Freedom of Expression

Number 15 . Fall 2012

STHE JOURNALch OFo THEl OPENa SOCIETYrFor SCHOLARSHIPu PROGRAMSm Freedom of Expression

Regional Focus: THE MIDDLE EAST

Essays and creative works by Open Society Scholarship Programs’ grantees and alumni Contents ScholarForum 3 Cover Topic: Freedom of Expression The Journal of the Open Society Scholarship Programs 8 Regional Focus: The Middle East 17 Academic Showcase Fall 2012 . Number 15 20 Alumni Updates Editor: Zoë BROGDEN 26 Contribute to the Next Edition 27 Other Open Society Foundations opportunities Editorial Committee: Julie BOUCHAT, Joseph GLICKSBERG, Russell KOFF, Ankita SURI Designer: Samuel BUGGELN ScholarForum is published by the Open Dear Readers, Society Scholarship Programs, an It’s a hard task to compile a selection of essays that reflect an accurate depiction of shift- operational program of the Open Society Foundations. ScholarForum is distributed ing sands, especially when that terrain is the Middle East in 2012. Despite the finality with to current and former scholarship which old regimes toppled throughout the Mediterranean nations of North Africa in 2011, recipients, host institutions, educational the changes that continue to unfold have made writing essays in mid-2012 a definite challenge advising centers, and educational for contributors attempting to chronicle current events. And while the region has undergone professionals. rapid change, certain aspects of Middle Eastern societies also appear to suffer as habits persist. One fellow writes about how the uprisings have dismantled repressive dictatorships, but have OPEN SOCIETY also ushered in new governments that may reinforce existing social structures upon Egypt’s citizens. In Jordan, another fellow describes how the perpetuation of existing roles and the FOUNDATIONS widespread use of violence within the home has made the repression and abuse of women a Chairman: George SOROS social norm. A fellow from Lebanon working in Egypt provides an account of the feelings of disappointment held by those at the center of the revolutions. There is still much to do, and President: Christopher STONE much more to change over the coming years. 224 West 57th Street Intimately bound with the regime changes in the Middle East was the explicit utter- New York, NY 10019 USA ance of an opinion—often an opinion shared by many—and a space to express it. Freedom of Tel: +1-212-548-0600 expression is a powerful, fundamental right and a desire that is intrinsic to individuals across Fax: +1-212-548-4679 regions, nations, societies, and cultures. Freedom of expression is frequently accompanied by www.opensocietyfoundations.org debates about where the limits to this freedom should be drawn, running the gamut from the “anything goes” environment of the internet, to carefully prescribed definitions of hate speech to the freedom of individuals to publicly express their opinions without fear of retribution OPEN SOCIETY or censorship. SCHOLARSHIP PROGRAMS In the spirit of the Arab Spring’s confirmation of the power of freedom of expression Director: Martha LOERKE and assembly, our contributors have used this edition of Scholar Forum to provide you with a myriad of views on recent events in the Middle East and North Africa. In turn, we welcome NEW YORK OFFICE your informed and articulate reactions to these articles and images. Deputy Director: Phillip WATKINS

Best wishes to you all, 1700 Broadway, 17th Floor New York, NY 10019 USA Fax: +1-212-548-4652 Open Society Scholarship Programs [email protected]

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LONDON OFFICE The Open Society Scholarship Programs fund the from a range of backgrounds to pursue their studies participation of students, scholars, and professionals in alternative academic and cultural environments. Deputy Director: Dr. Audrone UZIELIENE from a wide range of countries in rigorous, The Open Society Foundations work to build vibrant competitive academic programs outside of their and tolerant democracies whose governments are Open Society Foundation–London home countries. The goals of these programs accountable to their citizens. Working with local 7th Floor Millbank Tower, 21-24 Millbank are: to revitalize and reform the teaching of the communities in more than 100 countries, the Open London, SW1P 4QP social sciences and humanities at higher education Society Foundations support justice and human Tel: +44-207-031-0200 institutions; to provide professional training in fields rights, freedom of expression, and access to public Fax: +44-207-031-0201 unavailable or underrepresented at institutions in the health and education. countries served; and to assist outstanding students www.opensocietyfoundations.org cover photo Joel CAMPAGNA COVER TOPIC Freedom of Expression

Armenian Nationalism and the

Struggle against Intolerance Rights Watch, also pointed out in its 2012 World Report that free- Yelena OSIPOVA, Armenia dom of expression continues to be restricted. Global Supplementary Grants Program, 2011 One should note, however, that freedom of expression is more than merely freedom of speech and freedom of the press. It also Freedom of expression is a fundamental human right, as out- includes other rights, such as the right to publicly display one’s lined in key international legal instruments, such as the Universal identity—including one’s gender identity—without fear of violence, Declaration of Human Rights, and is incorporated into most con- intimidation, or persecution. Yet, in Armenia, discussion of sex and stitutions and legal codes around the world. It is essential, however, gender identity issues is very limited. As far as women’s rights are to recognize that the idea of freedom connotes distinct yet comple- concerned, discrimination and domestic violence are widespread, mentary notions. The first notion is freedom from oppression or and there is no legislation in Armenia specifically criminalizing persecution, and the second, perhaps even more important notion, domestic violence against women or addressing marital rape and is a positive and empowering one: it is the freedom to achieve indi- incest. Armenian public discourse has neither addressed these issues, vidual dignity, prosperity, and happiness. nor the discrimination against the LGBTQI community, which has As a member of the United Nations, Armenia is legally been increasingly ostracized, persecuted, and subjected to violence. bound, inter alia, by the International Covenant on Civil and A recent example can be seen in an attack on an openly LGBTQI- Political Rights and the European Convention on Human friendly bar in Yerevan, which was set on fire in the early morning of Rights. Article 14 of the Armenian Constitution clearly out- May 8, 2012, by homophobic and nationalistic young men. lines a commitment to human dignity, equality of human rights, Although it was the first incident of this kind and one which and non-discrimination. Despite these articles and 20 years of can be seen as an open act of “terrorism” against the establishment independence, the lack of freedom—especially freedom of expres- of “alternative community,” it set off a chain of events that further sion—is a major issue in Armenia. emphasized a growing wave of open and widespread homophobia, In 2011, Freedom House classified Armenia as “partly free,” racism, male chauvinism, and dangerous nationalism. The inevita- giving it an average score of 5 (with 1 being most free, and 7 being ble result of these intolerant attitudes and philosophies is curtailed least free). The 2011 reports—Freedom of the Press and Nations in Transit—note that the status of the press in Armenia is “not free,” above: A diversity march in Yerevan, Armenia was overtaken by a while democratization, in all its various facets, has deteriorated over homophobic and nationalistic crowd convinced it was a gay parade the past decade. Another non-governmental organization, Human photo Yelena OSIPOVA

ScholarForum 3 freedom to express one’s identity, be it gender, ethnic or religious. In short, the problem with freedom of expression is much The roots of the problem are numerous. First and foremost, wider than mere media censorship, self-censorship, or even prima Armenia’s ruling Republican Party aggressively promotes nation- facie gender issues. It is about a monolithic and pervasive national alism and religion, most prominently through the Armenian conviction, a pan-national “norm,” the correction of which would Apostolic Church and a distortion of the teachings of an Armenian require a much more holistic approach by all those fighting for national hero and Aryanist, Garegin Nzhdeh. The Republican freedom, whether within or outside the country. Party has openly adopted this ideology, the core concept of which is ethnocentric racism and ultranationalism, along with an unques- tioning allegiance to the Armenian Church. This political stance, “A gradual slide to neo- together with the strong social conservatism already present in Armenian society, has given way to movements such as Mek Azg Nazism is dangerously close” (One Nation) and Hayots Artzivner (Armenian Eagles), which mobilize economically and politically-disgruntled youth around Steps in combatting such deep-rooted discrimination, however, the rhetoric of a nationalist discourse rooted in supremacist and need to be well-planned and thoroughly thought through. The anti-Western values. Under such circumstances, a gradual slide to introduction of any hate speech laws, for example, would defeat neo-Nazism is dangerously close. the very purpose of freedom, especially in a country like Armenia, The situation is made even worse by Armenia’s demographic where they can easily become another tool in the hands of the gov- and geopolitical realities. With a population of less than 3 million ernment (and other interested parties) in curtailing free speech and people, Armenia currently faces sky rocketing emigration and tense expression. Instead, hate speech should be countered with greater relations with its neighbors. The CIA World Factbook estimates awareness and education about tolerance. These can be achieved that 97.7 percent of the country’s population is Armenian. The through the educational system—and it is important to start early in ethnic homogeneity of the population and the present economic the educational process—as well as through the media. An appro- and social problems in Armenia are coupled with the historical priate outlet for this purpose, as suggested by a 2010 OSCE report experience of being frequently divided up by various empires and on the subject, would be public broadcasters, which, to date, have brief periods of independence to create Armenia’s current sense failed to fulfill this mission. of “nationhood.” It is an identity largely rooted in an introverted, xenophobic, and ethnocentric society, where any difference—be it political, national, ethnic, religious, or sexual—is frequently equated with deviance, immorality, and evil. “Young people are frustrated and frequently find destructive venues to channel their discontent”

Other important factors compound the nationalist and intolerant trends in Armenian society. The country is marked by a failing education system and a paucity of strong employment prospects, especially for a young generation that was promised prosperity after independence in 1991. Young people are frustrated and frequently find destructive venues to channel their discontent. It is, perhaps, in their attempt to overcome the despair and lack of self-confidence that young Armenians (and especially men) often attempt to reas- sert their sense of power through violence against women or an active search for scapegoats, be those religious minorities or the LGBTQI community.

An antigay demonstrator in Yerevan, Armenia. The necklace worn is the reverse of a Nazi swastika and is a symbol for neo-Nazi groups and movements photo Yelena OSIPOVA Another approach would be to intro- opposition in the parliament, or, in the event duce new legislation against gender-based of its passage, there could be major problems “Comprehensive violence and discrimination: a process that with its actual implementation. Pressure has recently been initiated by the country’s from international institutions, such as the legal reform and, ombudsman, who has spoken out on the European Union or the Council of Europe, absence of legal protections and mechanisms international NGOs, as well as local NGOs more importantly, to ensure equal treatment of women, the and activists will be indispensable in ensur- a fundamental disabled, the elderly, and all minorities. ing that this process goes smoothly and does However, several prominent NGOs working not get hijacked halfway. transformation on women’s rights and LGBTQI issues have There is no silver bullet in addressing an pointed out that they were not consulted in issue of this scale and complexity. However, a of the prevalent the drafting process and had not seen the full comprehensive legal reform and, perhaps mentality can text of the purported antidiscrimination law. even more importantly, a fundamental trans- Thus, they were unable to ensure all minori- formation of the prevalent mentality can constitute the first ties would be covered by it. Even if the law constitute the first constructive steps in the addresses all concerns, it might face strong right direction for a country like Armenia. constructive steps”

The Power of Speech immediately taking part in “politics” in its George KHISHTOVANI, Georgia truest sense. For that reason, many citizens DAAD-OSF Scholarship Programs, University of Bremen, 2011-2014 across the globe live under restricted freedom of expression, as there is still an agenda When thinking about freedom of the restriction of language itself. Every from the side of some states to shut citizens expression, I believe three basic elements subject had not only to speak the same lan- out of politics. There is a need for citizens to are needed: an autonomous opinion, a guage, but also to articulate themselves in a say, not only everything they think, but also language by which to convey it, and the simplified and significantly restricted man- to make their own opinions public. Only courage to express it. These components ner. This “communist language” or “Party in this manner can freedom of expression find a basis in ancient Greek thought: speak” was therefore not free and rendered safeguard an active participation in public those who did not have Greek as a language the existence of a “free” citizen impossible. life and enable citizens to find their role to express their opinions were deemed The next impor- barbaric. For this ancient civilization, the tant question centers expression of an opinion was not something on what the granting “An opinion articulated through which remained private, but was something of freedom of expres- publically articulated through the Greek sion demands in language is symbolic of the language (Mamaradashvili, 1997). return from citizens preservation of freedom and In modern society, the significance of and the obstacles freedom of expression has remained just as they confront. Every upholds the public good” important as in earlier times as it has at its society can be seen as core the achievement of the common good. primarily skeptical toward the freedom of within the group and their own capabilities. In today’s world, without the freedom to expression, and thus each citizen must In this respect, we can take social express one’s opinion, there cannot be any constantly stand up and defend it. As long networks such as Facebook and Twitter as development or evolution, because this as people feel that their opinions are their an interesting development to the ancient concept is tied to established values which sole property, true freedom of expression Greek notion of agora, or a public trading can only then be validated and defended can never be attained. An opinion articu- space. Every person has the opportunity to through open dialogue. Simultaneously, a lated through language is symbolic of the “trade” their views and have access to the freely-spoken opinion needs the condition preservation of one’s personal freedom and virtual community, regardless of how many of a freely used language and a full vocabu- simultaneously upholds the public good. resources they have or how interesting, fact- lary. The former Soviet Union provides This preservation is the precondition allow- based, and up-to-date their opinions may an interesting example. Early communism ing the rights of property and ownership to be. It has actually become much easier attempted to restrict freedom of expression be safeguarded in public life. to communicate one’s opinions to a large (or simply freedom in general) through When an opinion is uttered, one is group quickly, but at the same time, it is

