0 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
RReessppiicciittee AAssttrraa
A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
The Astronomiicall Sociiety of Mallta
The Natiionall Liibrary of Mallta
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 1 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Respicite Astra A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Exhibition held between 25 September – 18 October 2010-09-21 at the National Library, Valletta, Malta on the occasion of Notte Bianca 2010
Introductory Text Mr Victor Farrugia
Captions Mr Leonard Ellul Mercer – Pgs 23-24, 57 Mr Alexander Pace – Pgs 25-26, 58, 63, 70 Prof Frank Ventura – Pgs 4, 6-13, 15-18, 21, 27-31, 33, 35-38, 40, 42- 43, 45-48, 50-56, 60-62, 65-69, 72-76, 80, 85, 87, 93
Acknowledgements The Committee of the Astronomical Society of Malta would like to acknowledge the following persons for their kind and generous help in setting up this Exhibition at the Main Hall of the National Library starting on 25th September 2010 during the Notte Bianca event:
Mr Fabio Agius (MaltaPost Philatelic Archives) Ms C Michelle Buhagiar (National Library of Malta) Ms Maroma Camilleri National Library of Malta) Mr Leonard Ellul Mercer (Personal capacity) Victor Farrugia (Astronomical Society of Malta) Mr Alexander Pace (Astronomical Society of Malta) Arch Alexei Pace (Astronomical Society of Malta) Ms Joanne Sciberras (National Library of Malta) Mr Tony Tanti (Astronomical Society of Malta) Prof Frank Ventura (University of Malta) Staff of the National Library of Malta
Front Image Great Orion Nebula by Mr Leonard Ellul Mercer
Production The Astronomical Society of Malta P.O. Box 174 Valletta Malta
The National Library of Malta 136 Old Treasury Street Valletta Malta
Copyright ©The Astronomical Society of Malta / The National Library of Malta, 2010
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 2 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Introduction
This exhibition has been set up by the Astronomical Society of Malta and the National Library of Malta, presenting some of the significant books relating to Astronomy that form part of the collection at the National Library. This is a follow-up activity of the International Year of Astronomy 2009 which was celebrated world- wide last year under the auspices of UNESCO and the International Astronomical Union, and in which the Astronomical Society participated along with associations from over 140 countries.
The books in the exhibition range from two very rare publications of the late 15th Century, known as incunabula, to two Maltese almanacs with astronomical information published in the mid-20th Century. The incunabula are the Scriptores Astronomia Veteres, which is a compilation of books by ancient authors, and Geografia, which is a Latin translation of the work by the famous astronomer and geographer Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy) written in the second Century AD. Other publications include works by Italian, French, German and English astronomers. Most of the older books are in Latin or Italian, while more recent works are in Italian, French and English.
Many of the books present a semi-popular or a popular description of astronomical themes though some of them are books that have won prestigious awards from reputable astronomical institutions. Other books are of a more scientific and technical nature and present observations and predictions of astronomical phenomena.
The exhibited books cover a wide range of themes: ancient Egyptian astronomy, Greek astronomy, general ancient and modern histories of astronomy, the Sun, the Moon, the planets, comets and meteors, astronomy and navigation, and Galileo and the Roman Holy Office (Inquisition). Astronomy in Malta is another theme of particular relevance which is covered by the exhibits.
Mr Victor Farrugia President, The Astronomical Society of Malta
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 3 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Greek and Roman Astronomy
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 4 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Julius Firmicus Maternus (4th Century AD) Title: Scriptores astronomia veteres Julii Firmici Atronomicorum libri octo integri Date of Publication: 1499 Place of Publication: Venice Editor: Franciscus Pescennius Niger Publisher: Aldus Manutius
Brief description of contents:
This book, which was originally written in about AD 337, brings together earlier publications on astrology which give us an idea of popular astronomy and its application in ancient Greek and Roman times. It includes the great poem On the Phaenomena by Aratus (who lived about 270 BC), which describes the constellations known in those days, and a lengthy commentary on it by Theon; the work by Manilius of about AD 10; and the Sphaera graece with a commentary on Greek geometry by Proclus Diadochus (AD 411? -485). The commentaries must have been added by the editor since they post-date the original text.
Most of the text is in Latin with some words and phrases in ancient Greek, while the Phaenomena of Aratus with Theon’s commentary and the Sphaera of Proclus are in Greek.
The book which is being exhibited is one of the treasures of the National Library of Malta as it one of the rare books published before 1500 known as incunabula.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 5 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Ancient Astronomy
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 6 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: J. Norman Lockyer Title: The Dawn of Astronomy Date of Publication: 1894 Place of Publication: London Publisher: Cassell and Company Ltd
Brief description of contents:
The sub-title of this book, A Study of the Temple-worship and Mythology of the Ancient Egyptians provides a better indication about its contents. In it, the English scientist and astronomer Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer presents a detailed survey of the orientations of several ancient Egyptian temples; their possible connection with the rising and setting of stars and the Sun; the Egyptian gods related to the stars and their star cults; the origins of Egyptian astronomy and its influence on temple orientations in Ancient Greece. The book is profusely illustrated with general views of temples and temple plans, figures of gods and goddesses and representations of ancient Egyptian constellations.
The publication of this book led to a debate on the value of attempting to associate the orientations of ancient temples and other monuments to astronomy. It also stimulated interest in the possible connection with astronomical phenomena of temples and monuments of other cultures and countries including Malta. In modern times, the study of temple orientations and astronomy in culture has become widespread and in known as archaeoastronomy (astronomy of ancient times).
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 7 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Jean-Baptiste Prosper Jollios (1776 - 1842) Title: Recherches sur les Bas-reliefs astronomiques des Égyptiens Date of Publication: 1809 (Volume I) Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: L’Imprimerie Impériale
Brief description of contents:
Jean-Baptiste Jollois was an engineer in Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt in 1798. Although his responsibility was for surveying bridges and irrigation ditches, he became very interested in the numerous monuments and the bas-reliefs he came across. He made precise engineering drawings of Egyptian temples and monuments along with his colleague Edourade Devilliers du Terrage.
In this book (pages 427-429), he compared the astronomical bas-reliefs he had observed at Denderah and other temples with those published by Athanasius Kircher, with depictions of the constellations on an Arabic and a contemporary celestial globe, and with the symbols used for the zodiacal constellations by the Greeks, Roman and Indians and gothic symbols relating to astronomy. The purpose of the work was to identify as many as possible of the Egyptian zodiacal constellations, which were very different from the ones with which we are familiar today.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 8 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: George Cornewall Lewis (1806 - 1863) Title: An Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients Date of Publication: 1862 Place of Publication: London Publisher: Parker, Son, and Bourn
Brief description of contents:
This book is divided into eight chapters, four of which are dedicated to the development of Greek and Roman astronomy from primitive beginnings to the scientific astronomy of Hipparchus and Ptolemy. Sir George Cornewall Lewis then gives an account of the astronomy of the Babylonians, the Egyptians, and the Assyrians. In the last chapter he explains how the Phoenicians used astronomy for navigation.
Interestingly, Sir George Cornewall Lewis, who was a prominent statesman, accompanied John Austin to Malta in 1836 on a Royal Commission. They spent nearly two years reporting on conditions in Malta and framing a new code of laws.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 9 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Jean-Sylvain Bailly (1736 - 1793) Title: Histoire de l’Astronomie Ancienne Date of Publication: 1781 Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: De Bure
Brief description of contents:
Jean-Sylvain Bailly was a French astronomer who calculated the orbit of Comet Halley at its return of 1759, wrote on the satellites of Jupiter and calculated the exact position of 515 zodiacal stars before turning to the history of astronomy. His Histoire de l’Astronomie Ancienne was first published in 1775 and became quite popular. In this work Bailly gives a detailed and scholarly account of the beginning of astronomy from ancient times.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 10 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Jean-Sylvain Bailly (1736 - 1793) Title: Histoire de l’Astronomie Moderne Date of Publication: 1779 (Volume I) Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: Freres De Bure
Brief description of contents:
Jean-Sylvain Bailly was a French astronomer who calculated the orbit of Comet Halley at its return of 1759, wrote on the satellites of Jupiter and calculated the exact position of 515 zodiacal stars before turning to the history of astronomy. His Histoire de l’Astronomie Moderne covers the development of astronomy from the period school of Alexandria in ancient Egypt to 1782 when he finished his third volume. One of the illustrations of Volume I show the depictions of the constellations of the Northern Hemisphere (Plate VII) while a similar illustration shows the constellations of the Southern Hemisphere (Plate VIII) which had been established by his compatriot Nicholas de Lacaille.
