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Victoria Ii Emperors/State Chancellors of the Austrian Empire (1835-1863) Emperors/State Chancellors of the German Empire (1863-1863)

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Victoria Ii Emperors/State Chancellors of the Austrian Empire (1835-1863) Emperors/State Chancellors of the German Empire (1863-1863) VICTORIA II EMPERORS/STATE CHANCELLORS OF THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE (1835-1863) EMPERORS/STATE CHANCELLORS OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE (1863-1863) 1835-1848: Ferdinand I/V (Habsburg-Lorraine) 1821-1850: Klemens von Metternich 1850-1854: Karl Ludwig von Ficquelmont 1854-1862: Theodor Franz von Latour Metternich had served as Chancellor of the Austrian Empire since 1821, and at the coronation of Ferdinand I/V he was at the height of his power. Metternich pursued to maintain the status quo, both politically in Austria and in the sphere of international relations. Metternich advocated conservatism during the Vormärz period, and by forcing through military spending increases in 1836 consolidated his position against his liberal-minded rival Franz Anton von Kolowrat-Liebsteinsky. The Prussian efforts of the Zollverein customs union continued to undermine Austrian influence across the German states; Saxony, long desired by the Prussians, briefly fell out of the Austrian camp between 1838 and 1840, while tensions in Krakow threatened relations with Russia. Throughout his government Metternich reluctantly granted the Hungarian Diet further powers, including their Language Law of 1842 – primarily because he sought support from Hungarian conservatives for his increasingly heavy-handed methods to restrict liberalism and nationalism. The Congress System, that had preserved peace in Europe since the end of the Napoleonic Wars, came to an end in 1841. Russia had long-sought an opportunity to further weaken Istanbul after the First Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829) and attempted to force the Concert to support her expansionist intentions in the east. The outbreak of war regardless in September resulted in an Austro-French diplomatic pact which, by the First Treaty of Sarajevo, secured concessions from the Turks in exchange for tacit opposition to Nicholas I. The resulting alliance between Paris and Vienna upset the delicate balance of European power, pushed the British towards the Prussians, and completely alienated Moscow. Metternich nevertheless spent the next few years trying to reach a diplomatic solution, but in February 1843 the Bessarabian War finally broke out. Austria quickly advanced into Poland and towards the Black Sea; Warsaw and Kiev had fallen by July, and in August two well-disciplined Austrian armies defeated the Russians at Pervomaisk and Chisinau. With the Russians unable to sustain the war on three fronts, the Treaty of Odessa in November formally forced the Tsar to surrender to the Austro-French armies. Utterly humiliated, the Russians were also forced to allow the Austrians to preside over a semi-independent condominium in Bessarabia (which restricted their access to the Balkan region). Romania would be united shortly after. Victory against Russia was the first action of the 1840s that cemented the collapse of the Congressional system. The second came in 1844 when the Ottomans – over-confident from their ‘victory’ outlined at Odessa – renegaded from their obligations to Austria and France and launched new repressions against the Greek minority. With Russia neutered Metternich no longer needed a buffer in the Balkans, and in a rapid change of policy the returning Austro- French armies forced the Turks to abandon Southern Macedonia to Greece and pay in full their wartime indemnities. (This bankrupted the Ottomans entirely and left them vulnerable to further political chaos). By the end of 1845 Metternich had recalled the Austrian forces home with the rapidly growing threat of liberal uprisings and Italian unrest looming over the Empire. He was further alarmed by the so-called Russian Revolution in 1847, in which Nicholas I was forced to abdicate in favour of his second son Constantine I at the head of a liberal constitutional monarchy. This merely validated the claims that liberalism would lead to the destabilization of Habsburg rule in Austria and, indeed, the Russian Revolution would go on to inspire the political chaos in Europe the following year. In June Dalmatian separatists would be crushed by imperial forces, but of far greater import was the beginning of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Inspired by the general success of the Russian rebellions, the Hungarians refused to accept the dissolution of their Diet and violently resisted Habsburg attempts to restore order - igniting civil war. Although the insurrection only lasted five months and was easily crushed, it had a significant impact on Austrian politics. While Metternich was still held in high regard and autocracy remained the central policy of the Austrian government, the Hungarians had severely dented his credibility. It also led to the abdication of Ferdinand I, who had long been struggling with his mental deficiencies. 