The British Comprehensive Secondary School:

An Instrument for Social Reform?

Robert M. Martin

During the past two decades an evolution has been in industrial cities like Bristol, Coventry, and London, taking place in British education. And nowhere is that more where a combination of extensive war damage lo existing evident than at the secondary school level. Herc the com­ school buildings, and the presence of Labour Party Councils prehensive-type school has been assuming configuration have been additional causative factors. The nine schools with clear-cut functions. An examination of this educa­ visited were: Ca1tlc Rushen School, Castletown, Isle of tional structure, so familiar to us, but new to British Man; Ruffwood School, Kirkby Estate, Lancashire; Sir schoolmcn and children can prove illuminating. Thomas Jones School, Amlwch, Anglesey, Wales; Church­ During the 1968-69 school year, tl1e writer visited nine fields School, West Bromwich, Birmingham; President schools recommended by the British Ministry of Educa­ Kennedy School, Coventry; Henbury School. Bristol; tion's Department of Education and Science as represen­ Alfred Col/ox School, Bridport, Dorset; Thomas Bennett tative of the better comprehensive schools in Great Britain. School, Crawley, West Sussex; Wandsworth School, South· He came away with some deep and favorable impressions. fields Borough, London. 9 Two features, in fact, might serve as subjects for study by American educators with comparable procedures in our Background of the British own comprehensive secondary schools. First is the vertical Comprehensive Secondary School organization within each British school of sub-groups for American educators should not assume that the British educational, social and guidance direction. Called the Horue comprehensive secondary school is 11 direct transplant from Plan by the British, the Little School by Alexander (see the United States. Rather, it appears to be a response to a lead article) and The School within a School by such number of social and economic forces emergent in the School Systems as Portland, Oregon, it offers some chal­ United Kingdom since World War II. lenges to our existing counseling and guidance programs. Traditionally there have been three educational routes Here in Hawaii the new Kailua High School, with its pro· open to British children. Six per cent followed the prestig· jectcd 6,000 pupil enrollment, plans to incorporate the ious 'inner-track' from private preparatory school, through House Plan in its organization. a prestigious independent or 'public' school like Eton or Second, the "strong-Principal" concept, characteristic of Harrow to matriculation at 'Oxbridge' and an assured place all British schools, with its accompanying latitude regarding in the aristocratic society of England. For a fourth of the budget control and curriculum determination of each children, local primary education led to grammar school, if school. These will be discussed in greater detail later in this he passed the qualifying examination at age eleven. A article. second hurdle lay in the requirement of two or three The comprehensive secondary schools visited varied in advanced level passes as part of the GencraJ Certification of enrollment from 500 pupils in Castle Rushen School, Education, after which his goal was, and is, a provincial Castletown, Isle of Man, to more than 2,000 in Wandsworth college. Failure here 'off-ramps' him to industry, or a tech­ School, London, and seem to have rooted best in the West nical college. The third route, followed by two-thirds of of England, Wales, and the Isle of Man. In England, with England's youth, who do not pass the 'eleven plus' exami­ some exceptions, the comprehensive-type institution is nation, may take them to secondary modem schools and being built in rural areas, in new centers-of-population, and then to work, at either age fifteen or sixteen. It might be said that the secondary modern schools, an outgrowth of "includes young people of secondary school age over the the 1944 Education Act, while numerous (5300), arc low in whole range of ability, as far us they can be educated in the quality of staff and facilities and, subsequently, in prestige. normal school at all. . . IL should be sufficiently large in Upward mobility in British society, with its non·contig­ enrollment, staff and facilities lo meet the needs of all the uous educational pathways, has been difficult; and il is pupils and still not so large that they lose a sense of belong· possible lo consider the comprehensive secondary school us ing and being individually looked after." (8 :p.l) a principal vehicle for social reform towards a more open An excellent and complete report on the comprehensive society, for reasons which will be discussed later in this educational institution by the Inner London Authority article. stales, "A comprehensive school is not merely unselcctive; In 1945, a Labour government a~umed office al the it is a school which differs from the grammar school and national, and most local levels. Pledged lo social reform, it the secondary modern school in that first, it does not look some steps toward broadening the base of secondary accept un entry which has been previously passed over, and education. Studies by national commissions and dissatisfac­ second, it docs not itself make selection." (9 :p.17) tion by educators with the segregated system of schools led As analyzed by Conant (1 :Intro.), the aim is to be able to