Bailly was also a politician, an orator and one of the leaders in the early part of the French revolution. However, he eventually fell out of favour and was guillotined in 1793.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 11 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Jean-Sylvain Bailly (1736 - 1793) Title: Histoire de l’Astronomie Moderne Date of Publication: 1779 (Volume II) Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: Freres De Bure
Brief description of contents:
In Volume II, Bailly discusses various topics including astronomical instruments and observations. Various illustrations help the reader to follow the explanations. For example the illustrations in Plate II show the eye and a micrometer, which is used to measure small distances between stars or the apparent diameter of planets. Refraction, a conic section, the rings of Saturn and the system of triangulation for determining the distance of a far away object are also illustrated.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 12 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Jean-Sylvain Bailly (1736 - 1793) Title: Histoire de l’Astronomie Moderne Date of Publication: 1782 (Volume III) Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: Freres De Bure
Brief description of contents:
Bailly completes his extensive history of modern astronomy in Volume III which includes the latest developments in astronomy up to the date of publication. Interestingly, he thought that since English astronomer Bradley had increased the accuracy of measurement with a telescope to one second of arc, this “has fixed the limits of our knowledge”. Little did he know that this was only the beginning of new developments.
The breadth of the Histoire Moderne and the research that went into producing this work were widely appreciated however, there was also the criticism that the work was scholarly but “marred by speculative extravagances”.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 13 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Robert Grant (1814 - 1892) Title: History of Physical Astronomy from the earliest ages to the middle of the nineteenth century Date of Publication: 1852 Place of Publication: London Publisher: Robert Baldwin
Brief description of contents:
In this book Robert Grant explains a number of very difficult concepts and principles of physical astronomy in a very clear and comprehensive way. He explains how gravitational theory is used to determine the perturbations of the planets; research on the solar parallax to determine distances in the Solar System; the complex motion of the Moon and how it affects eclipses; details of the motion of the satellites of Jupiter; astronomical observations and many other topics.
The extent of the research that went into this book and the maturity with which it is approached were so remarkable that its author was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society of London in 1856.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 14 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Medieval and Renaissance Astronomy
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 15 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Christoph Clavius (1538 - 1612) Title: In sphaeram Janino de Sacro Bosco Date of Publication: 1591 Place of Publication: Venetia Publisher: Ioan. Baptist Coitum Senense
Brief description of contents:
The German Jesuit Christoph Clavius was one of the most respected astronomers and mathematicians of his age. In this book he presents a detailed commentary in Latin on the Tractatus de sphaere (The Sphere) published in the 13th Century by Johannes Sacrobosco (also known as John Holywood). Clavius updates and explains in great detail the topics concerning the celestial sphere and the sphere of the Earth, the apparent revolution of the celestial sphere and the motions of the Sun, Moon, stars and planets. In this book, Clavius recognizes Copernicus as the renovator of astronomy but he considers the heliocentric theory absurd on physical and theological grounds. Later he respected Galileo’s contribution to astronomy and confirmed his telescopic discoveries.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 16 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Alessandro Piccolomini (1508 - 1578) Title: La Sfera del Mondo Date of Publication: 1566 Place of Publication: Venetia Publisher: Giovanni Verisco e compagni
Brief description of contents:
This book is an edition of a popular study of contemporary astronomical knowledge which was extended and updated from the original four books (or chapters) to six books. La Sfera del Mondo is amongst the earliest scientific publications in the Italian language. The text is accompanied by the first printed star atlas showing the main stars of ancient Greek constellations in a number of small maps. Each map shows stars of different sizes to indicate their relative brightness. The atlas also presents lists of stars in each constellation and identifies four levels of brightness.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 17 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Georgio Peurbachio [Georg Peurbach] (1423 - 1461) Title: Le Nuove Teoriche dei Pianeti Date of Publication: 1566 Translator: Oratio Toscanella Place of Publication: Venetia Publisher: Giovan Battista, Marchio’ Sessa & fratelli
Brief description of contents:
This is an Italian translation of the Austrian astronomer Georg Peurbach’s Theoricae novae planetarum (New Theories of the Planets) which was published for the first time in about 1474. It became a best-selling textbook and continued to appear in many editions well into the 17th Century. In this book Peurbach explained Ptolemy’s theory of motions of the planets in terms of deferents (circular orbits) and epicycles. He gave detailed descriptions of realistic representations of the motions of the planets in terms of solid spheres. This edition is complemented by eight figures drawn by the German Petrus Apianus (1495 - 1552) another famous mathematician, cartographer and astronomer.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 18 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Johannis Sacrobosco (died 1256) Title: Sfera Mundi Date of Publication: 1604 Translator: Francesco Pifferi Place of Publication: Siena Publisher: Saluestro Marchetti
Brief description of contents:
Johannes Sacrobosco (also known as John Holywood) published the Tractatus de sphaere which was a study of astronomy restricted to an understanding of the celestial sphere and its apparent motion. It describes the celestial sphere and its revolution, the sphericity of the Earth and its location at the centre of the universe. He then explains the celestial equator, the meridian, the altitude of the pole, and the tropics and polar circles of Earth. This then leads to an understanding of the rising and setting of celestial bodies, the length of the day and night at different latitudes and a brief description of the motions of the Sun, the Moon, the planets and a simple theory of eclipses.
This 13th Century book was widely used for more than three centuries as shown by date of the exhibited book.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 19 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
The 16th and 17th Century Revolution in Astronomy
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 20 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Portrait of GALILEO GALILEI
This portrait, housed at the National Maritime Museum of London, has a longstanding attribution to the Venetian artist Domenico Robusti - called 'Tintoretto', as was his more famous father, Jacopo. In February 2008, however, in an article in the Paduan magazine 'Padova e il suo territorio' (no. 131, pp. 24-26), Vincenzo Mancini made a good case on contextual and stylistic evidence that the artist of this portrait is not the younger Tintoretto but Francesco Apollodoro of Padua, perhaps as early as about 1602. Apollodoro (c. 1531 - 1612, and also called 'di Porcia' from his address) was then at the height of his career as official portraitist to both the municipal elite there, and the favoured one of the intellectual circle in which Galileo was involved.
www.nmm.ac.uk
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 21 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) Title: Dialogo sopra i due Massimi Sistemi del Mondo Date of Publication: 1710 Place of Publication: Fiorenza
Brief description of contents:
In this book Galileo Galilei presents the evidence and arguments in favour of both the Ptolemaic view of the universe with the Earth at its centre and the Copernican view which considers the Sun at the centre. He uses the format of a dialogue or a debate between three friends which takes place over four days at the villa of one of them. In this debate, Salviati argues in favour of Copernicus and speaks for Galileo, Simplicio presents the case in favour of Ptolemy and Aristotle, and Sagredo is undecided but keeps the dialogue going by his perceptive comments. They discuss many astronomical topics such as comets and their motion, the distance of stars, sunspots, the moons of Jupiter, as well as many topics concerning the physics of motion such as speed and acceleration, the pendulum, the motion of projectiles, tides and the motion of the Earth. The dialogue is clearly biased in favour of the Copernican system.
The first edition of this book was published in 1632 and landed Galileo Galilei in trouble with the Roman Holy Office (The Inquisition). The book was banned and he was asked to stand trial by the Inquisition in 1633. The tribunal found him to be “vehemently suspected of heresy” and condemned him to life imprisonment after he abjured. The sentence was soon commuted to house arrest for life.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 22 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
GALILEO’S TELESCOPES
Galileo’s telescopes were a remarkable advance on the models of the man credited with the invention of the telescope, the Dutchman, Hans Lippershey. Galileo used these and similar telescopes to observe the Jovian moons as well as craters on our Moon.
Michael White. 2009. Galileo Antichrist – A Biography. London: Phoenix
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 23 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
GALILEO SPACECRAFT
Galileo was an unmanned spacecraft sent by NASA to study the planet Jupiter and its moons. Named after Galileo Galilei, it was launched on October 18, 1989 by the Space Shuttle Atlantis on the STS-34 mission. It arrived at Jupiter on December 7, 1995, a little more than six years later, via gravitational assist flybys of Venus and Earth.