ScholarForum 5 also more dangerous. The personal risk of being punished by this marked by forms of social security, property rights, and the general virtual group for the views expressed has grown, but at the same rule of law, reflect the achievements of a society to date. This under- time the danger exists of having an underdeveloped diction, which standing must always stay within us when we are confronted with a in turn, increases the possibility of being misunderstood. In countries with a history of totalitarianism, in which both the language itself, as well as individual opinions, were to a large “The ability to freely express extent suppressed or voided, the population held the idea that only the elite had the right to freely express their opinions, which were one’s opinion is key to an thus considered the opinions of all. In this respect, academia has open and tolerant society” to take a leading role in the promotion of the freedom of opinion, as well as giving students the tools and skills to use language effectively. Teachers, translators, interpreters, and sympathetic editors situation that restricts our ability to express our opinions. The abil- are also key players in the process of the exchange of opinions. ity to freely express one’s opinion must always be maintained, as Every citizen must understand that life in a market economy, this is key to developing an open and tolerant society.

ALUMNI INTERVIEW volunteer based and there is only so much a small, newly established organization can do. We have managed to gather a team The Importance of Small Victories— of 12-15 people who work on LGBTQI LGBTQI Rights in Georgia issues. In November, 2012, we founded a sister organization, Trans-Georgia, with the goal to better serve the needs of Georgian The freedom to express oneself openly ScholarForum (SF): Irakli, tell us about transgender people. I hope that two years in a society extends beyond words and imag- your NGO and its work. from now we will have established a distinct es. As hardwired social beings, humans Irakli Vacharadze (IV): IDENTOBA, a program for at least one more of our target have a crucial need to maintain a physical Georgian word for Identity, is a Georgian communities. presence in society. Individuals and groups NGO, established in 2010, that works for with mannerisms, appearances, and sexual equality for women, lesbian, gay, bisexual, SF: What does “freedom of expression” orientations that are outside of a society’s transgender, queer and intersex (LGBTQI) mean for the populations IDENTOBA accepted norms, can often be limited to a people in Georgia. Our mission is to pro- serves? lonely, marginal space. mote a kind of society in Georgia where IV: Defining freedom of expression for One alumnus is spearheading an ini- sexual orientation and a gendered self- LGBTQI and other gender-based marginal- tiative to break the barriers that isola- expression do not form grounds for dis- ized groups is both a simple and complex tion and intolerance create. An academic, crimination. This is based on the idea that task. Freedom of expression, speaking from democratic, coherent, and strong soci- my position as a member of the gay com- eties are inconceivable without the full munity and as an activist, embodies our “Freedom of expression integration LGBTQI people. The mar- fight for ph ysical survival and mental sta- is a luxury for LGBTQI ginalized for us also include women, bility. Freedom of expression is a luxury Roma, disabled people, and orphans for LGBTQI communities. When society communities” as groups which are all outside of the denies safety, empowerment, and space for patriarchal mainstream. We have not these communities to express themselves, it social worker, and LGBTQI activist in his yet technically been able to carry projects effectively shuts them out of public policy native Georgia, Social Work and Faculty out targeted specifically at these populations and cultural debates and many other types Development Fellowship Programs’ alum- due to both a lack of funding, particularly of social participation. The hate in Georgia nus, Irakli Vacharadze, speaks frankly about on Roma, disability and children’s issues, that is unleashed against LGBTQI persons, his views on the legal, governmental, social, and also due to the fact that LGBTQI and non-dominant social groups in general, and religious barriers that prevent the people are the most despised and discrimi- is so strong that when we speak out about the Georgian LGBTQI community from enjoy- nated group in Georgian society, hence our discrimination we suffer, it is equated with ing the freedom to be themselves. focus on queer issues. Most of our work is propaganda from the earlier Soviet period. SF: What are the main factors that failing to include sexual orientation or against Homophobia and Transphobia on prevent people in Georgia from freely gender identity. IDENTOBA decided to May 17, 2012, which IDENTOBA, along defining their sexual or gendered launch a campaign to include sexual ori- with other activist groups, organized. It identity? Do these factors differ in rural entation and gender identity in the draft was the country’s first LGBTQI rights and urban environments? law. We sent several letters of appeal to the march, and was even christened as a IV: I think the ability to prove that you relevant Georgian authorities and interna- Georgian “gay pride” march. The demon- are discriminated against socially, politi- tional organizations in Georgia. Along with cally, legally, and economically depends other human rights NGOs, IDENTOBA, on the amount of freedom of expression together with few other human rights orga- granted in any given society. In Georgia, it nizations, was able to get involved in parlia- is severely limited. "Do whatever you want mentary committee meetings concerning the draft law. As a result of the campaign, the initiators “Placing the debate behind of the draft law agreed to closed doors takes the voice include sexual orientation and gender identity in 2012. away from the community” The Georgian Criminal Code now recognizes homophobia in your bedroom, but don't you dare flaunt as an aggravating circumstance for any Irakli VACHARADZE your sexuality in public" sums this up well. crime committed, which is a huge step for Needless to say, placing the debate behind securing a safer environment for LGBTQI stration included about 40 volunteers closed doors takes the voice away from the people in Georgian society. who marched in Tbilisi to mark the community. Unsurprisingly, rural com- International Day against Homophobia. munities are completely closed to LGBTQI SF: What other improvements have you Unexpectedly, dozens of radical Orthodox people. In rural areas, LGBTQI people have seen in terms of the ability of marginalized Christians, led by priests, surrounded the no visibility. This lack of presence combines groups to express themselves? marchers and demanded they stop. with high levels of emigration, the general IV: Organizationally, I think we have had Orthodox Christian protesters, a part of taboo surrounding talk about sexuality, pov- several breakthroughs since our inception an influential radical group called the erty, and lack of access to modern media to in late 2010. IDENTOBA is visible as a Union of Orthodox Parents, told the breed enormous intolerance and stigma in leading LGBTQI organization, and it is marchers that their actions would lead to rural areas. It's not good to be born "sexually the only organization that does both moral depravity among the younger gen- deviant" in rural areas of Georgia. It's not research and engagement with the eration. Some of the Orthodox group’s good anywhere, but at least in Tbilisi, one LGBTQI community directly. The scope members grabbed and trampled the can have a sense of community and shared of the organization’s work spans areas as marcher’s rainbow-colored flags and sev- values. Not in rural areas. Isolation is the diverse as community empowerment pro- eral marchers were injured. The confron- destiny of LGBTQI people there. grams, training and support services, tation showed how much discrimination rights advocacy, legal representation, and hate exists towards LGBTQI commu- SF: Have media or the government taken media work, and research. I think if we nities. It also highlighted how much state any actions to aid socially-marginalized were going to take groups? account of the histo- IV: After the decriminalization of homo- ry of the LGBTQI “The Georgian Criminal Code sexuality in 2000, several Georgian laws movement in Georgia were amended by the Parliament to out- so far, we can cer- now recognizes homophobia as law discrimination on the basis of sexual tainly identify two an aggravating circumstance, orientation and provide for a greater pro- defining activities. tection of LGBTQI rights. For example, The first would be which is a huge step” Georgian law did not offer a definition of a the efforts we have hate crime. Until recently, in the Georgian made to create a national debate on hate effort, coupled with educational and Criminal Code, only certain crimes with speech, an action unprecedented for advocacy activities, is needed to ensure a “hate motive” constituted the aggravat- Georgia. However, the discussion so far that human rights are extended to ing circumstances which lead to heavier has mostly been confined to social media LGBTQI individuals. Georgia certainly sanctions. However, the provisions only and some liberal traditional media. has a long way to go. referred to hatred toward racial, linguistic, Another breakthrough was a public dem- Irakli VACHARADZE is Executive Director religious, national or ethnic groups, thus onstration for the International Day of IDENTOBA (www.identoba.org).

ScholarForum 7 FRANCE CROAT. B.&H. SERBIA RUSSIA MONT. KOS. BULGARIA Black Sea ANDORRA GEORGIA ITALY MACED. Istanbul ALB. Ankara ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN UZBEK. PORTUGAL Bursa SPAIN GREECE . TURKMENISTAN Izmir T U R K E Y Caspian Konya Sea Algiers Adana Gaziantep Tabriz¯ Mosul Mashhad Tunis Aleppo Tehran Oran Constantine CYPRUS Erbil TUNISIA SYRIA Qom Rabat Mediterranean Sea Beirut Casablanca IRAQ Kermanshah Fès LEBANON Damascus Tripoli Es¸faha¯n AFGH. Tel Aviv-Yafo Baghdad Marrakech Bengha¯zi¯ ISRAEL Ahva¯z Alexandria Jerusalem Amman I R A N MOROCCO Cairo JORDAN Al Bas¸rah KUWAIT Al Ji¯zah Shi¯ra¯z Za¯heda¯n A L G E R I A Kuwait PAK.

Western L I B Y A BAHRAIN Persian Sahara E G Y P T Gulf OMAN Manama Abu Medina Riyadh Doha Dhabi Gulf of Oman Aswa¯n QATAR UNITED ARAB Muscat EMIRATES Jeddah SAUDI Mecca OMAN MAURITANIA ARABIA M A L I Red N I G E R CHAD S U D A N Sea

ERITREA YEMEN Arabian REGIONAL FOCUS Sanaa The Middle East Sea Aden BURKINA Gulf of Aden FASO NIGERIA ETHIOPIA DJIBOUTI An Introduction Joseph GLICKSBERG Senior Program Manager, Open Society Scholarship Programs

