Chapter IV ANALYSIS of SAṂSKṚTA and ASAṂSKṚTA DHARMA

Chapter IV ANALYSIS OF SAṂSKṚTA AND ASAṂSKṚTA DHARMA

As mentioned in the previous chapter, the concept of dharma in the Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu are defined and classified as the subjective method of classification and the objective method of classification. In the objective classification the concepts of dharmas are composed of seventy-five dharmas in total. These dharmas are classified into two categories; the first one is saṃskṛta-dharma, and the second is asaṃskṛta-dharma.

IV.1. Analysis of Saṃskṛta Dharma

According to the analysis of Abhidharmakośa, the saṃskṛta-dharmas are seventy two in number, and divided into four subgroups viz. (1) rūpa (matter) consists of 11 dharmas, (2) citta (mind) has 1 dharma, (3) caitta (mental functions) consists of 46 dharmas, and (4) citta-viprayukta- saṃskāra (conditions disjoined from mind) consists of 14 dharmas.

IV.1.1. Rūpa (matter)

IV.1.1.1. Qualities of Rūpa

Rūpa (matter) has its different qualities, such as a piece of stone is white, hard, round and heavy. These are the different qualities of it. But can we

find a stone which is neither white, nor hard, nor round, nor heavy and nor of any kind? Can it exist apart from the qualities? We feel that it is not even possible to conceive of it, for, we cannot think of a material existence without understanding it in the terms of qualities. If all the qualities were to be eliminated from a body it would cease to exist. The material bodies are nothing but different permutation and combination of qualities that are in a state of flux. Therefore, they are called rūpa or material qualities in its general sense, but in its specific sense it means only the visible forms.139

What is hard is earth, here ‗hardness‘ is not something separate from ‗earth‘, but it is the very essence of it. There can be no earth which is not hard. Similarly, what flows is water; what burns is fire what moves is air. These are called the four mahābhūta or the primary qualities.140 All the other material qualities are conditioned by these four; therefore, they are called upādāya rūpa or the conditioned qualities.

All the material qualities may be brought under two classes, namely:

(1) The four mahābhūtas (earth, water, fire and air) are the primary qualities or essential material qualities, and

139 Dan Lusthaus (2006), P. 46. 140 ―Rūpa or visible in limited sense is one of the bhautikas or matter compositions. Rūpa is of two kinds, viz. varṇa (colour) and saṃsthāna (shape). These two together make up the rūpāyatanaṃ or the field of the visible. There are 8 kinds of saṃsthānas or shape. There are 4 varṇas or primary colours (nīla ‗blue‘, pīta ‗yellow‘, lohita ‗red‘ and avadāta ‗white‘. There are other kinds of colour derived from these four primary colours in eight (abhra ‗cloud colour‘, dhūma ‗smoke colour‘, raja ‗dust colour‘, mihikā ‗mist colour‘, chāyā ‗ colour of shade‘, ātapa ―colour of the sun‖, āloka ―colour of the heavenly bodies, like star and moon‖ and andhakāra ―darkness colour where rūpa is absent‖). The primary and secondary kinds of colour are together 12 according to Abhidharmakośa”. See more Akb. pp. 53-54.

(2) The upādāya-rūpa or other qualities conditioned by them (primary). Both of them comprise the following seven items in two qualities.141

A. Mahābhūta (the primary qualities) 1) Essential material qualities consist of earth, water, fire and air. B. Upādāya-Rūpa (the Conditioned Qualities) 2) Sensitive material qualities consist of eye, ear, nose, tongue and body 3) Sensible (objective) material qualities consist of form, sound, smell, taste and touch 4) Material qualities of organ consist of femininity (female) and masculinity (male) 5) Material qualities of the heart (consciousness) is the heart-base 6) The life principle in matter is vital force (the life faculty). 7) The food value in matter is edible food

It is stated here that, these seven material qualities have their own kinds and characteristics. They have their own origination and dependent on a state of constant flux and are impermanent, cause of misery. They follow depending on above seven their existences are the four remaining types of material qualities.

1. Material qualities of relative limitation are the element of space. 2. Material qualities of expression (intimation) are bodily and vocal. 3. Conditioned of matter are lightness, pliancy and adaptability (and the above two qualities of expression).

141 Abhidhammattha-Saṅgaha (As), (tr.) by Bhikkhu Bodhi (1999). A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, Sri-lanka: Buddhist Society, pp. 237-240, Bhikkhu J. Kashyap (2006), pp. 167 - 70 and K. L. Dhammajoti (2002). Sarvāstivāda Abhidhamma (Sa.), Sri-Lanka: Centre for Buddhist Studies, p. 144.

4. The essential characteristics of material qualities are material production, continuity, decay and impermanence (death). Here by production and continuity are meant as the material phenomenon of the birth.

IV.1.1.2. Analysis of Rūpa

Rūpa (matter or form) consists of eleven dharmas (items) namely, the five sense faculties (indriya), five sense objects (viṣaya) and non-informative (avijñapti). Thus the senses of eye (cakṣus-indriya), ear (śrotra-indriya), nose (ghrāṇa-indriya), tongue (jihvā-indriya) and body (kāya-indriya) have material (visible) form (rūpa), sound (śabda), smell (gandha), taste (rasa) and touch (sparśa) as their objects. The eleventh dharma in the group was unmanifest action (avijñapti).142

[1] 1. Eye (cakṣus-indriya) is one of the five organs faculties, organ of sight and its objects are colours and shapes.

[2] 2. Ear (śrotra-indriya) is an organ of hearing, point of support, subtle material element situated within the ‗birch leaf‘ of the ear.

[3] 3. Nose (ghrāṇa-indriya) is an organ of smell.

[4] 4. Tongue (jihvā-indriya) is an organ of taste.

[5] 5. Body (kāya-indriya) is an organ of touch.

[6] 6. Rūpa is visual object, sight, forms or visible matter; these are divided into two main groups, colour (varṇa) and shape (saṃsthāna). They all consist of eight colours and twelve shapes. Eight colours are

142 Rūpaṁ pañcendriyāṇyarthāḥ pañcāvijñaptireva ca| tadvijñānāśrayā rūpaprasādāścakṣurādayaḥ||9|| Sanidarśana eko'tra rūpaṁ sapratighā daśa| rūpiṇaḥ avyākṛtā aṣṭau ta evārūpaśabdakāḥ||29|| 色者唯五根五境及無表彼識依淨色名眼等五根一有見謂色十有色有對此餘色聲八無記餘三種. Akk. i. 9 & 29.

blue, yellow, red, white and fours colours substitutes or subdivisions of four primary colours are cloud, smoke, dust, mist, shadow, sun-light, light and darkness. Shape is eightfold: long, short, square, round, high, low, even, and uneven (or irregular).143

[7] 7. Sound (śabda)144 is the object of the ear. It is divided into eightfold kinds of sound in all. (1). Sound produced by object (upattamahābhūtahetuka) which has the power of perception i.e. sentient beings, e.g. sound caused by hand and voice. (2) Sound produced by object which does not have the power of perception (aupattamahābhūtahetuka) i.e. non-sentient being, e.g. sound of wind, tree, river, etc. (3) Sound produced by living being; e.g. sound of vocal act. (4) Sound not produced by living beings; e.g. all other sounds. And all these four sounds are divided into two, which are pleasant (agreeable) and unpleasant (disagreeable).

[8] 8. Smell (gandha) is the object of the nose, which consists of fourfold kinds; pleasant, unpleasant, non-excessive (samagandha) and excessive (visamagandha).

[9] 9. Taste (rasa) is the object of the tongue, which is composed of six kinds: Sweet, sour, salty, acrid, bitter and astringent.

[10] 10. Touch (sparśa) is the object of the body; it includes eleven kinds, viz.145 contact with four great primary elements earth (solidity or

143 Akbp. Vol. 1, P. 64. 144 Rūpaṁ dvidhā viṁśatidhā śabdastvaṣṭavidhaḥrasaḥ| ṣoḍhā caturvidho gandhaḥ spṛśyamekādaśātmakam||10|| 色二或二十聲唯有八種味六香四種觸十一為性. Akk. i. 10 145 Bhūtāni pṛthividhāturaptejovāyudhātavaḥ| dhṛtyādikarmasaṁsiddhā kharasnehoṣṇateraṇāḥ||12|| Pṛthivī varṇasaṁsthānamucyate lokasaṁjñayā| āpastejaśca vāyustu dhātureva tathāpi ca||13|| 大種謂四界即地水火風能成持等業堅濕煖動性地謂顯形色隨世想立名水火亦復然風即界亦爾. Akk. i. 12 & 13.

hardness), water (humidity or moisture), fire (heat) and air (mobility or motion). And softness, hardness, weight, lightness, cold, hunger, thirst.

[11] 11. No-informative (avijñapti) is a serial continuity also in a person, whose mind is distracted or who is without mind, pure or impure, dependent on the primary elements: these are called the avijñapti.146 This term in Buddhist schools means not manifested or not made known. Every mental vocal or physical deed should have some corresponding result.

After discussing derivative material dharma, Vasubandhu discusses the ultimate material dharmas which are called the four great elements (mahābhūtas), which are independent (see Akk. i. 12). On analysis one of these elements like earth. We find that earth contains at least one atom if no more, of water, fire and air, but the atoms of earth dominate. The great elements arise together, in all molecules, hard, moist, hot or mobile. For the time being the nature of one predominates and our senses notice only the predominating one and not the others. Each and every material object is the combination of the four great elements. Even derivative material dharmas of the rūpaskandhas are nursed by the four great elements (mahābhūta).

As well the subjective classification mentioned in the previous chapter, the rūpa in this chapter is also related to three departments or categories; skandhas, āyatana and dhātu. The Sanskrit term for matter, rūpa, is used in two senses in Buddhist texts. When it is included in lists such as the five skandhas (aggregates), it is used in a broad sense. In such cases, it refers to ten of the twelve bases of cognition (āyatana): the five sense organs (indriya: eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body) and the five sense

146 Vikṣiptācittakasyāpi yo'nubandhaḥ śubhāśubhaḥ| mahābhūtānyupādāya sa hyavijñaptirucyate||11|| 亂心無心等隨流淨不淨大種所造性由此說無表 (Akk. i. 11)

objects (viṣaya: forms, sounds, smells, tastes, and tangible objects). In its narrow sense, the term ‗rūpa‘ refers only to form (saṃsthāna) and colour (varṇa), the objects of vision. Besides classifying the five sense organs and sense objects in the aggregate of matter (rūpa-skandha), the Sarvāstivāda school classified unmanifested matter (avijñapti-rūpa) as a form of matter, making a total of eleven types of matter.

IV.1.2. Citta (mind)

Mind is the root of all dharmas. Mind or manas is the ‗discriminating mind‘, the sixth consciousness. Not only does the ‗mind‘ make discriminations, it is also filled with idle thoughts. The six consciousnesses can also be said to be a perceptive nature. That is, from the six sense organs: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind, the functions of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, feeling, and knowing arise. When people commit offenses, they do it with the six sense organs. When they cultivate, they also do it with the six sense organs. If you can remain unperturbed by external states, then you are cultivating. If you are turned by external states, then you will fall. From Buddhist point of view, all one‘s tenets are depending upon the mind i.e. the source of all dharma. The mind has brought about the Buddhas, the heaven, or the Hell. It is the main driving force that makes people happy or unhappy, pleasant or unpleasant, liberated or doomed.

