruption, 556 Woodley, Leonard, 206 during Little Ice Age, 442–3 Woods, James, 390

Index 631

Woolf, Arthur, 492 Yersinia pestis. See bubonic plague/ World Bank, 573 Black Death World War I, 518 , 519–20 , 527 Yoffee, Norman, 188 , 203 , 237 World War II, 500 , 519–20 , 556 yoke harness, 373 world-system model, 209 , 263 , 290–1 Younger Dryas worst-case scenarios, 565–6 about, 23 , 112 , 132–4 , 144–7 , 172 Wright, Sewell, 98 cereal domestication thesis, 144–52 Wright brothers, 512 and Chinese Mesolithic, 144 Wrigley, E.A., 486 followed by domestication of plants and Wrigley-Schofi eld data, 455 animals, 287 writing, 187 , 205 , 281 , 306 , 483 meteor impact theory, 138 wrought-iron production, 481 , 484 , Natufi an, 141–2 488–9 Younger Fill, 274 Wu state, China, 319 “Youngest Dryas,” (potential future Wynn, Thomas, 88 meltwater crisis), 566 Yu the Great, 196 , 295 Xia state, China, 186 , 196 , 206 , 308 Yuan dynasty, China, 370 , 444 Yucatan. See Mayan culture, Mesoamerica yams, 129 , 311 Yangshao culture (Neolithic), China, 238 Zachos, James, 20 Yangtze River Valley, China, 144 , 151 Zagros Mountains, Iran, 158 Yayio culture, Japan, 327 Zapotec military state, 188 Y-chromosome, 87 , 90 , 91–2 Zeribar Lake, Iran, 179 yellow fever, 432 Zhang, David, 569 Yellow River Valley, China, 150 , 186 , 189 , Zheng He, 386 , 445 195–6 , 206 , 295 Zhou dynasty, China, 309 Yemen, 348 zoonotic diseases, 221–3 , 233–4