Nearly two years have passed since the beginning of the “Arab yet to unite into a stable ruling stratum. In Syria, initial protests Spring” in December 2010, which ushered in the most momentous have turned into full-blown civil war that could threaten the stabil- changes the Arab world has experienced in centuries. However, the ity of the entire region. Jordan is currently witnessing calls for the direction in which many individual countries’ revolutionary paths institutionalization of full-scale parliamentary democracy based on are leading remains unclear. an elected, rather than an appointed, prime minister, along with Since 2010, Tunisia has seen a relatively peaceful governmental even more unprecedented calls for a constitutional monarchy. transition to Islamist rule despite heated debates over social issues Many regional observers have argued that the ongoing revolu- regarding the role of Islam and women in public life. In Egypt, tionary wave in the Middle East and the surrounding countries of rule by the Muslim Brotherhood—an event that most analysts would North Africa represents an unprecedented opportunity for local never have deemed possible without a prolonged and bloody revolu- and international civil society to cooperate in efforts to institution––has occurred along with ongoing negotiations about the once tionalize positive change in the direction of open societies. Major all-powerful military’s sphere of political influence. In Libya, vari- actors are focusing on the democratic potential of the moment, as ous geographically and tribally-based militias overthrew the region’s reflected in their announcements of U.S. and European Union longest reigning dictator in a violent revolt, but these groups have funds to support political transitions that many observers hope FRANCE CROAT. B.&H. SERBIA RUSSIA MONT. KOS. BULGARIA Black Sea ANDORRA GEORGIA ITALY MACED. Istanbul ALB. Ankara ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN UZBEK. PORTUGAL Bursa SPAIN GREECE . TURKMENISTAN Izmir T U R K E Y Caspian Konya Sea Algiers Adana Gaziantep Tabriz¯ Mosul Mashhad Tunis Aleppo Tehran Oran Constantine CYPRUS Erbil TUNISIA SYRIA Qom Rabat Mediterranean Sea Beirut Casablanca IRAQ Kermanshah Fès LEBANON Damascus education in the region, such as the 2003 Arab Human Development Tripoli Es¸faha¯n AFGH. Tel Aviv-Yafo Baghdad Report, which focused on the comparative “knowledge” deficit in Marrakech Bengha¯zi¯ Alexandria ISRAEL Amman Ahva¯z Arab societies and how an emphasis on education could improve Jerusalem I R A N it. The Scholarship Programs have purposely targeted this area by MOROCCO JORDAN Al Bas¸rah Cairo way of our programs for Middle Eastern students. Specifically, the KUWAIT Al Ji¯zah Shi¯ra¯z Za¯heda¯n Kuwait PAK. Palestinian Faculty Development Program has supported doctoral A L G E R I A studies and short-term educational curricula development visits for 50 Palestinian academics returning to teach and conduct research Western L I B Y A BAHRAIN Persian Sahara E G Y P T Gulf OMAN in Palestine. In addition, the recently discontinued Palestinian Manama Abu Rule of Law Program has supported numerous Palestinian lawyers Medina Riyadh Doha Dhabi Gulf of Oman Aswa¯n who have gone on to teach law in the West Bank and Gaza, with QATAR UNITED ARAB Muscat one alumnus having developed the first clinical teaching program EMIRATES in the Arab world at Jerusalem’s Al Quds University. Numerous Jeddah SAUDI other Scholarship grantees from the UK Programs are also contrib- OMAN Mecca uting in unique ways to their home countries’ educational develop- MAURITANIA ARABIA M A L I Red ment at various levels. Furthermore, the Scholarship Programs N I G E R Sea hope that alumni of our newly-instituted Middle East Rule of Law CHAD S U D A N Program, which supports MA studies for students in public policy, media, social work, law, and gender studies, will also contribute to ERITREA YEMEN Arabian educational development and reform in their home countries. Sanaa In discussing her doctoral research and findings on “intimate partner violence” in Jordan, Mashura Akilova sheds light on a Aden Sea disturbing phenomenon and provides realistic, practical policy BURKINA Gulf of Aden suggestions for decreasing its incidence by empowering women in FASO NIGERIA ETHIOPIA DJIBOUTI various ways, including through education. The lack of women’s Map adapted from CIA World Factbook. Public domain. participation in policymaking, governance, and public life in the Middle East has consistently been recognized as one of the crucial “deficit” factors contributing to human rights abuses and socio- political underdevelopment in the region. Accordingly, women’s empowerment is another focus of the Scholarship Programs, as will bring about progressive social policy changes. In the region shown in the Arab Women’s Professional Program, which supports writ large, the history of both general policy and higher education MA studies for two cohorts of Arab women with strong leadership reform bears witness to the fact that serious structural reform usu- credentials and a commitment to public service at the American ally only happens in response to major political changes, such as University in Cairo. the 1952 Egyptian Nasserist coup or the 1994 establishment of In our final guest contribution, Haissam Minkara provides a the Palestinian Authority. The current and upcoming period in detailed timeline of major political events in Egypt since its revolu- the region’s revolutionary countries has the potential to be such a tion. Haissam’s conclusion is that the Egyptian struggle is far from window, as policy debates across the region are showing. finished, as “Egypt today stands as Mubarak left it.” Whether read- In the articles that follow, three guest contributors highlight ers will agree is open to debate, but there can be no doubt Minkara’s the fact that in the midst of this period of radical change, old and view that “the revolution continues” and stable democratic proce- new challenges continue to exist side by side in the Arab world. dures have yet to be institutionalized. The same can be said for all Rasha Batarseh makes the convincing case that educational support of the revolutionary countries in the region, and we look forward and reform efforts have been far too low on developmental agendas to these pages featuring more Middle East analyses from Scholarship for far too long. In noting this, the writer echoes many analyses of Programs’ grantees in the future.

ScholarForum 9 The Arab Spring: empowered by the easy transfer of informa- because there was also the possibility that tion through online social networks. Such political forces hostile to democratic gov- A Closer Look networks facilitated the integration of dis- ernance could also prevail. Undoubtedly, Rasha A. BATARSEH, Jordan parate factions into larger groups, and thus this was a difficult position for many pow- OSF Chevening University of formed a clear and inevitable feeling that erful and influential countries in the inter- Nottingham Program, 2008-2009 the time was ripe for a revolution. Multiple names have been used to The position “The association between peace describe the events that shook the Arab of major inter- and development led to the world in 2011: revolution, protest move- national players, ments, and demonstrations for democracy, such as the United sense in some Arab countries to name but a few. For this article, I choose States and the “revolution,” simply as it defies the prob- European Union, that the peace process failed” ability of an evolution, indicating that the seemed to switch people of the Arab world required immedi- between the positive and the negative. A national community. They declared their ate changes to the political and social status sense of optimism was possible because positions, but needed to consider their of their countries. Each revolution in each some saw these movements as the seeds for own foreign policies and reconcile their country is undoubtedly unique, but the the spread of democracy in Arab societies, economic and strategic interests. It was a absence of democracy, the lack of funda- which would improve relations between real challenge for them to broker their geo- mental rights and freedoms, poor living the Middle East and the West and eradi- political interests against the ethical and conditions, growing corruption, and a lack cate extreme political ideologies. On democratic principles that they of social justice can be considered common the other hand, pessimistic voices were contributors in giving a revolutionary shape also heard to these movements. In the Arab world, economic and social development has been neglected for decades, producing a number of negative outcomes, including extreme poverty and a continuing deterioration in the social, economic, cultural, scientific, health and educational realms. Most of the demands of those involved in the revolutions in Egypt, Syria, Yemen, and Tunisia called for an increase in living standards and fundamen- “As a citizen of the Middle East, I believe that it is important to focus on the knock-on effects in the wider region”

tal civil rights. For several decades prior to the revolutions, the incremental demands of the populace were intentionally blocked by authoritarian regimes through repressive security procedures designed to intimidate and censor any sign of alternative thinking or fair demands. All of these factors helped form an incubator for revolutionary factions advocate. As a citizen of the Middle East, I munity to take steps to help both the Israeli an important issue was shelved: education. believe that it is important to focus on the government and the new post-revolution Education is still an issue which is further knock-on effects in the wider region. Arab governments to establish major proj- down the agenda, although it is central to Unfortunately, prior to the revolutions, ects aimed at improving the status of Arabs rebuilding societies. It could improve the peace agreements between Israel and many and Israelis alike. capacity in the Arab world in a way that countries in the Middle East failed to pro- In this respect, policies and require- could allow citizens to actively participate duce enough stability to lead to an increase ments of international grants are changing in the country’s development and to recog- in development projects to support Arab local objectives in Arab countries. The nize the social and economic importance economies and thus reduce unemployment. United States, for instance, has been helping of peace. This association between peace and develop- Arab countries for decades in funding large- Education does not have to be improved ment led to the sense in the minds of people scale projects in water and energy resources through government. I believe that it must in some Arab countries that the peace pro- and previously introduced major assistance have a bottom-up approach, starting with cess failed. Many of the people involved in related to national defense and internal secu- the student, then the faculty, and then the the Arab Spring are pressing for such peace rity. Despite the importance of these proj- institutional level, before the government agreements to be dissolved, as they have wit- ects and their dependence or ministry of education or its equivalent nessed a deterioration, not improvement, on funding, becomes involved. Activities such as stu- in their living conditions. Hence, it would dent exchanges, university collaboration in be prudent for the interna- research and teaching, international confer- tional com- ences, and intercultural programs can serve as important bridges between advanced international educational systems and local “Educational infrastructure exists in most Arab countries, but funding and support is lacking”

educational institutions. It is worth noting that the educational infrastructure exists in most Arab countries, but what is lacking is funding and support. History has shown that education can broaden the horizons of new generations and foster the development of an open-minded generation willing to overcome traditional barriers, extremism, and violence to adopt democracy, equality, and globalization. While the effects of the Arab Spring continue to exert an influence on many countries, the international community and world powers have a moral responsibility to support the citizens in the region to gain their rights and ensure democracy. It is imperative that the countries that have recently experienced fundamental change are helped in steering away from A man rides a camel across leadership by extremists. In this way, we the Pyramids plain in Giza, Egypt can avoid having a bitter winter follow an photo Joseph GLICKSBERG Arab Spring.

ScholarForum 11 move toward the end of the military’s involvement in political life The Egyptian Revolution and the in Egypt, and it will be interesting to see the level to which the new Barriers to Democratic Change military leadership will interfere in Egypt’s politics.

Haissam MINKARA, Lebanon The Rocky Election Path OSI Chevening University of Leeds, 2006-2007 The elections of the People's Assembly, the Shura Council, and the president have all been regarded as a formative step toward The uprisings in the Arab world—grassroots movements against democracy by the international community. According to various oppression, corruption, and the unequal distribution of wealth— international observer groups such as the Carter Center, the results were meant to address a popular desire to change both the political broadly reflected the will of the electorate. leadership and the underlying systems. Since Hosni Mubarak was However, the timing of the elections was subject to debate. forced to step down as Egypt’s president and hand over his politi- Scheduled only eight months after the constitutional referendum, cal power to the Supreme Council of Armed Forces (SCAF), the Egyptian people do not seem satisfied with the transition and are “Despite constitutional frustrated by the significant political challenges. Despite constitutional amendments that established the framework amendments and a series of for the interim military rule and the series of elections that took place, attempts to secure a smooth political transition have not proven success- elections, attempts to secure ful. Continuous riots indicate that the consolidation of democracy has a smooth political transition not reached a level of acceptance by all stakeholders or is strong enough to be used as the foundation for an exchange of political opinions. have not proven successful” Against this backdrop, I would argue that the Egyptian people have differing levels of trust in key factors of this political transi- this period was regarded as insufficient for emerging parties to orga- tion. There are diverse perceptions about the interim military nize effectively to achieve a level of visibility or hold independent rule, the results of the parliamentary and presidential elections, voter education programs. Furthermore, opponents of the Muslim and the drafting of the new constitution. All of these issues can Brotherhood believed this was meant to advance the Muslim be stumbling blocks to stability and to the establishment of strong Brotherhood and cement a political deal with the SCAF. democratic institutions. Unsuccessful candidates appealed against the constitutionality of partisan MPs who ran for a third of the seats in the Assembly that A Controversial Military Rule are reserved for independent candidates, as they were supported by, The SCAF faced significant opposition from political groups in the main, Islamist parties. The Constitutional Court therefore that regarded the military’s interim rule as an illegitimate con- considered that the regulations did not preserve the rights of inde- tinuation of the former Mubarak regime. Anti-SCAF movements pendent non-partisan candidates and therefore decided to cancel one believed that the country's transition should have been led by third of the People's Assembly and consequently suspended its legis- civilian leadership. Egyptian public opinion was split regarding the lative activities, calling for new elections. This step caused a split in perception of the army mandate, with anti-SCAF movements call- public opinion. On one side, supporters of secular parties welcomed ing for a civilian government in the interim. this decision, but on the other side, supporters of Islamist parties and The first civilian president of Egypt, Mohamad Morsi, changed their MPs were involved in a long sit-in at the parliament against the the military leadership by replacing the minister of defense, decision. They viewed it as revenge by the “old guards” of the regime Hussein Tantawi, after 20 years of service. This step was a radical against the success of Islamist parties in the elections.