Galileo conducted the first asteroid flyby, discovered the first asteroid moon, was the first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter, and launched the first probe into Jupiter's atmosphere.
On September 21, 2003, Galileo's mission was terminated by sending the orbiter into Jupiter's atmosphere to avoid any chance of it contaminating local moons with bacteria from Earth.
Model kindly loaned by Mr Leonard Ellul Mercer
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 24 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
NICHOLAS COPERNICUS
Nicholas Copernicus was a Renaissance astronomer and the first person to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology, which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. His epochal book, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy and the defining epiphany that began the Scientific Revolution.
Picture kindly loaned by Mr Leonard Ellul Mercer
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 25 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
COMPONENTS OF A NEWTONIAN TELESCOPE
Galileo Galilei telescope used glass lenses to make a telescope. Isaac Newton in 1671 made a different type of telescope by using a mirror instead of a glass lens.
Newton’s mirror was made from an alloy of different metals. His mirrors were made concave so that light will come to a point above the mirror, the focal length. Then a small flat mirror was fitted above the main mirror but short of its focal length, at angle of 45 degrees exactly in the middle. A small hole was made on the tube from where a small lens called the eyepiece was affixed to focus the image seen through his telescope.
The components being displayed are the Main Mirror, a small rectangular mirror and eyepieces to look through. This telescope when assembled will be larger than that made by Newton. This shows well the four moons of Jupiter, the surface of Jupiter and also the make up of the rings of the planet Saturn plus its moon Titan, as well as stellar objects.
Items on display kindly loaned by Mr Alexander Pace
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 26 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
TELESCOPE
A Telescope is an optical devise capable of making an object seen far away appear nearer when one looks through the instrument.
Galileo Galilei , was one of the first to make good use of such instrument.
The telescope on show applies the same principle of the Galileo Telescope. It is made from a Spectacle Lens, attached in the front , called the Objective, and on the other side, from where one looks through is an Eyepiece. The light from the object passes through the main lens and refracts the light onto an eyepiece which magnifies the image produced. The main lens is a bi-convex glass having a 47mm diameter and the Focal Length is 100cms. The Focal Length is a measure where the image of any object beyond is sharply produced at the lens focus (by refraction), it is measured from the centre of the lens to the focus. The image produced here is always inverted. By changing the eyepiece to one of shorter focal length a more magnified image is therefore produced.
This Telescope can show very well the Moon, the planet Venus and Jupiter and it four moons and Saturn just making the rings just discernable. However it is not recommended to use high power, as "chromatic aberration" becomes more apparent. The lens is just a simple one, a spectacle lens. I use mostly this telescope to project the Sun's image on the attachment provided.(this is the safest method of looking at the sun). This was my first telescope made in the early 1960’s, A telescope requires a tripod to be able to be steadied on any object to be viewed. However those wishing to start using a telescope should always buy one which is achromatic (free from colour aberration) from a reputable agent mostly from overseas through the internet.
Kindly loaned by Mr Alexander Pace
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 27 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Pierre Gassendi (1592 - 1655) Title: Opera omnia Date of Publication: 1658 (Volume I) Place of Publication: London Publisher: Laurentii Anisson et Iaonnis Baptiste Devenet
Brief description of contents:
The French philosopher, astronomer, physicist and priest Pierre Gassendi is renowned mainly for his revival of atomic theory whose roots can be traced to ancient Greece, especially to Epicurus and Democritus. Unfortunately, in ancient times this theory was associated with atheism and Gassendi’s achievement was that he made it more acceptable by reconciling it with Christianity. In 1645, Gassendi was appointed to the Chair of Mathematics at the College Royal de France in Paris.
The Opera Omnia (Collection of Works), which was published post-humously, offers readers the most comprehensive explanation of Gassendi’s new treatment of Epicurean philosophy. The work is divided into six volumes and it presents other themes, including astronomical, physical and biological themes. The first part of Volume I is devoted to philosophy and more particularly to logic, while the second part is devoted to natural and celestial phenomena.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 28 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Pierre Gassendi (1592 - 1655) Title: Opera omnia Date of Publication: 1658 (Volume II) Place of Publication: London Publisher: Laurentii Anisson et Iaonnis Baptistae Devenet
Brief description of contents:
In Volume II of the Opera Omnia, Gassendi dedicated the first part to a discussion of the physical world including living and non-living things. The second part is dedicated to the philosophical theme of ethics.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 29 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Pierre Gassendi (1592 - 1655) Title: Opera omnia Date of Publication: 1658 (Volume III) Place of Publication: London Publisher: Laurentii Anisson et Iaonnis Baptistae Devenet
Brief description of contents:
In Volume III of the Opera Omnia, Gassendi presents a philosophical discussion of a number of topics, including Epicurean philosophy, a criticism of Aristotle, an examination of Robert Fludd’s philosophy, and a criticism of the metaphysics of philosopher René Descartes. He also includes topics relating to astronomy and physics, including the apparent magnitude of the Sun; impressed motion transferred by the mover, which presents a clear statement of the concept of inertia for the first time; acceleration; and the atmospheric phenomenon known as parhelia or ‘spurious suns’ or ‘mock suns’ observed in Rome in 1629.
Pierre Gassendi was the first astronomer to describe the transit of a planet across the disk of the Sun when he observed the transit of Mercury of December 1631 which had been predicted by Johannes Kepler. This description is included in the exhibited book.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 30 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Pierre Gassendi (1592 - 1655) Title: Opera omnia Date of Publication: 1658 (Volume IV) Place of Publication: London Publisher: Laurentii Anisson et Iaonnis Baptistae Devenet
Brief description of contents:
Volume IV of Gassendi’s Opera Omnia includes explanations and observations of astronomical phenomena. Examples of these phenomena include the phases of the Moon and the phenomenon of Earthshine on the crescent Moon which are explained in Chapter 16. Then in Chapter 17, he explains how eclipses of the Moon occur and the paths of the Moon during a total lunar eclipse. Diagrams are used in both chapters to help understanding of the explanations.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 31 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Dionysius Petavius (editor) (1583 - 1652) Title: Uranologion: sive systema variorum authorum, qui de sphaera, ac sideribus, eorumque motibus Graece commentate sunt Date of Publication: 1630 Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: Sebastianus Cramoisy
Brief description of contents:
The Uranologion is a collection of Greek works relating to astronomy edited by Dionysius Petavius and translated into Latin. It includes works by Geminos, Achillis Tatius, Ptolemy, Theodori Gazae, Maximi, Isaaci Argyri and S. Andrea Cretensis.
The work by Geminos entitled Isagoge eis ta Phainomena (Introduction to the Phenomena) gives a clear picture of the astronomy known by educated Greeks and Romans in the 1st Century BC and it is presented in ancient Greek on one column and in Latin in an adjacent column. It is mostly non-mathematical and explains the zodiac, solar theory and the apparent motion of the Sun, the theory of the celestial sphere, the variation in the length of the day, the 8-year and 19-year lunisolar cycles, the phases of the Moon, eclipses, heliacal risings and setting of the fixed stars, terrestrial zones and an introduction to Babylonian lunar theory. Interestingly, he presents strong arguments to refute the commonly held myth that the rising and setting of stars affect the weather.
Little is known about the author but from the contents of the work modern scholars have deduced that Geminus or Geminos was probably from Rhodes and wrote this work between 90 and 35 BC. It was first published in book form by Edo Hildericus in 1590. The exhibited book was edited by Dionysius Petavius who checked the 1590 text against two manuscripts and made the necessary corrections.
The other works are of lesser importance and the works by Maximi, Isaaci Argri and S. Andrea Cetensis consist of computus or methods for the computation of the date of Easter.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 32 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Astronomy for Navigation
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 33 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Giovanni Pagnini (18th Century) Title: Trattato della Sfera ed introduzione alla navigazione per uso de’ piloti Date of Publication: 1750 Place of Publication: Venice Publisher: Gio Battista Recurti
Brief description of contents:
Giovanni Pagnini was born in Lucca, Italy but considered himself as a naturalized Maltese. He taught navigation at the Order’s nautical school established in Malta in the mid-18th Century. Pagnini describes himself as professor of Hydrography in Malta at the service of the Order of St John. His work is divided into two parts: one on astronomy for use in navigation and the other on the practice of piloting and navigation. This book was probably compiled from the notes Pagnini used for teaching navigation.