1848-1876: Franz Karl I (Habsburg-Lorraine) 1858-1850: Klemens von Metternich 1850-1854: Karl Ludwig von Ficquelmont 1854-1862: Theodor Franz von Latour 1862-1863: (Grossdeutschenpartei) Anton von Schmerling 1863-1872: (Majestätischkonservativ) Agenor Gołuchowski 1872-1876: (Majestätischkonservativ) Alexander Mensdorff-Pouilly Franz Karl unexpectedly took the throne, given that it had been assumed his eldest son (Franz Joseph) would take the throne. Metternich was ageing badly, and his continuing blackouts were a cause for concern. Perhaps fortunately, matters came to a head in 1850 when he died (suddenly but unexpectedly) at the age of 77. He had been a generation-defining figure in Austria, having guided his country through the trauma of the Napoleonic Age, although he had known for his conservatism and hostility to liberalism. His successor - Karl Ludwig von Ficquelmont – was nevertheless a keen former ally and committed to the ‘Metternich cause’ that had seen Austria endure the troubles of the liberal era. He only remained in power for four years, but led Austria into a second war against the Ottomans; conducted against a background of waning Turkish power in the Balkans, a swift Austrian campaign resulted in the Second Treaty of Sarajevo which widened the borders of Austrian-aligned Montenegro, brought Serbia under Austrian suzerainty, and annexed Bosnia. It was a major success for the Habsburgs, and re-established an imperial optimism somewhat lost during the Russian Revolution and the troubles in Hungary. The war also elevated the Minister of War, Theodor Franz von Latour, to the State Chancellorship after Ficquelmont retired in 1854. A distinct asserter of conservatism, Latour especially sought to give the public no cause for unrest. Unfortunately, his elevation to office accompanied a small liberal uprising in Slovakia. More alarmingly, the Hungarian problem once again reared up. The growing strength of the Austro-French alliance had not gone unnoticed, and at the Dortmund Conference the Prussians (diplomatically reinforced by the British) declared their support for an independent Hungary. In August Prussia brought Schleswig-Holstein under their control, resolving the status within the German Confederation but further enraging the Austrians. Austria was supported by the French and the Russians, and the Empire mobilized for war – which finally came on December 14. For the first time since the Napoleonic Wars, the major powers of Europe fell into conflict. The Habsburgs opened with a major offensive into Silesia, while the French fell upon Belgium – resulting in the complete occupation of the latter by February 1855. The first major Austro- Prussian battle came at Leipzig, as the Austrians successfully continued their push to Berlin. The city came under siege in June, although the landing of the British at Antwerp required the French to rapidly redeploy westwards. Despite an Austrian setback at Kustrin, Berlin fell in August 1855 – a major achievement for Latour and his forces. Prussia completely collapsed, and by 1856 had been completely neutered as a military power. Revolution broke out across Northern Germany, and while Frederick William III reinstituted absolute monarchism he was forced to capitulate to radical demands. The Treaty of Munich formally ended the war, with Prussia abandoning her hegemony over the northern German states. The so-called First German War revolutionized the balance of power in Europe, with France and Austria emerging as the two dominant powers. Britain would retreat into isolationism - with the Palace Coup establishing an absolute monarchy under Emperor Augustus Frederick I – while Belgium fractured after the Flemish declaration of independence. Prussia would be wracked by political and economic instability. This period of Austrian strength in Central Europe would become known as the Vorherrschaft. A rapid deterioration of relations in 1858 resulted in an Austro-French intervention in Sardinia-Piedmont, with Austrian troops occupying the port city of Genoa in October. The quick intrusion was the first action of modernized Austrian corps, and the continuing investment in the army seemed to be yielding results. With a highly-trained South German- majority infantry, additional roles were filled by minority troops – primarily with Hungarians and Polish as cavalry, and Slavic infantry. The navy also doubled in size in the late-1850s, with major works for naval bases on the Adriatic funded primarily by an increase in tariffs. Tensions quickly became strained, however, as the Bonapartists took a firmer hold upon French politics – the Austro-French alliance broke down in 1861. Combined with a sizeable Hungarian and Slovak rebellion, Latour felt his position under threat. Although the nationalists were beaten, a further liberal
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