experimentation with comprehensive secondary learning lo offer suitable preparation for either further education, or centers. In rural areas in Wales and on the Isle of Man, the world of work; or, for the individual who is undecided, where population is relatively sparse, general economics by permitting him to delay, as long as necessary, the need suggested a multi-purpose secondary type of school lo for making this choice. accommodate all children. London and Coventry, both All schools visited consisted of six forms (classes) and socialistic strongholds, deliberately fashioned school sys­ tended lo divide into three sub-groups: Forms I and II into tems capable of educating pupils of a11 background and a Lower School; Forms UI, IV and V into the Main School; aptitudes up through the secondary school. and Form VI as a sort of sub-school for pupils primarily Additional causative factors included discontent with interested in further education beyond the secondary level. the existing Secondary Modern School, and a desire to Most comprehensive schools are coeducational, except 10 incorporate some industrial education into the general those in London, which have all three possible brroupings curriculum of secondary schools. Schoolmen came to real- for boys and girls. ize that only through open admission lo secondary schools Sroffing: British Government support lo education in terms could best use be made of the manpower pool wailing to be of staffing is far greater than is the case in the United educated. Probability tables, as we know, tell approxi­ States. A pupil-teacher ratio of 20-1 represents a national mately how many children will go on lo further academic norm, while in London, the formula calls for one teacher study, but they do not inform in advance just which chil­ for every 24 pupils under age 15 and one for every 18 dren these arc. pupils age fifteen and over. The Headmaster's Association Pervading it all was a desire, on the part of working­ recommends a ratio of 18-1 for schools of l,000 or more. class citizens, for equnl access to the fruits of this newly Headmasters visited were visibly shocked when told that affluent society in Britain. Continuing and equal edu­ 30-1 was a common situation in the United States. cational opportunity is seen as the principnl approach to its attainment. Adminutration: Another practice which might be of inter­ est to American school building administrators revolves What is the British about the discretionary powers given to the Headmaster by C.Omprehensive Secondary School? the Locnl Education Authority of each Borough, or Dis­ Because of its relative newness, it has been said, in lricl. To paraphrase one LEA official, their purpose is to Britain, that the comprehensive school is in danger of build schools, pay teachers and provide equipment and becoming something everybody knows about, but very few n materials. One is left with the impression that the Head­ understand. However, the organization and operation of master is expected to run the school. One should mention, this emerging institution can be described as having a strik­ however, that national guidelines, even though advisory in ing similarity to American comprehensive secondary nature, do influence both the LEAs and the Headmasters in schools. selling prob'l'ams for their institution. Budgets, once re­ The headmaster of a large London comprehensive school leased lo the Headmaster, are his to administer as he thinks (Elliott School) defines his type of school as one which best. An additional area of latitude not enjoyed by all American Principals is in Lhc hiring and utilizing of staff. It education, games, careers and, depending upon the organi­ is common practice for Hcadmaslcrs to utilize part-time zation of the school, House activities. The remedial 1,rroup Leachcrs (Pool teachers) as needed. The advantages of the will have most of the above, but with larger blocks of time head of a moderate-size school being able to call upon the for reading and arithmetic and diminished time for some special services of persons for part-time use in foreign lan­ other subjects. guage, drama, sporls, etc., conjures up immediate possibili­ At the end of the third year pupils may select either a Lies for us. It is estimated that approximaLcly 15-25 per one-year program if they plan to leave school at age LS, or a cent of school slaffs in British comprehensive schools arc two-year program leading to an external examination. Low Pool teachers. ability groups arc encouraged to plan their work around a series of integrated studies (President Kennedy School) Curriculum: The wrilcr noticed a curriculum emphasis involving English, mathematics, history, geography, art, upon academics Lhroughout. Shop subjects seemed lo be modern studies, science, heavy craft and home economics. considered as "broadening" for all students rather than as a For the faster students, a majority, there is a continuation separate course for Lcrminal students. One headmaster of their compulsory subjects: English, mathematics, physi­ admitted encouraging the lagging students to hit Lhe aca­ cal education, religious instruction, games and House activi­ demics harder, rather than giving up ccrlain examination ties, together with one option from each of several grouped goals and taking shop subjects. However, the larger schools subjects (called sets). localed in or near induslrial centers were shaping probrrams During the fifth year the proi,rram is usually similar