In this book Pagnini describes four models of the universe: Ptolemy’s geocentric model; Copernicus’ heliocentric model; Tycho Brahe’s model with the stationary Earth at the centre, the Moon and the Sun orbiting the Earth, while the planets orbit the Sun; and what he calls a Semi-Copernican model which is similar to the Tychonian model but with the Earth rotating on its axis every 24 hours. He then explains why he prefers the Semi-Copernican model. Pagnini then discusses briefly the orbit of the Sun, the Moon, the planets and their moons, the constellations, and stars down to magnitude 6 and nebulous stars. Pagnini then explains the use of the compass and its correction to find true North, clocks and other instruments needed to determine the latitude and longitude of places during navigation.
The contents show the good standard of the astronomy taught to students of navigation in mid-18th Century Malta.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 34 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Astronomy for Hydrography and Longitude Determination
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 35 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Giovanni Pagnini (18th Century) Title: Trattato della Sfera ed introduzione alla navigazione per uso de’ piloti Date of Publication: 1750 Place of Publication: Venice Publisher: Gio Battista Recurti
Brief description of contents:
Giovanni Pagnini was born in Lucca, Italy but considered himself as a naturalized Maltese. He taught navigation at the Order’s nautical school established in Malta in the mid-18th Century. Pagnini describes himself as professor of Hydrography in Malta at the service of the Order of St John. His work is divided into two parts: one on astronomy for use in navigation and the other on the practice of piloting and navigation. This book was probably compiled from the notes Pagnini used for teaching navigation.
In this book Pagnini describes four models of the universe: Ptolemy’s geocentric model; Copernicus’ heliocentric model; Tycho Brahe’s model with the stationary Earth at the centre, the Moon and the Sun orbiting the Earth, while the planets orbit the Sun; and what he calls a Semi-Copernican model which is similar to the Tychonian model but with the Earth rotating on its axis every 24 hours. He then explains why he prefers the Semi-Copernican model. Pagnini then discusses briefly the orbit of the Sun, the Moon, the planets and their moons, the constellations, and stars down to magnitude 6 and nebulous stars. Pagnini then explains the use of the compass and its correction to find true North, clocks and other instruments needed to determine the latitude and longitude of places during navigation.
The contents show the good standard of the astronomy taught to students of navigation in mid-18th Century Malta.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 36 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Louis Feuillée (1660 - 1732) Title: Journal des observations physiques, mathematiques, et botaniques faites par l’ordre du Roy sur les côtes Orientales de l’Amerique Méridionale, et dans les Indes Occidentales depuis l’annee 1707 jusques en 1712 Date of Publication: 1714 (Volume II) Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: Pierre Gissart
Brief description of contents:
In Volume II of his account of the survey of the eastern and western coasts of South America, Louis Feuillée presents the many physical, geological, botanical and zoological observations made by the scientists on board. He also includes many astronomical observations, including observations of sunspots which were rarely seen at that time because the Sun was passing through a period of exceedingly low sunspot activity from about 1645 to approximately 1715, which is now known as the Maunder minimum.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 37 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: William Henry Smyth (1788 - 1865) Title: A Cycle of Celestial Objects Date of Publication: 1854 (Volume I) Place of Publication: London Publisher: John W. Parker
Brief description of contents:
After a long career in the British Navy during which he carried out a hydrographic survey of the Mediterranean with Malta as his base, Smyth dedicated his time to the pursuit of astronomy. His enthusiasm for astronomy started when he visited Giuseppe Piazzi at the Palermo Observatory and carried out some measurements of stars from there.
On return to his home in Bedford in England, Admiral Smyth set up a private observatory with a fine and well- mounted 5.9 inch (15 cm) refracting telescope with which he carried out many observations of star clusters, double stars, nebulae and deep sky objects. He kept detailed and systematic notes of his observations which he published in two volumes: A Cycle of Celestial Objects and the Bedford Catalogue. The work was greatly appreciated by astronomers and in 1844, the Royal Astronomical Society of London awarded him the Gold Medal for his achievement. This book is considered as one of the classical texts in history of astronomy by amateurs.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 38 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Giuseppe Piazzi (1746 - 1826) Title: Discorso nell’aprirsi della cattedra di Astronomia Date of Publication: 1790 Place of Publication: Palermo Publisher: Reale Stamperia
Brief description of contents:
Giuseppe Piazzi was a priest of the Theatine Order who taught mathematics and later became an astronomer. Interestingly, in July 1770 he was appointed to the Chair of Mathematics at the Malta university established by Gran Master Pinto in 1769. He moved to Ravenna by December 1773 and subsequently to Palermo in Sicily where he was a lecturer in Mathematics in 1781. Six year later, in 1787, he became the first professor of Astronomy at the Accademia de’ Regj Studi, which later became the University of Palermo. He also became the first director of the Palermo Observatory.
The exhibited book contains the oral presentation that Piazzi gave at the ceremony of the opening of the first Chair of astronomy at the Accademia de’ Regj Studi in Palermo. Piazzi went on to achieve international fame when he discovered the first asteroid, Ceres, on the 1st January 1801. He also made important observations of 7646 star positions which was published as the Palermo Catalogue of stars.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 39 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Astronomy and Geodosy (The Shape of the Earth)
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 40 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Pierre Bouger Title: Entretiens sur la cause de l’Inclinaison des Orbites des Planetes Date of Publication: 1748 Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: Ch. Ant. Jombert
Brief description of contents:
In this book the French mathematician, physicist and hydrographer Pierre Bouger takes up the challenge of the Académie des Sciences of Paris to explain the cause of the inclinations of the orbits of planets to the plane of the ecliptic. Bouger uses the theory of vortices established by René Descartes to explain how friction can account for the inclinations. Eventually it was shown that this theory is incorrect and so was the explanation of the inclinations of the planets to the plane of the ecliptic. It was only with the application of Newton’s gravitational theory and his laws of motion that a correct explanation was obtained.
Bouger carried out other relevant astronomical work including a comparison of the luminance (relative brightness) of the Sun and the Moon; the measurement of a degree of longitude and latitude at the equator in Peru to determine the shape of the Earth, and the discovery of gravitational anomalies on Earth.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 41 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Applications of Astronomy: Geography and Astrology
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 42 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy) (ca. AD 100 - ca. AD 175) Title: Geografia Date of Publication: 1490 Place of Publication: Roma Publisher: Petrus de Turre
Brief description of contents:
In this work on cartography, the renowned astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy) discusses three methods of drawing maps of the known inhabited world with minimal distortion. Besides a theoretical discussion in Book I, Ptolemy gives the longitudes and latitudes of about 8000 locations and draws maps which show the different countries and seas, important cities, towns, significant sites, islands, mountain ranges, rivers, bays, promontories and other important places. Among these locations, Ptolemy gives the geographical coordinates of five locations in Malta: Melite island and city, Gaudos island and city, the temple of Juno, the temple of Hercules, and Chersonesos.
Ptolemy’s Geografia is one of the most influential scientific works of all time.
The book which is being exhibited is one of the treasures of the National Library of Malta as it one of the rare books published before 1500 known as incunabula.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 43 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Title: Astronomia Tabula
Brief description of contents:
A very attractive collection of beautifully produced colour plates showing instruments used by astronomers to explain the movement of celestial objects and figures with astronomical themes.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 44 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Sundials
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 45 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Christoph Clavius (1538 - 1612) Title: Fabrica et usus instrumenti ad horologiorum Date of Publication: 1586 Place of Publication: Roma Publisher: Bartolomæus Grassius
Brief description of contents:
As the main astronomer in the commission set up by Pope Gregory XIII to review the calendar, Clavius was instrumental in the decision to introduce the Gregorian calendar in 1582. Although he always believed in the model of the universe with the Earth at its centre, he respected Copernicus’ work on the Sun-centred model. In 1610, he used telescopes to confirm Galileo’s observations contribution but he did not agree that they provided incontestable evidence in favour of the Sun-centred universe.