Water cannons blast citizens on the streets of Cairo in January 2011 photo Joel CAMPAGNA Egyptian troops countermobilize against protesters in Cairo, Egypt in January 2011 photo Joel CAMPAGNA

The New Constitution ed to elect a 100-member constitutional One week before the presidential elec- As the political advancement and drafting committee within six months of tions, SCAF declared that the new drafting regressions illustrated above suggest, the convening. Once in place, this committee committee and various political factions debate surrounding the postponement would be responsible for finalizing a new had a deadline of 48 hours to agree on a of the elections and the adoption of a constitution within six months of its forma- revised constitution that would set the man- tion. Egyptian date of the president. The pressure from citizens would SCAF failed. Indeed, SCAF followed up a “Most interesting is the effect of the then deter- few days before the presidential run-off by mine the adop- taking advantage of the absence of an active election results on a public who tion of the legislature and issuing a revised constitu- appear to have developed a fear of new constitutional amendment. This amendment gave tion through SCAF a legislative role and reduced the the dominance of Islamic parties” a referendum. powers of the president. In a further turn, However, the the newly-elected president, Mohamad new constitution was a key theme in the hegemony of Islamic parties over the draft- Morsi, canceled this decree, outlining new political rhetoric. ing committee prevented the committee timelines for a draft constitution and refer- According to the Constitutional from ever achieving a political consensus endum. And so the revolution continues. Declaration, the new parliament is expect- and led to its dissolution. Most interesting, however, is the effect

ScholarForum 13 of the election results over a public who appear to have developed Although 64 percent of the voters endorsed the new consti- a fear of the dominance of Islamic parties. Specifically, the absence tution, the relatively low turnout can be used to undermine the of an active parliament created difficulties in addressing people's collaborative aspect of the new constitution and sideline the rep- needs and concerns through government. The lack of representa- resentation of minority populations. Only 32 percent of the total tive democratic institutions after the suspension of parliamentary registered voters participated in the referendum, in contrast to the activities made demonstrations the only alternative for citizens to 50 percent of voters who turned out for the presidential and parlia- push for change. mentary elections. The fact that Egypt’s revolution lacked a structured political The main challenge for Egypt at this stage is to establish demo- leadership creates a challenge for the revolutionary powers to press cratic rule and change the perception of the revolution. The new their political agenda efficiently through organized political parties. government's challenge is to establish the ground for free and fair Apart from the change of political leadership, Egypt today stands elections, which take into account the rights of minorities. almost where Mubarak left it. From a technical and administrative per- The revolution should not be an end in itself. Instead, spective, President Mohamad Morsi succeeded in getting a constitution Egyptians must build on the free electoral experiences they have drafted and called for a referendum. However, the new constitution is been granted over the last year. The revolution needs to be recog- not seen as consensual. The main Egyptian churches and other politi- nized as a historic turning point that leads in a determined fashion cal groups resigned from the drafting committee directly before the to the establishment of democratic institutions that create a forum adoption of the final draft, mainly due to the fact that the new consti- for open political debate for all Egyptians. tution is seen as galvanizing the Islamist parties' control over the state. Haissam MINKARA is an independent electoral analyst.

A woman walks in a street market near Al-Azhar, Cairo, Egypt photo Joseph GLICKSBERG Intimate Partner Violence and Empowerment in Jordan husband to burning food. A study by Btoush and Haj-Yahia (2008) of 250 women and men in Jordan found that the ideal method to Mashura AKILOVA, Tajikistan cope with IPV was for the wife to change her behavior. Again, these Doctoral Fellows Program, 2009-2013 results emphasize the idea that IPV is the woman’s fault and that she is not a victim of abuse. Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a prevalent and dangerous Empowerment is commonly seen as means to help people problem faced by women the world over. IPV is defined as “any act by strengthening them mentally to overcome struggles. However, of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physi- in some cultures, the empowerment of women can bring more cal, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats violence or difficulties to a woman’s life. This is especially true of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life” (Clark et al, 2008). Indeed, IPV has been considered the most persistent human rights violation “Skill building can provide in the world (Heise et al, 2002). The average prevalence of IPV glob- ally is 21 percent, but lifetime IPV prevalence among women in the opportunities to empower women Middle East has been estimated at 40 percent (Al-nsour et al, 2009). In Jordan, approximately 1 out of every 3 women has experienced to create social and environmental IPV during their marriage (Clark et al, 2009) change within the parameters Some researchers, such as Al-nsour et al (2009), have highlighted that the prevalence of IPV in the Middle East can be established by their culture” influenced by difficulties in trying to leave an abusive relationship and traditional cultural beliefs, gender inequality, and lack in patriarchal cultures, where women’s powerlessness is rooted in of resources. Islam can be a strong determinant of socio-cultural cultural norms and gender relations. Women’s efforts to empower norms, as it not only serves as spiritual guidance, but also as a civil themselves through education, the workforce or having the free- code. For example, it is reported by researchers that within Islamic dom to make family planning decisions are regulated by socially culture, the primary roles for women are that of a wife and mother and culturally internalized norms that label these efforts as nega- (Clark et al, 2009). In many Arab societies, women find it difficult tive and even radical. to obtain a divorce which is not seen as compatible with Islam. Women in Jordan have noted that gaining empowerment Indeed, Islamic law does not conceptualize all forms of violence as through the workforce is still difficult to achieve. Women can abuse and there are instances in which violence is culturally viewed acquire a two-year diploma, a bachelor’s or higher degree, but still as appropriate and legal (Boy and Kulczycki, 2008). Additionally, face challenges in finding employment because the jobs available Muslim women in the Middle East and North Africa who are suffer- are not for educated women (Miles, 2002). Low quality jobs and a ing from IPV have the added concern that they can lose custody of gender disparity are still prevalent in the workforce. In the context of the family, women in Jordan reported that if they have a brother, it would be more difficult for them to find a job. Sons are given “Reasons for justifying abuse more support to enter the job market since they are perceived as include infidelity, disobeying a being better able to provide financial support to their elders in later life (Miles, 2002). Despite the challenges, education, participation husband, nagging or insulting in household decision-making processes, economic freedom, and skill building can still provide opportunities to empower women a husband, and burning food” to create social and environmental change within the parameters established by their culture. their children, since the law gives custody to fathers of children to In a joint study undertaken at Columbia University as part age seven. The emotional, physical, financial, and legal challenges of my PhD in Social Work, we used data from the 2007 Jordan and consequences of separation and divorce make it difficult for Population and Family Health Survey, specifically the Individual Jordanian women to feel the power to make the choice to leave an Women’s Questionnaire, which is representative of the Jordanian abusive relationship (Boy and Kulczycki, 2008). female population between the ages of 15 and 49 who have ever A study by Al-nsour et al. (2009) found that in some regions of been married, balanced across rural and urban areas, to explore Jordan a majority of women (87 percent) report being emotionally how economic empowerment affects IPV in Jordanian families. or physically abused in the past year. Cultural beliefs, patriarchy, Although there are several dimensions to empowerment, includ- and gender inequity have been considered as possible explanations ing participation in education and in civic engagement, participating for the tolerance of violence, with reasons for justifying abuse rang- in financial decision-making is an important aspect, which for the ing from infidelity, disobeying a husband, nagging or insulting a purpose of this study we call “economic empowerment.”

ScholarForum 15 The variable “economic empowerment” was constructed from answers to the question: “Who decides how to spend income earned by the respondent or her partner?” Experience of IPV was reported by women in the questionnaire. The impact of economic empowerment on IPV was analyzed by the use of propensity scores methods. Our results indicate that in the Jordanian context having economic power, i.e., having a say in financial decision-making, has a positive effect on reducing the incidence of experiencing IPV. While the previous body of literature on the impact of empowerment on IPV is mixed, the results of our study support the research line that has found a negative relationship between Open Society empowerment of women and domestic violence. Thus, economic empowerment becomes a mechanism through which women Programs in the gain control over their lives and their relationship by being able to partake in important decision-making processes regarding their household and family matters. Self-confidence, in turn Middle East and enables these women to feel that they are on equal grounds with their partners and exert a lower tolerance toward IPV as they North Africa develop ability to accept an idea of leaving an abusive relation- The Open Society Foundations focus on providing grants to ship. In the context of Jordan, a patriarchal society in which organizations addressing issues of governance and rights, media women have confined roles, economic empowerment serves as and information, women’s empowerment, education, and arts essential support to reduce IPV. and culture. Comprehensive information on our work in the Based on these results, we conclude that creating policies region, including grants, reports, and expert profiles, is available and programs that promote economic empowerment as an inter- at: www.opensocietyfoundations.org/regions/middle-east Open Society Foundations programs which operate within the Middle East and North Africa are: “Economic empowerment becomes • Open Society Justice Initiative • Rights Initiative a mechanism through which • Education Support Program women gain control over their • Scholarship Programs lives and their relationships” • Youth Initiative

vention against abuse and violence can be essential. The sample OPEN SOCIETY FOUNDATIONS used in this study showed that 29 percent of Jordanian women have experienced some type of IPV and 81 percent justify the IN THE MIDDLE EAST violence against them. From this basis, the Jordanian govern- Arab Regional Office: www.opensocietyfoundations.org/ ment and non-profit organizations could create more educa- grants/arab-regional-office tional programs in which women can learn the positive aspects The Arab Regional Office invites concept papers from pro- of empowerment. Additionally, these organizations should professional organizations, universities, NGOs, and other institu- mote opportunities for women to experience economic empow- tions interested in applying for support for projects addressing erment in the household. One example would be to conduct the issues of rights and governance, media and information, workshops for women on bank account management. Another women's rights, and knowledge and education. avenue could be the media. Within our sample 98 percent of them have regular exposure to media, including television (97 percent), radio (31 percent) and newspapers (35 percent). Thus, OPEN SOCIETY VOICES Open Society Voices is the Open Society Foundations blog media campaigns that promote positive images of women, that aims to showcase the ideas, opinions, and thoughts of the directly or indirectly, and which show women having a decision- people and groups we work with. By giving our experts and making role in the household, could potentially make empower- grantees a platform to present their issues, Open Society Voices ment more normative in Jordanian society. helps sharpen their thinking, and engage with a wider public in Mashura AKILOVA is a PhD student in Social Work at conversations about advancing open society values around the Columbia University. The study outlined here was conducted globe. Read more at: www.opensocietyfoundations.org/voices with Yamile Marti, a PhD student at Columbia. Academic Showcase

The following articles reflect the diversity and substance of the academic work conducted by Scholarship Programs' alumni and current scholars. We hope you find the research, presented in an accessible way and in a limited space, will spark your interest in geopolitics, economics, and literature. More details of the requirements for the Academic Showcase can be found on page 26, and references can be provided upon request to RESEARCH IN PROGRESS [email protected] Indonesia's Policy Behavior toward Global Maritime Security Cooperation: The Role of Perception of sea robbery control and prevention of maritime terrorism. Two sets of field work were conducted in 2010 and 2012. Sixty-one Senia FEBRICA, Indonesia interviews were conducted with officials and staff from ASEAN, the OSI Chevening University of Glasgow Program, 2007-2008 Indonesian, Singaporean, and U.S. governments, maritime experts based in Jakarta and Singapore, representatives of nongovernmental Introduction organizations, marine insurance providers, ship-owners associations, Indonesia has always been important in maritime security and shipping lines. In addition, this article uses documentary sources because of its geographical position, located between two key including government documents, official speeches, newspaper shipping routes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and between articles, company reports, and research monographs. two continents, Asia and Australia. The three major sea lanes of Southeast Asia: the combined Straits of Malacca and Singapore, Analysis and Discussion the Sunda Strait, and the Lombok Strait all overlap with In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, Indonesia's maritime jurisdiction (H.Djalal, 2009, J. Ho, 2007). both sea robbery and maritime terrorism have received greater As a result, sea transportation plays a major role in the economic worldwide attention and generated a number of multilateral mari- growth and development of this archipelagic state. Indonesia's time initiatives. The discrepancy between Indonesia's perception of waters, however, are not trouble free. armed robbery at sea and maritime terrorism and those of other Even though statistics from the International Maritime Bureau international maritime stakeholders forms the focus of the follow- (IMB) show a dramatic decrease in the number of incidents in ing discussion. Indonesia's waterways, a sustained spate of piracy continues to take place in its territorial waters. In addition to sea robbery and piracy, Armed Robbery against Ships Indonesia also faces serious challenges securing its maritime sup- Incidents of armed robbery against ships in Indonesian waters ply chains. As several terrorist attacks have occurred in Indonesia, reached an alarming level between 1996 and 2000. In 1996, the the international community's main concern has concentrated on total number of crew members/passengers murdered by sea rob- countering nuclear proliferation or the planting of weapons of mass bers was 26. The death toll rose to 51 in 1997, and to 78 in 1998 destruction by terrorist groups or rogue states onto sea vessels. (International Maritime Bureau, 2001) Yet despite this increased This article seeks to explain how Indonesia and the interna- level of violence, there were no multilateral initiatives launched to tional maritime community view armed robbery at sea and the halt sea robbery until 2004 with the Regional Maritime Security potential to counter maritime terrorism in a different fashion. The Initiative (RMSI), and the Regional Cooperation Agreement on disjuncture between Indonesia and the international community's Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery (ReCAAP). Maritime perception of a threat functions as a springboard for future inqui- security cooperation gained momentum in the aftermath of the ries that will ask how Indonesia's perception of a "threat" influences September 11 terrorist attacks, as international concern over the its policy response. This article is based on research for the PhD dis- safety and security of Indonesia's maritime domain increased sertation "Explaining Indonesia's Policy Behavior toward Maritime significantly. As the maritime sector re-evaluated its vulnerability Terrorism and Armed Robbery against Ships," conducted at the against the probability of attacks or other forms of sabotage, the University of Glasgow, United Kingdom. international maritime community began to direct its focus to The research methods used include interviews and intensive improving security measures by establishing a number of multilat- data collection, both quantitative and qualitative, on various aspects eral initiatives (C.Z. Raymond, 2006).

