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LK051 P0001edbook1 I Xii AG Chapter The Classical Style ca. 700–30 B.C.E. “Men are day-bound. What is a man? What is he not? 5 Man is a shadow’s dream. But when divine advantage comes, men gain a radiance and a richer life.” Pindar Figure 5.1 KALLICRATES, Temple of Athena Nike, Acropolis, Athens, ca. 427–424 B.C.E. Pentelic marble, 17 ft. 9 in. × 26 ft. 10 in. LK049_P0113ED113-136_BK1_CH05.indd 113 10/12/2014 14:09 LOOKING AHEAD The words “classic” and “classical” are commonly used to mean legacy to the West.* Most of the free-standing sculptures of the “first-rate” and “enduring.” They also describe a style of creative Greek masters survive only in Roman replicas, and what remains is expression marked by clarity, simplicity, balance, and harmonious a fraction of what once existed. The balance fell to the ravages of proportion—features associated with moderation, rationalism, time and vandals, who pulverized marble statues to make mortar and dignity. This style dominated the arts of ancient Greece. and melted down bronze pieces to mint coins and cast cannons. It was brought to its height during the period that followed the Despite these losses, the Classical conception of beauty has Persian Wars (ca. 480–400 B.C.E.). In the visual arts, as well as in had a profound influence on Western cultural expression. Its mark literature, philosophy, and music, the Greek “classics” provided is most visible in the numerous Neoclassical (“new Classical”) a standard of beauty and excellence that was preserved and revivals that have flourished over the centuries, beginning with the imitated for centuries. During the fourth century B.C.E., Alexander Renaissance in Italy (see chapters 16–17). the Great carried Greek language and culture into North Africa and Central Asia, thus “Hellenizing” a vast part of the civilized world. * The Roman contribution to the Classical style is discussed in Thereafter, the Romans absorbed Greek culture and transmitted its chapter 6. The Classical Style opposite parts in size, shape, or position, as is evident in the human body. The quest for harmonious proportion was the driving Although little survives in the way of Greek literary force behind the evolution of the Classical style, even as evidence, Roman sources preserve information that helps it was the impetus for the rise of Greek philosophy. In us to understand the canon that, after three centuries of chapter 4, we saw that the naturalist philosophers worked experimentation, artists of the Greek Golden Age put into to identify the fundamental order underlying the chaos practice. Among these sources, the best is the Ten Books on of human perception. Pythagoras, for example, tried to Architecture written by the Roman architect and engineer show that the order of the universe could be understood Vitruvius Pollio (?–26 b.c.e.). Vitruvius recorded many of by observing proportion (both geometric and numerical) the aesthetic principles and structural techniques used by in nature: he produced a taut string that, when plucked, the ancient Greeks. In defining the Classical canon, he sounded a specific pitch; by pinching that string in the advised that the construction of a building and the relation- middle and plucking either half he generated a sound ship between its parts must imitate the proportions of the exactly consonant with (and one octave higher than) the human body. Without proportion, that is, the correspond- first pitch. Pythagoras claimed that relationships between ence between the various parts of the whole, there can be no musical sounds obeyed a natural symmetry that might be design, argued Vitruvius. And without design, there can be expressed numerically and geometrically. If music was no art. The eminent Greek Golden Age sculptor Polycleitus, governed by proportion, was not the universe as a whole himself the author of a manual on proportion (no longer in subject to similar laws? And, if indeed nature itself obeyed existence), is believed to have employed the canon Vitruvius laws of harmony and proportion, then should not artists describes (Figure 5.2). But it was the Vitruvian model itself work to imitate them? that, thanks to the efforts of the Renaissance artist–scientist Among Greek artists and architects, such ideas gener- Leonardo da Vinci (see chapter 17), became a symbol for ated the search for a canon, or set of rules, for deter- the centrality of the ideally proportioned human being in mining physical proportion. To establish a canon, the an ideally proportioned universe (Figure 5.3). artist fixed on a module, or standard of measurement, that governed the