However, the word citta is derived from the root ‗cit‘, meaning ‗to think‘. Citta is the awareness of an object. In Abhidharmakośa, Vasubandhu has used cittam, manas and vijñāna as synonymous terms for consciousness or mind. The mind is called cittam, because it observers; Manas because it considers; and vijñāna because it discriminates (vijñāyate). The consciousness has the characteristic of knowing and as

such it is of one type. Manas, consciousness in the role of an independent, sixth perceptive faculty, cognizing the non sensuous or abstract, objects (dharma): it represents the preceding moment with regard to the mano- vijñāna. The citta is divided into six classes, technically called vijñānas on the basis of the sense faculties (indriyas):147

1) Cakṣus-vijñāna, the same pure consciousness when associated with the visual sense.

2) Śrotra-vijñāna, the same pure consciousness when associated with the auditory sense.

3) Ghrāṇa-vijñāna, the same pure consciousness when associated with the olfactory sense.

4) Jihvā-vijñāna, the same pure consciousness when associated with the taste sense.

5) Kāya-vijñāna, the same pure consciousness when associated with the tactile sense.

6) Mano-vijñāna, the same pure consciousness when associated with a previous moment of the same run of consciousness without participation of any of the five senses.

[12] Citta is also called manas or vijñāna which means mind or consciousness, consciousness is the impression relative to each object. The names mind (citta), spirit (manas) and consciousness (vijñāna) designate the same thing (citta = manas = vijñāna). The mind is termed citta because it accumulates; it is termed manas, it knows termed vijñāna because it distinguishes its object. Some say that the mind is termed citta because it is spotted (citta) by good and bad elements; to the extent that it

147 Indra Narain Singh (2010). An introduction to Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam, Delhi: Vidyanidhi Prakashan, pp 30-31.

is the support of the mind that follow, it is manas; and to the extent that it grasps the support through the organ and its object, it is vijñāna. Hence, these three names express different meanings, but they designate the same object; in this same way. The three terms citta, manas and vijñāna express 3 meanings, functions or aspects mind. Having a support, an object and aspect and being associated in five ways define how mental states (caitta) are associated (samprayukta) with mind (citta).148

It is important to note here that, there are several Sanskrit and Pāli terms for mind such as mana, citta, vijñāna. Besides, ‗mind‘ is another name for ālāya-vijñāna or bīja-vijñāna. Unlike the material body, immaterial mind is invisible. We are aware of our thoughts and feelings etc., by direct sensation, and we infer their existence in others by analogy. Citta is defined as the whole system of vijñānas, originally pure, or mind. Citta is generally translated as ‗thought‘. In The Dhammapada Sutta, the Buddha expounded that: ―Mind forerunner of all good/evil states, mind is chief, and mind-made are they.‖149 This teaching places lot of emphasis on the nature and significance of the mind with a view to helping the practitioners to consider mind as object of moral concern.

IV.1.3. Caitta (Mental Functions)

Caitta or Caitasika is a general term in Buddhist Psychological analysis denoting. It is stated that in its widest sense, all aspects of mentation considered variously as psychic function events, mental co- efficient, mental concomitants, mental constituents, mental factors, mental adjuncts, mental elements, mental faculties, etc. In its more

148 Cittaṁ mano'tha vijñānamekārthaṁ cittacaitasāḥ| sāśrayā lambanākārāḥ saṁprayuktāśca pañcadhā ||34|| 心意識體一心心所有依有緣有行相相應義有五 (Akk. ii. 34) 149 Manopubbangama dhammamanosettha manomaya (Yamakavagga, verse 1) Dhp. P. 41.

specific technical significance, the term denotes one of the classes of ultimate elements of existence into which the universe is objectively classified, caitasika being considered a species under the genus dharma and the concept it thus embodies is essentially a creation and formulation of the later abhidharmikas. The classifications of caitasika are an outcome of scholasticism, there is a considerable divergence among the schools of Buddhism in respect to their order and arrangement, content and nature and total number of their classes and sub-classes. The history of Buddhist philosophy records three major classifications of caitasika, each compiled independently of the others, and these are listed in the classical thought of the Theravādins, the Sarvāstivādins and the Yogācārins.150

Caitta dharma means mental properties, which follow the action of the citta (mind) like courtiers who follow their king. The function of the caitta dharma is to seize the special characteristics of an object, while the citta perceives its general characteristics. Thus citta is concerned with generalities while the caitta dharmas deal with particularities. For example, when we see a human form at a distance, it is cittam which enables us to find out whether it is that of a man or a woman; whereas the caitta dharma helps us to make out whether the person is one-eyed or two eyed, tall or short, fair or dark, etc. The caitta- dharma consists of forty six mental elements (46 dharmas) or faculties intimately combining with the element of consciousness (citta- samprayukta-saṃskāra), it is divided into six groups:

150 EB. (1979 – 1980), Vol. 4, p. 97, and Bhikkhu J. Kashyap, (2006), pp. 45- 46.

a) Citta mahābhūmika dharma consists of 10 dharmas (Mental faculties), which include all mental states in general.

b) Kuśala mahābhūmika dharma consists of 10 dharmas, which include all fundamental meritorious mental states.

c) Kleśa mahābhūmika dharma consists of 6 dharmas, which include all afflicted mental states.

d) Akuśala mahābhūmika dharma consists of 2 dharmas, which include all evil mental states.

e) Parittakleśa-bhūmikas dharma consists of 10 dharmas, which include the slightly defiled mental states.

f) Aniyatabhūmika dharma consists of 8 dharmas, which include the indeterminate mental properties.

IV.1.3.1. Citta Mahābhūmika Dharma (Great Mental States)

Citta mahābhūmika dharma (大地法) consists of ten general mental faculties present in every moment of consciousness. It is a special function of the mahābhūmikā dharma, mental operations which, as their name indicates (mahā signifying high or great in this connection). They are universally common to all mental functions of man in the ‗moral and immoral realms‘. These functions are further classified as good, bad and neutral. In other words, whenever any mental function arises, these arise with it simultaneously a number of dharma and these are called mahābhūmikā-dharma or mental operation, which are common to the

three groups (good, bad and neutral), into which all mental functions are divisible. They are ten dharmas in number as follows:151

[13] 1. Vedana (sensation or feeling)

Vedanā (受) means sensation or feeling; the vedana is aroused with regard to the objects of cognition, and is indexed to the aggregate of feeling (vedanā-skandha). Three types of affect are described with reference to the vedanā-skandha: pleasure (sukha), suffering (duḥkha) and neither-suffering nor pleasure (aduḥkhāsukha). Again, this [aggregate] can be divided into six groups of feeling (vedanā-kāya):152

[14] 2. Cetanā (volition or intention)

Cetanā (思) means volition or intention. A condition, that informs and shapes the mind (cittābhisaṃskāra; cittaprasyanda). The variety in the world arises from action (karma); it is intention (cetanā) and that which is produced through intention. Volition is mental action (manaskarma): it gives rise to two actions, bodily and vocal action. Intention is that which renders thought (karmically) creative, it is mental karma. This is also to say that it moves forth the thought. It is differentiated into three kinds: (1) wholesome, (2) unwholesome, and (3) non-defined. The shaping of consciousness in relation to that is good, bad or neither; and it is the activity of the mind. Its function consists of directing the mind to the domain of favorable (kuśala), unfavorable (akuśala) or neutral (avyakṛta) activities.

151 Vedanā cetanā saṁjñā chandaḥ sparśo matiḥ smṛtiḥ| manaskāro'dhimokṣaśca samādhiḥsarvacetasi||24|| 受想思觸欲慧念與作意勝解三摩地遍於一切心 (Akk. ii.24) Akbp. Vol. 1, pp. 189-190, and Ak. pp. 280 - 289. 152 Six groups of sensation (vedanā-kāya) consist of five bodily sensations arise from contact (saṃsparśa) of the five material sense-faculties: the eye sense-faculty, ear, nose, etc., with mental sensations arise from contact with the mental faculty.

[15] 3. Saṃjñā (perception)

Saṃjñā (想) means perception; it is the combination of the cognition of an object and the arising of affect in response to this cognition leads to the operation of the aggregate of conceptualization (saṃjñā-skandha). Conceptualization is a pivotal category in that it deals with the relationship between thought and the formation and assignation of concepts with regard to the objects that are cognized. Vasubandhu described saṃjñā as the comprehension of marks or sign (nimitta) such as blue or yellow, long or short, female or male, friend or enemy, and so on. Saṃjña can also be divided into six groups of perceptions (saṃjñā-kāya) as feeling (vedana).153 Saṃjña points to the process through which an object‘s defining characteristics are perceptible. The relationship between conceptualization and naming is elucidated.154

[16] 4. Chanda (desire for action)

Chanda (欲) is the desire for action (kartukāma), it accords with vigor (vīrya), arising from the thought: we will make such and such an undertaking. Thus, the predilection or desire in this general sense is indispensable for the undertaking of any action; wholesome (skillful) or unwholesome (unskillful). The desire for the acquisition of skillful dharma, called kuśala-dharma-chanda, is encouraged to the spiritual practitioners and is specifically distinguished from desire in the bad sense of greed (rāga) or craving (tṛṣṇā).

153 Vedanā'nubhavaḥ saṁjñā nimittodgrahaṇātmikā||14cd|| 受領納隨觸想取像為體 (Akk. i. 14 cd) 154 Nāmakāyādayaḥ saṁjñāvākyākṣarasamuktayaḥ||47ab|| 名身等所謂想章字總說. (Akk. ii.47ab)

[17] 5. Sparśa (contact or touch)

Sparśa (觸) means contact or touch; this is the state of contact arisen out of the encounter of the organ, the object and the consciousness. In other words, the dharma by virtue of which is the organ, the object, and the consciousness if they were touching one another. Contact is born of the coming together of the faculty, the object and the consciousness (indriya-viṣaya-vijñāna-spṛṣṭiḥ); it is also by virtue of this dharma that the three are in contact with the object. It has the characteristic of enlivening the thought-concomitants (caitasika-dharma).

[18] 6. Prajñā or Mati (understanding)

Prajñā (慧) is understanding, knowledge or wisdom; this is defined as the investigation of dharma (dharma-pravicaya). It is one of the most important caitta.155 Understanding is the investigation (pravicaya) of dharma. The specific understanding that operates in the discernment of the four Noble Truths in the course of spiritual progress is called discriminative consideration (pratisaṃkhyā). It is through this that absolute cessation of defilement and finally nirvāṇa (pratisaṃkhyā- nirodha) is acquired. In other words, when fully perfected, prajñā is the perfect wisdom of a Buddha. Still, in its general functioning, it may be pure or impure, right or erroneous. All views, therefore, both right and false are prajñā in their essential nature.

155 Prajñā'malā sānucarā'bhidharmaḥ tatprāptaye yāpi ca yacca śāstram| tasyārthato'smin samanupraveśāt sa cā śrayo'syetyabhidharmakośam||2|| Prajñā śrutādimayī anye saṁsargālambanāḥkramaḥ| yathotpatti catuṣkaṁ tu viparyāsavipakṣataḥ||15|| 淨慧隨行名對法及能得此諸慧論攝彼勝義依彼故此立對法俱舍名. 自性聞等慧餘相雜所緣說次第隨生治倒故唯四 (Akk. i.2. and vi. 15)

[19] 7. Smṛti (mindfulness)

Smṛti (念) is mindfulness, this enables the mind to clearly remember the object (cittasyārthābhilapanā), to be mindful of what has been done, what is being done and what will be done. The operation of this caitta becomes particularly important in the practice of meditation.