lo for pupils planning entry into commerce and industry, the fourth, but there is a focusing upon the taking of cxtcr· although this seems not to be a predominant characteristic nal examinations, usually al ordinary level and one period a of British comprehensive secondary schools. week is devoted lo careers (sec section on careers). Evaluation of Pupil Progress: Academic educational goals of The Sixth Fonn students in comprehensive, as in grammar schools, appear The Sixth Form, an inheritance from the British Gram­ lo be Lowards successful performance on external examina· mar School, has no parallel in our American secondary 11 Lions. Whereas the American high school pupil builds blocks schools. Traditionally selective, it now increasingly signifies of Carnegie units lo be capped wilh the high school dip­ merely that a pupil has finished five forms or grades and is loma, his British counterpart marshalls his learning cfforls anxious to pursue study within a rather special sub-brroup in towards Lhe General Certificate of Education with passes at the school and at an academic level calculated to pre­ ordinary and hopefully advanced levels in appropriate pare him for higher education, or for other personal subjects. satisfaction. Grouping: Like Americans Lhc British headmaster and his "It works within a distinctive curriculum pattern with staff arc concerned with determining the most effective and its own examination objective and with individualized desirable ways of grouping pupils for learning. They call time-table arrangements." (' :p.3) this "streaming" and Lhere seems to be a move away from It should b1: mentioned that pupils may spend two or early, narrow and permanent grouping towards more flexi­ even three years in the Sixth Form pursuing their cxamina· bility in changing groups. Lion goals without any loss of slatus. At Thomas Bennett Time Tables (Program of Studies) School, the Sixth Form included provisions for advanced Just as with the American comprehensive high school, studies in such terminal areas as business and commercial. the schools in Britain arc so varied in size and proi,rram Sixth Form offerings usually expand with enrollment. characteristics that it is not possible to do more than indi­ Pupils tend to divide into those groups preparing for Ordi­ cate some broad and general patterns that appeared in mosl nnry level examination subjects (0) and those preparing lo of the institutions visited by the writer. take Advanced level examinations (A), and arrangement of There is a common subject-matter content for all pupils these subjects into sets or groupings varies from school lo in the first two years of school- in the first three years in school. The intent is lo provide each pupil with a balance of some schools. Pupils arc grouped usually into three ability subjects from English, humanities, science, mathematics, "streams": fast, average, and remedial. The two lop groups foreign languages, economics, physical education, religious take English, French, history, mathcmalics, science, art, instruction, and in some cases, domestic science, technical crafts, home economics, religious instruction, physical drawing, and business. Admission lo the Sixth Form is based primarily on the desire of the pupil supported by ... The Houses arc certainly our most important fea­ evidence of his ability lo do Sixth Form work. ture, without which we must fail completely. Their small size permits a family conception, lo which we are devoted. Allocation lo a House is on these prin­ The House Plan and Pastoral Care ciples: families together; each of about half a dozen Herein we find a basically different a1•proach in our two very small villages has a particular House affiliation; countries to the problem of providing individual counseling the larger primary schools arc dispersed; each child and group guidance lo pupils in the school and Lo vertical nominates a friend lo be placed with him. (6 :p. l) grouping for social and instructional purposes. Pedley (1 1 : Perhaps a paraphrased description of lhe House system pp. 27-28) notes that the large American school has more of Hcnbury School from the bulletin of the school (12) will faith in specialist guidance, especially psycholobrical, than provide a picture of such a plan having actual physical facil­ the English. British schools rely upon the generalist in ities. Incidentally, Mr. P. J. Lugel, Headmaster of Hcnbury education for counseling; upon the administration for test was away in America at the time of the visit, studying administration, while abhorring the categorizing of pupils secondary schools in Havre, Montana. with psychological terminology. Holmes (p. 82) summarizes In this large school the House system has an importance it succinctly, "The danger, however, which was mentioned for in cxct.'SS of that to be found in a school of more moder­ earlier must be borne in mind, that it may be very unwise ate size and traditional pattern. Buildings A and B on the lo encourage an unusual or eccentric young person lo campus arc especially designed House Blocks, each con­ regard himself as psychologically disturbed and as a case for taining accommodations for three houses. analysis and special study." One remembers that the Each House Block contains its own kitchen and each English cherish their right lo be individuals and, particu­ House has at its disposal a large House room for the pur­ larly, to be eccentric about it. pose of assembly, dining and social activities, a