In this book, Clavius describes the construction and use of instruments to mark time by means of astronomical phenomena. The figure on page 10 and the explanation on page 11 show the number of adjustments that need to be made so that such instruments can read correct time at different locations.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 46 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Benedictus Maria Castronius (1668? - 1748) Title: Horographia Universalis Date of Publication: 1728 Place of Publication: Palermo Publisher: Joannis Baptistae Aiccardo
Brief description of contents:
In this book, the Dominican friar Benedictus Castronius discusses the theory of sundials that can be designed in various planes including the horizontal, vertical and inclined planes, as well as portable dials. He also presents the necessary workings for designing normal astronomical sundials, Italian, Babylonian and Judaic sundials. The work involves a discussion of the mathematics involved in sundials, the geometry, trigonometry and geodetics besides astronomy.
Fr Castronius was prior of the Dominican Friary at Rabat, Malta in 1717 and he set up four vertical sundials on the first floor of the priory which can still be observed today. Three of the sundials can be observed from the cloister: one facing approximately South, one facing East and another facing West. Another large vertical sundial is on the wall of the terrace that faces East. Interestingly, one can compare pictures of the sundials at the Rabat priory with the figures in Table X of this book. The figures in the book are calculated for latitude 38 degrees North while Malta’s latitude is 36 degrees North.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 47 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Bartolomeo Scanavacca (17th Century) Title: Nuovissime inventione per disegnare con grandissima facilitàe prestezza Horologi solari, italiani, babilonici e francesi Date of Publication: 1688 Place of Publication: Padova nella Stamperia del Seminario Publisher: Bernardo Luciani
Brief description of contents:
In this book, Scanavacca presents a new method of designing various types of sundials. He discusses normal sundials which tell the time of day, Italian, Babylonian and French sundials which mark time according to the number of hours from sunrise or until sunset.
Malta is included in the catalogue of cities and most significant places. The entry shows that in the late 17th Century Malta’s latitude was taken as 35 degrees 40 minutes North, which is about 20 arc minutes south of the modern measurement.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 48 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Anonymous Title: Breve trattato di horologi Solari per via di Tangenti Date: undated Document: Manuscript (MSS 1396)
Brief description of contents:
The unknown author of this manuscript discusses the theory of sundials and describes the geometry and trigonometry required to construct various types of sundials.
The only indication about the possible provenance of this manuscript is found in an inscription on the page with a rough illustration in ink showing a person with long dividers checking the hour lines of a sundial, a tower with two sundials and a rural background. The inscription Del Sac. Domenico Pace is found at the bottom of this page.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 49 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Observations of Solar System Objects
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 50 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Pierre Bayle (1647 - 1706) Title: Penséées Diverses a l’occasion de la Cométe qui parut au mois de Décembre 1680 Date of Publication: 1721 (Volume 1) Place of Publication: Rotterdam Publisher: Les Heritiers de Reinier Leers
Brief description of contents:
The French philosopher and free thinker Pierre Bayle took the opportunity of the appearance of a very bright comet in December 1680 to deride and reject the superstition that comets foretold some catastrophe.
This comet of 1680 was discovered by Gottfried Kirch on the 14th November 1680. By the 29th December it became exceptionally bright and developed a very long tail that it became known as the Great Comet of 1680. Interestingly, Isaac Newton used the positions of this comet to test and verify Kepler’s Laws of planetary motion.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 51 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Giovanni Celoria (1842 - 1920) Title: La Luna Date of Publication: 1871 Place of Publication: Milano Publisher: E. Treves, Editore
Brief description of contents:
The Italian astronomer Giovanni Celoria studied astronomy in Germany and then joined the Brera Observatory in Milan under the directorship of Giovanni Schiaparelli. In 1900, he succeeded the latter as Director. Celoria made important contributions to many areas of astronomy including the calculation of orbits of double stars, the structure of the galaxy, the Moon’s secular acceleration and its effect on the projected paths of total eclipses. He also wrote a number of books on several aspects of astronomy including La Luna which describes the visible hemisphere of the Moon as observed with a small telescope. He also presents a simple map of the lunar surface to help the reader identify the various features that can be observed.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 52 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Giovanni Celoria (1842 - 1920) Title: Le Comete Date of Publication: 1873 Place of Publication: Milano Publisher: Fratelli Treves, Editori
Brief description of contents:
The Italian astronomer Giovanni Celoria studied astronomy in Germany and then joined the Brera Observatory in Milan under the directorship of Giovanni Schiaparelli. In 1900, he succeeded the latter as Director. Celoria made important contributions to many areas of astronomy including the calculation of orbits of double stars, the structure of the galaxy, the Moon’s secular acceleration and its effect on the projected paths of total eclipses. He also wrote a number of books on several aspects of astronomy including Le Comete which discusses the structure of comets, the nucleus, the coma and the two different types of tail. He also refers to the spectra of comets which were first obtained since about 1860 and which showed the strong presence of carbon in comets.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 53 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Alexandre Guy Pingré Title: Memoire sur le passage de Vénus sur le disque du Soleil Date of Publication: 1767 Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: P. G. Cavelier
Brief description of contents:
During the 18th Century, the planet Venus passed in front of the Sun in 1761 and 1769. The French astronomer and naval geographer Alexandre Guy Pingré, who was also a priest, had observed the transit of 1761 from Rodrigues Island near Madagascar. He then calculated the path on the globe from which the next transit of the 3rd June 1769 would be observable. In this memoir for the Académie royale des Sciences of Paris, Pingré determined the longitudes and latitudes of places favourable for the observations and drew maps to help astronomers choose the best sites. The map covers the vast area of the South Pacific Ocean between longitudes 180o and 305o and latitudes 0o to 35o South.
It is known that in 1769, Pingré joined the expedition to Haiti which managed to observe the transit successfully. The accurate timing of the beginning and the end of transit of Venus was important because through it astronomers thought that they could measure the distance from the Earth to the Sun (the astronomical unit) and hence other distances in the Solar System. From observations of the 1761 and the 1769 transits, French astronomer J.J. de Lalande calculated the astronomical unit as 150 ± 1 million km, which is close to the modern value of 149.60 million km.
Interestingly, the next transit of Venus across the disk of the Sun will occur on the 6th June 2012 and will be visible from Malta.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 54 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Angelo Secchi (1818 - 1878) Title: Il Sole Date of Publication: 1884 Place of Publication: Firenze Publisher: Tipografia della Pia Casa di Patronato
Brief description of contents:
In this book Italian astronomer Angelo Secchi presents a comprehensive account of contemporary astronomical knowledge about the Sun. He discusses the structure of sunspots, where they appear on the Sun’s disk during the year and their frequency. At that time, the nature of sunspots was unknown and Secchi attempted to explain sunspots as openings in cloud layer of the Sun. This idea was wrong and it was only in the 20th Century that sunspots were explained as areas of magnetic storms on the Sun’s surface. Secchi also discusses the reddish solar prominences that appear during total eclipses of the Sun. More importantly, he describes the very large number of dark lines that appear in the spectrum of sunlight. Secchi was a pioneer and a leading astronomer in the study of spectra of celestial objects.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 55 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Angelo Secchi (1818 - 1878) Title: Sull’Eclisse Totale del Sole che avrà luogo ai 22 decembre 1870 Date of Publication: 1870 Place of Publication: Milano Publisher: Dottor Francesco Vallardi
Brief description of contents:
In this publication, the director of the observatory at the Collegio Romano, Angelo Secchi describes the circumstances of the total solar eclipse of the 22nd December 1870 whose path was predicted to cross the south eastern part of Sicily and, incidentally, miss Gozo by less than 20 kilometers. The prediction shows that the length of totality was expected to be between 111 and 110 seconds in central path close to Ragusa. The purpose of the publication was to help in the preparations for a useful scientific observation of this phenomenon. It is known that Secchi actually observed the eclipse from Augusta and discovered the ‘flash spectrum’ of the Sun. Several other teams of observers observed the phenomenon from Sicily and published reports about it, including an American team of astronomers from the U.S. Naval Observatory who visited Malta and conducted some observations from here.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 56 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Giovanni Virginio Schiaparelli (1835 - 1910) Title: Le Stelle Cadenti Date of Publication: 1873 Place of Publication: Milano Publisher: Fratelli Treves, Editori
Brief description of contents:
The Italian astronomer and science historian Giovanni Schiaparelli was the director of the Brera Observatory in Milan for many years during which he made important contributions to astronomy. One of his main achievements occurred in 1866 when he proved that the orbit of the Leonids meteor shower coincided with that of the Comet Temple-Tuttle. These observations led him to formulate the hypothesis that meteor showers could be caused by particles in the trails of comets. Subsequently, this hypothesis was shown to be correct. In this book he discusses the connection between the comets, such as Biela’s comet, and meteor showers, including the Leonids and the Perseids.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 57 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
CASSINI SPACECRAFT
Cassini-Huygens is a joint NASA/ESA/ASI robotic spacecraft mission currently studying the planet Saturn and its many natural satellites. The spacecraft consists of two main elements: the Cassini orbiter, named after astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini, and the ESA-developed Huygens probe, named for the Dutch astronomer, Christiaan Huygens. The complete Cassini space probe was launched on October 15, 1997. On December 25, 2004, the Huygens probe was separated from the orbiter. Then, it reached Saturn's moon Titan on January 14, 2005, when it made a descent into Titan's atmosphere, radioing scientific information back to the Earth by telemetry. The mission may potentially continue until 2017.