[20] 8. Manaskāra (mental application or an act of attention)

Manaskāra (作意) is the modification (ābhoga) of the mind-stuff (cetas), in other words, ‗to bend‘ or ‗to apply‘ the mind-stuff towards an object (ālambane cerasa āvarjanam, avadhāraṇam). That which alerts thought i.e. it directs thought towards an object. It is also the holding in thought of an object that has earlier been experienced (pūrvānubhūta).

[21] 9. Adhimokṣa or adhimukti (resolve, determination)

Adhimukti (勝解) is approval, this enables the mind to be determined and inclined toward an ascertained object (niścite viṣaya). It is the affirmation (avadhāraṇa) with regard to an object, i.e. it enables one to be free from diffidence with regard to an object perceived (cittasya viṣayāpatisaṃkoca). The certitude that an object about which a determination has been made exists in just that manner. It means holding to certainty, is the action of remaining on an object chosen by choice. When the caittas are born, they all approve the object and intensified interest this stays with its object i.e. adhimokṣa.

[22] 10. Samādhi (concentration)

This is defined as ‗the one-pointedness of the mind‘, enables the citta to remain focused on an object. Accordingly, cultivating meditation is considerably perceived as a curb on the wandering of the monkey (citta is

like monkey and manas or caitasika is like horse) so that it can operate (vartate) on a single object. Samādhi (定) is the unity of the object with the mind (cittaikāgratā): this is the dharma by virtue of which the mind, in an uninterrupted series, remains on an object. Concentration is that which causes thought to be focused on an object. Minds which have the same object constitute samādhi.156

IV.1.3.2. Kuśala Mahābhūmika Dharma (Meritorious Mental States)

The sphere of the good dharma of great extension is a term of kuśala mahābhūmika dharma (大善地法). The mental states that arise from this sphere are termed kuśalamahābhūmikas: the dharmas that are found in all good minds. The meritorious mental states (kuśalamahābhūmikas) consist of 10 dharmas; it is mentioned in great detail in chapter two, verses 25 of Abhidharmakośa, which includes all fundamental meritorious mental states as follows:157

[23]. 1. Śraddhā (faith)

Śraddhā (信) is clarification of the mind, which causes the clarification of thought (cetasaḥ prasādaḥ) with regard to its object. It is named faith on account of being receptive based on direct realization of the Three Jewels, clarity of mind toward karma, the Four Noble truths, etc., the cause-effect relationship and the existence (astitva) of the dharma. It is a dharma which removes mental turbidity (kāluṣya), just as a water clearing gem, when placed inside a pond at once clarifies

156 Dvidhā dhyānāni catvāri proktāstadupapattayaḥ| samāpattiḥ śubhaikāgyraṁ pañcaskandhāstu sānugam||1|| 靜慮四各二於中生已說定謂善一境并伴五蘊性 (Akk. viii.1) Akbp. Vol. 4, pp. 1216 -1218. 157 Śraddhā'pramādaḥ praśrabdhirupekṣā hrīrapatrapā| mūladvayamahiṁsā ca vīryaṁ ca kuśale sadā||25|| 信及不放逸輕安捨慚愧二根及不害勤唯遍善心 (Akk. ii. 25) Akbp. Vol. 1, pp. 191-193.

100

the turbid water; likewise, the faith-gem within the mind-pond at once gets rid of all its turbidities. Faith believes in the Buddha‘s attainment of Enlightenment, to the dharma as being well-expounded (svākhyāta), to the Saṃgha as being endowed with good conduct (supratipanna), as well as to dependent origination (pratītya-samutpāda), the true nature of dharma (dharmatā), which is not understood by the heretics such is the domain of activities of faith.

[24]. 2. Apramāda (self-control, diligence or vigilance)

Apramāda (不放逸) may be understood as a continuous and repeated process of application of thought to acquire kuśala dharma or morally wholesome dharma. The process clearly indicates that the practitioner‘s mind is kept under constant surveillance in order to get away from detrimental deeds or unwholesome states (akuśala dharma). Apramāda thus means a protection against fall from and a constant and considerable effort to maintain, the moral advance already attained.

[25]. 3. Praśrabdhi (quietude or serenity)

Praśrabdhi (輕安) is serenity or quietude; both are described as karmaṇyatā or a pliability or aptitude of mind. Praśrabdhi is also understood as a lightened or relieved attitude. This attitude indicates a fitness for suitability to further development of citta. This citta is a step conducive to the attainment of enlightenment. There are two kinds of this serenity; kāya-praśrabdhi (physical) and citta-praśrabdhi (mental).

[26]. 4. Upekṣā (equanimity, renunciation)

Upekṣā (行捨) is the equilibrated state of citta and it is described as a state of non-concernment, detachment or absence of manasikāra. The

101

state of upekṣā occurs as conditions for it are prepared. Upekṣā is experienced by means of faculty (indriya) of detachment. Faculty (indriya) of detachment is regarded as the fundamental factor of ethical performances.

[27]. 5. Hri (shame or shame for one‘s self)

Hri (慚) is shame and modesty or modesty shame internal sense; it is produced on account of the dominant influence of oneself and of the dharma. It is a mental freedom (citta-vaśitā) opposed to the emanation of craving (tṛṣṇā-niṣyanda). On the basis of this conduct, one abides respecting virtues and the virtuous. It is produced on account of the dominant influence of oneself and of the Dharma. He or she is always filled with a sense of shame at what he or she has done something wrong with himself or herself.

[28]. 6. Apatrapā (humility or shame for others)

Apatrapā (愧) is the existence (bhāvanā) of good dharma or shame in external sense. It has the cultivation of virtues as its precondition. It being opposed to the emanation of delusion (moha-niṣyanda), possessing it scorns at lowly dharma. Owing to being able to remain this conduct, one dreads evil and tries one‘s best to give up actions harmful to others. Embarrassment about objectionable acts for reasons relating to oneself. On the basis of this virtue, one is always endowed with a feeling of shame over what he has done something wrong with others.

[29]. 7. Alobha (non-greed, absence of greed)

Alobha (無貪) is a positive virtue indicating absence of greed or absence of gain motive and something more. The mind state in which

102

this caitta is present is above any craving or desire for any objects; this dharma is recognized as one of the root merits or roots of good (kuśa-mūla).

[30]. 8. Adveṣa (non-hatred, avoidance of hatred, absence of anger)

Adveṣa (無嗔) is described as absence of anger or antipathy, the mind state becomes free from any hateful or spiteful disposition which evidently indicates a conflict. This states that loving kindness (maitī) and also compassion (karuṇā) are non-hatred (adveṣa), because of being the antidote (pratipakṣa) for hatred (dveṣa). Justified (sthāna) hatred is cured by loving kindness; unjustified (asthāna) hatred is cured by compassion. Furthermore, hatred produced for abandoning (prahāṇa) life (jīvita) of being (sattva) is cured by loving kindness; hatred produced for certain punishment of beings is cured by compassion. That is why those who seek for merit can produce these unlimited ones; not those who seek for what is vicious (doṣa).

[31]. 9. Ahiṃsā (harmlessness, non-injury, non-violence)

Ahiṃsā (不害) is the mental goodness. Being endowed with the ethical conduct, one does not harm any sentient being, and becomes averse to the harmful activities in which others indulge. Ahiṃsā is described in the Kośa as a caitta which by its activity makes the citta or mind-state non-injurious to others. This caitta may have karuṇā or compassion. Ahiṃsā may be understood as absence of aggressive attitude. Adveṣa seems to be a relatively more subjective state than ahiṃsā which indicates actual violence. The two items dharma adveṣa and ahiṃsā which indicates actual violence.

103

[32]. 10. Vīrya (energy, diligence or vigor)

Vīrya (精進) is diligence as well endurance of the mind; energetic or enthusiasm in meritorious deeds (kuśalakriyā). It has the nature of being energetic (abhyutsāha) in the production and cessation, of the wholesome and unwholesome dharma i.e. it goads the thought of those sunk in the mire of transmigration to get out quickly. Vīrya is also described as a cultivated spirit of active energy.

III.1.3.3. Kleśa Mahābhūmika Dharma (Defiled Mental States)

Kleśa mahābhūmika dharma (大煩惱地法) states operation of mental, it arise in the consciousness with the basic afflictions (kleśa), The mental states that belong to this sphere, i.e. existence in all defiled minds, which include all great afflictions of mind etc., When any kind of passion begins to act, they are called kleśa mahābhūmika dharma. There are six afflictions as follows:158

[33]. 1. Mohā (delusion or ignorance)

Mohā (癡) is described as an aspect of avidyā or wrong opinion. Mohā is also described as confusion or darkness of mind. It may be recognized as root of evil and source of wrong opinion. And mohā also is explained as wrong opinion about pleasure, which is suffering in disguise, about purity confused with impurity and about permanence in impermanence.

158 Mohaḥ pramādaḥ kauśīdyamāśraddhayaṁ styānamuddhavaḥ| 癡逸怠不信惛掉恒唯染.(Akk. ii. 26 a-b) Akbp. Vol. 1, pp. 193-195.

104

[34]. 2. Pramāda (non-diligence, inattention or carelessness)

Pramāda (放逸) is described as the opposite of diligence; it is the non-taking possession of and the non-cultivation of good dharma. It is the inability to guard thought and one is incapable of keeping his mind under control. Because of that, one is largely engaged in activities of body, speech, or mind inattentively, any non-guarding of citta from afflictions, and non-cultivation of the beneficial, which comes about by being linked with greed, hostility, confusion, or sloth. Non-development of the good due to craving, hatred and delusion associated with idleness becomes unconcern and indolence. So, diligence or a repeated and continuous watch is needed with intention to achieve perfect life and protect such an achievement against all possible failure.

[35]. 3. Kauśīdya (indolence, passivity)

Kauśīdya (懈怠) is indolence, passivity or lethargic negligence of mind. It may be understood as an opposite functioning of energy. Kauśīdya is lack of exertion toward virtue; i.e. lack of mental effort caused by the craving pleasures.

[36]. 4. Āśraddhya (lack of faith or incredulity)

Āśraddhya (不信) indicates absence of faith or lack of belief of thought. Absence of faith functions directly in opposition to a state of faith (śradhā), one of the caitta of ethically unwholesome mind-state. It is lack of clarity of mind toward karma and its results, as lack of knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, of the three Jewels etc.

105

[37]. 5. Styāna (torpor, sloth, mental fogginess or gloominess)

Styāna (惛沈) is torpor or heaviness; this is the opposite of aptitude or serenity which has already been discussed as one of the caitta of morally wholesome mental. Styāna is described as heaviness of both mind and body.

[38]. 6. Auddhatya (absence of quietude or thoughtlessness)

Auddhatya (掉擧) is absence of quietude or thoughtlessness, non- calmness and lack of calmness in the mind. The mind-state is perturbed while this particular caitta remains active. It is disquiet excitability ebullience of mind.