relationships between all parts of the work of art and the whole. The module was not absolute, READING 5.1 From Vitruvius’ Principles of but varied according to the subject matter. In the human Symmetry (ca. 46–30 B.C.E.) body, for instance, the distance from the chin to the top of the forehead, representing one-tenth of the whole body On Symmetry: In Temples and in the Human Body height, constituted a module by which body measure- 1 The Design of a temple depends on symmetry, the 1 ments might be calculated. Unlike the Egyptian canon principles of which must be most carefully observed by the (see Figure 2.19), the Greek canon was flexible: it did not architect. They are due to proportion. Proportion is a employ a grid on which the human form was mapped, correspondence among the measures of the members of with fixed positions for parts of the body. Nevertheless, an entire work, and of the whole to a certain part selected the Greek canon made active use of that principle of as standard. From this result the principles of symmetry. proportion known as symmetry, that is, correspondence of Without symmetry and proportion there can be no principles 114 CHAPTER 5 The Classical Style LK049_P0113ED113-136_BK1_CH05.indd 114 27/11/2014 18:22 Figure 5.3 LEONARDO DA VINCI, Proportional Study of a Man in the Manner of Vitruvius, ca. 1487. Pen and ink, 131∕2 × 95∕8 in. in the design of any temple; that is, if there is no precise relation between its members, as in the case of those of a well-shaped man. 10 2 For the human body is so designed by nature that the face, from the chin to the top of the forehead and lowest roots of the hair, is a tenth part of the whole height; the open hand from the wrist to the tip of the middle finger is just the same; the head from the chin to the crown is an eighth, and with the neck and shoulder from the top of the breast to the lowest roots of the hair is a sixth; from the middle of the breast to the summit of the crown is a fourth. If we take the height of the face itself, the distance from the bottom of the chin to the underside of the nostrils is one third of it; the nose from the underside of the 20 nostrils to a line between the eyebrows is the same; from there to the lowest roots of the hair is also a third, comprising the forehead. The length of the foot is one sixth of the height of the body; of the forearm, one fourth; and the breadth of the breast is also one fourth. The other members, too, have their own symmetrical proportions, and it was by employing them that Figure 5.2 POLYCLEITUS, Doryphorus (Spear-Bearer), Roman copy after a famous painters and sculptors of antiquity attained to great and bronze Greek original of ca. 450–440 B.C.E. Marble, height 6 ft. 111∕2 in. The figure, who once held a spear in his left hand, strides forward in a manner that unites endless renown. motion and repose, energy and poise, confidence and grace—the qualities of the 3 Similarly, in the members of a temple there ought to be the ideal warrior-athlete. greatest harmony in the symmetrical relations of the different 30 CHAPTER 5 The Classical Style 115 LK049_P0115ED113-136_BK1_CH05.indd 115 10/12/2014 14:09 parts to the general magnitude of the whole. Then again, in the Figure 5.4) remain dominant in the decoration of later human body the central point is naturally the navel. For if a man black-figured vases, where a startling clarity of design is be placed flat on his back, with hands and feet extended, and a produced by the interplay of dark and light areas of figure pair of compasses centered at his navel, the fingers and toes of and ground. his two hands and feet will touch the circumference of a circle During the Classical period (480–323 b.c.e.), artists described therefrom. And just as the human body yields a replaced the black-figured style with one in which the circular outline, so too a square figure may be found from it human body was left the color of the clay and the ground [see Figure 5.3]. For if we measure the distance from the soles was painted black (Figure 5.6). They refined their efforts of the feet to the top of the head, and then apply that measure to position figures and objects to complement the shape to the outstretched arms, the breadth will be found to be the 40 of the vessel (see also Figures 4.17 and 5.5). However, with same as the height, as in the case of plane surfaces which are the newly developed red-figured style, artists might deline- perfectly square. ate physical details on the buff-colored surface, thereby 4 Therefore, since nature has designed the human body making the human form appear more lifelike.
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