ScholarForum 17 Since the early 1990s, Indonesia developed national, bilat- the possibility of a terrorist attack in Indonesian waters. The United eral, and sub-regional measures to deal with the issue. As part of States promoted a number of maritime initiatives to improve the the response, Indonesia, together with Malaysia and Singapore, security of maritime transport, including the Proliferation Security launched various maritime security measures, including estab- Initiative (PSI), the Container Security Initiative (CSI), and the lishing a national armed robbery monitoring center in Batam, Customs Trade Partnership against Terrorism (C-TPAT). an Indonesian island located near the Straits of Malacca and By the end of 2002, mainly as a response to the Bali bomb- Singapore, and the Indo-Sin Coordinated Patrol, which coordi- ing, Indonesia already had a number of anti-terrorism measures nates naval patrols in the Straits of Malacca. Multilateral initia- in place that started to yield positive results. By May 2003, anti- tives dealing with sea robbery emerged only after the number of terrorism efforts had resulted in the arrest of 33 members of incidents began to decrease. When the initiatives were introduced, Jemaah Islamiyah, a terrorist group that operates in Southeast Asia the decline in incidents gave Indonesia the perception that it had suspected of perpetrating the Bali bombings (National Institute for already begun to reap the benefits from bilateral and trilateral coop- Defense Studies, 2004). As the level of threat posed by terrorism has eration. As a consequence, although government officials are aware fallen, there has been a corresponding fall in how the Indonesian of sea robbery incidents in Indonesian waters, they did not perceive government perceives the benefits of cooperation. them as a significant threat. The decline in Indonesia's perceived benefits from global cooperation has been furthered by the government's struggles with Maritime Terrorism other maritime issues, including illegal fishing, illegal immigrants Although a maritime terrorist attack has never taken place in travelling through Indonesian waters, maritime border issues, and Indonesian territory, terrorism is not a new security issue (Chalk, smuggling. Among government officials, these four issues have no 1998). At least 34 bomb attacks occurred in Indonesia since the exact priority ranking. resignation of President Suharto in May 1998 (Desk Koordinasi Pemberantasan Terorisme, 2008). This includes suicide bomb Conclusion attacks in Bali in 2002 and 2005, a number of assaults on police in This research summary argues that understanding Indonesia's 2010, and a series of bomb attacks in 2011 that targeted a number perceptions of sea robbery and maritime terrorism is key to under- of public figures in Jakarta (Jakarta Post, 2011). standing the country's policy reactions toward global cooperation. Despite Indonesia's long history of terrorist incidents, only after Most global initiatives dealing with sea robbery and maritime September 11 did governments around the world begin to highlight terrorism were introduced when Indonesia had already estab-

ABSTRACT gender roles and inappropriate behavior. Depicting Dalassene as a Religion and Gender in the Alexiad: nun was one part of this strategy. The Case of Anna Dalassene Anna Dalassene’s co-rule with her son for around 20 years challenged two areas of cultural assumption in Byzantium: first, the ideas Marin CERCHEZ, Moldova about women in power, and second, the ideas about motherhood Doctoral Fellows Program, 2009-2012 and male adulthood. Women in power, such as Dalassene, were open to criticism for incompetence in administration and the lust for The Alexiad by Anna Komnene is one of the most signifi- power. Another set of gender-related criticisms relates to Dalassene’s cant Byzantine literary creations of the 12th century, as well as a unusual extended period of motherly tutelage over Alexios and key source of information for 11th and 12th century history. A his resultant immaturity and dependence on his mother. Roman memorable character in the Alexiad is Anna’s grandmother, Anna mothers had an important role in the education and formation of Dalassene, who effectively controls the domestic administration of their sons. However, the effort of sons to break away from maternal the empire for the first half of her son Alexios’ reign. The colorful tutelage was considered appropriate. When considered against a description of Anna Dalassene’s religiosity in the Alexiad has been background of classical construction of imperial motherhood, the taken as a faithful reflection of her deep piety. ongoing interference of Alexios’s mother in his affairs once he had This study argues that the portrayal of Anna Dalassene as a reached adulthood challenged his adult masculinity. heavenly-minded and pious nun was conditioned by the need to Komnene, desiring to portray Dalassene and Alexios positively, respond to 12th century ideas of proper notions of gender. Anna responded to the lack of correspondence between Dalassene and Komnene deployed both Christian and classical themes to exoner- Alexios and the standard ideals of behavior by constructing a com- ate her grandmother and father from charges of mishandling of plex narrative deploying classical and Christian ideals. Komnene lished national mechanisms to deal with the threats, and when Indonesia's national, bilateral, and trilateral efforts had begun to ABSTRACT show positive results. In spite of the increased profile associated with armed robbery Foreign Participation in the Banking at sea and maritime terrorism after 2001, Indonesia did not per- Sector of Transition Countries ceive any benefit from joining global maritime security initiatives such as the CSI and the PSI. This was due to the fact that they were Revaz GERADZE, Georgia already benefiting from various security efforts and the country was DAAD-OSI Program, 2011-2013 facing a range of other issues in its waterways. The government perceives threats, such as illegal fishing, smuggling, and the movement In the early 1990s, most transitional countries of the former of illegal immigrants as more pressing than armed robbery at sea or Soviet Union liberalized licensing policies and started a process maritime terrorism because they pose direct threats to Indonesia's of privatizing state-owned banks. This process increased the economy, its territorial integrity, and the livelihood of its fishing number of banks, causing sharp growth in credit and an over- communities and industry. heating of some transition economies. As a result, the quality The key findings of this research suggest that in order for the of loans worsened, with governments starting “consolidation international community to better engage with Indonesia on programs” and raising minimum reserve requirements. The maritime security, there is a need to understand, and adapt to, the result of these measures created a liquidity problem for banks. concerns of key domestic actors. In terms of future research, this Transition countries responded by seeking out foreign inves- article views Indonesia in isolation. It would be fruitful to com- tors to acquire liquid assets. Despite the fact that all transition pare and contrast Indonesia with Malaysia and Singapore and economies experienced at least one banking crisis in their transi- how these states perceive maritime terrorism and sea robbery, tion periods, the asset share of foreign banks increased in these how they vary in their responses, and what the reasons might be countries at a fast rate. for these differences. The aim of this work is to determine the factors that affected Senia FEBRICA is a lecturer at the Department of International foreign bank participation (FBP) in transition countries. Relations, University of Indonesia, Indonesia, a PhD candidate Specifically, this research will attempt to answer ques- in political science at the University of Glasgow and a 2012 tions relating to the main determinants of FBP in transition United Nations-Nippon Foundation Research Fellow. countries and the importance of banking crises in determining FBP levels. The paper provides an overview of the tendencies of the foreign banking capital flows in transitional countries and reviews the existing literature regarding causes of foreign bank presence. The research addresses endogenous crisis variables and computes them against the cash surplus/deficit variable. Instrumental Variable (IV) estimation results show that coun- blends classical and Christian imagery in the Alexiad, making it tries which have experienced banking crises tend to have high difficult to clearly divide her models and ideals into distinct reli- FBP, a result that aligns with the hypothesis that transition gious categories. Komnene compares Dalassene to the Mother countries which have had banking crises have promoted for- of God as another way to justify Dalassene’s power and Alexios’s eign capital inflow in the banking sector. Econometric analy- dependence on his mother. Moreover, to refute the “lust-for- sis also shows that factors such as regulatory barriers, institu- power” criticisms, Komnene introduces Dalassene’s depiction tional factors, and different risk factors influence the decision as devout nun and a spiritual counselor to Alexios, and uses of banks to operate overseas. The result shows that investors in Roman and Christian ideas about the mother-son relationship, transition countries do pay significant attention to the politi- where the mother takes care of her family and her son is obedi- cal stability of the country. ent and respectful. Revaz GERADZE is a pursuing an MSc in These strategies help Anna Komnene counter criticisms International Economics and Finance at directed against her father and her grandmother and create a Otto-von-Guericke Universität Magdeburg, Germany. positive image of both Dalessene and Alexios. This also means that the intense use of religious images and rhetoric in relation to Anna Dalassene in the Alexiad should not be taken at face value because it is conditioned by the problems connected with gender- related cultural assumptions about women in power, motherhood, and male adulthood. Marin CERCHEZ is pursuing a PhD in history at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

ScholarForum 19 Alumni Updates It is always impressive to see the array of creative and diverse paths our alumni take after they complete their grants. The brief updates from a number of alumni below provide readers with a snapshot of the research, areas of interest, and professional occupations Kateryna RUSKYKH (Ukraine) is a researcher at that Scholarship Programs’ recipients are pursuing. As always, we encourage any and all the think tank, CASE Ukraine. She is interested alumni to contribute updates on their research and professional activities and any oppor- in economic reform, economic governance, and the financial sector. [email protected] tunities for collaboration with others in our community of scholars. Valeriya SHAMRAY (Ukraine) is working on a research project on EU-Ukraine visa liberaliza- tion, and is interested in EU external relations, Eastern European partnerships, and enlarge- ment.