IV.1.3.4. Akuśala Mahābhūmika Dharma (Great Evil Mental States)

A dharma is said to be kuśala which is to be subsumed as being skillful, which effects a desirable fruit and which is by nature secure (kṣema). A dharma which can produce the germs of a desirable existence and of liberation is said to be kuśala. A dharma which cannot produce the germs of a desirable existence and of liberation is said to be akuśala. The akuśala consists of two dharmas, which include all evil mental states that are called akuśala mahabhumikas dharma (大不善地法) (unskillful universals, unwholesome).159

[39]. 1. Āhrīkya (lack of shame or shamelessness)

Āhrīkya (無慚), is shamelessness or absence of shame (absence of Hrī) is lack of veneration, the lack of fearful submission with regard

159 Kliṣṭe sadaiva akuśale tvāhrīkyamanapatrapā||26 c-d|| 唯遍不善心無慚及無愧 Krodhamrakṣau ca rāgotthā āhrīkyauddhatyamatsarāḥ| mrakṣe vivādaḥ avidyātaḥ styānamiddhānapatrapāḥ||48|| 無慚慳掉舉皆從貪所生無愧眠惛沈從無明所起. (Akk. ii. 26 c-d, and v. 48) Akbp. Vol. 1, pp. 195 and vol. 3, pp. 842-43.

106

to the qualities (maitri, karuna, etc.) of oneself and others, and with regard to persons endowed with these qualities, is āhrīkya, āhrī is a mental dharma opposed to respect. Āhrīkya is the absence of shame in the commission of a transgression; anapatrāpya is the absence of shame. Lack of embarrassment is about objectionable acts for reasons relating to oneself. Therefore, one has bad character of shamelessness, he can cause a great deal of harm to others without a minute of hesitation. It is plausibly argued that his violent behavior is also out of this character.

[40]. 2. Anapatrāpya (imprudence or shamelessness)

Anapatrāpya (無愧) is described as absence of fear of being talked about or being publicly condemned for doing wrong. In a sense, Anapatrāpya may be explained as recklessness or lack of social sense and want of understanding of consequences.

The two caitta items āhrīkya and anapatrāpya are interrelated. The meaning of āhrīkya is absence of internal or personal shame. The meaning of anapatrāpya indicates absence of shame in presence of others or shamelessness in the external sense.

IV.1.3.5. Parittakleśa Bhūmika Dharma (slightly defiled mental states)

The caitta dharma of parittakleśa-bhūmika-dharma (小煩惱地法) is mind state made up of limited or insignificant passions. They are not common to all the consciousness arise with defile mental (kleśas), but only in faculty with the sixth (defiled consciousness) i.e. manovijñāna. Parittakleśa- bhūmikas is defilements of restricted scope, derivative or minor afflictions. They are called this because they have been known as parītta i.e. minor, small defilement, insignificant or ignorance (avidya), these combine into a

107

mind state known as parīttakleśa-bhūmika-citta with ―petty passions‖ or non serious type. Consisting of 10 defilements are lesser evils, illusions, temptations, vicious elements of limited occurrence, which include the slightly defiled mental states.160

[41]. 1. Krodha (anger)

Krodha (忿) is wrath, the caitta dharma remains in the mind as a real state in the present or future phases of time. An irritation of the mind with respect to living beings and to things is an irritation distinct from that of regret, anger and hostility.

[42]. 2. Upanāha (enmity, following krodha)

Upanāha (恨) is described as enmity. The enmity is aversion by anger (krodha). It has also the sense of harboring ill will against others and hateful disposition and an emotional mood. The harboring of hatred within and not getting out of it are results from the repeated thinking over of the objects of anger.

[43]. 3. Śāṭhya (guile, dishonesty)

Śāṭhya (諂) is guile, dishonesty, hypocrisy or dissimulation. This dharma indicates a double-facedness or duplicity. Double-dealing or crookedness of mind causes one not to say things as one should, not to deny when one should, or to expound something in a confused manner with intention to take something from someone.

160 Krodhopanāhaśāṭhyerṣyāpradāsamrakṣamatsarāḥ| māyāmadavihiṁsāśca parīttakleśabhūmikāḥ||27|| Vidyāvipakṣo dharmo'nyo'vidyā'mitrānṛtādivat||28 c-d| kaukṛtyaṁ vicikitsātaḥkodherṣye pratighānvaye| anye ca ṣaṭkleśamalāḥ māyā śāṭhyaṁ madastathā||49|| 忿覆慳嫉惱害恨諂誑憍如是類名為小煩惱地法. 明所治無明如非親實等. 嫉忿從瞋起悔從疑覆諍煩惱垢六惱害恨諂誑憍 (Akk. ii. 27, iii. 28 c-d, and v. 49) Akbp. Vol. 1, p. 196, Vol. 2, p. 419-20. And vol. 3, pp. 843-44.

108

[44]. 4. Irsya (jealousy, envy)

Irsya (嫉) means jealousy, envy or mental dissatisfaction concerns the prosperity of another. That is by virtue of which the mind becomes unable to bear the excellences of others. It implies incapacity of one‘s own self and a sense of inferiority in comparison to another‘s capacity. For example the jealousy is the complete vexation of mind at another‘s success as well agitation of citta at the achievements of others.

[45]. 5. Pradāsa (obstinacy or envious rivalry)

Pradāsa (惱) is envious rivalry, which causes one not to accept remonstrance of others. It indicates a feeling of unwillingness to see others getting some advantage over one‘s own self. Clinging to various reproachable things, as a result of which one would not accept any rightful admonition.

[46]. 6. Mrakṣa (concealment, ingratitude)

Mrakṣa (覆) is concealment, it is described also as a peculiar mentality of disparaging other‘s good qualities, but it does not mean concealment of one‘s own good qualities. Ingratitude is hiding one's faults and hiding one‘s own evil.

[47]. 7. Mātsarya (jealousy, Stinginess, miserliness, selfishness)

Mātsarya (慳) is tenacity of the mind, which is opposed to either spiritual or material giving, that which causes the mind to be hoarding with regard to one‘s own belongings and wealth. What belongs to me must not go to others is acquisitiveness of mind that opposes generosity.

109

[48]. 8. Māyā (deceptiveness, duplicity, trick, wile, deceit)

Māyā (誑) is the dharma that causes one to delude another. It includes something false in appearance. The displaying of something that is untrue in an attempt to deceive others. It is a display of false virtues by him, who is set on benefits and fame.

[49]. 9. Mada (pride, complacency, haughtiness, conceit)

Mada (憍) is conceit, a kind of mental manipulation of true state of things. Pride has the nature of being arrogant and caring for nobody, which is result of an attachment to one‘s own physical appearance, strength, lineage, purity of precept, learning and eloquence, etc. evidently this state occurs owing to an over estimation of one‘s own ego which is again a sign of ignorance (avidyā). Mada means also a state of self- complacence and pleasurable feeling due to elation. The mind experiences a pleasure in thinking and believing that his or her own self is of a high status, even though that may be false.

[50]. 10. Vihiṃsā (spirit of nuisance or violence, cruelty, malice)

Vihiṃsā (害) is spirit of violence, cruelty or malice; the impulse to do injury to sentient beings. It means also cruelty, lack of compassion. This may be understood more than as injuriousness or cruel tendency. It occurs in a mind where compassion (karuṇā) is absent.

IV.1.3.6. Aniyatabhūmika Dharmas (Indeterminate Mental Properties)

Aniyatabhūmika dharma (不定地法) is one of the five mental states headings as mentioned above but these mental states cannot be fitted into the five categories or mind states discussed previously. Therefore, they are called mental states indeterminate (aniyata) and which may be either

110

meritorious or demeritorious or indefinite (avyākṛta). These literally mean mental operations which do not fall within a definite or particular division. These may function along with morally wholesome and morally unwholesome mind states. Aniyata is undetermined or irregular state. E.g. a citta may become kuśala or akuśala later as the case may be and so long it is not so, it is aniyata. There are other mental states that are indeterminate (aniyata), which are sometimes associated with a good mind, and sometimes with a bad or a neutral mind. Aniyata is composed of eight dharmas as follows:161

[51]. 1. Kaukṛtya (remorse, repentance, contrition, worry, regret)

Kaukṛtya (惡作, 悔) is a mind‘s sense of remorse and mental repentance. Regret is good when it is related to a good action omitted or to a bad action accomplished. It is bad when it is relative to a bad action omitted or to a good action accomplished. These two types of regret bear on the two categories action bad good of mind. Kaukṛtya developed in a mind state where remorse occurs. Kaukṛtya may be kuśala or morally wholesome and akuśala or morally unwholesome. Morally wholesome motive of remorse is the same as a state of mind regretting over not doing a meritorious deed.

[52]. 2. Middha (languor, dreamy state, drowsiness or torpor)

Middha (睡眠, 眠) is a compression of the mind which rends it incapable of commanding the body. Languor can be good, bad, or neutral and it is the inability to sustain the psycho-physical series. The

161Krodhopanāhaśāṭhyerṣyāpradāsamrakṣamatsarāḥ| māyāmadavihiṁsāśca parīttakleśabhūmikāḥ||27|| Savitarkavicāratvāt kuśale kāmacetasi| dvāṁviṁśatiścaitasikāḥkaukṛtyamadhikaṁkvacit||28|| 忿覆慳嫉惱害恨諂誑憍如是類名為小煩惱地法. 欲有尋伺故於善心品中二十二心所有時增惡作. (Akk. ii. 27 & 28) Akbp. Vol. 1, pp. 196-97.

111

uncontrolled contraction of the mind‘s activity, the uncontrolled mental contraction which is part of delusion because of a certain cause of languor, be it favorable (kuśala), unfavorable (akuśala) or neutral.162 E.g. middha is like the kind of state one is in after a heavy meal. Its primarily a physical state, but it does of course have mental repercussions, and these may be either positive or negative depending on circumstances.

[53]. 3. Vitarka (investigating or discursive reflection)

Vitarka (尋) is initial application, it is described as crude and investigating consciousness of mind groping or hovering over the object, it has got to know and it is also understood as searching mind. Vitarka is supposed to be a crude and manifest function of mind and sometimes verbally expressed. It is a state of mind which has not yet been fixed to its object. Vitarka is a discourse of inquiry by manas-vijñāna as an indistinct state of citta.163

[54]. 4. Vicāra (investigation, discerning, reflection)

Vicāra (伺) is described a subtle state of the mind, it means investigation, discerning, reflection or discursiveness. They have the characteristic of causing thought to be subtle. It is this dharma, which serves as the cause that accord with the operation of mental consciousness on its object. It is a form of mental discourse that examines an object closely. It is like the previous mental factor (vitarka), except that it is a

162 Middhaṁ sarvāvirodhitvādyatra syādadhikaṁhi tat||30 c-d|| Kaukṛtyamiddhākuśalānyādye dhyāne na santyataḥ| dhyānāntare vitarkaśca vicāraścāpyataḥparam||31|| Krodhamrakṣau ca rāgotthā āhrīkyauddhatyamatsarāḥ| mrakṣe vivādaḥ avidyātaḥ styānamiddhānapatrapāḥ||48|| 睡眠遍不違若有皆增一, 初定除不善及惡作睡眠中定又除尋上兼除伺等. 無慚慳掉舉皆從貪所生無愧眠惛沈從無明所起. (Akk. ii. 30 c-d, 31, v. 48) Akbp. Vol. 1, p. 199, and Vol. 3. PP. 842-843. 163 Vitarkacārā vaudāryasūkṣmate māna unnatiḥ| madaḥ svadharme raktasya paryādānaṁtu cetasaḥ||33|| 尋伺心麁細慢對他心舉憍由染自法心高無所顧.(Akk. ii. 33) Akbp. Vol. 1, pp. 202- 204.