Model kindly loaned by Mr Leonard Ellul Mercer
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 58 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
VENUSCOPE
The Venuscope is an astronomical instrument that projects the image of the Sun onto a white background supplied within the same instrument just behind the protruding lens tube. The principle of this scope is that it works exactly like a Camera Obscura. The light rays from the Sun hit a sort of telescope projecting in front (aluminium tube) of the set-up. Then the light rays are converged by the help of a lens in front towards a small convex lens (mirror) at the back inside the box. This in turn projects a small disk of the Sun about 10cms in diameter onto which sunspots or objects passing in front of the Sun will be easily seen harmlessly.
When the Venuscope was made by a French firm, it was launched during the time when the planet Venus was set to transit the Sun on June 8, 2004. It is also suitable for watching the next Venus transit on June 6, 2012, but from Western America and the Eastern Pacific. That is why it was given this name. However this instrument can be used whenever the Sun is showing, perhaps with the chance of seeing any sunspots on the Sun itself or possibly the International Space Station or a plane passing through and clouds too.
This Scope is highly recommended as it is the best way of viewing the Sun without using the naked eye or other aids, as the this can cause permanent blindness.
Kindly loaned by Mr Alexander Pace
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 59 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Sky Charts and Star Catalogues
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 60 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Giuseppe Piazzi (1746 - 1826) Title: Osservazioni fatte dal reale Osservatorio di Palermo Date of Publication: 1806 Place of Publication: Palermo Publisher: Reale Stamperia
Brief description of contents:
Between 1787 and 1789, Piazzi visited reputable astronomers in Paris and London, including the famous English instrument maker Jesse Ramsden from whom he ordered a altazimuthal circle which could measure star positions with unprecedented accuracy. Some of the accurate measures made by Piazzi and his assistants are published in this book as Delle posizioni medie di dugento venti stelle. These measures were needed because earlier it was discovered that ‘fixed’ stars actually showed proper motion and changed their positions very slightly over the years.
In this book, Piazzi discusses the proper motion of 220 stars and compares their positions to the positions obtained by earlier observers. This work was important because astronomers were trying to detect the parallax effect due to the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. In the book, Piazzi also discusses the relative motion of double stars around one another.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 61 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Charles Dien (1809 - 1870) Title: Atlas Céleste Date of Publication: 1883 Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: Gauthier-Villars
Brief description of contents:
This sky atlas was first published in 1865 with the locations of about 100,000 stars and nebulae. It was considered as one of the most important star atlases of this age. It was reprinted several times into the early 20th Century with necessary corrections and augmented with new charts. The charts show double stars, multiple stars, star colours, nebulae, star clusters, the stars’ proper motion and other information about stars.
The version being exhibited has additions by Camille Flammarion.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 62 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Authors from: Reale Accademia delle Scienze di Torino Title: Atlante di Carte Celesti Date of Publication: 1871 Place of Publication: Torino Publisher: Stamperia Reale
Brief description of contents:
This neat Atlas of the Heavens was compiled by the Royal Observatory at Torino, Italy and published by the Royal Academy of Sciences of Torino. It consists of 12 large charts that show the constellations and the principal stars visible from mid-month to the next mid-month from the latitude of Torino, which is 45o North. It also presents a catalogue of the mean positions of 634 stars of magnitude 1 to 5 for the year 1880. Astronomers are interested in the precise positions of the stars to keep track of their proper motion, which is their very slight motion with respect to one another.
The charts bear the signature of the Director of the Observatory, Alessandro Dorna (1825 - 1886) and the date 29th May 1870; the drawing was carried out by A. Nizza and the text was written by Gianotti. It is interesting to compare the Italian names for the constellations with those used in English sky atlases and to note the names of the major stars and star groups, including Aldebaran and the Pleiades.
Kindly loaned by Mr Leonard Ellul Mercer
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 63 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
MAP OF THE MOON
This displayed Map of the Moon was prepared by an English Lunar Astronomer named Thomas Gwyn Elger. The map was drawn during lengthy Lunar observations made during the times of 1884 till 1896. A person who draws features of the Moon is called a “Seleongraphist”. Elger was an excellent artist and very capable too. In fact his map is mostly renowned as it shows distinction between one feature and another. To draw this he employed a standard 8.5" Reflector which is used as a benchmark to validate his mapping capabilities.
I got this map around the early part of 1960 for the price of 5 Shillings. (25 Cents ML). It is one of my most valuable Astronomical items ever. As far as I know I am sure that this is unique in Malta. As you can see, the map is almost marked and torn by its extensive use by myself to draw lunar features and use it as a reference chart. I recommend that any future Lunar feature observer and drawer will invest into something similar, which are much easier to obtain nowadays.
Kindly loaned by Mr Alexander Pace
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 64 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Popular Astronomy
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 65 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Camille Flammarion (1842 - 1925) Title: Astronomia Popolare Translation: Ernesto Sergent-Marceau Date of Publication: 1885 Place of Publication: Milano Publisher: Edoardo Sonzogno, Editore
Brief description of contents:
In this book, the French astronomer and popularizer of astronomy Camille Flammarion presents an extensive and knowledgeable review of contemporary astronomy. He discusses astronomical observations and how telescopes were improved to increase magnification and light gathering power, giving as examples the very long refracting telescope by Bianchini and the large six-foot (183 cm) diameter reflector built by Lord Rosse in Ireland. He also mentions the four-foot (122 cm) diameter reflector that William Lassell set up in Malta in 1862-65 as equally good as Lord Rosse’s telescope. Flammarion then discusses the knowledge obtained from observations of the Moon and the planets accompanied by several illustrations. He also discusses observations of stars, the publication of catalogues with precise positions of an ever increasing number of stars, the proper motion of stars and variable stars.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 66 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Camille Flammarion (1842 - 1925) Title: La Pluralità dei Mondi Abitati Translation: C. Pizzigoni Date of Publication: 1875 Place of Publication: Milano Publisher: Fratelli Simonetti Editori
Brief description of contents:
This book is an Italian translation of the very popular book by the French astronomer and popularizer of astronomy Camille Flammarion which ran into many editions. Even before the discovery of canali on the planet Mars by Giovanni Schiaparelli in 1877 and the maps of the planet by the American astronomer Percival Lowell which purportedly showed canals on Mars, several writers had speculated about the habitability of the planets of the Solar System. In this book, Flammarion considers the necessary conditions for the possible habitability of the planets from the point of view of contemporary knowledge of the planets obtained from astronomy, the physiology of creatures including intelligent beings, and other scientific knowledge.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 67 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Robert Main (1808 - 1878) Title: Rudimentary Astronomy Date of Publication: 1852 Place of Publication: London Publisher: John Weale
Brief description of contents:
This book by the Reverend Robert Main, who was the First Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich between 1835 and 1860, presents a popular and updated account of astronomical knowledge at the time of publication. The book has several clear illustrations which make the text more interesting.