CNOUS–OSI Natalia SHAPOVALOVA (Ukraine) is a PhD 2004 student at the University of Warwick, and an Program Artur GATIN (Kazakhstan): currently works in the associate researcher at FRIDE. She is interested logistics sector. [email protected] 2006-2007 EU foreign policy, interest group politics in the EU, and the Eastern dimension of European Talgat ABDRAKHMANOV (Kazakhstan) is a lec- Michael BRYNZOV (Kyrgyzstan) is a market- neighborhood policy. turer at the University Bordeaux in France ing services manager at The Linde Group. and is interested in Arab and Islamic studies. [email protected] Dinu TODERASCU (Moldova) is a program officer [email protected] at the German Marshall Fund of the United Susanna KHACHTRYAN (Armenia) is the AFP- States in Bucharest. [email protected] 2007-2008 HESP Coordinator. She is interested in higher educational reform and policy. Zhanna KARIMOVA (Kazakhstan) is a chief 2009 analyst at the Information-Analytic Center in 2005 Nino BOLKVADZE (Georgia) is a senior evalua- Kazakhstan. Her interests are sociology of pro- tion and auditing associate at the Organization fessions, education, and female mathematicians. Shalva BESHIR (Georgia) is a senior associate for Security and Co-operation in Europe, and [email protected] at State Street Bank, Munich, Germany, and is manages a project aimed at strengthening the interested in the financial crisis, markets, and Public Defender’s Institute in Georgia to protect 2008-2009 optimal regulation. [email protected] the rights of ethnic minorities. n.bolkvadze@ student.maastrichtuniversity.nl Elvira KHAKIMOVA (Kazakhstan) is a PhD stu- Tamar DAVITAIA (Georgia) is the deputy head of dent at IMT Lucca, and a researcher affiliated the municipal Internal Audit and Monitoring Ludmila CEBAN (Moldova) works in develop- with the Pedagogic University in Kazakhstan. Department in Tbilisi. [email protected] ment consulting for the Swedish Institute for Elvira is currently researching the public cultural Public Administration, specializing in institu- policy of Central Asia. [email protected] Tamar TSOPURASHVILI (Georgia) is an associate tional development in transitional/developing professor at Ilia State University and acting direc- countries. [email protected] tor of the S. Tsereteli Institute for Philosophy. Tamar’s interests include medieval studies, phi- Ion EFROS (Moldova) is a national consultant at DAAD–OSI Program losophy of language, and philosophy of religion. the UN Industrial Development Organization 2003 [email protected] in Moldova and the Moldovan Ministry of Environment, and is interested in the environment Tornike GURULI (Georgia) is a lecturer and PhD and sustainable energy. [email protected] student at the Georgian Institute of Public Affairs and head of the Marketing and PR OSI European Levan MAKHASHVILI (Georgia) is a visiting lec- Department at the Wissol Group. Tornike is turer at Tbilisi State University and a senior coor- interested in social media and democratic par- Studies Program dinator at the Witness and Victim Coordinator ticipation. [email protected] 2008 Service at the Main Prosecutor’s Office of Georgia. Levan is interested in European Union Akaki IREMADZE (Georgia) is a lawyer and direc- Tamara GAMKRELIDZE (Georgia) is the executive governance and conflict resolution. levanmak- tor of a trading company who is interested in director of Europe Our House, and is interested [email protected] constitutional law. in identity formation among the Georgian people since the 1990s. [email protected] Mariam ORKODASHVILI (Georgia) is a lecturer 2010 at Georgian American University. Her interests Nataliya GLADKOVA (Ukraine) is a PhD can- Maryna YAROSHEVYCH is an intern with the include linguistic anthropology, language and didate at Maastricht University, and is inter- European Parliament, and is interested in EU society, and the study of ethnic and linguistic ested in African migration and transnationalism. external, institutional, and constitutional affairs. groups. [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Artem VITKOVSKYI is a product marketing spe- Samara IULDASHEVA (Kyrgyzstan) works as a Gentiana SADIKAJ (Kosovo—grant years 2007, cialist at Samsung Electronics. [email protected] community support assistant at the OSCE’s 2009, 2010) is a graduate student interested in Security Initiatives Project, and is interested in researching personal and situational influences security issues in South Kyrgyzstan and religious on interpersonal behavior. [email protected] tolerance. [email protected] Faculty Development 2009-2011 Fellowship Program 2010-2012 Jambul AKKAZIEV (Russia) is a PhD student in Sugarmaa MYAGMARJAV (Mongolia) is a teacher history at the University of Wisconsin, and is 2002-2004 and researcher who is interested in the psycho- also an academic writing instructor. Jambul is Lela SAMNIASHVILI (Georgia) teaches at the social aspects of health and illness. msumaa@ interested in the history of the Kazakh steppe, American Academy and Tbilisi State University yahoo.com the Russian empire and the literature of Central and is interested in comparative literature and Asia. [email protected] higher education policies. Aisalkyn BOTOEVA (Kyrgyzstan) is returning Georgia Scholarship to Kyrgyzstan to conduct research for her doc- 2004-2006 toral dissertation, focusing on the rise of Islamic Leila KIKNADZE (Georgia) is currently an asso- for Educational financial institutions in post-Soviet Central Asia ciate professor at the University of Georgia, and their goal of competing in the market while where she teaches epochs and religion as well Professionals retaining credibility as Islamic banks. aisalkyn. as societal and political models of the Muslim [email protected] World. She is interested in Islamic fundamen- 2007-2008 talism and minority issues in the Middle East. George ZEDGINIDZE is an assistant professor at Nataliya GAVRILOVA (Russia) is in a PhD [email protected] Ilia State University, and serves as Georgia’s program in the Department of Comparative deputy minister of Environment Protection. Literature at the CUNY Graduate Center, and Saltanat MAMBAIEVA (Kyrgyzstan) is an associ- teaches literature at Queens College. She is ate professor at Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University 2008-2009 interested in contemporary Anglo-American and in the Department of Simultaneous Translation, Russian literature, poetry, modernism, and trans- and is interested in the concept of family among Tea GERGEDAVA is head of the Department of lation studies. [email protected] Native American and Kyrgyz tribal people. Foreign Relations at Tbilisi State University, [email protected] and is interested in higher education reform Alla KORZH (Ukraine) is a doctoral candidate in transitional countries. Tea_Gergedava@mail. and peer advisor at Teachers College, Columbia harvard.edu 2005 University, studying international education. Alla’s research focuses on the quality of orphanage Tamar DAGARGULIA (Georgia) is executive direc- 2009-2011 education in Ukraine. [email protected] tor of the Zugdidi Community Development Irina ABULADZE Center, and teaches British and American his- is the program manager at the Rena SALAYEVA (Azerbaijan) provides consul- tory at Zugdidi Teaching University. Her focus is International School for Caucasus Studies at tancy services to assist organizations conducting on gender policy in modern Georgia, as well as Ilia State University in Georgia. Her interests research on peace, security, and economic devel- youth issues, civil education, and the integration include higher education policy, democratiza- opment issues. Rena is interested in researching problems faced by internally-displaced peoples. tion, and education. [email protected] the central command institutions of the Soviet [email protected] Union, political demography, and partisan politics. [email protected] 2005-2007 Global Tijana STEVANOVIC (Serbia—grant years 2009, Joldon KUTMANALIEV (Kyrgyzstan) is in the PhD 2011) teaches at Newcastle University and is program at the European University Institute in Supplementary pursuing PhD research on the conditions Florence, and is interested in political violence of sovereignty and self-management in New and ethnic politics. [email protected] Grants Program Belgrade architecture and urbanism. Tijana is 2005 interested in architectural criticism and the 2006-2008 social conditions of architectural practice. Plamen NIKOLOV (Bulgaria) is an economist [email protected] Mzia CHIKHRADZE (Georgia) is a senior research at the European Commission in Brussels and fellow at the George Chubinashvili National provides policy advice on economic and mon- Research Center for Georgian Art History and etary union in Europe. Plamen is interested in Heritage Preservation, studying relationships macroeconomic research. between Georgian modern art and Western arts. Palestinian Rule [email protected] 2006 of Law Program 2007-2010 Alin COMAN (Romania) is an assistant pro- 2004 fessor of psychology and public policy at Yerzhan Bek ALI (Kazakhstan) is currently an asso- Princeton University’s Woodrow Wilson Hisham ABU NADA is a judge in the Gaza ciate professor at the Information Technologies School of Public and International Affairs. Conciliation Court at the court of first instance. University in Kazakhstan. Yerzhan is interested in Alin is interested in the formation of collective He also works as a law lecturer at the Islamic regional transformations in Central/South Asia and memories and beliefs. University of Gaza, and is studying for his PhD teaches history, political science, and sociology, and at Ankara University. is a research group academic mentor and supervisor.

ScholarForum 21 2005 2006 Nana RUKHADZE (Georgia) works as a family Mohammad REMAILAH is a legal advisor at Ahmad NOUBANI is an assistant professor at support program manager at SOS Children’s the Norwegian Refugee Council in Palestine. Birzeit University, and is interested in land- Villages in Georgia. She has been recently admit- [email protected] scape and urban ecology, environmental plan- ted to the PhD program in social work at Tbilisi ning, and traditional ecological knowledge. State University, and is interested in services for socially vulnerable children and their families. 2006 [email protected] Ayman KHALIFA teaches Arabic composition and 2007 identity, culture, and the classroom at Al-Quds Bard Honors College, and advises and mentors Social Work Turana ALIYEVA (Azerbaijan) teaches social work graduate students. [email protected] at Baku State University, and has a private prac- Fellowship Program tice in family counseling. Turana’s interests are Iyad TAYYEM is the president of the Nablus in cross-cultural adaptation of assessment tools District Court in the West Bank, and is inter- 2001 for children. [email protected] ested in human rights and criminal procedures Nazim HABIBOV (Azerbaijan) is an associate in Palestine. [email protected] professor at the University of Windsor, and is 2008 interested in social policy in Central Asia and Darejan DVALISHVILI (Georgia) is a consultant at 2007 the Caucasus, particularly poverty, inequality, UNICEF Georgia, and is interested in research- Mohammed ALKHADER works as an academic healthcare, and childcare. ing poverty, domestic violence, juvenile justice, researcher and lecturer at Birzeit University’s and family issues. [email protected] Institute of Law, and is also a lawyer spe- 2002 Tamerlan RAJABOV (Azerbaijan) is the planning, cializing in administrative and constitutional Jildyz URBAEVA (Kyrgyzstan) is a PhD student monitoring and evaluation officer at UNICEF law. His research interests include media and in social work at Arizona State University, and Azerbaijan, and teaches statistics and research the judiciary, religion, and constitutional law. is interested in HIV and AIDS and social net- methods at Azerbaijan University. Tamerlan is [email protected] work analysis, with a focus on Central Asia and interested in the welfare, health, and mental Russia. Mahmoud KITTANA is an associate and legal health of children. [email protected] advisor at ITTQAN Consulting Services in Palestine, and is interested in researching 2003 the nature and notions of human dignity. Zulfiya BAKHTIBEKOVA (Tajikistan) is a PhD [email protected] researcher at the University of Exeter, and is inter- Supplementary ested in studying the underlying causes of child Grants Program–Asia 2007 marriages in Tajikistan. [email protected] Said A. ALMADHOUN is a human rights offi- 2000-2003, 2004-2006 cer at the Office of the High Commissioner 2005 Lin Lin Aung is a monitoring and evaluation for Human Rights in Gaza, as well as a lec- Mashura AKILOVA (Tajikistan) is a DFP fel- manager at the YouthMap Africa Program and turer of law and moot court at the University of low at Columbia University, and is inter- the International Youth Foundation, and also Palestine. He is interested in researching environ- ested in researching child labor and poverty. works as an adjunct lecturer at Mary Baldwin mental law, the miscarriage of justice and viola- [email protected] College. Lin is interested in youth develop- tion of due process rights in the Gaza strip, and ment in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia. the institutional and legal framework of the press Kamil ALIYEV (Azerbaijan) works as a program [email protected] and media in Gaza. [email protected] supervisor at Azerbaijan University and is responsible for the BSW, MSW, BBA, MBA and 2004-2007 MA programs. [email protected] 2009 Phillip Kyaw is conducting research focusing on Motaz AL NAOUQ is a PhD candidate at the Altantsooj BAZARVAANI (Mongolia) is a pro- impact assessments of modern rice varieties in University of Zurich pursuing research on human gram manager at a child rights and protection Uganda. [email protected] rights, with a special focus on the right to life. organization. [email protected] 2005-2010 Zurab TATANASHVILI (Georgia) lectures at Tbilisi State University, and is interested in researching Nan Lung is currently waiting to go back to Palestinian Faculty TB treatment and psycho-social factors in health Burma. [email protected] care. [email protected] Development 2006 2006 Zaw Nay Aung is the founder and director of Program Burma Independence Advocates, a human rights Feride ABBASOVA (Azerbaijan) works as a super- 2006 visor and consultant for mobile teams serving advocacy group and think tank in London. He recently had a visiting research fellowship at Akram M. IJLA is a part-time lecturer at Al Quds children with disabilities and their families in Oxford University. Open University and an assistant professor at the remote regions of Azerbaijan. Feride is inter- University of Palestine in Gaza and is interested ested in researching the institutionalization, in social capital, cultural heritage, and spatial maltreatment, and development of children. 2009-2010 analysis. [email protected] [email protected] Htet Nay Lin Oo will start a doctorate in public health in August at the Department of International Health, and is interested in Judische Studien in Germany, and is interested 2010 researching health systems and financing. in the prophecy in Maimonides and Spinoza. Bujar ARUQAJ (Kosovo) is an investigative journalist at the Balkan Investigative Reporting Network, Su Mon Cho works with Proximity Designs Valeriia SHESTAK (Ukraine) is studying for an MA and an MA student in international develop- as a social impact assessment manager, and in economic policy in global markets at Central ment at the University of Denver. Bujar is inter- is interested in the social and economic European University in Budapest, and interning ested unsustainable and human development. impact of development and micro-loan pro- at the National Bank of Slovakia’s regulation [email protected] grams and cash-for-work infrastructure projects. department. Valeriia is interested in macropru- [email protected] dential regulation and economic globalization. Alla CHERNENKO (Ukraine) will begin her MA in [email protected] sociology at Middle Tennessee State University, 2009-2011 and is interested in feminist and queer theory, Ana SIMON (Moldova) is pursuing an MA at Swe Swe currently works as an ELL academic as well as social inequalities. alla.chernenko9@ the University of Warwick, and is working gmail.com instructor at Milwaukee Job Corps. on a dissertation titled “The Requisite of an Identity,” an investigative study into work Byambasuren CHULUUNBAT (Mongolia) is work- identity at Moldovan advertising agencies. ing in the mining sector, and is interested in Undergraduate [email protected] researching mining and natural resource law. [email protected] Exchange Program Enkhbilguun UUGANBAYAR (Mongolia) works as an induction and safety trainer at the Oyu Tolgoi Margarita GORLO (Ukraine) is a senior student 2006 copper mine in Mongolia. of international relations at Odessa National Uuriituya BATSAIKHAN (Mongolia) is currently Mechnikov University, and is interested in a summer research assistant with the Global 2009 researching anticorruption efforts and the Economy Program at the Center for International Indra BAATARKHUU (Mongolia) works at the Asian Islamic dimensions of international terrorism. Governance Innovation in Canada, and is inter- Development Bank. [email protected] [email protected] ested in the political economy of development Snezana MALIC (Serbia) is a security studies and monetary policy. [email protected] Oli HRISTOVA (Macedonia) is currently pursuing an MA in political science at Central European student at the University of Belgrade , and an Corina MURAFA (Romania) is a pub- University in Budapest, and is interning at the intern at the Belgrade Center for Security Policy. lic and regulatory affairs expert with OMV Balkan Institute for Faith and Culture. Oli is Snezana is interested in researching homeland Petrom, and a team leader of the Romanian interested in researching institutional design, and international security. Snezana_malic@ Academic Society. Corina is interested in comparative politics, and political theology. yahoo.com public service delivery and energy policies. Maksim MARCHEVICI (Ukraine) works at the [email protected] Sandra KOSTADINOVA (Macedonia) is an associate director of English at Camp Master, and is Eastern-Ukrainian Democracy Development Foundation. [email protected] 2007 interested in clinical linguistics, language development, and autism. [email protected] Simona IFTIMESCU (Romania) is an educational consultant in Romania, and is interested in edu- Milana LAZIC (Serbia) is pursuing an MA in inter- cation. [email protected] national security at the University of Belgrade, UK Programs and works at the Social Inclusion and Poverty 2002 2008 Reduction Unit. She is interested in researching Alexander SHARF (Belarus) is a senior project social exclusion and security, human rights, and Oyundelger ENKHTUR (Mongolia) is a Fulbright manager at the Centre for European Projects in globalization. [email protected] Master’s Student at Western Michigan University Poland. [email protected] majoring in counselor education, and is inter- Marija PANTOVIC (Serbia) is a journalist work- ested in researching the education system in Meriem GREY (Kyrgyzstan) works on communi- ing at Sumadija Press dealing with corruption in Mongolia. [email protected] cations and external affairs at the World Bank local governance. [email protected] Group, specifically for East Asia and the Pacific. Tijana KAITOVIC (Serbia) is an intern at the UN Alexandra SIMOSKA (Macedonia) is an intern at Secretariat in the Office for the Coordination of the Youth Entrepreneurship Service Foundation 2003 Humanitarian Affairs, and is pursuing an MA (YES), and an executive board member at Youth in sustainability, development, and peace at the Gazmend AHMETI (Kosovo) is a senior coordina- Can in Macedonia. She is interested in gender UN University in Tokyo. Tijana is interested in tor and public/private partnerships advisor at studies and human rights. [email protected] researching gender mainstreaming in the UN. the Ministry of Finance in Kosovo, with a specific interest in privatization. [email protected] [email protected] Maryna SUINA (Ukraine) is working as a recruiter for Vitaver & Associates. [email protected] Doina POSTICA (Moldova) is a legal advisor Sonja KITANOVSKA (Macedonia) is a PhD candidate in translation studies at St. Cyril and at the Advocates Law Center in Moldova, and Angela VELKOVA (Macedonia) teaches English also advises the World Committee of the World Methodius University, and teaches courses in and business at Fifth Private High School in business writing, presentations, and skills, , as Organization of the Scout Movement. Doina is Macedonia, and is the co-founder and executive interested in international jurisdictions. well as academic writing and English. Sonja is director of the Preparing Global Leaders Institute. interested in styles of translation, academic writ- She also volunteers for the Mladiinfo Grant Ena SULC (Croatia) is working on an MA in ing, and ESL. [email protected] Center, and is interested in development studies. Jewish civilizations at the Hochschule fur