112

fineness of mind. This is a discourse of examination by manas-vijñāna as a more precise state of citta.

It seems that the concepts vitarka and vicāra go together and are comprehensible in their interrelated function. Vicāra is said to be preceded by vitarka. Thus, it may be said that the synthetic activity of mind is ordinarily preceded by analytic reflection. Vicāra again may be indicated as subtle understanding of abstract thought processes which may not be vocally expressed as in case of vitarka. Vitarka and vicāra may also be known in the light of modern experimental psychology also as the fringe of consciousness and focusing point of consciousness respectively.

Precise Analysis is a distinct mental factor that is dependent on the intention or intelligent analysis of the object in detail. a) Thought conception (vitarka) is the laying hold of a thought, giving it attention. It characteristic consists in fixing the consciousness to the object. b) Discursive thinking (vicāra) is the roaming about and moving to and processes of the mental state, it manifests itself as continued activity of mind. Both general examination and precise analysis are qualities ascribed to intention and intelligence, their difference being determined by the degree of precision, with which they investigate the object.

[55]. 5. Rāga (greed, desire, craving, passion or lust)

Rāga (貪) is described as a strong attachment or inclination. It is also interpreted as lust of life or craving for enjoying everything. Rāga is an obstacle to perfection, because it is due to the fact that craving is always associated with avidyā. Thus, it is said that chanda-rāga means craving for one‘s own self. There may be several more expressions, viz. attachment for sensuous nature (kāmarāga), attachment for existence

113

(bhavarāga) and personality dominated by attachment (rāga- caritapudgala) and so on. So, rāga is greed sensual pleasure, strong affection, attachment to, as well for five grasping aggregates.164

[56]. 6. Pratigha (hostility, animosity, repugnance, anger)

Pratigha (嗔) is repugnance or hostility, hostility is associated with displeasure and dissatisfaction. Lust and hatred include happiness and dejection respectively. Physically it means state of obstruction or impenetrability, used exactly in describing matter as impenetrable. Psychologically and ethically, pratigha means repugnance or aversion. (See also Akk. v. 55 mentioned in footnote below).

[57]. 7 Māna (conceit, pride, pretension, egoism, arrogance)

Māna (慢) indicates a falsely made up high opinion or exalted idea about one‘s own self. It is the error of pride, pride of inferiority, wrong pride, ignorant pride these are arrogance. Māna also means a false sense of being an agent or performer of an act. It is an evil disposition and is one of the fetters by which one gets tied down to the phenomenal world. (See also Akk. ii.33. mentioned in footnote above)

[58]. 8. Vicikitsā (doubt or lack of faith)

Vicikitsā (疑) is doubt or perplexity. It is state of being puzzled and lack of faith, doubt is recognized as one of the hindrances to the pursuit of any higher ideal. It is said that kaukṛtya arises out of vicikitsā. That is causes hesitation in the mind with regard to the human life, etc.

164 Sukhābhyāṁ saṁprayukto hi rāgaḥdveṣo viparyayāt| mohaḥsarvaiḥ asaddṛṣṭirmanoduḥkhasukhena tu||55|| 欲界諸煩惱貪喜樂相應瞋憂苦癡遍邪見憂及喜. (Akk. v. 55) Akbp. Vol. 3, p. 847.

114

In short, Vasubandhu has classified the mental functions (caitta) with reference to their essential nature. He has also explained each of the terms mentioned above. He explains also how these mental states are grouped together in the kāmadhātu or in any other higher dhātus. He advocates that in the kāmadhātu the mind of an individual falls into one or other of the following five categories of mental states: (1) Meritorious, (2) Simple demeritorious, (3) Complex demeritorious, (4) Obstructing neutral, and (5) Unobstructing neutral.165

(1) The mind, when meritorious (kuśala), comprises twenty-two mental properties; ten general mental states (citta-mahābhūmikas) which are present in every state of consciousness, ten meritorious mental states (kuśala-mahābhūmikas) and two indeterminate mental properties (aniyata-bhūmikā) are reflection (vitarka) and investigation (vicāra). When however, remorse (kaukṛtya) is added the number become twenty- three in all.

(2) The mind, when demeritorious, in combination with delusion (avidyā) and wrong views (dṛṣṭi), comprises twenty mental properties; ten general mental states (citta-mahābhūmikas), six defiled mental states (kleśa-mahābhūmikas), two evil mental states (akuśala-mahābhūmikas) and reflection (vitarka) and investigation (vicāra).

(3) When these demeritorious mental properties are associated either with any one of the four passions; rāga or pratigha or māna or vicikitsā as well as with one of the passions like krodha or upanāha or śāṭhya or kaukṛtya etc., the number becomes twenty-one.

165 Mbp. pp. 189-192.

115

(4) Obstructing neutral states of mind or those which are tainted by passions and indeterminate are eighteen dharmas as follows: ten general mental states (citta-mahābhūmikas), six defiled mental states (kleśa-mahābhūmikas) and reflection (vitarka) and investigation (vicāra).

(5) Unobstructing neutral states of mind or those which are not defiled with passions and are really neither meritorious nor demeritorious are twelve dharmas as follows: ten general mental states (citta- mahābhūmikas) and reflection (vitarka) and investigation (vicāra). If remorse (kaukṛtya) is added, this number becomes thirteen. In all these five categories of mental (caitta) states in the kāmadhātu if torpor (middha) is the number of mental states increases in each case by one.

Beside, Vasubandhu also explained classification of the mental states in the higher spheres; as rūpadhātu and arūpadhātu:166

(1) In the first dhyāna of the rūpadhātu the number of mental states (caitta) becomes thirty-four are: Ten general mental states (citta- mahābhūmikas), ten meritorious mental states (kuśala-mahābhūmikas), six defiled mental states (kleśa-mahābhūmikas), three subsidiary kleśas (śāṭhya, māyā and mada) and five indeterminates (vitarka, vicāra, rāga, māna and vicikitsā).

(2) The stage between the first and the second dhyānas fades way vitarka and retains the other thirty-three mental states.

(3) The stage from the second dhyāna up to the arūpadhātu removes vicāra, ṣāṭhya and māyā and retains the remaining thirty mental states.

166 Mbp. pp. 191-192.

116

IV.1.4. Citta-Viprayukta-Saṃskāra Dharma (Conditioned Disjoined from Mind)

Citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra dharma (心不相應行法) means composite energies apart from the matter and mind. These energies are not always actual but potential. It must be noted they cannot become active unless they are joined to a mental or material basis, though they are quite independent of both mind and matter. In other words, dharma is not interactive with mind or non-associated compositional factors, which are called citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra dharmas.167 The following fourteen factors do not fall into the category of either mind or matter and for the most part are natural forces which control the way dharmas interact:168

[59]. 1. Prāpti (possession, attainment, or conditioning)

Prāpti (得) is an achievement, acquisition or possession. It is getting, attaining, when an individual achieves a success for the first time. It is assimilation when the individual has already attained that. Prāpti is real for the past, present and future phases of time. Prāpti cannot occur in a different series, when conjunction, combination, connection between two objects cannot be taken as prāpti. One is possible to the human beings only. The other is constituted object concerning human beings and constituted may be the object of achievement. It is being connected with something attained. Prāpti is cause of the arising of the dharmas origin of the condition of beings or special state of the human beings. Thus, prāpti is a force that links a dharma to a particular series i.e. the individual.

167 Sa. pp. 181-191. 168 Viprayuktāstu saṁskārāḥ prāptyaprāptī sabhāgatā| āsaṁjñikaṁ samāpattī jīvitaṁ lakṣaṇāni ca ||35|| nāmakāyādayaśceti||36a|| 心不相應行得非得同分無想二定命相名身等類. 得謂獲成就 (Akk. ii. 35 & 36a) Akbp. Vol. 1, p. 206.

117

Aprāpti is another real entity whose function and nature are just opposed to those of prāpti: it acts to assure that given dharma is delinked from the individual series.169

[60]. 2. Aprāpti (non-achievement, non-acquisition, dispossession)

Aprāpti (非得) is non-acquisition and possession, it is of two types: (1) Acquisition of that which has not been attained or of that which had been lost. (2) Possession of that which having been attained has not been lost. Aprāpti is the opposite of prāpti, everything that is susceptible of prāpti is also susceptible of aprāpti. There is prāpti and aprāpti of dharmas that belong to the person himself. When a conditioned dharma, falls into the personal series, there is prāpti or aprāpti of this dharma, but not if it falls into the series of another person, for no one possesses the dharmas of another; nor if it does not fall into any series, for does anyone possess the dharmas which are not of a living being.170

[61]. 3. Sabhāgatā (uniformity of characteristics)

Sabhāgatā (衆同分) or Nikāya-sabhāgatā demonstrates uniformity of characteristics homogeneity or likeness. Sabhāgatā implies equal or similar nature (sattvasāmya). It is described as the generic or common quality, common to each and every member of a class. Sabhāgatā is not perceived by any sense organ. Sabhāgatā is arūpa i.e. non-material and may be understood as a hypothetical and abstract a reality.

Sabhāgatā consists of two types, general and particular. The first is found in all living beings: by virtue of it, there is resemblance of any sentient being with all other living beings. The second has numerous

169 Ak. p. 335. 170 Prāptirlābhaḥsamanvayaḥ| prāptyaprāptī svasaṁtāna patitānāṁnirodhayoḥ||36b-d|| 非得此相違得非得唯於自相續二滅. (Akk. ii. 36b-d) Akbp. Vol. 1, p.206-8.

118

subdivisions: each of these subdivisions is found only in certain beings. sentient beings are distinguishable by their spheres of existence, the different stages of these spheres, their realm of rebirth, their wombs, their caste, the state of upāsaka, bhikṣu, śaikṣa (in accordance with right teaching or with rule, correct), or Arhat, etc. by virtue of which each living being of a certain species resembles living beings of this same species. This is close interrelationship of bodily parts as regards sentient beings171

[62]. 4. Āsaṃjñika (unconsciousness, absence of perception or non- conscious beings)

Āsaṃjñika (無想, 無想果) is a state of temporary cessation of consciousness during which the future mental state or the mind derivatives is temporary withdrawn. Āsaṃjñika means absence of saṃjñā or perception. The individual achieving this state will regain saṃjñā, only after a fixed time or at the time of rebirth and death. In both cases, nature of consciousness will be neutral or elementary substance from which all things were created. Non-pleasure or non-unpleasure is the dominating feature. It is said that the denizens of the fourth dhyāna state, attain spontaneously this āsaṃjñika state in their mind. But the beings of kāma dhātu obtain the same with serious efforts. Thus, āsaṃjñika is a result of the state of composure without conception, a subdivision of the fourth stage of abstract meditation (asaṃjñi-samāpatti); and the cessation of inconstant minds and mental factors of a being, who has been born among the deities and lack of conception.172

171 Sabhāgatā sattvasāmyaṁ ||41a|| 同分有情等. (Akk. ii. 41a) Akbp. Vol. 1, pp. 219-221. 172 Āsaṁjñikamasaṁjñiṣu||41b|| 無想無想中. (Akk. ii. 41b) Akbp. Vol. 1, p. 219-221.