classroom Briefly slated, the House Plan is an administrative device for 40 pupils, a large study for tutorial brroups up lo 20, and for dividing a school into manageable social and instruc­ a Houscmastcr's room. Also included arc a Staff room, 12 tional brroups. Usually developed on the vertical basis; that cloakrooms and toilets for staff and pupils within each is a pupil stays with the same House throughout his school Block. career, groups arc Conned somewhat heterogeneously on Children arc allocated to Houses al Hcnbury in their the basis of 250-300 pupils. In some of the newer schools second term at the school but do not enter the House sys­ the House groups have a physical base- one of the best tem proper until their third year. All first and second forms observed is at Henbury. This excellent institution gives or classes are accommodated in the Lower School Building this rationale for the House Plan in its booklet. whcrn they arc organized on a Form basis in order to "It is felt that it is essential that throughout their cushion their entry into a complex organization and the school career children should feel as individuals a better to prepare their transition later to the House system. growing relationship to a Housemaslcr, a corps of An asecondary education and subjects attract students from smaller grammar schools. 14 the existing schools, particularly the brrammur school. In Most heads and teachers previously had been associated fact, selection between the two is continually being made with grammar schools and expressed the conviction that by studenls/parcnls. this type of learning centre (comprehensive) was best. An excellent experimental study by G. W. T. Miller, an Obviously, however, those in grammar schools would ex­ Australian educator, lists advantages and disadvantages of press similar convictions but the steady growth of the com· the British comprehensive secondary school. He found that prehcnsivc secondary schools might be the significant it: factor. a. 0 vercomcs numerous difficullies associated with early selection. The British vs. American Comprehensive Secondary School b. Facilitates transfer from one to another, more appro­ priate, course of study. High school principals in the United Stales might be interested in how British comprehensive schools differ in c. Helps to solve the problem of disparity of esteem for structure and progrum from their own. Space here permits the different kinds of secondary education. but a brief recount but for those interested in more detailed d. Ensures equality of educational opportunity for all information, two fine books arc recommended: The Com­ children. prehensive School in Action, by Maurice Holmes (8), and c. Provides a wide variety of courses resulting in more The Comprehensive School, by Robin Pedley (l l). Much of adequate adjustment of education lo the children's what is written below is distilled from these volumes, from needs, increased purpose in schooling and longer observation, and from the Headmaster's Association Review attendance at school. which is published tl1ree Limes a year. f. Avoids the harmful effects of social segregation. Pliilosophy: Generally, the aim of maximum educational g. Promotes cultural unity and an enhancement of the development of each child is similar to ours. The traditional community's general cultural standing. belief that there is u limited pool of ability in the popula­ h. Broadens the vision and improves the leaching tech­ tion and that academic education above primary grades is niques of the staff. best limited to an elite has been replaced by the realization that talent is not residual in certain socio-economic strata Next, is a rather nebulous, but persisting conviction that and is not even predictable and that Britain needs the best one difference between the British comprehensive secon· brains of each and every citizen. dary schools and our own lies with the basic altitude The writer noted a more pronounced concern for the toward their pupils. Perhaps we in Americ11 have reached a individual pupils in the schools visited than seems lo be the point in our school development toward universal secon­ case in the larger American secondary schools. dary education, in which sheer numbers of students cause Organization: Comprehensive schools in Britain are us lo play the "numbers" game. We tend to "pigeon-hole" organized t1uite differently from those in the United Stales, our students into categories or stereotyped descriptions. even though they both seek common goals. In addition, Preoccupation with statistical treatment and normative patterns of organization in schools visited differed some· surveys sometimes results in a psychological distance what, undoubtedly in response to constraints of size, type between school staff and pupils. By contrast, the British of community served and, possibly, traditions inherited by Head and his teachers, with whom the writer talked, were the school. An American teacher, however, would have no almost fiercely proud of their ability to call every boy or difficulty in adjusting to the organizational pattern. girl by name, and in the smaller schools, lo know the family 11lso. Sununary Lust, a word about the institution which is the subject of The British l1cadmaster, perhaps through tradition, this message: Philosophically, socially and economic111ly, assumes a more authoritative stance than docs his American the comprehensive high school seems Lo be meeting the counterpart. One