ScholarForum 23 Raluca PARASCHIV (Romania) is a lecturer in Monika FARAH (Indonesia) is the officer for 2007 arts management at the Bucharest National security cooperation at ASEAN and works on Sukaina BHOJANI (Pakistan) trains teachers in University of the Arts, and is interested in cooperation activities in transnational crime the rural Sindh province and works as a psy- researching public spaces and contemporary and with ASEAN member states and dialogue part- chotherapist at a private rehabilitation center urban art. ners. [email protected] in Pakistan, dealing with clients managing drug addiction. [email protected] Aynur YUSIFOVA (Azerbaijan) is a project Ilija PENUSLISKI (Macedonia) is an attorney spe- management specialist at the Democracy and cializing in international dispute settlement and Miroslav DOSEN (Serbia) is an expert coordina- Governance Office of the USAID Mission in arbitration. [email protected] tor of the Contracts Department at the Naftna Azerbaijan. Aynur is interested in the case law Industrija Srbije. [email protected] of the European Court of Human Rights and its Natasha TRAJKOVA (Macedonia) is a lecturer impact on domestic legal systems. at the University St. Clement of Ohrid in Evgeniya IVANOVA (Belarus) is a PhD student Macedonia and is interested in transitional eco- interested in studying citizenship, gender, disas- Irina VELICU (Romania) is a lecturer in interna- nomics. [email protected] ter studies, and post-Chernobyl politics. tional relations and globalization at the Spiru Haret University in Bucharest, and is interested Aziza UMAROVA (Uzbekistan) is on the head of Victoria KUMALA (Indonesia) is a PhD candi- in social movements and the politics of aesthet- governance team with the UNDP in Uzbekistan, date in anthropology and a lecturer at the Freie ics and post-communism. [email protected] and is interested in governance, public admin- Universität in Berlin, as well as the co-founder istration reform, and knowledge manage- and director of Mauerpark Institut e.V. in Berlin. 2004 ment and innovation in development work. Victoria is interested in Southeast Asia, vio- [email protected] lence/subjectivity, and the ways communities Shakeel Ahmed IMTIAZ (Pakistan) works as an rebuild their lives after conflict. advisor at the GIZ Governance Program in Ozlem YAZLIK (Turkey) is a PhD candidate at Pakistan focusing on local civil service and the University of Edinburgh, and will explore Teodor MOGA (Romania) is studying at the training, and is interested in political Islam and women’s identity and adult literacy in Turkey. postdoctoral program at the Romanian Academy security in Central Asia. [email protected] and is an associate lecturer at the Alexandru Ioan Curza University of Iasi. Teodor is inter- Elona DHEMBO (Albania) is a lecturer at the ested in EU Foreign Affairs, EU-NATO rela- University of Tirana, and is interested in social 2006 tions, and the European Neighborhood Policy. research methods, social policy, and gender Akmal ABDULLAYEV (Uzbekistan) is a consul- [email protected] issues. [email protected] tant-assistant at the UNDP in Uzbekistan, and teaches a course on international security stud- Osman RRACI (Kosovo) works for the Enterprise Milena PANAYOTOVA (Bulgaria) is a health pro- ies at the University of World Economy and Growth Program in Kosovo and has recently motion expert at the Youth Department of the Diplomacy. Akmal is interested in Central Asia, become a certified management consultant. Bulgarian Red Cross. [email protected] Islam, and theories of security studies. Osman won the Olda Radzyner Award 2011 for Darko PAVLOVSKI (Macedonia) is a case process- Jane BOGOEV (Macedonia) is an analyst at the young economists from the National Bank of ing lawyer at the European Court of Human National Bank of the Republic of Macedonia, Austria. [email protected] Rights in France, and is interested in human and is interested in monetary transaction Kielbek TEMISHEV (Kyrgyzstan—grant years rights and international law. mechanisms, central bank independence, 2007–2008) is working at the UN Agency for and monetary and fiscal policy interactions. Refugees in Kyrgyzstan, and is interested in joint Veljko VORKAPIC (Croatia) works at the Joint [email protected] Research Centre’s Institute for Energy and and individual public administration and policy Transport and is interested in biomass sustain- Adnan EFENDIC (Bosnia & Herzegovina) is an studies research. [email protected] ability. [email protected] assistant professor and deputy head at the School of Economics and Business in Sarajevo, and is 2008 2005 interested in institutions and economic perfor- Bosko STANKOVSKI (Macedonia) is a PhD candi- mance. [email protected] Boyka DOCHEVA (Bulgaria) is an HR partner at date at the University of Cambridge, working on a thesis about international law. He is interested the IBM Global Delivery Centre in Bulgaria, and Zara MAHMUDOVA (Tajikistan) works at the UN is interested in management and development of in issues of self-determination, secession, and OHCHR in Tajikistan as a national program peace agreements. [email protected]. leadership and talent. [email protected] officer, and is interested in engaging civil society in monitoring aid effectiveness and human rights Masqud ARIPOV (Tajikistan) is an area manager Kanstantsin DZEHTSIARON (Belarus) is a lec- compliance. [email protected] turer in the law of the European Convention at the UNDP in Tajikistan, and is interested in private public partnership models, local eco- on Human Rights at the University of Surrey. Satya Budi UTAMA (Indonesia) works at the [email protected] nomic development initiatives, demography, International Organization for Migration as the and migration. [email protected] project coordinator for the Emergency Operation Branimir JOVANOVIC (Macedonia) is an eco- Center in Indonesia, and is interested in busi- Ketrina CABIRI (Albania) is a project manager nomic analyst at the National Bank of the ness and human rights. [email protected] Republic of Macedonia, and is working on and lecturer on theories of democracy, and is interested in institutional reforms, constitution- a PhD at Tor Vergata University in Italy. Merita ZULFIU (Macedonia) is an assistant lec- Branamir is interested in recoveries after eco- alism, and the political culture of leadership. turer at South East European University, and [email protected] nomic crises and monetary policy models. is interested in foreign ownership and labor [email protected] market inequality in transition economies. Albulenë JAHJA (Kosovo) is a lecturer interested [email protected] in economics. [email protected] Ermal LUBISHTANI (Kosovo) is currently a Marija KRSTIC (Serbia) is a research assistant and Franky SILALAHI (Indonesia) is a diplomat posted lecturer, and is interested in industrial eco- a PhD student at the University of Belgrade in in Port Moresby, and is interested in internation- nomics, innovation, and entrepreneurship. philosophy and ethnology and anthropology. al law, foreign policy, and international security. [email protected] Marija is interested in the Europeanization of [email protected] Serbia and the safeguarding of intangible cul- Aya MARAQA (Jordan) is a grants offi- tural heritage. Dzhakhongir SHAMSIEV (Tajikistan) works at cer at the Foundation for the Future, and the European Bank for Reconstruction and is interested in researching Jerusalem studies. Denis KOVALENKO (Kyrgyzstan) works as a mon- Development. [email protected] [email protected] itoring and evaluation officer at Breast Cancer Care in London, and was previously a program Suhrob SHOEV (Tajikistan) grant years: 2009-2010 Mazhar SIRAJ (Pakistan) works as a social development officer at the USAID Office of is a human dimension assistant at the OSCE development advisor at the UK Department for Transition Initiatives. [email protected] Office in Tajikistan. [email protected] International Development in Pakistan, and is interested in interdisciplinary social research, Rola MIQDADI (Jordan) is a projects officer at Unurbayar SODNOMDORJ (Mongolia) is a education finance, development economics, and Mizan Law in Jordan, and is interested in indi- project officer and translator at the Urban human rights and sociology. [email protected] vidualism, sustainability, corruption of humani- Development Sector Project, funded by the tarian entities, and gender equity. ofmyown@ Asian Development Bank, and is interested Irena SPASENOSKA (Macedonia) is an economic hotmail.com in economic security issues in Mongolia. and legal advisor at a law firm, and is inter- [email protected] ested in researching foreign direct investment in Ajmal POYA (Afghanistan) joined the Afghan Macedonia. government’s Ministry of Finance as a senior Katarina SZIMBEG (Croatia) is an associate at the aid effectiveness and policy specialist, and law firm, Zuric I Partneri. katarina.dzimbeg@ Betty YOLANDA (Indonesia) is a program manag- is interested in public policy analysis, policy gmail.com er at the American Bar Association’s Rule of Law implementation in democratic systems, and Initiative in Indonesia, and is interested in human capacity building in post-conflict contexts. Gezim VISOKA (Kosovo) is working on a PhD rights in Southeast Asia, torture, armed conflict, [email protected] in politics and international relations at Dublin and refugee law. [email protected] City University, examining the unintended Yauheni PREIHERMAN (Belarus) is a policy consequences of international governance in Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and East 2009 director at the Analytical Society Liberal Club in Belarus, and is interested in socio-economic Timor. Gezim is interested in peace and conflict Awaliyah ANWARI (Indonesia) is a desk officer at and political transformations and Eurasian, studies, sovereignty, and social justice. the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic Eastern European, and Belarusian geopolitics. of Indonesia. [email protected] Dijana VUJOVIC (Montenegro) is a senior audi- tor at Deloitte in Montenegro. dijana.vujovic@ Gantunngalag ALTANSUKH (Mongolia) is a PhD Maja SAVEVSKA (Macedonia) is a PhD can- yahoo.com candidate at the University of Manchester, and didate at the University of Warwick and is interested in econometric techniques relating Universite Libre de Bruxelles, and is interested to time series analysis. [email protected] in the socio-economic restructuring of the EU. [email protected]