119

[63]. 5. Asaṃjñi-samāpatti (mental training leading to the attainment of unconsciousness, stage of meditation producing cessation of perception or trance stage of non-consciousness)

Like the āsaṃjñika, asaṃjñi-samāpatti (無想定) is a dharma that arrests the mind and its mental states. It is accepted as a kind of dhyāna or meditation (It is an absorption entered from the fourth dhyana). The state of cessation of consciousness, (non-consciousness) previously described as āsaṃjñika is known as the transformation or resultant of this asaṃjñi-samāpatti. It is produced by a kind of dhyāna which is kuśala or morally wholesome in nature. The ārya (noble Ones or liberated) who is already placed in path of insight or path of meditation does not crave for this samāpatti. This state is free of mind states (citta) and mind derivatives (caitta). The cessation of inconstant minds and mental factors (non-stable events) are preceded by a form of attention that conceives deliverance (non-thought concentration). This called absorption and is simply the non-existence of the mind for a certain period of time; not a thing in and of itself, but a thing of designation. The argument is also extended with regard to āsaṃjñika (non-consciousness), and nirodha-samāpatti.173

[64]. 6. Nirodha-samāpatti (mental training leading to the attainment of cessation of all existences, state of composure that is a cessation, concentration of extinction)

Nirodha-samāpatti (滅盡定) is described as a higher stage of dhyāna than asaṃjñi-samāpatti. It is an equivalent of saṃjñā-nirodha-

173Tathā'saṁjñisamāpattiḥ dhyāne'ntye niḥsṛtīcchayā| śubhā upapadyavedyaiva nāryasya ekādhvikāpyate||42| 如是無想定從靜慮求脫善唯順生受非聖得一世 (Akk. ii. 42b) Akbp. vol. 1, pp. 223-224.

120

samāpatti which is a death like state or liberation. It means absorption of exitinction, which is a dharma that arrests the mind and its mental states. It is an absorption entered from the fourth arūpya-dhyāna (neither- conception-nor-non-conception), regarded as tranquility or stillness (not as deliverance) and practiced by the Aryans. Cessation of inconstant minds and mental factors (non-stable events), as well as a portion of the constant minds (more stable events), that is preceded by a form of attention that conceives of abiding in a state of ease.174

[65]. 7. Jīvitendriya (faculty of vitality, life-force, life-faculty)

Jīvita (命根) or āyu is life, it is described as another real state functioning free of mind. Jīvita is the substratum of body-temperature and consciousness. The support of warmth and consciousness is a cause of the duration of the series, named āyus. It is projected by previous karma, serving as the cause for the uninterrupted series of the six entrances (āyatana) of the human personality, and forming the basis for the designation (prajñapti) of the four births and the five planes of existence. So jīvitendriya is also called the life-principle (ayus), as regards any events taking part in an organism, any continuity for a certain time, of motivating dispositions and which have been projected by past action.

Jīvitendriya is included in the rūpaskandha. It is said that Jīvita or āyu exists in all the three spheres of existence, viz. sphere of sensuous nature (kāma), sphere of corporeality (rūpa), and the sphere of non- corporeality (Ārūpya). Thus from all the data mentioned above, the faculty of vitality (jīvitendriya) can be considered a particular and subtle form of

174 Nirodhākhyā tathaiveyaṁ vihārārthaṁ bhavāgrajā| śubhā dvivedyā'niyatā ca āryasya āpyā prayogataḥ||43|| 滅盡定亦然為靜住有頂善二受不定聖由加行得 (Akk. ii. 43) Akbp. vol. 1, pp. 225-226.

121

matter composition. But it is worth mentioning that the Jīvitendriya is non-spatial and abstract (arūpi). Jīvitendriya or faculty of vitality is supposed to be a saṃaskāra. Vitality is supposed to be impure and evil. Jīvitendriya ordinarily is the resultant of previous birth enjoyments etc. Jīvitendriya or faculty of vitality is morally neutral; it enjoys a status independent of mind (dissociated from mind‘s functioning). Jīvitendriya or faculty of vitality is found even in the stage sphere of non-corporeality (ārūpya). It is eradicated by means of meditation (repeated practice). It is quite natural that deep-rooted impression of vitality can be eradicated only by repeated effort of decondition all the impressions.175

[66]. 8. Jāti (arising, origination, origin, existence, birth)

Jāti (生相) is recognized as a characteristic feature (lakṣaṇa), it indicates subtle cause of all origin or birth. It is described as an activity force which is a particular causal condition. Every object is caused by Jāti or condition of origin. It is said to be the maturation of all the conditions or ripening of all the conditions under which a particular thing originates or comes into existence.

Arising produces or causes to produce conditioned things. When dharmas are produced, there is a force of internal cause which makes them achieve their specific functions. The origination is existence of previously nonexistent formations in relation to a class affiliate. Arising, duration, etc., are not entities, separate things in and of themselves. In fact, the production of the moment, its aging, and its disappearance, are not the objects of consciousness; whatever is not the object of consciousness cannot be a mark. The production or arising is

175 Āyurjīvitam ādhāra ūṣmavijñāyorhi yaḥ| lakṣaṇāni punarjātirjarā sthitiranityatā||45|| 命根體即壽能持煖及識相謂諸有為生住異滅性. (Akk. ii. 45) Akbp. vol. 1, pp. 233-239.

122

the fact that the series begins; with disappearance or impermanence is the end or cessation of the series; duration is the series continuation from its beginning until its end; evolution or old age is the modification of the continuous series, the difference between its successive states.

[67]. 9. Sthiti (duration, subsistence, growth, continuity)

Sthiti (住相) is duration; it is explained as the subtle cause of durability of the constituted world and nourishment of the constituted world. Thus, in case of momentary existence of a jar (ghaṭa) Sthiti may be taken as the subtle cause for its momentary existence. Sthiti is the subtle cause for durability of all things. As with jāti-jāti, sthiti-sthiti is recognized as the subtle cause for sthiti only. Duration stabilizes those conditioned dharmas or causes them to last. The cause which enables a dharma to stay temporarily, so as to be able to project a distinct fruit, is named the duration-characteristic (sthiti-lakṣaṇa).

[68]. 10. Jarā (decay)

Jarā (異相, 老相) is decay; it is the subtle cause for everything decaying. It is said that jarā is the subtle cause which weakens every object. Thus, a vessel getting old may be used as an example for jarā. Jarā again is caused by jarā-jarā. Decay makes them conditioned dharmas deteriorate. Deterioration is that which impairs a dharma‟s efficacy of projecting fruit, rendering it incapable of further projecting another distinct fruit. The modification of their continuum in relation to that is an alteration in the stratum of those like that is deterioration characteristic (jarā-lakṣaṇa).

123

[69]. 11. Anityatā (impermanence or impermanence ending in death, destruction)

Anityatā (滅相, 無常相) is the subtle cause of all destruction or death. Because of Anityatā, every object decays. Anityatā itself is again caused by anityatā-anityatā. In the jāti, sthiti and sthiti-anyathā (interpreted as anityatā) are accepted as the lakṣaṇas. Sthityanyathā has been split up and interpreted as two separate lakṣaṇas, viz., jarā and anityatā. Impermanence is that which causes a present dharma, whose activity having been impaired by the deterioration-characteristic (jarā- lakṣaṇa) to enter into the past. The destruction of their continuum in relation is that discontinuity in the stream.

[70]. 12. Nāmakāya (names for signifying a person, name and form, collection of words or language, words or force imparting significance to words)

Nāmakāya (名身) means name and form, it is a collection of saṁjñā; it includes all names and words (body and group). Nāmakāya is described as name (nāma), object or individual with a name (namādheya) and naming or grouping by perception (saṃjñākarana). Name is also taken as a means to saṃjñā or perception. Perception is functions through some symbols or names. A name symbolically conveys a definite sense to the mind. The object of individual signified by a name is marked off or differentiated from all other things or beings in the world. Saṃjñā means perceiving which is expressed. The names are however, included in the impression, formation or composition (saṃskāra skandha), and are recognized as mind

124

dissociated impression (citta-viprayukta saṃskāra). Those are produced by homogeneous cause and remain continuous in nature.176

[71]. 13. Padakāya (bodies of sentences, vocabulary, phrases, category of words, collection of phrases, groups of words)

Padakāya (句身) indicates entire vocabulary, bodies of sentences, or words and phrases made up of words etc., pada (word) indicates also their grammatical sense. It is said that the word expresses some relation of act, quality and time. The padas are mentally dissociated (citta- viprayukta) and abstract or non-material (arūpa). These are intentionally and individually uttered. These are discreet but are presented as serial or continuous. But their continuity is like the continuity of insects formed in a line. Padas are in use among the human being only.

Phrase is understood as a discourse, a phrase allowing the development necessary for a complete sentence, for example the stanza, impermanent are the saṃskāras. That which causes one to understand the different modalities of activity, quality, and time which concern a certain person; for example, he cooks, he reads, he goes; it is black, yellow, or red; he cooks, he will cook, or he cooked.

[72]. 14. Vyañjanakāya (formation of, category of letters, alphabet or vocabulary, syllable group, bodies of phonemes)

Vyañjanakāya (文身) is alphabet, syllables or letters (varṇa) including both vowels (svara) and consonants (vyañjana) may be understood as vyañjanakāya (for example, a, d. c, ka, kha, ga, gha, etc.). The vyañjanakāya are not expressed orally by nature, but some of

176 Nāmakāyādayaḥ saṁjñāvākyākṣarasamuktayaḥ| kāmarūpāptasattvākhyā niḥṣyandāvyākṛtāḥ tathā||47|| 名身等所謂想章字總說欲色有情攝等流無記性. (Akk. ii. 47) Akbp. vol. 1, pp. 250-53.

125

the uttered words may be taken as corresponding to some letters. These are symbolic in character and are described as dissociated from mind. Vyañjanakāya is non-material (arūpa) in nature. The different letters are placed in close contiguity intentionally linking them up. There is no actual continuity among the different letters placed together. The letters are placed or arranged; one after another and as such convey some conventional sense for which they are used. This continuity is mostly caused by memory (smṛti). These letters serially placed are described as apparently continuous.177

Words (nāmakāya), phrases (padakāya), and syllables (vyañjanakāya) are those which are produced with the support of speech, and which cause the understanding in each case the respective signified. For producing in others a comprehension of the signified is illuminated. They are what allow both of them to become manifest. They are also the basic sounds of spoken language, because meanings are communicated on the basis of names and assertions. Moreover, they are phonemes, because they cannot be replaced by any alternative form. The Vaibhāṣikas admit nāmakāya, padakāya, and vyañjanakāya as saṃskāras disassociated from the mind, for they say, none of these dharmas serve as a gate of understanding, namely; the dharmas which are of the sphere of consciousness of the Tathāgatas (tathāgatajñānagocarapatita) are not accessible through reasoning (tarkagamya).178

177 ―syllables (vyañjana) are defined as the basic components of language or as the smallest unit of articulation, and not, as the term vyañjana might suggest, as the more limited category of consonants. Syllables are then identified as phonemes (akṣara), which is not to suggest that they are more vowels, but rather that syllables include consonants with an inherent vowel. These discrete syllables or phonemes then form the basis of names and phrases, and enable sounds to convey meaning to another.‖ (Akbs. vol. 1, p. 866) 178 Akbp. Vol. 1, pp. 250-253.