The front page includes an illustration of the total solar eclipse of the 28th July 1851 which shows prominences at various places on the limb and a slight indication of the outer and fainter corona. On the opposite page, there is an illustration of the Oxford Heliometer which was used to observe the Sun at Hartwell in England. The illustration is reproduced from one of the astronomy books by Captain (later Admiral) William Henry Smyth, who had a long connection with Malta.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 68 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Odoric Grima ( 1889 - 1964) Title: Prophetic Almanac of the Maltese-Gozitan Astronomer 1940 Date of Publication: 1940 Place of Publication: Valletta Publisher: Lux Press
Brief description of contents:
The Gozitan Fr Odoric Grima had a keen interest in meteorology and in astronomy. He was popularly known as the Gozitan Astronomer or l’ Astronomo Gozitano. Fr Grima set up an observatory in St Anthony’s Franciscan Friary in Gozo from where he made various observations. He published his first annual almanac in 1929 and continued to do so for a number of years. In the almanac for 1940, besides weather forecasts, he published predictions of interesting astronomical phenomena, which he must have obtained from other sources. These include predictions of solar eclipses, comets that will be visible during the year, stationary positions of the planets, and occultations of planets by the Moon in 1940.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 69 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Odoric Grima ( 1889 - 1964) Title: Monthly Almanac of the Maltese-Gozitan Astronomer 1941 Date of Publication: 1941 Place of Publication: Valletta Publisher: Lux Press
Brief description of contents:
In the monthly almanac of 1941, Fr Odoric Grima presents guides for weather forecasts for the year. He also demonstrates his interest in astronomy by providing information in Maltese about four comets: Comet Whipple, Comet Temple 2, Comet Encke and Comet Schwassmann-Wachmann I, that would be visible in a telescope in 1941. Fr Grima also gives the exact time of the summer and winter solstices and the spring and autumn equinoxes.
It is also interesting to read his less ‘prophetic’ monthly predictions in Maltese about political developments and especially those concerning World War II, which was raging at the time of publication.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 70 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
12 x 40 BINOCULARS
The Binoculars is a later invention from the Optical Telescope. It really consists of two short telescopes attached together. In principle they are identical to any telescope, but they are however restricted in length and power. Normally the most favourable binoculars is a 10 x 50. The figure 10 means its power or magnification, whilst the 50 is the diameter of the main lens away from its viewer. The diameter is in millimetres.
Inside this contraption there could be prisms or flat mirrors arranged in a way to shorten the focal length of the primary lens in front, thus necessitating the use of long tubes or hollow cylinders. One has to keep in mind that they are to be ideally light to hold with both hands. However when they become heavy it is important to use some sort of tripod for holding them steady and safely. These instruments are to be held safely with a thin strap, attached to the binoculars around one's neck for the fear of dropping them where they could become worthless.
This Binoculars on show was bought in the late 1960's from the United Kingdom. These are Russian made and that time the quality was quite excellent. I used it to view the Moon, Jupiter and its moons and the double stars as well as stellar objects, such as double stars and star clusters as well as nebulae.
Kindly loaned by Mr Alexander Pace
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 71 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Grand Master De Rohan’s Astronomical Observatory (1783 – 1789)
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 72 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Alfred Lacroix (1863 - 1948) Title: Déodat Dolomieu (1750-1801) Membre de l’Institut National Date of Publication: 1921 (Volume I) Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: Académie des Sciences, Perrin & Cie
Brief description of contents:
Dolomieu joined the Sovereign Military Order of the Knights of St John (the Knights of Malta) at the age of 12 and achieved the rank of Commander in 1780. He spent his spare time on scientific visits and making contacts with persons having interests in diverse scientific fields. His particular interests were in mineralogy, volcanology and the origin of mountain ranges. During a visit in the Alps he discovered a new mineral similar to limestone which was later called dolomite and the mountain range the Dolomites were named after him. His scientific work was recognized when he was made a corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris and the National Institute of France. His contribution to science was significant enough that these two institutions decided to publish his biography in two volumes written by Alfred Lacroix (actual name François Antoine Alfred Lacroix), the permanent secretary of the Academy.
The biography includes an account of Dolomieu’s adventurous life, his captivity at Messina, his works and his extensive correspondence. In 1782, Dolomieu persuaded Grand Master de Rohan to set up an astronomical observatory at the palace in Valletta. The correspondence published in this book shows his contact with French astronomer J.J. Lalande for advice about astronomical instruments and its directorship, his relationship with the director of the observatory Jean Auguste Dangos, how he was informed of the fire that destroyed the observatory in 1789, besides other interesting letters.
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Author: Alfred Lacroix (1863 - 1948) Title: Déodat Dolomieu (1750-1801) Membre de l’Institut National Date of Publication: 1921 (Volume II) Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: Académie des Sciences, Perrin & Cie.
Brief description of contents:
The second volume of Dolomieu’s biography contains other correspondence with several scholars and with the director of Grand Master De Rohan’s astronomical observatory, Jean Auguste Dangos, who was also a correspondent of the Academy of Sciences in Paris.
The main aim of De Rohan’s observatory was to draw up a new map of the heavens and especially the southern part of the night sky which is not visible from northern Europe including France and England. Dangos had set himself the target of improving the map of that part of the sky visible from Malta and which was included in the map drawn by Nicholas de Lacaille from South Africa with a very small telescope. Unfortunately, the observatory was destroyed in a fire in March 1789. Its records were lost and the Malta sky map never materialised. While in Malta, Dangos also recorded two comets, one of which was a pure invention. This unfortunate incident lost him the respect of the astronomical community. He also made observations of sunspots, the zodiacal light and unusual atmospheric phenomena.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 74 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Joseph-Jérôme de La Lande (1732 - 1807) Title: Astronomie Date of Publication: 1771 (Volume I, second edition) Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: La Veuve Desaint
Brief description of contents:
Early in his career, the French astronomer and mathematician Joseph-Jérôme Lalande acquired fame as an enthusiastic and accurate observer and was elected to the Académie des Sciences of Paris at the age of 21 years. He worked on the calculation of the return of Comet Halley which was expected in late 1758 or early 1759 but, using new mathematical techniques, he successfully predicted that the comet would return a year earlier.
Besides his skills in astronomy and mathematics, Lalande was also a successful author and his most famous text on astronomy was Traité d’astronomie published in two volumes in 1764. The three volumes exhibited here constitute the second edition of this work published in 1771. The books not only provide an excellent astronomy text, they are also a practical manual for persons who wish to carry out useful observational work. Besides text, Volume I contains many illustrations, including figures to explain celestial coordinates which astronomers use to measure positions in the sky.
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Author: Joseph-Jérôme de La Lande (1732 - 1807) Title: Astronomie Date of Publication: 1771 (Volume II, second edition) Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: La Veuve Desaint
Brief description of contents:
Volume II of the updated and enlarged second edition of Lalande’s Traité d’astronomie explains the structure of different astronomical instruments and their purposes, how to make astronomical observations and how to present results. Besides clear explanations, the book also has many illustrations of various instruments.
Plate XVII on page 768 shows the sextant used by the English astronomer John Flamsteed (1646-1719) who was the first English Astronomer Royal, which was the title given to the director of Greenwich observatory. Flamsteed used this sextant and other instruments to measure accurate positions of about 3000 stars with high accuracy. The figure also shows Flamsteed’s house and observatory at Greenwich in the background on the left and the Royal Observatory of Paris on the right.
Interestingly, when Grand Master De Rohan decided to set up an astronomical observatory on the high tower of his palace in Valletta, the knight commander Deodat Dolomieu asked Joseph-Jérôme Lalande for advice about the best instrument to use and who could be the director of the observatory. Subsequently, Lalande helped in the purchase of an excellent three-foot quadrant from Paris and its transportation to Malta in August 1784.
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Author: Joseph-Jérôme de La Lande (1732 - 1807) Title: Astronomie Date of Publication: 1771 (Volume III, second edition) Place of Publication: Paris Publisher: La Veuve Desaint
Brief description of contents:
Volume III of the updated and enlarged second edition of Lalande’s Traité d’astronomie explains the mathematical methods that need to be used to reduce the raw observations to useful results. He also discusses orbits and shows how the orbit of a comet can be calculated and presented. Many illustrations are used to clarify the explanations.
Plate XXXVI on page 376 shows figures that are used to explain the orbits of comets. In particular, figure 267 shows a comet in one of a number of possible parabolic orbits around the Sun, which could be elliptical or parabolic. Comets which were in extended elliptical orbits such as Halley’s comet, return to the vicinity of Earth periodically. However, if the comet’s path passes close to a planet such as Jupiter and is affected by the planet’s gravitational pull, the comet’s orbit changes and the calculation of its return becomes a complex mathematical problem.