ScholarForum 25 Contribute to the next Scholar Forum cover topic regional focus Health and Rights Southeast Asia

The 16th Edition of ScholarForum, to be produced in late 2013, calls on Scholarship Programs’ grantees and alumni to submit articles, opinion Academic Showcase pieces, and short essays on the issue of health and rights. The 16th edition To build on the wealth of knowledge and critical inquiry Open Society will also focus separately on Southeast Asia, and writings about any topics Scholarship Programs’ grantees create during their scholarship and related to this region are welcome as well. beyond, we invite all scholars to submit summaries or abstracts of their research to be published in the ScholarForum’s Academic Showcase section. cover topic: Health and Rights Submissions should be short and relate to an area of research under- Good physical, sexual, and mental health for individuals and com- taken as part of an MA or PhD degree, or to independent research con- munities is a fundamental condition for a well-functioning society. ducted in the field. Due to space constraints, Scholarship Programs will Unfortunately, almost all countries, regardless of whether they are rich or only print a selected number of pieces, but will try to send comments poor, suffer from a degree of health inequality. A particularly common from the editorial board to each author. and important issue in many countries is a lack of access to health care We would like to offer the following guidelines for Academic resources for certain groups in society. In many cases, a combination of Showcase article submissions: poor public knowledge and education, gatekeepers at various levels, and a lack of funding and research can make health care a constant worry for Abstracts: Required format many individuals and communities. The fact that some populations suffer Abstracts are a concise text encapsulating the whole body of research to blatant discrimination in accessing health care, are denied advice and care be addressed in a longer paper or presentation to follow. Outline the topic for sexual or mental health issues or receive little to no aid for disabilities, of research, the main objective of the research or the research problem, the is a clear denial of their human rights. We invite our grantees and alumni methodology employed, the main findings, and your conclusions. to illuminate any facets of this issue through their research, experience, Maximum length: 350 words expertise, and opinions. Essays and pictures are welcome. Length: 750–1000 Words Research in Progress Essays: Required format Authors need to be cognizant of the educated but general nature regional focus: Southeast Asia of ScholarForum’s audience; therefore specialized terms and concepts Recent months have seen the beginnings of an unparalleled opening for should be concisely explained in simple language. Articles should a country that has spent decades under a military stranglehold: Burma. include footnotes and references, and any ideas expressed by other As former political opponents in Burma start a new dialogue about the authors should be referred to in Harvard Style citations within text. country’s future, we look to our grantees to continue expressing their Introduction: Include a brief statement on the thesis/rationale to be thoughts on Burma and the surrounding region. We invite your opinions, developed in the article, as well as a short summary of the findings and essays and research pieces on social, political, environmental, and educa- recommendations. Outline what the work is part of (i.e., PhD, MA, tional issues facing Burma or any of its neighbors such as Thailand, Laos, independent research). Cambodia, and Indonesia. Analysis and Discussion: Clearly and concisely explain any of the Length: 750–1000 Words theories, concepts, and terminology, citing concrete examples. Keep in mind that the audience will be outside of your discipline. Personal Essays and Fictional Pieces Recommendations (may be included in previous section). Outline We welcome any thoughts you have on your experiences during your your recommendations or aspects for further study or research. scholarship: your reflections, opinions, and photographs are welcome. Conclusion: Concisely summarize the content of the work above. Works of original fiction that can be serialized can also be submitted for Maximum length: 1500 words editorial consideration. Length: 300–750 Words Letters to the Editor Alumni Letters to the Editor regarding the content of ScholarForum are welcome Updates from Scholarship Programs’ alumni are key to evaluating and will be printed at the editor’s discretion. our work and provide inspiring material for future leaders in your Maximum length: 300 words countries and beyond. Please feel free to send us a brief note on your current professional activities, research interests, or any calls for col- Submit work to [email protected]. Please laboration at an upcoming event or conference. feel free to enquire with the editors if you have any questions or feedback. Deadline for all Submissions: May 15, 2013 HESP International Higher Education Support Program

The International Higher Education Southeast European HESP Mobility Program Support Program (HESP) promotes the Student Initiatives The Mobility Program supports visits advancement of higher education within The Student Initiatives helps students to and from a HESP network institution the humanities and social sciences, with formulate and pursue individual and col- by students enrolled at universities and a focus on the regions of Central, Eastern lective commitments to progressive change colleges in Central, Eastern, and South and Southeast Europe, Russia, the states in higher education and build open and Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union of the former Soviet Union, and Mongolia. inclusive networks of students and scholars and Mongolia. This program has an The program develops academics’ intellec- to promote informed opinion and action ongoing deadline, with more information tual, research, and teaching capacities, sup- across borders. The program supports stu- available at: ports and develops institutions that function dent groups committed to building aware- www.opensocietyfoundations.org/grants/ reflexively in line with the values of open ness and strengthening advocacy on the hesp-mobility-program societies and that provide spaces where the issues immediately relevant to their educa- freedom to think, speak, and inquire critically tional experience and aims to promote a are respected and encouraged. sense of responsibility among students to More information on HESP Programs can their academic and local communities. For be found at: more details and a list of existing student www.opensocietyfoundations.org/about/ networks, please see: programs/international-higher-education- www.opensocietyfoundations.org/grants/ support-program student-initiatives

ALUMNI GRANT PROGRAM The Open Society Foundations eligible to apply for a grant to publish Scholarship Programs is pleased to offer in recognized local media or international the Alumni Grant Program. This program peer-reviewed journals. OPEN offers grants to Scholarship Programs In all cases, preference will be given to alumni to further expand the knowledge collaborative projects between alumni, across SOCIETY gained during their scholarship and to countries and with host universities, and to make a positive contribution in their projects that promote the development of a FELLOWSHIP home country. All grant proposals must be specific discipline in the region. The Open Society Fellowship related to the Open Society Foundations Detailed information, including eligibility, supports individuals seeking innovative mission of supporting programs in the deadlines and application requirements are and unconventional approaches to areas of educational, social, and legal available on the Open Society Foundations fundamental open society challenges. The reform, and of encouraging alternative website: http://www.opensocietyfoundations. fellowship funds work that will enrich approaches to complex and often org/grants/alumni-grant-program, or by public understanding of those challenges controversial issues. sending enquiries to Zarina USMANOVA, and stimulate far-reaching and probing Research-based awards are also encour- Program Manager: zarina.usmanova@ conversations within the Open Society aged from qualified alumni who are cur- opensocietyfoundations.org Foundations and in the world. For rently engaged in developing evidence-based The competition for this grant is offered detailed information on the Open Society approaches to current and upcoming policy once a year, beginning in January of each Fellowship and for grantee profiles, please issues and who are fully or partly affiliated year. The application is made available in visit: www.opensocietyfoundations.org/ with a policy institute or higher education April of the preceding year, with applications about/programs/open-society-fellowship institution. Research-based candidates are due in May.

ScholarForum 27 OPEN SOCIETY SCHOLARSHIP PROGRAMS The Scholarship Programs currently offers awards under the following programs. Programs Open Society Foundations/French are country-specific: please check the eligibility requirements carefully. For guidelines Government Scholarship Program and application information, please visit www.opensocietyfoundations.org/grants for Central Asian Students The Open Society Foundations/French Alumni Grant Program Global Faculty Grants Program Government Scholarship Program provides The Alumni Grant Program offers grants The Global Faculty Grants Program offers funding to individuals from Central Asia to to Scholarship Programs alumni to further grants for mid-career and senior level pursue Master 2 degree programs in the expand the knowledge gained during their faculty from the following countries and social sciences and humanities at universi- fellowship and make a positive contribution regions: Afghanistan, Burma, Nepal, the ties in France. to their home country. Middle East and North Africa, and the South Asia Scholarship Program Civil Service Awards former Soviet Union. The South Asia Scholarship Program pro- The Civil Service Awards offer fellowships for Global Supplementary Grants Program vides full fellowships to qualified citizens of master’s degree study, providing professional The Global Supplementary Grants Program Afghanistan, Bhutan and Nepal to complete training and development to public-sector offers supplementary grants to doctoral stu- graduate degrees in sustainable develop- employees engaged in policy analysis and dents from the following regions and coun- ment, counseling, and law. implementation in Georgia and Moldova. tries: the Middle East and North Africa, Supplementary Grant Program—Asia DAAD-OSI Program Mongolia, Southeastern Europe, South Asia, The Supplementary Grant Program-Asia The German Academic Exchange Service and the former Soviet Union. funds students enrolled in academic pro- (DAAD) and Open Society Scholarship Middle East Rule of Law Masters grams primarily in Asia and who are likely to Programs cosponsor a scholarship program Scholarship Program return to Burma to work toward its demo- for graduate students in the Balkans and cratic and economic transition. The Middle East Rule of Law Masters graduate students and junior faculty in the Scholarship Program offers scholars from UK Programs Transcaucasian and Central Asian countries Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and of the former Soviet Union. The Open Society Foundations support Tunisia the opportunity for scholarships in scholarships, generally in the social sciences Disability Rights Scholarship Program the fields of public policy and public admin- and humanities, for students and scholars The Disability Rights Scholarship Program istration, social work, media and communi- from the following regions and countries: provides LLM study grants for Nepal and cations studies, LLM, and gender studies at Eastern Europe, Mongolia, Southeast Asia, select countries in Africa and Latin America. universities within the United States and at and the former Soviet Union to study at The program supports disability rights advo- Central European University and select uni- graduate institutions in the UK. cates and lawyers to develop new legisla- versities in the Middle East and North Africa. Scholar Rescue Fund tion, jurisprudence, impact litigation and Open Society Foundations scholarship. The Scholar Rescue Fund supports scholars Scholarships in European Studies who are at risk in their home country by EARTH University Scholarships The Open Society Foundations Scholarships providing them with fellowships at “safe” The Open Society Foundations provide in European Studies offer European Studies universities and colleges through¬out the undergraduate scholarships for students scholarships at Maastricht and Aarhus uni- world. Scholars from any country may from Haiti to study at EARTH University in versities to scholars from Belarus, Georgia, qualify. For more information, please visit: Costa Rica. Moldova, and the Ukraine. www.iie.org/srf

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