126

To sum up, these fourteen dharmas (pure forces) are the most subtle among the elements. They are the last force to be suppressed before final emancipation is reached. Out of these, jāti, sthiti, jarā, and anityatā (Nos. 8-11 [66-69]) are considered to be as the dominant forces of origination and destruction. Prāpti and aprāpti (Nos. 1-2 [59-60]) may be placed next to them. The former is supposed to control the collection of certain elements fallen in an individual stream of life while the latter is supposed to detain the appearance in it of some elements which are not in agreement with its general character. Āsaṃjñika (No. 4 [62]) is a force which automatically, as a result of former deeds, transfers an individual into the realms of unconscious trance. Asaṃjñī-samāpati and the nirodha-samāpati (Nos. 5-6 [63-64]) are brought under the head of pure forces instead of mind, because consciousness at that time is supposed to be suppressed. These two forces are perceived as active in stopping consciousness and producing the highest semi-conscious and dreamy trance. Jīvitendriya (No. 7 [65]) is regarded as the force of life-duration, a force which at the time of birth forecasts the moment of death. Lastly there are three separate forces corresponding to the other systems (Nos. 12-14 [70-72]), which imparted to the sounds of speech their significance: the force of words (nāmakāya), the force of sentences (padakāya) and the force of sound (vyañjanakāya).

Therefore, the fourteen forces of citta-viprayukta saṃskāra, the functions that do not arise concomitantly with the mind are nevertheless classified as part of the aggregate of mental formations (saṃskāra- skandha). As already mentioned above, mental faculties are dharmas that arise concomitantly with the mind and are part of the saṃskāra-skandha. In the classifications of āyatanas (bases) and dhātus (elements), they are included as part of the dharma-āyatana or dharma-dhātu (mental objects).

127

However, other forces (saṃskāra), which do not arise concomitantly with the mind, are also included in the saṃskāra-skandha. The Sarvāstivādins established a group of fourteen dharmas that fit into this group. They are neither physical nor mental. Some of them have a physiological aspect, but others do not.

Generally speaking, according to Abhidharmakośa, the mental states are the mahābhūmikas, those that accompany all minds; the kuśalamahābhūmikas, those that accompany all good minds; the kleśamahābhūmikas, those that accompany all defiled minds; the akuśalamahābhūmikas, those that accompany all bad minds; and the parittakleśabhūmikas, those that have small defilements for their sphere. Bhūmi or sphere signifies ‗place of origin‘. The place of origin of a dharma is the bhūmi of this dharma. The ‗great sphere‘ or mahābhūmi is so called because it is the sphere, the place of origin, of great dharmas (that is, of dharmas of great extension, that are found everywhere). The dharmas that are inherent in the mahābhūmi are called mahābhūmika, that is, the dharmas that are always found in all minds.

IV.2. Analysis of Asaṃskṛta Dharma

The asaṃskṛta-dharmas are those which are not subject to cause or condition and are transcendental, unchanging, eternal, inactive and free from the āsravas. So these are called anāsrava dharmas. There are three kinds of asaṃskṛta dharmas viz. ākāśa (infinite space), pratisaṃkhyā- nirodha (cessation through deliberation) and apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (cessation independent of deliberation).179

179 Sarvatragaḥ sabhāgaśca dvayadhvagau tryadhvagāstrayaḥ|saṁskṛtaṁsavisaṁyoga phalaṁ nāsaṁskṛtasya te||55||

128

[73]. 1. Ākāśa (space, ether, empty space, spatiality)

Ākāśa (虚空無為) is space; it has for its nature not hindering matter which, in fact, takes place freely in space; and also of not being hindered by matter, for space is not displaced by matter.180 What is called space (ākāśa) is solely the absence of any tangible thing i.e. the absence of a resistant body. Persons say, in their obscurity, that there is space when they do not encounter any obstacle. The essential nature of ākāśa is freedom from obstruction or limitlessness qualities which establish that it is a permanent and omnipresent substance. Not only does it not obstruct another thing but it is also not obstructed by another thing. Innumerable things may be simultaneously produced or destroyed in ākāśa without thereby bringing about any increase or decrease in ākāśa.181

The fact that ākāśa is always considered to be a substance and an eternal and unchanging unity shows that ākāśa is not merely an empty space, or lack of matter. It is also a positive entity having many attributes common to the old idea of ether. But the main difference between the Sthaviravādins and the Sarvāstivādins is that to the former ākāśa is a material substance produced of the four great elements, while to the latter it is unconstituted dharma. It adequately demonstrates that the Sarvāstivādins possess two conceptions of ākāśa: the first one is the eternal and

遍行與同類二世三世三果有為離繫無為無因果. (Akk. ii. 55) Akbp. vol. 1, pp. 277-86, and Yamakami Sogen (2009). Systems of Buddhistic Thought, Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers, pp. 166-174. See more Sa, pp. 325-346, Indra Narain Singh (2010), Pp. 236, and Mbp., pp. 139-144. 180 Anāsravā mārgasatyaṁtrividhaṁ cāpyasaṁskṛtam| ākāśaṁ dvau nirodhau ca tatrākāśamanāvṛtiḥ||5|| 無漏謂道諦及三種無為謂虛空二滅此中空無礙. (Akk. i. 5) Akbp. vol. 1, p. 59. 181 Akbp. vol. 1, p. 280.

129

omnipresent; the second one is the empty space with which the sky is frequently associated.182

[74]. 2. Pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (cessation through deliberation)

Pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (擇滅無為) means cessation through deliberation, extinction through intellectual power, cessation occasioned by analysis, analytic cessation, extinction attained by selection, cessation through understanding, cessation attained with acquired knowledge.

There are two kinds of nirodhas in the Sarvastivādins are pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (annihilation by means of discriminating wisdom) and apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (annihilation not by means of discriminating wisdom). This term nirodha means cessation of kleśas or passion which can be attained by transcendental knowledge (pratisaṃkhyā). Apratisaṃkhyā or pratisaṃkhyā means a certain prajñā, the pure prajñā, the supramundane prajñā, i.e. the comprehension of four kinds of Noble Truths (āryasatya). Vasubandhu explains that the pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha is not uniform but homogeneous, because it differs according to the bases of the fetters, i.e. to say, the attainment of liberation from one fetter does not imply simultaneous liberation from the others.183

If this were not so, i.e. if there were only one pratisaṁkhyā-nirodha a person, who has annihilated the passions to be abandoned by darśana of the duḥkhasatya, can claim that he has also annihilated thereby the other passions which are to be abandoned by darśana and bhāvanā (meditation) of the other truths (samudaya etc…). But this is not possible at all.

182 Mbp., pp. 140-141. 183 Pratisaṁkhyānirodho yo visaṁyogaḥpṛthak pṛthak| utpādātyantavighno'nyo nirodho'pratisaṁkhyayā||6|| 擇滅謂離繫隨繫事各別畢竟礙當生別得非擇滅 (Akk. i. 6) Akbp. vol. 1, pp. 59-60 and Ak. pp. 14-17.

130

Moreover, as the pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha is unconstituted (asaṃskṛta) it cannot have sabhāgahetu (cause alike to its effect), which is applicable only to the constituted (saṃskṛta) objects, and thus, it cannot be a sabhāgahetu of another object.

The essential characteristic of it is everlastingness. Its description is beyond the power of the tongue of man. It can only be realized by the self-experience of a perfect man. Generally speaking, it may be, for all practical purposes, designated as the highest good, eternally existing which may be called also viṣamyoga or deliverance. In describing pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha as conceived by the Sarvāstivādins, we can say that, it is what the eye has not seen, nor the ear heard, nor what has ever flashed across the mind of man. Pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha is the dharma par excellence among all dharmas, the supreme goal among goals, the highest of all things, the noblest of all reasons, the greatest of all achievements. But pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha is neither quite the same as the skandhas nor quite different from them, its nature is different from the defiled skandhas.184

[75]. 3. Apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (cessation independent of deliberation)

Apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha (非擇滅無為) means cessation independent of deliberation, non-analytic cessation, extinction which is unselected (or through lack of a productive cause), cessation without understanding, cessation attained without acquired knowledge.

184 Sarvatragaḥ sabhāgaśca dvayadhvagau tryadhvagāstrayaḥ ||55ab|| 遍行與同類二世三世三. (Akk. ii.55ab) See more Yamakami Sogen (2009), pp. 170-3.

131

Apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha is an absolute extinction of a productive cause185 which cannot reappear in future. This is so called because this is to be realized not by the comprehension of the truths, but by the ineffectiveness of the causes of birth (pratyayavaikalyāt). Through the apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha, sufficient concurrence of cause (pratyaya- saannidhya) and birth (utpatti) become absolutely impossible. Vasubandhu gives a fourfold alternative of these two kinds of nirodhas:186

1) Only pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha of the impure dharmas of the past, present and which are destined to come.

2) Only apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha of the constituted pure dharmas which are not destined to come.

3) Both pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha and apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha of the impure dharmas which are not destined to come.

4) Neither pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha nor apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha of the pure dharmas of the past, present and which are destined to come.

Thus, of all impure dharmas of the past, present and future, pratisaṃkhyā-nirodha is possible and of all pure and impure dharmas, which are not destined to come, apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha is possible.187

When, independent of the force of consciousness (pratisaṃkhyā) and by reason of the mere absence of causes there is an absence of arising dharmas, this is what is called apratisaṃkhyā-nirodha.188

185 ―The uncreated or unconditioned elements (asaṁskṛta-dharma there are 3 dharmas); (1) space (ākāśa) is that which gives no hindrance and itself penetrates through any hindrance freely and manifests no change. The second element is an extinction attained by an intellectual power, (pratisaṁkhyā-nirodha) such as nirvāṇa, and (3) is an extinction caused by the absence of a productive cause (apratisaṁkhyā-nirodha).‖ See Junjirō Takakusu, (2001), pp. 69-70. 186 Akk. i. 6c-d. Akbp. vol. 1, pp. 60-61 and Ak. Pp. 17-18. 187 Akbp. vol. 1, p. 134.

132

Generally speaking, the various types of dharmas or elements of existence discussed within the abhidharma tradition have been reviewed above. The Sarvāstivādin School classified these dharmas into five groups: form (rūpa), mind (citta), mental faculties (caitasika), forces not concomitant with the mind (citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra), and unconditioned dharmas (asaṃskṛta). This classification system first appears in the prakaraṇapāda.189 In this text, form dharmas are presented first. Next, the mind that takes form as an object is discussed. Third, the mental faculties that arise concomitantly within the mind are described. Fourth, the forces not concomitant with the mind are presented. These four groups are all conditioned dharmas. The fifth group, unconditioned dharmas, is contrasted with the first four.