thinks of the captain of the ship rather challenge put lo it by the British nation which is surely and limn the chairman of the board. Perhaps his fearlessness steadily moving from a closed, class-conscious and aristo· comes from the fuel that "headmasters never get the sack," cratic society lo one which is more open 11nd in which all hut once hired arc let alone lo run their schools. Results arc individuals can strive upwards. An article in the London that innovations arc undertaken with confidence and the Obseruer Reuiew of September 15, 1968, suggested that, father-image is constantly before the students, and even "If the comprehensives used un advertising agency, as the before the staff. One might speculate that a seeming differ­ 'public' schools do, the line lo adopt might he Comprehen­ 15 ence in this regard might be that the British headmaster has sives Care; it would be a dangerous exaggeration, but there reached his goal when he gets his school, while the might be grains of truth in it." American principal oflen has sights set on the Superin­ One immutable requirement of the new, when it tendency and is inclined not lo jeopardize this. attempts to replace the old, is that it be more effective in Primary concerns of the schools visited seemed lo focus attaining stated objectives. The passing of the "11 plus" on prouiding a sufficiently comprehensiue a"ay of subjects examination has revealed that substantial numbers of and proper grouping of pupils for best learning. The prob­ children, who have been passed over al that age, continue lem of teaching strategies which occupies the American now with success through the academic secondary school staff did not appear to be considered 11 matter of impor· progr11m and many h11vc reached universities. Achievement lance. of students in the comprehensive school exceeds those of Materials of instruction. both in variety and amount, modern sccond11ry and gr11mmar schools studied; thus we were less in evidence in the British schools visited than one can conclude, with educational authorities in London, would sec in most Americ11n comprehensive secondary Bristol, West Bromwich and Anglesey, Wales, that the institutions. Equipment and supplies, especially in science comprehensive school is no longer in the experimental and social studies were rather prosaic. However, school stage, but is the school of the present and the future. facilities and space a"angements were uniformally excellent Perhaps the authors of th11t fascinating publication and the writer observed the finest, functioning Planetarium London Comprehensiue Schools, 1966, put it best when at Wandsworth School that it has been his privilege to sec. they concluded their document by stating: (9 :p.103) Staffing formulas in Great Britain arc exemplary! "Tradition and innovation arc at work in evolving American educators and school boards might well note the institutions and London's 77 comprehensive schools provisions for grouping into small tutorial units, and for arc at varying st11ges of emergence from their past. individual instruction made possible by the combination of Their 11ccommodation, staffing and staff structures, the 20 to I pupil-teacher ratio and the environment created their organizational arrangements for teaching and by tl1e House plan. community life inevitably and rightly reflect some- thing of the past. But all arc working with encour­ aging success in the present and planning for the demands of the future. They differ from each other in numerous ways, the quality of the school al any point in time being affected by a variety of factors but reflecting above nil the professional skill and joint powers of the head and his staff. There is indispu­ tably plentiful evidence that a large cross-section of pupils is getting a rich education through living and working in these communities where variety of provision matches their abilities and needs and where each can feel the stimulus of achievement at his true level. Beyond question the opportunities afforded in London to pupils of secondary school age have greatly increased in the last twelve years or so during which the comprehensive school has made its decisive contribution."

I.Conant, James Bryant. Tiie Comprehen.rive High School. McGraw.Hill, New York, 1967. 2.Conant, James Bryant. Tl1e Comprehenlive High School: The Challenge ofan Ideal, N ASSP Bulletin, December 1968. 3. Department of Education and Science, Report1 on Education, No. 36, May 1967. 4.Educational ChaflBI! and Architecturol Coruequence.r, A Report 16 from Educational Facilities Lahoralories, 477 Madison Avenue, New York, 1968. 5. Frost, David and Anthony, Jay. The Englisl}. Avon Booka, New York, 1968. 6.Headmastel'll Association Review, April 1967. 7. Headmasters Association. Tiie Sixth Form of the Future. Gordon Square, London, WCL, 1968. 8. Holmes, Maurice. Tl1e Compreheruive School in Action. Long. mans, Green and Co., Ltd., 1967. 9.lnner London Authority, London CompreheruiveSchool.r 1966. IO.Miller, T. W. G. Value• in the Comprehenlive School. Educa­ tional Monograph No. 5, University of Birmingham, 1961. 11.Pcdley, Robin. Tl1e Comprehenlive School. Peluan Books, Ballimore, 1963. 12. Handbook, Hcnbury School, Bristol. Robert JU. Martin is Professor of Education, University of Hawaii, with specinl interest in Secondary School curric· ulum. His experience has included extended periods of work with the schools of the Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan and lAos.