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ARCH 1075
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 78 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
ARCH 1075
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 79 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
ARCH 1075
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ARCH 1075
The manuscript ARCH 1075 is one of the primary sources regarding the establishment of Grand Master De Rohan’s astronomical observatory in the Turret of his Palace in Valletta. This document contains a detailed list of expenses paid by Fra D. Gioacchino Britto, the Grand Master’s treasurer, during the period May to the end of October 1783.
The following expenses shown in the document concern the refurbishment of the turret to house the observatory and the appointment of the French astronomer Chevalier Jean Auguste Dangos (or d’Angos), who was from the town of Tarbes in the south of France:
Date Expenditure 16 May 1783 1002 scudi 7 tarí 5 grani to cover the expense of admitting Chevalier Jean Auguste d’Angos to the Venerable Langue of Provence.
4 June 1783 283 scudi 11 tarí 5 grani equivalent to Lire 681.9 tornesi paid to Chevalier d’Angos.
24 October 1783 500 scudi paid to master blacksmith Giovanni Battista Bondí of which 449 scudi 4 tarí were for iron and copper works in the Turret of the Palace and another 50 scudi 8 tarí for other iron works in various other places in the Palace.
31 October 1783 1589 scudi 10 tarí 15 grani paid to the master carpenter Giuseppe Pisano and his assistants for the days of work in the Observatory of the Palace, also included is the cost of the wood, nails of various sizes and other materials that were used in the construction of the Observatory.
Various dates between 31 May and 31 October 1783 4221 scudi 8 tarí 4 grani paid to the master masons and their assistants for their work in the new construction for the Palace Clock, the Observatory and a new fountain, also included is the cost of quantities of measured stones, ordinary stones, the transport of materials and other expenses. Most of the expenses were paid by the end of June 1783.
Unfortunately, the records of astronomical observations made from 1783 onwards were lost in a fire that destroyed the Observatory completely in March 1789.
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Author: William Soler Title: “The Knights’ Astronomical Observatory and The Palace Tower” in Palace of the Grand Masters in Valletta ( Consultant Editor: Albert Ganado) Date of Publication: 2001 Place of Publication: Malta Publisher: Fondazzjoni Patrimonju Malti
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Author: Frank Ventura Title: “Grandmaster De Rohan’s Astronomical Observatory (1783-1789)” in Melita Historica Vol. X No. 3 Date of Publication: 1991 Place of Publication: Malta Publisher: Malta Historical Society
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William Lassell in Malta 1852-53 and 1861-65
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WILLIAM LASSELL (1799 - 1880)
The Astronomical Society of Malta
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Author: William Lassell (1799 - 1880) Title: Observations from Malta Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, Volume xxxvi Date of Publication: 1867 Place of Publication: London Publisher: Royal Astronomical Society
Brief description of contents:
In these Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, the wealthy English brewer and amateur astronomer William Lassell presents the observations he made from Tignè Point in Sliema between 1862 and 1865 with his large 48 inch (122 cm) diameter reflecting telescope on a sturdy equatorial mount. At the time, it was the second largest telescope in the world, however, it was more useful than the largest telescope, which was located in Ireland, because of the better climate and seeing conditions in Malta.
Lassell made numerous observations of the satellites of Uranus and Neptune, other planets and numerous nebulae. The publication includes a catalogue with positions and a brief description of 600 new nebulae discovered from Malta. Many of the nebulae were in fact galaxies, which at that time were not recognized as vast stellar structures similar to the local galaxy, the Milky Way. In this work, Lassell was assisted by the German professional astronomer Albert Marth.
A number of illustrations show how the nebulae appeared in the large telescope. One of the illustrations shows the large telescope, its mounting and the tall observing tower on a rotating base. The dimensions of the whole structure and the weights of the metal parts indicate the massive effort that went into transporting the telescope from Liverpool, where it was constructed, setting it up in Malta and rotating it to follow the movement of the stars and planets. After 1865 the telescope was dismantled and shipped back to Liverpool.
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Astronomy and the Maltese Prehistoric Temples
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Author: Gerald J. Formosa Title: The Megalithic Monuments of Malta Date of Publication: 1975 Place of Publication: Vancouver Publisher: Skorba Publishers
Brief description of contents:
With the publication of The Megalithic Monuments of Malta in 1975, photographer Gerald Formosa was the first person to draw attention to the possible connection of the Maltese prehistoric temples with astronomy. He noted and photographed two significant alignments at Ħaġar Qim with the rising and the setting sun respectively at the winter solstice (December 21). He was clearly influenced by the work of Alexander Thom who carried out a survey of hundreds of stone circles in the British Isles. Following Thom, Formosa thought that the temple builders had used a standard measure of length - the megalithic yard - to set up their temples.
After Formosa, several other surveys of the orientations of the temples were carried out by local and foreign investigators. A few studies covered the main temples of Malta and Gozo while others concentrated on the three temples at Mnajdra. Some of the results of these studies were published in local newspapers, others were published as booklets - some of which are exhibited here - and a few were published in peer-reviewed scientific journals.
Two main outcomes of these studies have been established:
(1) The main axes of the major temples have an orientation between SE and SW but there is no evident reason why the temple builders preferred these directions. Two possible reasons have been proposed: (a) the temples were built to face the passage of the Southern Cross constellation which was visible from Malta 5000 years ago, and (b) the temples were built to face the rising or setting sun at the winter solstice (December 21).
(2) The main axis of the Lower Temple at Mnajdra is aligned with sunrise at the equinox (March 21 and September 22) and at the summer and winter solstices (June 21 and December 21) the rays of the rising Sun light the outer edges of two standing stones inside the temple. Another possibility is that the temple was aligned with the rising of the Pleiades, an important star cluster that attracted the attention of many ancient cultures.
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Authors: George Agius & Frank Ventura Title: Investigation into the Possible Astronomical Alignments of the Copper Age Temples in Malta Date of Publication: 1980 Place of Publication: Malta Publisher: University Press
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Author: Paul I. Micallef Title: Mnajdra Prehistoric Temple - A Calendar in Stone Date of Publication: 1989 Place of Publication: Malta Publisher: Union Print Co. Ltd.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 90 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Frank Ventura Title: L-Astronomija f’Malta Date of Publication: 2002 Place of Publication: Malta Publisher: Publikazzjonijiet Indipendenza
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 91 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
The Tal-Qadi Limestone Slab with Star Symbols
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TAL-QADI LIMESTONE SLAB
This engraved limestone slab was discovered at the prehistoric site of Tal-Qadi, in the vicinity of Salina Bay. The slab was found loose, and therefore its precise context is unknown. It now forms part of the collections of the National Museum of Archaeology in Valletta.
The engraving of radial lines and ‘stars’ on this fragment is both unusual and interesting. It is different to the other carvings from the prehistoric temples both in motif and in execution: it is engraved.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 93 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Michael Ridley Title: The Megalithic Art of the Maltese Islands Date of Publication: 1971 Place of Publication: Hampshire Publisher: The Dolphin Press
Brief description of contents:
This book is a compilation of various artistic works produced during the Temple Period (3600 to 2500 BC) in Malta. It presents sculpted stones, statues and statuettes, pottery items, paintings in red ochre, and engravings. The limestone slab with engravings of stars, which was found during the excavation of the prehistoric temple at Tal-Qadi near Salini, has attracted particular attention. The flat surface of the stone is divided into five sectors by means of four straight lines and there are engravings of symbols of stars and straight lines in four of the sectors. The middle sector has a crescent shape, which has been interpreted as a symbol of the Moon or, if turned upside down, a representation of a boat.
Several publications have drawn attention to this unique slab and suggested that it indicates that the temple builders had an interest in celestial objects in about 3000 BC and attempted to represent what they observed in the night sky.
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 94 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Author: Michael Ridley Title: The Megalithic Art of the Maltese Islands Date of Publication: 1976 Place of Publication: Dorset Publisher: The Dolphin Press
The Astronomical Society of Malta The National Library of Malta 95 Respicite Astra: A Historic Journey in Astronomy through Books
Authors: Rowland Parker & Michael Rubinstein Title: Malta’s Ancient Temples and Ruts Date of Publication: 1988 Place of Publication: Kent Publisher: Institute for Cultural Research
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