When the prakaraṇapāda was compiled, this classification of the elements of existence was the clearest exposition available of the types of dharmas. Later, the contents of each group of dharmas were definitively determined in the Abhidharmakośa in the following manner are (1) form (rūpa): eleven dharmas, (2) The mind (citta): one dharma, (3) Mental functions (caittas): forty-six dharmas, (4) forces not concomitant with the mind (citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra): fourteen dharmas, and (5) unconditioned dharmas (asaṃskṛta): three dharmas.190

188 Saṁskṛtaṁsavisaṁyoga phalaṁ nāsaṁskṛtasya te |55 c-d| 果有為離繫無為無因果. (Akk. ii. 55 c-d) Akbp. vol. 1, pp. 280-281. 189 This text is one of the six feet (pādas) in Abhidharma literature in Sanskrit language. (T. 26: 692b) 190 Hirakawa Akira (2007), pp. 168-169.

133

IV.3. Relationship of Dharma in the Abhidharmakośa and Yogācāra Texts

The name Vasubandhu has been generally associated with two significant events in the history of Buddhism: Vasubandhu is known as the author of Abhidharmakośa and also as the one who co-founded the Yogācāra system with his brother Asaṅga. Almost all Buddhist scholars know the relations between Abhidharmakośa with Yogācāra (vijñānavāda) are the development of dharma from 75 dharmas in Abhidharmakośa to 100 dharmas in Yogācāra of Vasubandhu. This is the development throughout stream flow of mind-consciousness from Sarvāstivāda of Hinayāna to Yogācāra of Mahāyāna Buddhism.

Dharma in the Abhidharmakośa text states the process-aggregate theory of personhood. It is the first portion of this account of dependent co- origination that, so far as Vasubandhu was concerned, requires particular attention and explanation: how does the causal efficacy of past moments of consciousness exactly condition the ground of arising of the current experiential moment? It is this question that the Yogācārin theory of the evolving/transcendent consciousness (vijñāna-pāramita) addresses. Before turning to that theory, however, there is another essential Buddhist doctrine assumed by the Yogācārins to be addressed for proper context. It is the doctrine of anātman, which states that there is no self or ego apart from the five aggregates (skandhas) or processes that constitute the dynamic, changing, experiential whole of a person.

Meanwhile, dharma in these works which were composed by Vasubandhu after his converting from Sarvāstivāda to Mahayāna Buddhism emphasizes the principal mind (consciousness only).191 The

191 Sallie B. King (1992). Buddha Nature, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, p. 6.

134

four works which were composed by Vasubandhu and some others by his brother (Asaṅga)192 are the main works established Yogācāra school.193 These four works are (1) Madhyānta-vibhāga kārikā and bhāṣya (commentary on the separation of the middle from extremes) (2) Trisvabhāva-nirdeśa (the teaching of three own-Beings), (3) Viṃśika- kārikas (the twenty verses), and (4) Triṃśika-kārikas (the thirty verses). These works are called Yogācāra texts.194 These four texts are definitely among the basic works in the Yogācāra tradition and are generally attributed to Vasubandhu.195 What is important for the present purpose is the fact that these four texts do have, besides a fairly uniform style of language, a single, consistent, underlying system of thought so that one can safely take them as belonging to a single author, who is traditionally called Vasubandhu. To avoid confusion one may call him Vasubandhu the Yogācārin. Moreover, when we refer to the Yogācāra system, we are thinking of it particularly as it is presented in those four texts, which may or may not correspond to the Yogācāra system as it is presented in the other works of the same school. However, considering the very high degree of systematization and comprehensiveness of those texts, one may reasonably take them as representing the orthodox form of the Yogācāra system. What is significant about this particular set of texts is that it gives a complete picture of the Yogācāra system.

192 Asaṅga‘s great contribution was his development of Yogācāra school, analysis of the ālaya- vijñāna, and setting forth of the stages (bhūmi) leading to Buddhahood. Among his important works are the key Yogācāra treatises such as: the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, the Mahāyāna- saṃgraha, and the Abhidharma-samuccaya as well as other works. 193 Rupert Gethin (1998), pp. 244-250. 194 ―The Vijñaptimātratā or cittamātratā doctrine is contained in the twin works of Viṃśatika and Triṃśika of Vasubandhu, collectively named as Vijñapatimātratāsiddhi.‖ Vijñapatimātratāsiddhi (Viṃśatikā) (tr.) by T. R. Sharma (1993). Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers, p. iii. 195 Rupert Gethin (1998), p. 244, Robert Kritzer (1999). Rebirth and Causation in the Yogācāra Abhidharma, German: Universität Wien, p. vii-19 and 20, and Fernando Tola Carmen Dragonetti (2004). Being as Consciousness, Delhi: Motlal Banarsidass Publishers, pp. xxiii-xxxix.

135

Buddhist philosophy as well as Abhidharmakośa and Yogācāra texts196, which holds that there is no self or soul (ātman), analyzes a person into following five components or groups:197 form (rūpa), feeling (vedanā), perception (saṃjñā), mental formations or impulses (saṃskāras) and consciousness (vijñāna). These five groups (skandhas), in turn are broken down into a number of different constituent elements called dharmas. The constituent elements of the mental group (vijñāna- skandha) are the various kinds of mental impressions or thoughts (vijñapti). Since the Buddhists held that there is no underlying soul (ātman) or substance (dravya) to be found anywhere and in consciousness itself there is no distinction can be drawn in Buddhist philosophy between mind, thoughts, ideas, impressions etc., it is, therefore, not correct, according to the Vijñānavāda, to say that mind has thoughts, because mind (vijnñāna) just is the stream of these thoughts (vijñapti).

The system is named Yogācāra in preference to the more well-known appellation vijñānavāda merely for the sake of drawing a convenient distinction. The school of Dignāga and Dharmakīrti is also occupie a peculiar position. They essentially accept the doctrine of Vijāptimātratā and the unreality of the object. When they enter into logical discussions, however they endorse the Sautrāntika standpoint of something being given in knowledge. The name ‗Vijñānavāda‘ can be reserved for this school and the pure idealism of Maitreya, Asaṅga and Vasubandhu is called Yogācāra. The entire system may be called, as has actually done by some scholars, the system of Yogācāra or Vijñānavāda.

196 Robert Kritzer (1999), pp. 202-3. 197 The Vijñānavādins gave an idealist orientation to the traditional teaching of the five groups (pañca-skandhas). For example, the Abhidharmasamuccaya (an Abhidharma work of the Vijñānavāda School) begins by enumerating the standard five groups and then asks: ―why are there only five of these groups?‖ the answer is that there are only five because the self (ātman) appears (pratibhāsate) as form, feel, cognition, impulses and consciousness.

136

An important point to note is that Vasubandhu here explicitly criticizes the view that denies that there exists is ‗bare given-thing‘ as the basis for the rūpa-skandha. Indeed, the Yogacāra school seems to have accepted the traditional Sarvāstivāda division of dharma into five categories: mind (citta), mental concomitants (caitasika), form (rūpa), compounded factors independent of the mind (citta-viprayukta-saṃskāra- dharma), and the uncompounded factors (asaṃskṛta). This seems to be at variance with the ‗naive idealism‘ usually attributed to Yogacāra thought. It should be made clear from the outset then that the Yogacāra School is far more complex in its understanding of the nature of experience than is usually acknowledged.

Development process from Abhidharmakośa to the Yogācāra system is the process of analysis of dharma through the operation of mind consciousness. The theory of store-consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna) which is universally recognized as a basic innovation by the Yogācārins is after all only the inauguration of the theory of the seeds (bīja) in the Abhidharmakośa.198 Then what the Yogācārins later called ālaya-vijñāna, is for all practical purposes just the collection of those seeds of the past determining the present and future behavior of an individual. In other words, the ālaya-vijñāna of the Yogācārins is in effect only a collective name for what was described in the Abhidharmakośa as the seeds (bīja) of past experience. Although Vasubandhu wrote Abhidharmakośa from the

198 ―This latter theory has been given there in answer to questions such as: how are defilements associated with a previous moment of consciousness carried over to the next moment of consciousness? How does a past deed produce its effect in the future? How is it possible that a past experience can be recalled in the future? In answering these questions, all of which concern the continuity between the past, present and future, Vasubandhu the author of Abhidharmakośa, following the Sautrāntika point of view, drew on the imagery of the seed-fruit relationship and said that the present and future are determined by the seeds left behind by the past: the seeds of the defilements associated with a previous moment of consciousness are carried over to the next moment of consciousness; the seeds of the past deeds produce their fruits in the future and the seeds of the past experiences enable one to recall those experiences.‖ Thomas A. Kochumuttom (2008). A Buddhist Doctrine of Experience, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limied, P. xiii.

137

Vaibhāṣika point of view, later finding the Vaibhāṣika position unacceptable he wrote his commentary (bhāṣya) on the same Abhidharmakośa from Sautrāntika point of view.

Thus, in the Abhidharmakośa sources distinguish seventy-five dharmas in total, consists of seventy-two conditioned dharmas (saṃskṛta) and three unconditioned dharmas (asaṃskṛta). The seventy-two conditioned dharmas are divided into four main categories: eleven matters (rūpa), one mind (citta), forty-six mental concomitants (caitta), and fourteen formations not connected to thought (cittaviprayukta). The three unconditioned dharmas are (1) space (ākāśa), and two states of emancipation; (2) through discerning knowledge (pratisaṃkhyānirodha) and (3) through non-discerning knowledge (apratisaṃkhyānirodha). These three are unconditioned in the sense that they are not subject to the law of causality and so do not pass through the phases of production (jāti), duration (sthiti), decay (jarā), and destruction (anityatā) which affects all conditioned phenomena.

Meanwhile, the Yogācāra school only based on Abhidharmakośa to develop the all dharmas from 75 dharmas to 100 dharmas. The conditioned dharmas consists of 94 dharmas which are it divided into four main categories the same Abhidharmakośa they are as follows: eleven matters (rūpa), eight mind (citta), fifty-one mental concomitants (caitta), and twenty-four formations not connected to thought (cittaviprayukta). And there are six dharmas in unconditioned dharmas namely, three unconditioned dharmas are as the same Abhidharmakośa and add more three unconditioned are (1) motionless cessation (āniñjya), (2) cessation of associative thinking and pleasure (saṃjñā vedayita nirodha), and (3) true state of things, true nature Vajra or prajñā-

138

pāramitā (tathatā). Detail list of dharma table in Abhidharmakośa and Yogācāra School will be indicated and compare in the appendix one.

The list of dharmas in Buddhist philosophy

Dharmas Theravāda Sarvāstivāda or Yogācāra Abhidharmakośa

Rūpa 28 11 11 ta

ṛ Citta 89 01 08 sk

ṃ Caitta 52 46 51

Sa Viprayukta - 14 24 Asaṃskṛta 01 3 06 Total 170 75 100

The lists of dharmas mentioned above are based on some following works: Ācarya Anuruddha’s Abhidhammattha Saṅghaha (Abhidhamma

Piṭaka in Pāli)

Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa-kārika and bhāṣya (T. 29; No. 1558, 1559 & 1560)

Vasubandhu’s Mahāyānaśatadharmaprakāśamukhaśāstra: (T. 31; Abhidharma 5 Categories No. 1614) Encyclopaedia of Buddhism (1979 – 1980). Published by the Government of Sri Lanka: vol. IV.

139